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ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
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THE RELEVANCE OF CULTURE AND PERSONALITY STUDIES, NATIONAL CHARACTER STUDIES, CULTURAL DETERMINISM AND CULTURAL DIFFUSION IN TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY ANTHROPOLOGY: AS ASSESSMENT OF THEIR COMPATIBILITY WITH SYMBIOTIC MODELS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL CHANGE
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Research Scholar Abstract
This paper re-examines the core tenets of our “Proactive-interactive-symbiotic approach to long- term cultural change”, also known as the “Symbiotic School of socio-cultural change”, against the backdrop of eminent pre-existing schools of thought such as the Culture and Personality School, Cultural Determinism, Cultural Relativism, and diffusionist schools such as the British School, the German School and the American School, and other ethnographic methods and techniques to revalidate their pliability and pertinence in diverse situations. This apparently macroscopic approach is also interfaced with existing theories on personality and character and with our concepts of Mind-orientation and Mindspace as well. This will lead to a strengthening and revivification of all the concepts enshrined in these schools of thought, albeit in a modified form to suit the needs of the changed circumstances of the Twenty-first century, without in any way undermining their core postulates. Our underlying tenor of activism and long-term perspective is carried forward to this paper as well, as are also all the concepts of the philosophy of “Neo-centrism”. We also briefly touch upon the efficacy of cultural symbiosis and osmosis in promoting socio-cultural integration both across and within cultures, and discuss the concepts of mind-orientation, mindspace and thought-worlds threadbare, and take them to their logical conclusion. We also argue that Symbiotic approaches to socio-cultural changes are the only way forward in the Twenty-first century. We also like to strike a cautionary note here: Internally- induced changes and Cultural area-specific changes will play a critical role in all future change scenarios, and it would be necessary to understand the role played by different change agents, and their relative importance in all futuristic models. We conclude by discussing the potential real-world applications of Symbiotic Models of socio-cultural change.
ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
Introduction and objective of this paper Culture is one of the most commonly discussed topics under the sun, and also often An introduction to the Symbiotic school of the most widely misunderstood. This is socio-cultural change along with its perhaps why there are many different fundamental postulates was presented in our definitions of culture (A count placed the paper “Articulating comprehensive total number of definitions at over three frameworks on socio-cultural change: hundred) but the most important definitions Perceptions of social and cultural change in of culture and the most oft-cited are contemporary Twenty-first century reproduced below. These definitions are Anthropology from a ‘Neo-centrist’ chosen to bring out the essence of the term 1 perspective”. This paper argued that the ‘culture’: focus would gradually shift away from Contact-driven scenarios to non contact- EB Tylor in his book “Primitive Culture driven scenarios of Socio-cultural change. At (1871) stated, “Culture, in its broadest the same time, internally-induced change and ethnographic sense is that complex whole contact-driven scenarios would also continue which includes knowledge, belief, arts, to exist into the foreseeable future, and play morals, laws, customs and any capabilities or their own unique roles in influencing socio- habits acquired by man as a member of cultural change. This objective of this paper society.” According to a definition provided is to examine the validity of different schools by the German sociologist Georg Simmel, of thought such as the ‘Culture and “Culture is the cultivation of the individual Personality’ school, the ‘National Character’ through the agency of external forms which school, and various diffusionist schools have been objectified in the course of which had a wide following in the early part history,” According to Bronislaw of the Twentieth Century in the changed Malinowski, “Culture is an instrumental circumstances of the post-globalized Twenty- reality and apparatus for the satisfaction of first century. We do this by reviewing all the biological and derived need. It is the integral key literature that was ever produced on the whole consisting of implements in consumer subject. In this paper, we also take the goods, of constitutional characters of the concepts of Mind-orientation, Mindspace, various social groupings, of human ideas and Thought-worlds, and Societal orientations to crafts, beliefs and customs.” (Malinowski, their logical conclusion, and furnish a well- 1944:1) According to Melville J. Herskovitz, knit framework for the Cultural “Culture is the man made part of the Anthropologist. environment. It therefore includes material objects of human manufacture, techniques, 1 Articulating comprehensive frameworks on socio-cultural change: social orientations, points of view and Perceptions of social and cultural change in contemporary Twenty- first century Anthropology from a ‘Neo-centrist’ perspective” SR sanctioned ends that are the immediate Mandavilli, ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences, 2017 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
conditioning factors underlying behaviour.” observation, initiation, informal or semi- (Herskovitz, 1948:17) According to Marvin formal training, assimilation and emulation. Harris, “A culture is the total socially Culture therefore often provides people with acquired life-way or life-style of a group of yardsticks to control their behavior and people. It consists of the patterned, repetitive perceive the world. For example, most ways of thinking, feeling and acting that are Hindus do not like the idea of consuming characteristic of the members of a particular Beef, given the importance of the Cow in the society or segment of society. (Harris ancient Indian economy. Contrarily, pigs are 1975:144) E.A. Hoebel provides the considered unclean by Muslims, and its meat following definition, “Culture is the is forbidden in the Qu’ran. Another example integrated system of learned behaviour is language which is usually sub-consciously patterns which are characteristic of the learnt by members of a cultural group, members of the society, and which are not a commonly without any formal training. result of biological inheritance.” (Hoebel Learned behavior may also be formally 1966) According to Kroeber and Kluckholn, communicated to other members of the group “Culture consists of patterns, explicit and through instruction, reward and punishment. implicit, of and for behaviour acquired and Cultural norms are thus learnt by man as a transmitted by symbols, constituting the member of society, and often go distinct achievements of human groups, unquestioned. including their embodiments in artefacts.” (Kroeber and Kluckholn (1952). 2 3 4 5 6 Culture is symbolic
The following attributes of culture logically A symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, emanate from these definitions: linguistic or non-linguistic, (Examples being sounds, gestures, objects and images) which Culture is socially learned stands for something within that culture, and is crucial to cultural representation and Beliefs and values are often relative, culture- learning. Symbolic thought is unique to specific and learnt by members of a group human culture, and often conveys powerful through initiation or interaction with other meaning. According to Leslie White, members of the group, or by children though “Culture is dependent on symbolizing… culture consists of tools, implements, 2 Anthropology 12th Edition Carol R.Ember, Melvin Ember, Peter N. utensils, clothing, ornaments, customs, Peregrine Pearson Prentice Hall 2007 institutions, beliefs, rituals, games, works of 3 Cultural Anthropology, Barbara Miller, Sixth Edition, PHI Learning Private Limited, 2011 art, language, etc.” (White, 1959) According 4 Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity, McGraw Hill Internal Edition, Conrad Phillip Kottak to G H Mead, society is an exchange of 5 Primitive Culture: Researches into the Development of gestures which involves the use of symbols. Mythology, Philosophy, Religion, Art, and Custom, EB Tylor Thus, the study of culture involves a semiotic 6 Malinowski, B. (1944). A Scientific Theory of Culture and Others function as well. Thus, culture typically Essays. Chapel Hill, N. Carolina: The University of North Carolina Press ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
involves a mix of symbolic and non-symbolic For example, culture teaches people when, elements. Anthropologists who have how and what to eat. It teaches them how to emphasized symbolism in culture have interact with their parents, elders, teachers included Clifford Geertz, Claude Levi and children. It also teaches them how to Strauss and Emile Durkheim. Many aspects respond to specific situations and react to of culture such as confirmatory rituals, stimuli such as fright, pain etc. transformatory rituals and rituals of liminality incorporate a symbolic component too, and Culture is all-encompassing many symbols such as the Hindu symbol for Culture governs almost every aspect of “Om” may convey a very powerful meaning people’s lives, including in societies which to members sharing a culture. would be considered to be liberal. It Culture is shared determines and dictates to varying degrees, what people do almost every moment of their If just one person in a group acted and lives. This would explain why, for example, thought in a particular way, it would be why the Amercians play baseball and why considered to be a personal characteristic and Indians don’t. It would explain why not symbolic of a culture itself. On the other Americans have no qualms or inhibitions in hand, cultural traits are common to most, if eating pork which the Muslims consider a not all members in the group. For example, taboo. It would also serve to explain why child marriage is considered to be morally some cultures are more innovative, energetic wrong in most Western and even many and dynamic, and why some cultures are less Oriental societies, but in still common in innovative and inventive, inward-looking or parts of Africa and India, and legislation to regressive. Culture therefore, includes all outlaw it has only just begun. Even though aspects of material culture, technology, arts, traits are generally common to most members music, literature, cuisine, myths, legends, of a cultural group, there is always scope for religion etc, and even impinges on aspects individual variation, and this is accepted by such as economic systems. most Anthropologists. These are sometimes referred to as outliers or deviant behavior. If Culture is integrated and patterned changes are introduced by individuals in a Cultures are not unstructured sets of customs society, they must be sufficiently well- and beliefs. Cultures are integrated and entrenched and irreversible to be considered patterned sets of customs and beliefs. If one as examples of cultural change. aspect of a culture changes, it causes ripple Culture is an expression of human nature effects in other aspects of culture as well. Cultures are therefore highly structured belief Even though culture is non-biological per se, systems, most aspects of which are tightly it teaches humans how to express their innate integrated with one another, even though biological proclivities, urges and instincts. there may be exceptions. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
Culture is instrumental and adaptive age. Various theories have been proposed to identify the rate of cultural change and the Unlike primates and other animals which rely degree of inventiveness of man. These on instincts and reflexes, or other biological include unilinear models, multilinear models, means of adaptation to help them survive and cyclical models, and diffusionist approaches. adapt to a limited extent, it is a widely known Cultural change is primarily a process of fact that humans alone possess intellect and adaptation similar to Biological Natural the power of reasoning. Culture, and the Selection. ability to acquire, transmute and transmit cultural traits is one attribute which has Culture can be inherited played a key role in the success of humans. Thus, trait are usually designed to ensure the Culture is usually inherited from elders in a success of a culture. However, there can be society through a complex process of exceptions. For example, some tribes of New enculturation. Children usually inherit most Guinea consider women to be dangerous and aspects of a culture from their parents. unclean, and best avoided. As such a notion However, this is subject to change as people would be largely counter-productive, this are subject to other influences throughout would either lead to the demise of the culture, their lives, such as peer-pressure. Thus, the or by itself would need to disappear. This is culture that children transmit to their children known as maladaptivity. is often different from what they receive from their parents. The latter either retains some Culture is gratifying core elements intact, modifies them considerably, or adds or deletes some Culture is designed to satisfy the biological elements from the mix. This takes place from and social needs of individuals and must be generation to generation and invariably and compatible with them. If certain elements of inevitably leads to cultural change. Thus, culture do not fulfill the wants or needs of culture is transmitted both vertically (across humans, they may be replaced, modified or generations), and horizontally (within a made redundant in the long-run. generation).
Culture evolves Cultures operate as cognitive system
Culture evolves constantly. This is chiefly Cultures are often seen as systems of due to technological and social factors and knowledge which are designed to serve the the inventive nature of man. This is often needs to its members. According to Ward cited as one of the major causes for the Goodenough: success of man in comparison to other animals. Human culture has evolved and A society's culture consists of whatever it is changed greatly from the Stone Age and the one has to know or believe in order to operate hunter-gatherer stage to the modern industrial in a manner acceptable to its members. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
Culture is not a material phenomenon; it does 4. Symbols and Language: These carry not consist of things, people, behaviour, or (often powerful) meanings that can emotions. It is rather an organization of these easily be understood by people things. It is the form of things that people belonging to the same culture. have in mind, their models for perceiving, 5. Cultural Beliefs: These comprise relating, and otherwise interpreting them (32, ideas and statements that people of a p. 167). culture hold to be true. 6. Behavioural patterns: These refer to Culture is shaped by the environment the way people of a culture behave or It is also widely accepted that environment carry out their regular or other sets constraints on culture. There are different activities. schools of thought in this regard. For 7. Cultural traits or attributes: These are example, Cultural ecologists study how the simplest and the smallest units of humans adapt to social and physical a particular culture and are sometimes environments. Human adaptation here may referred to as the building blocks of a refer to either biological or cultural processes culture. that enable a population to survive and 8. Cultural Artefacts: Material objects reproduce in an environment. Cultural such as pottery and seals are referred Possibilism is the belief that the environment to as Cultural Artefacts. sets certain constraints or limitations on 9. Social Institutions: Institutions culture, but culture is otherwise determined promoting political control, legal by other conditions as well. sanctions or administration are known as solution institutions. Examples of these are the courts, the judiciary etc. Components of Culture What is Ethnography? Culture consists of the following elements: A standard definition of the term 1. Cultural Values: Cultural values Ethnography is: determine what is good, proper or appropriate in a given context, and “The term Ethnography refers to a systematic what is not. study of different peoples and cultures. It is 2. Cultural Norms: Cultural norms refer the study of people in naturally occurring to standard patterns of behaviour that settings or ‘fields’ by means of methods are accepted in a society. which capture their social meanings and 3. Cultural Sanctions: These comprise ordinary activities, involving the researcher rewards and penalties which are used participating directly in the setting, if not also to enforce norms and punish those the activities, in order to collect data in a who do not comply with norms. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
systematic manner but without meaning states that technology is the biggest being imposed on them externally.” 7 8 9 determinant of social change, and was sought to be applied in the context of developed This term has its origins in the Greek term economies. ‘ethos’ which means people or nation. Ethnography encompasses predominantly The science of Ethnography has had several qualitative studies (even though stages (which include Armchair accompanying quantitative techniques may Anthropology, Verandah Anthropology and be utilized), usually carried out from an emic Fieldwork, which included Participant perspective or exploring thought worlds from Observation techniques, for example. Other the inside of the culture. Etic paradigms may techniques such as interviews, surveys and however, assist in Ethnographic studies and the use of questionnaires are also popular in permit a broader generalization. Key Ethnography. Early Armchair terminologies used in the field of Anthropologists included Lewis Henry Ethnography include ‘Ethnocentrism’ or the Morgan, Henry Maine, E B Tylor, James belief in the superiority of one’s own culture Frazer and RR Marett. Some Ethnographic (This approach appears to be vindicated from studies were also conducted by Francis the writings of James Frazer, EB Tylor and Buchanan, W H R Rivers, Charles Seligman others and is also equated with Euro centrism and others in India. Modern Ethnography and the Psychic unity of Mankind. The term began with Bronislaw Malinowski’s study of itself was coined by William Graham the Trobriand Islanders and A R Radcliffe Sumner), ‘Cultural Relativism’ (This implies Brown’s study of the Andamanese tribes, the that each culture is unique in its own right), results of which were published in the early ‘Cultural Determinism’ (The belief that a 1920’s. These two studies brought the much- culture determines a person’s emotional vaunted “Participant Observation technique” makeup or behaviour and is the key into the forefront of Ethnographic studies. determinant in defining a person’s This approach, though commendable and a worldview; per Leslie A. White, culture is vast improvement over arm-chair techniques, like a matrix which is governed by its own has been sometimes associated with the laws of growth and operation). A variant is unconscious imposition of a Western the ‘Theory of technological determinism’ worldview and interpretive-bias. Only over the past few years, has a trend towards truly
7 Ethnography John D. Brewer, Oxford University collaborative approaches become discernible Press, 2000 with the constitution of multi-cultural teams. 8 What is Ethnography? Methodological, Ontological, Polyphony and multivocality however and Epistemological Attributes, Tony L. Whitehead, continue to elude us till date, and the issue Department of Anthropology may now warrant a grounds-up re- University of Maryland 9 Ethnography: John D. Brewer Open University Press Philadelphia, 2000 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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examination to eliminate sub-conscious Holism: Ethnographers attempt to grapple bias.10 11 12 with the whole gamut of human experience and study aspects such as religion, myths, The following are the foundations upon economic systems etc. It also includes topics which the science of Ethnography has been such as feminism and subaltern studies. based, and we expect these to be carried forward into the Twenty-first century: In-depth studies: In-depth studies as opposed to surface studies are the norm. Ethnography Objectivity: The researcher tries to be as often includes extremely detailed studies objective as possible, and tries not to let his such as case studies, longitudinal studies and personal biases and prejudices cloud his panel studies, and elaborate fieldwork to vision. This necessitates flexibility and self- boot. correction. Thus, Ethnography involves a continuous learning process, and not rigid Study across time and space: Cultures are interpretation. usually studied across time and space, and this usually includes its relationship with Emic perspective: The researcher tries to other cultures. This is referred to a cross- understand all aspects of a culture from the cultural frame of research and cultural area point of view of the participant. Thus, this analysis. A school of thought which is known approach involves extensive fieldwork to as Historical Particularism studies the identify what is normal in a given context. relationship between a culture’s past and its Fieldwork is designed to capture a culture in present. There is also an interface between action. It involves a study of a culture in its Cultural Anthropology and Historiography natural settings, and helps to understand its although the objectives of the two fields of inner workings without any bias or prejudice. study are prima facie different. In order to achieve this, an ethnographer may form relationships with his subjects of study Ethical approach and humanism: Ethical within ethical boundaries in order to approaches such as informed consent and accomplish a greater empathy and better protection of confidentiality are usually cross-cultural understanding. followed during the course of fieldwork. Ethnographic research also usually reflects humanistic values and concerns.
Generalization and theorization: Another key
10 objective of Ethnography is to collect data to Argonauts of the Western Pacific: An account of native enterprise and adventure in the Archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. promote generalized concepts and generate London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Malinowski, B. (1922). new theories so that these can be suitably 11 The Andaman Islanders; a study in social anthropology. A R used for the study of other cultures. Thus, Radcliffe Brown (1922) ethnography possesses nomothetic properties 12 Hall, E. T. (1976) Beyond Culture. New York: Doubleday
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in addition to epistemological and ontological continuum studies, society transitioned from attributes. folk society to urban society. Marquis de Condorcet believed that human society An overview of the various schools of passed through ten distinct stages, each thought in Cultural Anthropology leading to its betterment and perfecting the The oldest school of thought in modern human race. Unilinear Evolution was also Cultural Anthropology is the Unilinear supported by in some form by Hobhouse, C approach to evolution. Unilineal models of H Simon, Levi-Bruhl and William Graham Evolution or related models were proposed Sumner. This approach was somewhat by EB Tylor, Lewis Henry Morgan, euphemistically referred to as the ‘Psychic Montesquieu, Michel de Montaigne, J J Unity of Mankind’ or Culture with a capital Bachofen and McLennon. Stages of C, (Ingold) and lent credence to monist Evolution such as hunting and gathering, movements. Nonetheless, this approach pastoralism and nomadism, agricultural, and appears to have been tainted with Euro commerce were also proposed by centrism and racism and was used to justify Enlightenment thinkers such as Adam Smith, colonialism and oppression. It assumed that Adam Fergusson and John Miller. Marx’s Western values were superior and would concepts of Primitive Communism, replace value systems in other parts of the Savagery, Barbarism, Capitalism and world. Communism were also greatly influenced by Despite many criticisms of Euro centrism, the writings of Lewis Henry Morgan. August early Anthropologists made many seminal Comte, who is better known for his contributions to the study of other cultures. philosophy of positivism, spoke about the Eighteenth and Nineteenth century Theological Stage, the Metaphysical Stage, Anthropology was pre-occupied with the and the Age of Reason, the last of which study of “Primitive” cultures. This was based would see an increase in scientific output and on Montaigne’s observation that cultures in endeavour and a decline in religion and distant, far-off lands were different from warfare. Christian Jorgensen Thomsen those in Europe. E E Evans Prichard also developed the Three-age system consisting of emphasized that social anthropology should the Stone Age, the Copper and the Iron Age. encompass the study of all cultures with Lubbock spoke about the Age of the Drift, particular emphasis on “Primitive” cultures. when man shared space with Mammoths, the In later years, John Beatie, Thomas Hylland later or the polished Stone age, the Copper Eriksen and others continued to advocate the age, the Bronze age and the Iron Age. importance of study of other cultures, According to J G Frazer, society passed particularly minor and non-industrial ones. A. through the magical stage, religious stage and R. Radcliffe Brown, for example, studied the the scientific stage. According to Robert indigenous tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Redfield who is known for his folk-urban Islands in India, while Bronislaw Malinowski ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
ISSN 2394-9392 (Online); DOI: 10.16962/EAPJSS/issn. 2394-9392/2015; Volume 4 Issue 2 (2018)
studied the Trobriand Islanders of Melanasia. set of circumstances. P.A. Sorokin proposed Franz Boas undertook an expedition to the ‘Pendular theory of social change’ which British Columbia while A C Haddon and W was a variant of the Cyclical theory. H R Rivers undertook the Torres Straits According to this theory, the course of expedition. Henri Maine and Charles history was continuous, though irregular, Seligman worked in India while E E Evans fluctuating between the sensate and the Pritchard studied the Nuer tribes and Lewis ideational. Henri Morgan studied the Iroquois tribe. In spite of this, the interest in exotic cultures Conflict theories take into account the appeared to have waned after the end of principles of dialectics as critical to the colonialism, as such places were no longer understanding of the causes of change. readily accessible. According to A.W Green, “Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist or coerce Neo-evolution was introduced by Julian the will of another or others.” Georg Simmel Steward and Leslie A White. According to believed that there were four types of Leslie A White, the energy harnessed nu conflicts, namely, War, Feud or Factional individuals was the correct measure to assess Strife, Litigation, and Conflict of Impersonal human evolution. Marshall Sahlins and ideas. According to this school of thought, Elman Service distinguished between every action, belief and interaction tended to General Evolution and Specific Evolution, generate some kind of a reaction. For and this approach gave allowance for culture- example, the oppression of ordinary workers specific sequences and patterns of evolution. usually generated a class struggle and According to Julian Steward, techno- ultimately led to a revolution. According to economic component of culture was more the theory of power elites proposed by C. generic when compared to peripheral culture Wright Mills, a small group of people at the which was context-specific. Peter Peregrine top of society known as the power elites also analyzed the long-term growth and tended to manipulate power for their own development of cultures and developed a selfish ends, thereby triggering conflicts with Cultural Complexity index that was later the society at large. According to proponents used by George Peter Murdock. of the conflict school, change was rarely smooth, and typically took place to correct Another school of thought is the Cyclical social injustice and inequality. Several theory of change which was proposed by theorists other than Karl Marx and Pareto Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee. also contributed to the conflict theory. For According to them, civilizations rise, decline example, Max Gluckman who founded the and fall over a period in time and have a Manchester school of thought, focussed on predetermined life cycle, namely birth, internal and external conflicts, contradictions growth, maturity and decline. In some cases, and inconsistencies in daily life. Other societies may rise again under a favourable prominent conflict theorists were Walter ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Bagelot, George Vold, Georg Simmel, Ralf Karl Marx also embraced dialectics, but with Dahrendorf, Ludwig Gumplowicz and a twist. For Marx, Materialism was at the Gustav Ratzenhofer. root of all endeavours, and he often carried forward this philosophy to a fault, often Social Darwinism is the theory that Natural reinterpreting Hegel’s thesis plus antithesis is Selection and principles such as the ‘Survival equal to synthesis in a purely materialist of the fittest’ can be used in social and domain. While Descartes, Hegel and others cultural contexts in addition to Biological proposed the sequence “I think, therefore I evolution. Proponents of Social Darwinism in am” (Cogito ergo sum), for Marx, it was the some form included Herbert Spencer, other way around, and according to him, Thomas Malthus, Francis Galton and Ernst humans came first followed by ideas. Haeckel, but the term ‘Social Darwinism’ According to Karl Marx, contradictions in was itself coined by Joseph Fisher in 1877. Capitalistic Society were the cause of socio- The term ‘Social Darwinism” has many, cultural change. For example, every society often mutually incompatible definitions. had a materialist component which included However, it ‘Social Organism’ (1860), material, resources, capital, technology and Spencer compares society to a living these were called means of production. The organism and argues that just as living beings social components of production were called evolve through natural selection, societies relationships of production. The two together evolve through analogous processes. This were called modes of production. A school of thought is considered to be obsolete framework comprising of institutions is now, and was used to justify racism and called the superstructure and supports it. A imperialism. varying pace of change between the material Cultural Materialism is another approach to components and non-material components socio-cultural change, and is based on the may also trigger social change: “The labour 13 writings and theories of Leslie White, Julian class have nothing to sell but themselves”. Steward and Karl Marx. Marvin Harris and According to Marx, there was a contradiction his students developed a general theory after between man and nature in early societies. analyzing primitive societies in Africa. This led to a need to control nature, and led According to the basic postulates of this to the development of new technologies. theory, similar technologies applied to Some people possessed these technologies, similar environments tend to produce similar and some did not. This led to the emergence arrangements of labour in production and of two classes, the masters and the slaves. distribution and these in turn tend to produce This, in turn led to feudalism, and the lords similar kinds of social groupings, which and the vassals. The next stage was the justify and coordinate their activities by means of similar systems of values and 13 Descartes, René, The Philosophical Works of Descartes: Translated by beliefs.” (Harris, 1968). Elizabeth S. Haldane and G.R.T. Ross. Cambridge University Press.1911
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development of capitalism and the emergence described the basic sentiment of a culture of the capitalists and the bourgeoisie. based on the type of government i.e. Ultimately, capitalism would be overthrown Republic, monarchy and despotism. He also by the emergence of popular revolution and spoke about geographical factors, climate and this would lead to the establishment of a the nature of the soil in shaping culture stateless society. besides trade and cultural contacts with other cultures. Culture clearly plays a major role in personality development. This has been According to the Culture and Personality observed time and again from various school, an individual was shaped by heredity, studies. For example, parents interact with a environment, culture and individual personal child daily and shape his personality. A experiences. Thus, individuals varied greatly child’s personality is also formed by a peer- in personality and orientation, and it was interaction process and one time or recurrent highly unlikely that two individuals could exposure to different themes or situations. A ever be the same. Most Anthropologists famous school which tried to identify the today believe that the interfaces between interrelationship between personality and Culture and Personality are much more culture is the ‘Culture and Personality’ complex, and that individuals can in turn school which comprised a wide gamut of shape culture. This is sometimes referred to theories. This school evolved as a reaction to as a bi-directional approach. Unilinear theories of evolution and diffusionist theories. Leading proponents of Ruth Benedict conducted her research on the this school were Ruth Benedict, Margaret Zuni tribe of South West America and the Mead, Ralph Linton, Abram Kardiner and Kwaikiutl tribe of the North East coast of Cora du Bois, and this school of thought was North America. Zunis were foragers while itself kick-started with the theories of the Kwaikiutls were agriculturalists. Zunis Sigmund Freud. Sigmund Freud was a were co-operative and non-belligerent while controversial but influential psychoanalyst Kwaikiutls were relatively more aggressive. who proposed bizarre ideas such as that of Kwaikiutls were also more ambitious and the “Oedipus complex” where a son individualistic than the Zuni. This difference developed a sexual attraction towards his was readily apparent in their child rearing mother. Much more importantly, he also practices, marriage and death ceremonies. developed the Critical Periods Hypothesis Ruth Benedict calls the Zunis “Appolonians” where he proposed that most personality i.e. people characterized by their peace, traits were developed at a very young age. discipline and kindness. Dionysian cultures The theoretical underpinnings of the on the other hand, are characterized by their influences on the environment of Culture arrogance and selfishness. were also provided by Montesquieu in his Margaret Mead also made major work “The spirit of the laws”, where he contributions to the ‘Culture and Personality’ ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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school. In her book, ‘Coming of age in by the Chrysanthemum. However, as children Samoa’, she observed that people in Samoa grow older, they are disciplined by their tended to be much more open than parents. This is represented by the sword. Americans in many respects. Children were taught to be obedient, and facts of birth and Another famous study is that of Geoffrey death were kept open to children. Pre-marital Gore and John Rickman (The people of great sex was also found to be common. She then Russia: A psychological study (1949)), where studied the Manus tribe of New Guinea and the personality and profile of Russians were their child rearing practices which was then studied. Margaret Mead also studied the published as ‘Growing up in Guinea’ (1930). National Character of England and contrasted She also contrasted the personalities of the it with that of the USA when she was Arapesh, Mundugomor and the Tschambuli working with the Office of the Strategic tribe in ‘Sex and temperament in three Services (OSS). Another famous work of primitive societies’. The people of the hers was ‘Keep your powder dry: An Arapesh tribe, were for example, submissive. Anthropologist looks at America’. This was a In the Mundugumor tribe, both males and personality study of Americans, Japanese and females were aggressive. In the Tschambuli Russians. She observed that personality tribe, interestingly, males were submissive, formed at a young age and tended to be and females aggressive. statistically similar across cultures, but diverged due to cultural and environmental Another closely related school is the factors. Although some have questioned the ‘National Character School’. While many importance of National Character studies in consider this school to be outdated in the age the age of cultural homogenization and of globalization and cultural integration, it globalization and its role in promoting has left its indelible mark in Social and xenophobia and stereotypes, some Cultural Anthropology. This school attempts Anthropologists like Francis Hsu argue that to answer questions such as “Why are the national character is still an important Japanese disciplined?” “Why are the Italians determinant in shaping leaders and citizens of carefree?” “Why are Americans countries. individualistic?” and so on. This approach also uses Cultural Ecology as Ruth Benedict performed a detailed study of a basis for determining cultural traits, and the Japanese people in her book “The according to Meggers(1971) Cultural Chrysanthemum and the Sword”. This study Ecology plays a crucial role in shaping introduced the ‘Content Analysis method’ or culture because humans maintain an adaptive the ‘Fieldwork at a distance method’. relationship with their environment in order According to her study, the Japanese to survive, thrive and flourish. According to bestowed full love and attention on children Julian Steward, “The central issue in Cultural when they were young. This is represented ecology is to determine whether the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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adjustments of human societies to their attributed to their upbringing and lack of environments require particular modes of maternal attention. This was primarily due to behavior or whether they permit latitudes for the fact that mothers often worked, entrusting a certain range of possible behavioural their toddlers to their grandparents. patterns. Cultural ecology pays particular attention to those features which empirical According to the Personality Mediation view analysis shows to be most closely involved in formulated by Abram Kardiner, Ralph the utilization of environment in culturally Linton, John W M Whiting and Irwin L prescribed ways.” 14 For example, the Child, culture is split into two parts. The first Trobriand Islanders of New Guinea practice is the determinants of personality, while the the ‘Kula ring ceremony.’ This involves the other is the expressions of personality, both distribution of shell-disc necklaces and shell of which are interconnected by personality armbands in different directions to other itself. Primary institutions consist of islanders in the region. This enhances mutual socioeconomic structure and child rearing trust relationships, secures trade, and , practices while secondary institutions consist disposes surpluses. Potlatch is a feast among of religion, art, folklore, and other expressive some American Indian Groups where foods, media. In the Whiting and Child version, the blankets, copper pieces and canoes are environmental determinants of group distributed to other villages to secure an personality are divided into two parts, the equitable distribution of goods. (Note: Per maintenance system which is the our approach, Cultural Ecology must be institutionalized economy and the socio- considered, but for the sake of convenience is political structure and functions for the included in the category of Vertical Factors.) survival of the group in relation to the external environment, and child training and Abram Kardiner compared compared the socialization. Tanala tribe with the Betsileo tribe and observed that the differences in personality Childrearing practices were also researched could be attributed group ideologies and by independent teams in India, Russia, Japan, political and cultural complexity. Another Phillippines and the USA. In 1965, Walter anthropologist, Cora du Bois conducted Goldschmidt studied cultural and Thematic Apperception Tests (TATs) or psychological differences among the Hehe, Rorschach Ink Blot tests on the Alorese of Pokot, Kunt and Sebei groups of Africa. Cora Dutch East Indes. She found them to be du Bois also developed the concept of Modal suspicious, jealous, and antagonistic towards personality using a statistical approach. Here, each other, and often violent. They were she proposed that despite exceptions, culture slovenly, undisciplined and incompetent, and usually prefer one or more modal personality lacking in goals or direction. This could be types. Robert I. Levy preferred a person- centric approach which attempted to
14 Julian H Steward, Theory of Culture Change: The Methodology of understand how individuals behaved and Multilinear Evolution, University of Illinois Press 1955 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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interacted in their socio-cultural context. This Edward Sapir, a student of Franz Boas, was attempt drew heavily from the observations also interested in the relationship between he made during a study in Nepal. John J language, personality and culture. He and his Honigman studied the childrearing practices student Benjamin Whorf developed a theory of the Kaska tribes, and their bearing on the starting from the late 1920’s which came to personality development process. be very famously known as the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. The roots of this theory however Another advocate of Culture and Personality lay in the works of Johann Gottfried von is Ralph Linton who spoke about Basic Herder and Wilhelm von Humboldt in the personality, Status personality, Inventors, Eighteenth Century. According to this theory, achieved status, ascribed status etc. language can shape the world-views of According to him, there were three types of people and grasp multiple concepts including culture i.e. real or actual culture, ideal culture different shades of meaning. Thus, this or normative culture and cultural constructs theory constitutes a form of linguistic or perceived culture. Basic personality was determinism, but weaker versions may be the most basic personality type while social construed as linguistic relativism. An inventors were rare. Status personality or extension of this proposed that language ascribed status were not achieved due to self- shaped the cultural world view as well. There effort, but were bestowed by society. is some valid criticism of this view, given the Another concept is that of Group Personality validity of abstractions in shaping world- which largely ignores individual variations views, and the easy translatability of thoughts and studies the personality of a group. from one language to the other. Words and Another view, known as a Two-systems concepts can also be borrowed easily from 17 18 19 view, was developed by Inkeles, Levinson one language to another. and Melford Spiro. According to this theory, culture and personality (including socio- Diffusion cultural institutions) interact with each other According to the Theory of Diffusion, and balance each other. Each of the two has cultural traits spread from ‘Cultural areas’, interdependent parts and requirements for its ‘Cultural cradles’ or ‘cultural circles’. maintenance. A certain degree of stability is Diffusionists generally rejected Unilinear reached when individuals are able to satisfy theories of evolution and studied the spread their psychological needs and their socio- cultural expectations at the same time. 15 16
17 Koerner, E. F. Konrad (December 1992). "The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: A Preliminary History and a Bibliographical Essay". Journal of Linguistic Anthropology. 18 Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, 15 Culture, Behavior and Personality, Robert A Levine 1982 Behaviors, Institutions and Organizations Across Nations (2nd Ed.), 16 Patterns of Culture, Ruth Benedict, 1934 Boston, Houghton Sage Publications, Thousands Oaks, California. 19 Mifflin. Sapir, Edward. 1958. Culture, Language and Personality. Berkeley: University of California Press ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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of cultural traits from cultural areas cradles or bow and arrow of Indonesia and West Asia circles. were related. This study was extended by Leo Frobnius to cover masks, houses, drums, There have been three major schools of clothing, and shields. Wilhelm Schmidt also diffusionist thought, namely the British proposed four culture circles as Primitive diffusionist school, the German diffusionist Culture Circle, Primary Culture Circle, school and the American diffusionist school. Secondary Culture Circle and Tertiary The British school was represented by Culture circle, and the Circle of Quality or Grafton Elliot Smith, WJ Perry and WHR form and the Circle of Quantity which Rivers and proposed that all innovations explored the nature of cultural relationships. radiated from Egypt starting from 4000 BC. The American diffusionist school, on the This, according to them, was triggered by an other hand, proposed that diffusion took accidental crop of barley. This led to place as a result of migration and adaptation. domestication, housing, agriculture, religion, This school studied tribes in North and South trade, and civilization. British diffusionists America and cattle complexes in East Africa even suggested that Stonehenge, Japanese and advanced hypothesis such as the ‘Age Pagodas, Balinese temples, Mayan pyramids area Hypothesis’. According to this and Cambodian temples were influenced by hypothesis which was introduced long before Egypt. This was suggested in books such as radiocarbon dating came into vogue, traits ‘The Children of the Sun’ and ‘The Gods and originated at the centre of a cultural area and the Men’. W H R Rivers also supported moved towards the periphery. theories of degeneration in which he There have traditionally been three modes of proposed that Polynesian and Melanesian cultural diffusion. Direct diffusion takes cultures had been replaced by successive place when two cultures are geographically waves of immigrations. This approach in close proximity to each other, resulting in however, was heavily criticized, and soon different types of direct contacts. An example disappeared. of direct diffusion is between India and The German diffusionist school was Nepal. Indirect diffusion happens when traits represented by Ratzel, Graebner and Leo are transmitted from one culture through an Frobnius. This school proposed that traits intermediary to another culture, without the could be traced from different regions such as two cultures being in direct contact. Forced Australia, Tasmania, Melanesia and diffusion occurs when one culture subjugates Polynesia. Ratzel traced the similarities the or otherwise dominates another culture and bow and arrow along and the similarities in force feeds its culture on the subjugated the cross-section of the bow shaft, the people. material and fastening of the bow string and School of Historical Particularism the feathering of the arrow of different societies. Based on this he suggested that the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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The school of Historical Particularism which Radcliffe Brown on the other hand, promoted was led by Franz Boas, Ruth Benedict, a Structural-functionalist approach and Margaret Mead, Robert Lowie and Alfred according to him, each unit comprised Kroeber proposed that each culture was several functions, and at least a minimal unique and had to be understood in the light integration of its parts was necessary. This, of its own historical background. Each according to him, would lead to a ‘Structural culture was shaped by its geography, climate, continuity’ of society. Bronislaw and culture, and needed to be assessed based Malinowski, on the other hand, is considered on its own unique history. The school of to be a true functionalist. He analyzed human Historical Particularism rejected Unilinear needs at a biological, social, structural and theories of evolution, at the gross over- symbolic levels and also spoke about vital simplification that went with it. Some sequences such as hunger, thirst, fright, pain, allowance was however made for cultural the desire to breathe, colon pressure, bladder borrowings. This approach however, ignored pressure, sex appetite and the acts that led to functional aspects of society and its future their satisfaction. He also developed the orientation. Furthermore, collecting vast concept of Vital Sequences and Universal amounts of information about specific Permanent Vital Sequences which provided societies proved to be difficult, often satisfaction and cultural responses to impossible. impulses and basic needs.
Functionalism Talcott Parsons, who is called an arch- functionalist, developed the four-component The word ‘function’ has been derived from AGIL Model based on his work with Robert the Latin word fungi which means to perform F. Bales on leadership in small groups which or execute. The roots of functionalism can be comprised of adaptation (to the external traced to the times of Aristotle and Plato, as environment), Goal Attainment, Integration also the concepts of teleology and and Latency (which comprised Pattern determinism, extreme versions of which even Maintenance and Tension Management). implied that everything was pre-ordained. In general, the postulates of the Functional The next stage was the development of School were as below: positivism by August Comte which spoke about the ‘Age of Reason’ as opposed to the 1. A society or culture consists of parts Theological and Metaphysical ages and such as institutions, groups, highlighted the differences between intuitive associations, organizations etc, which and empirical approaches. Another early are interconnected, interrelated and contributor was Emile Durkheim who spoke interdependent. about ‘Sociological explanations’, ‘Causal- 2. Each part performs its own function, historical explanations’ and the role of yet makes its own contribution to the various functions in maintaining solidarity. society or culture as a whole. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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3. A minimal integration of its parts is mental structure and thought patterns from necessary for the functioning of observed social behaviour, irrespective of society. whether these were formally expressed or 4. A change in one part or function has a not. Other contributors to the theory of social cascading effect and brings about a structure were S F Nadel, Edmund Leach, change in the other parts. Raymond Firth, Meyer Fortes, George Peter 5. The value of the culture when taken Murdock and Rodney Needham. 20 21 as a whole is always greater than the sum of its parts. Types of Cultural change
The following are the different types of Radcliffe-Brown developed the concept of cultural change, and most analyses would Social structure, and this is considered to be differentiate change on the following bases: an important contribution to Social Long-term or permanent change versus short- Anthropology. Further contributions were term change made by Meyer Fortes, Rodney Needham and S F Nadel among others. Long-term change may be defined as a permanent change or a near-permanent There were several criticisms of the change, whose impact is felt over the long- functional school which included the fact that term. Such changes usually lead to it ignored cultural factors, internally and fundamental changes in a society. Examples externally induced cultural changes, cultural of such changes are changes brought about deviance and culture specific differences. by the adoption of new technologies such as This led to the development of the Neo- the internet. Short-term changes are however, Functionalist school by Jeffrey Alexander those changes which last only in the short to and Paul Colomy which incorporated greater medium term. Examples of such changes are flexibility and attempted to override the flaws short-term changes to immigration policy of the functionalist school. brought about by political will or diktat, The structural school, on the other hand, was effects of a hurricane or a tornado, or short- proposed by Claude Levi Strauss and was term devastation brought about by an heavily influenced by the concept of earthquake. phenomenology which proposed looking at Irreversible versus reversible change issues from the subject’s point of view and the Gestalt school of psychology which Irreversible changes are those changes which proposed that individuals were guided by cannot be reversed or those changes whose Cultural patterns of Society. They were also influenced by Ferdinand de Saussure’s ideas 20 Barnard, A., & Spencer, J. (2002). Encyclopedia of social and on language and the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. cultural anthropology. London, England: Routledge. 21 Barrett, S. R. (2009). Anthropology: A student's guide to theory Structuralists also try to infer an underlying and method (Second ed.). Toronto: University of Toronto Press ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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effects cannot be undone easily or painlessly. Major changes versus minor changes Many changes that we see around us today are irreversible. For example, the changes Major changes are those changes that impact brought about to American society by the society significantly or substantively. Minor automobile were profound, and it is highly changes typically do not impact society in a unlikely that any reversion to the pre- major way. Changes may also be classified as automobile age will ever happen in spite of core changes or peripheral changes the harmful effects popularly associated with depending on their impact on society. They this technology. This kind of technology can may also be classified as all-pervasive therefore, only be replaced by a superior changes versus non-pervasive changes. technology that eliminates the harmful effects Likewise, some changes only effect elites or associated with the internal combustion the privileged few, while some other impact engine without sacrificing its benefits. all echelons of a society.
Directed versus undirected change Positive changes versus undesirable or harmful changes Most change is undirected, and the future cannot be predicted with any degree of Positive changes are those changes that tend precision. This is the beauty and the to have a positive impact on society as a quintessence of human civilization. Who whole, or most sections of society. On the foresaw the industrial revolution, the dawn of other hand, negative changes tend to harm the automobile era or the internet age? society in some way. Social Darwinism may However, change can be regulated and fail us utterly here. Negative changes do modulated in a manner that makes it orderly propagate through what we call allure or or ensures that it is compatible with the needs glitz, thereby triggering the need for of the society. Unplanned or undirected activism. change may also be referred to as free change Gradual changes versus non-gradual changes (Halpin). Changes may also be classified as predictable changes and unpredictable Another classification of changes is gradual changes depending on their predictability. changes versus non-gradual changes. The Directed change and social action require former are typically slow and peaceable, and different elements such as the identification may be as a result of technological of a cause or a problem that needs to be innovation, economic progress, social solved, the identification of a change agency, upliftment or increase in efficiency of the change targets (individuals and institutions utilization of the factors of production. Non- may become targets of change efforts), gradual changes may be sudden and abrupt, channels or ways through which influence often caused by disruptions in technology or can be transmitted, change strategy or an bloody social revolutions. Non-gradual action plan for change. changes were brought about in the 1920’s ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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with the widespread adoption of the Contact-driven changes are those that are automobile, in the 1990’s with the dawn of produced by physical contact between two the internet age, and also with the French and cultures through war, conquest, annexations, Russian revolutions. Changes can also incursions, military expeditions etc. Non likewise be punctuated, and characterized by contact-driven changes can typically occur periods of rapid change and relative non- even without any kind of physical contact, change (This is similar to a theory in but typically use other enablers or mediums, evolutionary biology proposed by Stephen more often technological. In early Jay Gould). There are no specific causes for civilizations, writing precipitated non this, other than the fact that revolutions are contact-driven changes. The invention of the relatively less common than other printing press allowed new and revolutionary endogenous and exogenous changes. A well- ideas to spread to far-off lands and eventually known and a widely-cited example of brought about wide-ranging changes, both punctuated change is the French Revolution. direct and indirect in many societies. In the Punctuated change was also brought about on post-globalized world, change is ubiquitous, many other occasions in human history, pervasive, all-encompassing and is often a example being the end of colonialism in the way of life. Most changes in today’s world 1940’s and the 1950’s in Asia and Africa, the belongs to the second category. civil rights movement of the 1960’s and the end of apartheid in South Africa in the Identity formation 1990’s. The term identity refers to assertions and Endogenous changes versus exogenous affirmations like “I am”, “you are”, “He is” changes or “they are”. Such identities reflect an individual’s ambitions and aspirations and Endogenous changes refer to those changes yet are never fixed or permanent. They also that are internally-induced and take place evolve as a result of an individual’s from within a society, often through interactions with society. The relationship is innovation or revolution. Other types of usually bidirectional because a society endogenous changes may however, operate creates individuals and individuals in turn more slowly. Exogenous changes refer to shape them. Thus, an individual’s those changes that are externally-induced and personality is shaped by complex forces the agents of change are typically alien to the which include geography, physical culture. Examples of exogenous changes are environment, cultural factors and unique those which are triggered by a culture’s personal experiences. A few Anthropologists exposure to other cultures. also believe that biological factors, the definition of which may appear to be ill- Contact-driven and Non contact-driven defined in the eyes of most, also play a role. changes These may be ultimately over-ridden by an ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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individual’s unique experiences, thus by self-perception and an internalization of a producing a baffling array of permutations culture’s attributes and both these factors are and combinations. The process of identity subject to constant change producing new formation is also sometimes referred to as paradigms constantly. Others such as individuation and is the process of Howson (2004) believe that an individual’s development of an individual and his unique identity is also shaped by others perceptions individuality, characteristics and patterns. of him. (Ceruti (2001)) According to the American Sociologist Manuel Castells The issues of self and identity are often used (1997), identities provide meanings to in Symbolic-interactionist theories which individuals themselves and are bi- were first formulated by Herbert Blumer, G directionally related to the ethos of a society. H Mead and C H Cooley and based on earlier The process of identity formation is also work by the American psychologist John inevitably linked with Twenty-first century Dewey. According to this school of thought, realities such as globalization and the move ‘self reflects society’ or ‘society shapes self’ towards a homogenized culture and the and this in turn shapes social behaviour. This interweaving of new streams produces school of thought also opines that human altogether new equations. 22 23 24 behaviour may be best understood in relation to the environment. This may therefore be Other interesting theories of Identity referred to as a bi-directional approach. formation have included psychological-based Berger and Luckmann have called this theories such as Erik Erikson's theory of relationship a “dialectic operation” (1967). psychosocial development and James Cooley also introduced the concept of Marcia's identity status theory, and a brief “Looking glass self” (Individual shaped by overview is provided hereunder, merely to his views about himself) and through his demonstrate the breadth and diversity of interactions with Primary and Secondary overlapping theories available in the field: groups, a concept he defined in 1909. (Mead 1934; Cooley 1902; Blumer 1969) However, According to Erikson’s line of reasoning, society itself is highly differentiated on the each person experiences different crises or basis of social class, gender, ethnicity, age, conflicts throughout their life regardless of religion etc. Thus, all other dimensions are their cultural background. Each of the capable of impacting a person’s identity to conflicts must be resolved satisfactorily and varying degrees. According to Hall (1990), with some self-determination in order to cultural identity is formed and redefined reach the next stage. The stage impacting continuously as a result of complex and ever- 22 changing patterns of interaction between the Blumer, Herbert. 1969. Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. afore-mentioned elements. Thus new patterns 23 Castells, M., 2010. The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture Volume 1: The Rise of the Network Society. 2nd ed. Oxford: of identity are constantly produced. (Barker Wiley Blackwell. and Galasinki (2001)). Identity is also shaped 24 Cooley C H, 1909 Social Organization: Human Nature and Social order, New York, Charles Scribner’s sons ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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identity formation occurs during adolescence, proposing, unlike Freud, that Personality as is called "Identity versus Role Confusion." development was an ongoing process that In the "Identity versus Role Confusion" stage continued until late in life. Freud also adolescents want to find out who they are so proposed that the human mind possessed a that they can form a basic identity for life. three-tier system consisting of superego This crisis is resolved with identity (screening function), ego (mediation achievement which is arrived at after function) and id (identity maintenance considering various goals and values. They function). Most psychoanalysts also agree then enter the next stage which is called that personality and temperament are "Intimacy versus Isolation" where they will determined very early in life, a few even form friendships and bonds with others. If the holding that there are significant variations "Identity versus Role Confusion" crisis is not and type categorizations at birth. Most solved, an adolescent will develop a confused psychoanalysts also hold that personality identity and lack of role definition which may types can only be changed with some amount mar his future prospects considerably. of difficulty, while some like Carl Jung even According to the theory provided by James argue that this is unlikely. The determination Marcia, adolescents could be classified into of personality traits at birth however appears one of four statuses of identity such as implausible or directly non-observable, but Identify diffusion or Role Confusion (marked must be proven empirically through suitably- designed indirect techniques if the matter is by a presence of identity crisis), Identify foreclosure (marked by unquestioned to be satisfactory or permanently settled. acceptance of societal norms), Identity Others have spoken about Primary Moratorium (deferment of achievement), socialization and Secondary socialization. In Identity Achievement (Achievement by Primary socialization, identity of self is first solving identity issues). The identity statuses conceived, usually early in life, and are used to describe an adolescent's identity reinforced by Secondary socialization. formation process on various core values Secondary socialization starts when a child such as norms and religion. ventures out into the outside world and Identity formation is crucially and critically begins to interact with it. Thus, education is a impacted by Personality development and the part of Secondary socialization, though some most popular Personality development consider primary education to be a part of theories were provided by Sigmund Freud both primary socialization and secondary and Erik Ericson. Sigmund Freud proposed socialization. different stages in personality development According to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological such as the Oral stage, the Anal stage, the System theory of Individual and Social Phallic stage, the Latent period, and the Development, an individual is shaped by his Genital stage while Ericson divided the own attributes such as sex etc, and his human lifespan into various buckets, interaction with the environment. The ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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environment includes the Microsystem universe of the individual, so that he learns to (Family, peers, school, church), Mesosystem, internalize the norms of that particular Exosystem (Industry, neighbours, mass culture. The process involves selection as media, local politics, social services) and well as elimination of multiple kinds of Macrosystem (Attitudes and ideologies of the behaviour that an individual indulges.” 25 culture). These interact in various ways and shape the identity of the individual. A personality type refers to the psychological classification of individuals into categories Personality types based qualitative attributes such as extrovertness or introvertness, empathy, The term ‘Personality’ stems from the Latin word persona which referred to the masks cognitive abilities, rationality and emotional individuals wore when they portrayed quotient. characters. Different psychologists have Theories on personality can be classified attempted different definitions of the term into: ‘personality’. According to Watson, “Personality is the sum of activities that can Biological Theories: According to Biological be discovered by actual observations over a theories, genes determine personality long period to give reliable information.” characteristics and traits. One of the most (Watson, 1930) According to Morton Prince, vocal proponents of this school was Hans “Personality is the sum total of all the Eysenck who attempted to link personality biological innate dispositions, impulses, with biological processes. tendencies, appetites and instincts of the individual and the disposition and tendencies Psychological Theories: Psychological acquired by experience. (Prince, 1929) theories emphasize childhood experiences According to a more recent definition and sub-conscious influences in determining “Personality is the more or less stable and personality types. Psychological theories enduring organization of a person’s character were advanced by Sigmund Freud and Carl , organization , physique, intelligence and Jung. This is akin to a tabula rasa on which temperament which determine his unique impressions are constantly ingrained and adjustment to the environment (Eysenck, overridden to produce new synergies and 1971) E. A. Hoebel defined personality as meanings. follows lending some credence to the idea that culture shapes personality “The sum of Behavioral Theories: Behavioral theorists integrated behaviour traits which are such as B. F. Skinner and John B. Watson analogous to the culture of a society. The suggest that personality is primarily formed bodily constitution, the physical environment as a result of interaction between the and the culture combine to produce the individual and the environment. Behavioral personality structure of an individual. 25 E. A Hoebel, Man in the Primitive World: An introduction to Enculturation encompasses the whole Anthropology, McGraw Hill, New York, 1958 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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theorists play down the role of internal Nicholas Culpeper, Immanuel Kant, Rudolf thoughts and feelings in shaping human Steiner, Eduard Spranger and others. 26 27 behavior. According to a classification proposed by Humanist Theories: Humanist theorists such German psychotherapist and founder of as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow individual psychology Alfred Adler, the emphasize the importance of free will and following were the four personality types: individual experience including the process Ruling or dominant (High activity, low social of self-actualization in the development of interest), Learning type (Low activity, high personality. social interest), Avoidance type (Low activity, Low social interest) and the Socially Trait Theories: According to trait theories, useful type. People belonging to the last personality comprises several distinct traits category were vibrant and full of energy. which shape human behavior. Examples of Adler also emphasized the role in inferiority trait-based theories include Eysenck's Three- complex and other factors in shaping dimension theory and the Five factor personality. theory of personality. The German social psychologist Erich Fromm analyzed personality types on the An early form of personality classification basis of concepts and learnings in was the Four Temperaments system of Galen Anthropology, History and Psychology. which was based on the Four Humours According to him, every human has a need Model of Hippocrates (blood, yellow bile, for orientation, and tries to find a meaning black bile, and phlegm which influenced the and value in existence. Orientation is human body and its emotions). According to achieved either through assimilation (relating the Four Temperaments System, which is a to things) or socialization (relating to people). direct ancestor of modern psychological This was also determined by human theories, there are four personality types existentialist needs such as relatedness namely Sanguine (Enthusiastic and Social), (submission, power, love), transcendence Choleric (Short-tempered and irritable), (overcoming the environment), rootedness melancholic (analytical, wise and quiet), and (establishing roots), and identity creation, and phlegmatic (relaxed and peaceful). A more an interface between the two led to unique recent variant is the Five Temperaments human personality. The American system which was published in 1958 and was psychologist William Moulton Marston on based on the work of William Schutz and his the other hand, identified four primary FIRO-B programme. Similar Personality emotions which were Dominance (Activity in theories were also proposed by Avicenna,
26 Jung, Carl Gustav (1971). "Psychological Types". Collected Works of C.G. Jung, Princeton University Press 27 Goldberg, L. R. (1992). "The development of markers for the Big-Five factor structure". Psychological Assessment. 4: 26 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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an antagonistic environment), Compliance and Lee comprises six factors, or dimensions, (Passivity in an antagonistic environment), which include Honesty-Humility (H), Inducement (Activity in a favourable Emotionality (E), Extraversion (X), environment), Submission (passivity in a Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), favourable environment). Gordon Allport, and Openness to Experience (O). Each factor who was a “trait psychologist”, categorized in turn is composed of traits and personality traits on their basis of influence characteristics with accompanying high and on a person into cardinal traits, central traits low levels of the factor. and core traits. To do this, he identified and categorized over four thousand five hundred The famous Myers-Briggs model is based on traits. A similar hypothesis is the Carl Jung’s psychological type and was Fundamental Lexical hypothesis by Goldberg developed by Katherine Cook Briggs and which states that traits most common to a Isabelle Briggs Myers. According to this culture will become that culture’s defining model, personality preferences are assessed traits and cultural determinants. In addition to in four dimensions based on a series of such models, specialized models are also questions: available, and these include the EAS 1. Where a person focuses his attention (Emotionality, activity and sociability) model – Extraversion or introversion which is used to assess temperament in 2. The way a person takes in children. information – Sensing or intuition The DISC assessment system is a relatively 3. How a person makes decisions – more modern technique developed by W M Thinking or feeling Marston, Walter Clarke and John G. Geler in 4. How a person deals with the world – 1972 and included scales of Dominance, Judgment or perception Influence, Steadiness and Conscientiousness This provides a total of sixteen common and which were then used to model the specifics uncommon combinations, which each of personality. According to the relatively combination possessing its own better-known Carl Jung’s theory of characteristics. Psychological types, people could be classified based on a combination of Another widely used mode is the five-factor Introversion or Extraversion and Sensation, model or OCEAN Model of personality intuition, thinking or feeling to form a total of which was based on research conducted by eight combinations or orientations. Each the US Air Force in the 1940’s, consists of human could be categorized into one of the Openness to experience, Conscientiousness eight types. This approach also emphasized (Being organised or efficient), Extroversion, the role of the unconscious in shaping human Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. The PEN personality. The HEXACO Model of model proposed by the English psychologist Personality Structure proposed by Ashton Hans Eysenck, on the other hand, is based on ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Psychophysiology: There are three refute our assertions must empirically superfactors of Psychoticism, Extraversion, demonstrate their validity: the onus for this and Neuroticism, and several other minor now squarely rests on their shoulders. factors such as sociability and positive effect. Likewise, ‘National Character’ is more likely Another rival approach is provided by the to be a product of intersecting and rapidly- attachment theory which discusses people’s changing paradigms of base functions such as relationships with other individuals across a those proposed in our paper, and the resultant gamut of roles throughout their life cycle. synergies resultantly produced.
In spite of the availability of a wide spectrum Cultural integration of theories of personality categorization and formation which we have reviewed above, We may invoke some pre-existing definitions the relationship between the above and concepts here and merge them with our categorized personality types and culture or own interpretations and definitions. Cultural cultural ecology is poorly established and integration which is an oft-repeated term in determined, remains a matter of conjecture the age of globalization and a seamless flow and is open to debate. We will argue that of thoughts and ideas, is a kind despite some exceptions and variations in of cultural exchange where groups adopt the frequency distributions, the above beliefs, ideals and practices of other groups classifications are largely culture-neutral either to a minor degree or significantly rendering them of rather limited utility and without sacrificing the characteristics of its appeal in Culture and Personality studies and own culture. Globalization, in this case, to the Social Anthropologist in general. Thus, refers to the diffusion of manufacturing, a broad assertion that different configurations services, markets, culture, lifestyle, capital, of culture can engender unique personality technology and ideas across national types and that “Culture is personality writ boundaries and around the world and the large” (Ruth Benedict) can now be thrown slow integration of diverse economic and into very serious doubt (This would be social activities due to the emergence of evident even from a superficial analysis of unprecedented technologies and their spread the attributes used in any other approaches at an unprecedented rate. In spite of this, above), and the issue is undoubtedly Cultural identity cannot normally erase the substantially more complex. Two issues are identity of a culture or replace all aspects of a of paramount importance here: are any culture, even though it can considerably parameters used in the various definitions dilute them. Each culture will continue to here dependent on culture or cultural retain its own hallmarks and defining ecology? Alternatively, are there any characteristics, and only in a few cases will a characteristics that are not carried over to, or total cultural loss be observed. This process incorporated in our alternative concepts such may eventually culminate in the emergence as mind-orientation? Those who wish to of an over-arching global culture in several ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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popular or influential dimensions albeit with given their views on cultural regional variations. 28 29 This process may homogenization. According to Tamar Liebes also result in rationalization of society and (Liebes 2003), more and more countries were culture, and what some researchers have likely to adopt a Western Euro-American referred to as “McDonaldization”. lifestyle as globalization gathered pace, thus encroaching on other norms and values. Cultural integration may also result in an According to George Ritzer (Ritzer 2010), intermingling of one or more cultures, and the barriers working against homogenization major cities across the world have become would pale into nothingness when compared cultural potpourris and melting pots. Another to the forces promoting it, and this alone term for cultural integration is hybridization. would ensure a greater cultural uniformity Cultural integration also involves over time. This would eventually lead to the assimilation and acculturation. Cultural emergence of a “global culture” (Robertson, integration may be categorized into temporal 1992) or “world culture” (Meyer, Boli, analysis and synchronic analysis, where Thomas and Ramirez, 1997) 30 31 integration takes place across time and space respectively. It may also be categorized as Cultural Receptivity determines a culture’s uni-directional, bi-directional or multi- desire for change and progress, and how it directional, depending on how many cultures views other cultures and components of are impacted by change. Thus, a society may culture not forming a part of it. Even a comprise of multiple cultures, with an culture which is initially not receptive to integration taking place only over a ideas of an external origin, may undergo protracted span of time. changes over a period in time, and may become more receptive to change. Most Cultural homogenization refers to cultures and societies today are receptive to standardization of different components of a some degrees, as symbols of science and culture and the elimination of variation. technology have permeated the globe, as also Homogenization can take place within a have cultural icons associated with the culture or across cultures. The process of world’s more dominant cultures. Conrad homogenization appears to have accelerated Arensberg and Arthur Niehoff describe with the onslaught of globalization which has cultural borrowing as the sharing of ideas and greatly diminished the role of national techniques across cultures, though not often governments in defining or enforcing cultural in wholly unmodified form. Often, external norms. Globalization has also allowed ideas are thoroughly internalized, even technology to spread to peripheral and often heavily modified if required, and used as the remote regions. Many sociologists have
30 Liebes, T. (2003). American Dreams, Hebrew Subtitles: 28 James, Paul (2006). Globalism, Nationalism, Tribalism. London: Sage Globalization from the Receiving End. Hampton Press, Cresskill, Publications. New Jersey 29 George Ritzer. The Blackwell Companion to Globalization. John Wiley & 31 Ritzer, G. The Globalization of Nothing, Pine Forge Press, Thousand Sons Oaks, 2004 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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society and its denizens deem fit. These can 3. Fringe or Marginal cultural systems: then be used as tools of cultural, social, Examples of such systems include economic or technological progress. For Nigeria and Tanzania. Such countries are example, American Culture, though merely a speck in the international radar, originally European in origin, has been and chances that such cultures can have significantly modified for the American an impact on the world at large are geographical, cultural and economic remote. 4. Closed or Autarchic (Autarkic) cultural landscape. There are also many other systems: Examples of such cultures are examples from across the world to illustrate North Korea which have practically no this. For example, Germany was the birth cultural or economic connections with the place of the motor car in the 1880’s. In the rest of the world. These cultures may also 1890’s, the first automotive industry took be assessed based on their Degree of root in France, though with a unique French Autarchy. flavour. In the 1910’s, the USA pioneered assembly line production to suit American The process of symbiosis between these economic needs. From the 1970’s, upstarts cultural systems would determine the global and dark horses Japan and later South Korea, socio-cultural landscape. became leading automotive players on the How to identify cultural boundaries international scene, changing the dynamics of the Automobile industry. Cultural boundaries may be defined using any of the yardsticks described below, or a Categorization of Cultures combination of these, and the cultural unit From the point of view of their influence, thus identified, would form the basis of any cultures may be categorized as follows: structured study.
1. Dominant or influential cultural systems: 1. Linguistic boundary: This is the most Examples of such cultures include the common approach to defining a USA. Factors impacting a culture’s cultural unit, especially where the dominance include its technological language in question is a major or a superiority, cultural hegemony and soft well-known one. power, economic influence, military 2. Ethnic boundary: In this case, the influence, population and population Ethnic group in question is must be growth. fairly well-known, and the 2. Non-Dominant cultural systems: encompassed geographical territory Examples of such systems include China may not be analogous to a language. and India. Even though such cultures may 3. Political boundary: In this case, a possess desirable traits, their lack or political boundary is taken as the dominance in the international arena due basis for convenience. to an absence of hard power or soft power may prevent such traits from spreading. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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4. Quasi-political boundary: In this case, Criteria for identifying cultural the area controlled by tribes, clans, boundaries confederates may be taken as the basis of a study. The following criteria are applied to arrive at 5. Cultural area: In this case, the a broad definition of a cultural unit. presence of common cultural traits 1. Ease of data collection and that is used to define a cultural area administration: The definition arrived also forms the basis of a cultural unit, at must facilitate easy data collection though it may be sub-divided for and administration. convenience. 2. Ease of comprehension by 6. Religion or religious sect: In this case, administrator: The definition must be a religion or a religious sect is taken logical and devoid of any logical as the basis, and is used to demarcate ambiguities or inconsistencies, and a cultural area. must be easily understood by the 7. Cultural attributes: In this case, the administrator. gradation of cultural traits or 3. Ease of comprehension by third attributes is taken as the basis for parties: The definition must be easily defining a cultural unit. Thus, sudden understood by all third parties variations in a trait or an attribute can including the layman. be used to mark the end of a cultural 4. Manageable size: The cultural units unit. E.g. The sudden disappearance thus arrived at, must be of of a defining and overriding feature of manageable size i.e. they must be kinship in a region. neither too big nor too small. 8. Anticipated pace of Cultural change: 5. Utility in downstream studies: The In another method, Cultural area may definition must serve the needs of be defined on the anticipated pace of downstream users well and must lend Cultural change i.e. Conservative itself to different kinds of downstream societies versus Non-conservative studies and analyses. societies. 9. Cultural artifacts: In this case, How to define cultural areas artifacts are classified on a typo- Cultural areas, which are groups of cultural technological basis, and then used to units, must be logically arrived at on some determine a cultural area. E.g. The basis such as similarity of cultural traits, and sudden appearance of a category of must satisfy all the criteria laid down above. enamelware in a region. In Cultural Anthropology, a cultural area, 10. Economic systems: In this case, also known as a cultural region or economic systems such as potlatch or cultural sphere, refers to a the ‘Tola ring system’ are used to geographical area with a relatively demarcate cultural areas. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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homogeneous cultural activity or type of opening decades of the Twentieth century, cultural activity. One of the critical the USA was associated with the automobile considerations while defining a cultural area and mass production. It also eventually is the ability of cultural units within a became associated with the Aeroplane, the proposed cultural area to influence each other computer, and with its intellectual and to a significant degree as this would lead to cultural might. This may have gradually led the eventual homogenization of traits. Thus, to other American symbols becoming causation is a necessary defining ubiquitous around the globe common characteristic in addition to co-relation. examples being Coca Cola and Pepsi. While defining cultural areas, a bottom-up approach must be adopted. In other words, Cultural hegemony and soft power cultural units must be defined first, followed The cultural hegemony and soft power by cultural areas. In some cases, ‘Multiple or associated with a culture can play a vital role differentiated Cultural Areas’ may be used. is spread of its cultural and non-cultural In other words, Cultural Areas may be icons. For example, France is associated with defined separately for different studies. its wines and haute couture, and Italy with its cuisine. Hollywood spread largely due to Factors (impacting) American hard and soft power, and The following factors facilitate the outward Bollywood is making an attempt to capitalize transmission of cultural traits or attributes on the unprecedented interest in India abroad. from a cultural unit or area: Economic Influence Technological superiority and Military hegemony America’s extraordinary and unparalleled success as an economic power in the early The technological superiority associated with part of the Twentieth century is a case in a culture may lead to other cultures wanting point. This boosted American cultural to mimic them. For example, it was once exports to a significant degree, often ousting famously said that the sun never sets on the icons associated with rival cultures in the British Empire. While this statement was popular public imagination. American eventually falsified with the collapse of cultural exports included comics, cinema, fast imperialism, cultural icons associated with food etc., which have become commonplace the British Empire held sway over a wide around the world. region long after it declined and passed into the annals of history as a result of their Population and population growth association with superior cultural and Population and population growth, taken technological power, but were ultimately along with other factors, can play a key role eclipsed by American symbols arising from in determining cultural might. This is one American technological suzerainty. In the reason China, India and even Africa are ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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poised to grow as major influencing systems faster rate, than those which have only into the Twenty-first century and beyond, novelty value or glamour or do not solve while Britain with its tiny population went urgent or pressing problems. into relative decline. Comparison with substitutes Factors (absorbing) Elements only satisfy a want or a need. If a The following factors facilitate the inward better substitute is available at the same or at transmission of cultural traits or attributes a lower price, or is more easily accessed, it into a cultural unit or cultural area: will seal the deal, and eliminate less competitive solutions from attaining Technological superiority popularity.
The technological or technical superiority of Economy an element may allow it to spread rapidly. For example, Automobiles replaced horses The economy and the value-proposition of an throughout the developed world very quickly element in relation to its price will play a after they were invented, rendering the latter major role in determining its success and its obsolete. Likewise, air travel became eventual adaptation. common throughout the developed world by the 1960’s. Utility and practicality
Perceived superiority, Allure or glitz Utility may allow an element of culture to spread. This may explain the widespread use Elements with a higher proportion of allure, of the mobile phone or the internet, for glitz or pizzazz may propagate easily. Glitzy example in almost every nook and corner of advertisements for tobacco-based products or the world. Likewise, Japanese cars became even colas for example impress people and popular in many parts of the world due to boost tobacco or cola consumption even their perceived practicality, convenience and though they may endanger people’s health or ease of use. Context- Suitability is another offer little or no nutritional value. Another important attribute that must be borne in related concept is emulation, where elements mind, and what works in the context of one associated with a culture which is perceived culture may not work in the context of as being superior tend to be adopted much another culture. In some cases, an element more readily than superior elements may need to be simplified, and unnecessary associated with less influential cultures. aspects or components removed.
Solutions to problems Alteration or improvisation during diffusion
Elements which provide ready solutions to Alteration or Improvisation during diffusion pressing problems may often be adopted at a to make it for suitable for a given culture can ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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enable an element to spread more easily. there is little prospect of a unified global Even Ford had to rename its products in culture, but a set of interrelated cultures: some markets, while McDonalds had to rework their menu to make it palatable to a) Context-suitability of cultural elements and technologies specific audiences. Pork is a strict taboo for b) The economy and affordability of the Middle East, while their offerings are different technologies, propositions or mostly vegetarian of chicken-based for the solutions in a given context Indian market. c) Availability of local substitutes or Receptivity equivalents for a given solution d) Political framework of a nation Receptivity would depend on a culture’s e) Legal framework of a nation inherent appetite for change and progress, f) Economic constraints in a nation and how it views the external world and g) Lack of awareness of the outside world cultural elements not intrinsic to it. Even a h) Lack of infrastructure as a barrier to culture which is initially not ready for change cultural osmosis i) Non-permeation of technology due to in any form, may undergo a transformational various factors metamorphosis over a period in time, and j) Innovation as a disruptor (Innovation may may become more receptive to change. spread slowly) However, the spread of American icons k) Linguistic factors (i.e. linguistic barriers) worldwide and the Americanization of many l) Religious factors acting as a barrier to parts of the world has provoked angry cultural change reactions worldwide especially in Islamic m) Other ideological factors acting as a countries, and some other Asian countries barrier to cultural change who fear that local cultural values are being n) Reliance on tradition and its impact on threatened. culture and cultural change: Related concepts are those of past-centric and The following however, would be the future-centric societies and internal limitations of the process of cultural osmosis versus external oriented societies and cultural homogenization, and in such o) Cultural pride acting as a barrier to cases a hybridized culture comprising of both cultural change global and local elements and a continuing p) Cultural bottlenecks i.e. some aspects of a amalgamation and unification of cultures but culture are less evolved than others. with each individual culture retaining its q) Slow generational change (Demographic salient features is likely to be observed. factors etc) slowing down cultural change Anthony Smith (1991) for example believes Process of Cultural Symbiosis an increase of contacts between cultures does not necessarily lead to an annihilation of all The process of Cultural Symbiosis typically differences across cultures. He believes that takes place as follows. This is a generalized ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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list of steps, and variations can naturally be in today’s world even though they expected in different scenarios: may have limited applicability, and in specific situations, and are as such - Awareness consciously omitted from the classification. The first step is the explicit or tacit acknowledgment or the awareness of - Change in popular sentiment as a pre- the external culture itself or at least requisite for cultural change one or more aspects of the culture (i.e. the relevant aspects of the culture). In many cases, change in popular or An essential pre-requisite for traditional sentiment which may awareness is Channels of comprise exaggerated manifestations Communication which helps ideas of emotionalism or mawkishness, diffuse from one region to another. may be a pre-requisite for cultural Diffusion can also be categorized into change. This may not often be based the following common types in the on logic or reasoning, but may be modern context in addition to a more relatively more impalpable traditional classification proposed in comprising of intangible components another part of this paper: and attributes, and may in many cases defy logic. An example of sentiment 1. Direct contact: An example is the dictating the tempo of cultural change spread of a trait from a culture to may be the acceptance or non- neighboring regions and beyond. acceptance of a new type of cuisine or Such contacts may be continuous of sporadic. the replacement of one type of food 2. Intermediate contacts: This by another. This would, in turn be typically takes place through third shaped by the Cultural norms, mores parties such as traders. and the ethos of a society in addition 3. Stimulus diffusion: In such a case, to broader factors such as personal the knowledge of a trait is used to tastes and dislikes. develop a local counterpart in another culture. - Seeding 4. Diffusion without any contact: In this case, diffusion takes place The next step is the birthing or the without any contact. This type of gestation of the idea in an alien diffusion in common in the age of context. This may achieved either high-technology. rapidly or may be, in some other
cases, a relatively long-drawn and Other types of diffusion such as protracted process. We refer to these forced diffusion may not be common as the ‘Modes of Introduction’ of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Cultural Elements. The possibilities greater role in the spread of English here are: since the dawn of the Twentieth century than Britain, and the United States has played a much greater role Push: In this mode, an element is in shaping the forces of globalization initially imposed from an external as well. The introduction of the source or entity. A typical example is Steam Locomotive in India during the the initial ‘imposition’ of English on British Raj may be considered to be India and other languages during the an example of this type. colonial regime. Push factors may either be hard or soft (i.e. Hard push Subconscious adoption: A weaker and Soft push). The former is version of the ‘Pull mode’ may be associated with political and military referred to as ‘Subconscious factors and the latter is predominantly adoption’, where changes or associated with cultural factors. innovations are subconsciously adopted, often due to prolonged Pull: In this mode, an element exposure. It may sometimes be becomes popular because demand difficult to draw a clear distinction exists for it. An example of this is the between subconscious adoption and demand for mobile phones all over other modes, but a crucial distinction the world, including developing in this case may be the absence, in regions. Another example for this is this case, of a formal mechanisms or the implementation of the English an apparatus of adaptation. language in Rwanda, and its recent introduction in Gabon. - Acceptance
Push-Pull: This is a combination of Acceptance may typically be a slow Push and Pull modes. In this mode, an process. According to the theory of element is first introduced by push Cultural Lag, Culture usually takes techniques, and is later willingly time to catch up with technological adopted by a countries or regions innovation, In other words, denizens. If this is to work, an technological changes happen faster element must offer specific benefits to than cultural related changes and the people or at least a section of there is a mismatch between the rate society. An example of this is the of material progress and non-material popular adoption of the English progress involving intangible language in India. While English was elements. This phenomenon may lead undoubtedly spread by force in to social conflicts and often bring colonial times, the USA has both about cognitive dissonance to varying directly and indirectly played a much ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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degrees and various forms of distress Positive Acceptance: We also wish to or maladjustment. This theory also make a distinction between positive states that different aspects of culture acceptance and negative acceptance tend to change at different rates. The in this connection. A positive term was first used by William F. acceptance refers to the acceptance of Ogburn in his work “Social change a newcomer i.e. a new element into with respect to culture and original the cultural milieu or mix. This nature” in the year 1922 and element may have either a positive or revalidated by several other studies. a negative consequence for society, 32 and may be inducted through any of the modes described and discussed Future researchers may wish to herein. categorize various components of culture or the basis of the pace of Negative Acceptance: A negative adaptation, and draw conclusions and acceptance refers to the gradual phase generalizations to the extent out or elimination of an element from practicable. This may be only the cultural mix. This may be fraught possible through arduous research and with either beneficial or negative empirical data, and the result may be consequences for culture as a whole. a rule book with well-documented Examples of this may include the examples and a list of examples. For elimination of tobacco or alcohol or example, technological changes may even unhealthy foods from a popular propagate faster than changes diet. In some cases, it may involve the associated with cuisine, and changes replacement of expensive foods with associated with cuisine may take root more commonly available ones. or propagate faster than those Negative acceptance may be harder in associated with kinship. Changes most cases than positive acceptance, associated with kinship may win and may be relatively more time- acceptance faster than those consuming. Nonetheless, this must be associated with religion, for example. assessed with metrics and cross- While this is only a hypothetical cultural data, and we are nowhere assessment, it may one day be there yet. possible to establish a hierarchy that will work and be demonstrable in a - Internalization vast majority of cases. The internalization of a new element can take place through either of the following modes (‘Modes of 32 Ogburn, William Fielding (1922). Social Change with Respect to Culture and Original Nature. New York: B. W. Huebsch Internalization’ of Cultural Elements): ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Push-pull modify churn or Pull Push-Pull churn: In this case, churn modify churn: This is a variant of the refers to the internal spread of a scenario above, but often a heavy cultural element across all echelons or makeover is involved before the segments of society. The element may element can be internalized. This is spread across all dimensions of more often a formal and a structured society such as geographical process and conscious modification is segments, communities, age segments involved. etc and may achieve complete or partial acceptance as the case may be. Change may also spread through the Pull churn: This is a modification of following modes within the context of the above scenario where an element a culture or a society (We refer to is introduced without any external these as ‘Modes of Internal Spread’ of pressure or effort but is taken in due Cultural Elements as opposed to to the strength of the element. ‘Modes of Introduction’ of Cultural Subconscious adoption and Elements). However, both need to be percolation: Subconscious adoption is studied in conjunction with each not accompanied usually by any big other. Even though this would bang introduction of a new element constitute a dimensional analysis, this into the realm of a society or culture. approach may be recommended Subconscious adoption is typically a because of its natural convenience much slower and an informal process and co-relation with observations in and may take much longer than those the real-world and types of introduced through a formalized propagation occurring in natural push-pull mode. In this case, the settings: element percolates through various Top-down mode: In this mode, echelons and rungs of society much change in promoted by elites. This more leisurely and slowly, often is the most common mode of unobtrusively and unnoticed. socio-cultural change, and most Push-pull adapt churn or Pull adapt changes with a few exceptions churn: In this case, the cultural occur through this mode. This is element is suitably adapted before because elites are better placed to internalization, either formally or absorb changes than the rest of the informally. Adaptations are typically population by virtue of their social minor and refer to adjustments to status, economic status or ensure that the element is in interconnectedness. conformity with the norms of society or meets the preferences of the Horizontal-mode: in this mode, people. change is introduced in parallel ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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without regard to geographical other geographies in the process. considerations or other This type may occur in specific dimensions such as age, economic situations, and is relatively status or gender. This type of common in the real-world. An change propagation may be example of this type of change relatively uncommon in the real- was the Independence movement world, and in a pure form, almost launched in India and other never demonstrable. oppressed countries.
Spatial spread: Here, change is Generational Change: In this first introduced in a sub- mode, change is introduced in geography and then slowly younger generations. Changes spreads to other sub-geographies may or may not be adopted by within the context of an older generations. Complete or appropriately-defined or a significant change occurs only robustly-integrated cultural unit. when the older generations have This type of change propagation is died off. The differences in values relatively common in the real of traits and attributes between world, perhaps next only to Top- younger and older generations down propagation. Changes may may be quantified as a ‘generation also spread from Urban areas to gap’ per our generational analysis, rural areas in many contexts and and per our approach, a situations. ‘generation gap’ is an ingrained difference in mean, modal or Bottom-up mode: Here, change is individual values of cultural traits introduced from the other end of or attributes between generations the spectrum. For example, Dalits attributable to ongoing or elapsed fought for social revolution in socio-cultural change. India, and changes were imposed on elites in due course. Other types of Dimensional spread: In this mode, change may Changes due to Mass be introduced from other specific mobilization: In this mode which dimensions such as gender, is more common than the strictly community etc. A classic example horizontal mode, changes are in this regard is the rise of introduced through popular feminism in different parts of the revolution or awareness, and world. In certain situations, gradually imposed on the non- changes may also be introduced adherents, spreading both from a community and spread to upwards and downwards and to ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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other communities. Other segments and developing metrics will examples include changes serve to indicate the level of socio- introduced from one religious cultural integration within that community to other religious culture. It is also expected that future communities. Differences by Anthropologists will study such gender or religious affiliation may differences in greater detail in future also be categorized separately, and develop suitable hypothesis. The even though we recommend that it pace of adoption would also depend is not necessary for most general on the openness of the society in analysis. general, and autarchic societies are unlikely to be amenable to externally- Functional spread: In this mode, induced changes. changes introduced in one function of a society, spread to Any change comprises several phases, other functions. For example, and these are explained below. These changes introduced to the operate regardless of the modes education sector, may trigger discussed above. The first phase may changes to religion. This is be described as a Familiarization strongly related to the phase where the element is introduced Functionalist view of Socio- into the mix. The second phase is the cultural Cultural change. The Early Adoption phase where the importance and the value of incidence of the element slowly Functionalism have also been increases in society. The third phase strongly reinforced by the new is the Popularization phase (or in concepts such as Mindspace some cases, the phase of Rapid which are presented in this paper, Increase) where the incidence of the and a functionalist analysis is element increases rapidly. The last indispensible to the modern phase is the Roadblock phase, where Socio-cultural Anthropologist. roadblocks are encountered due to the Multi-modal spread: Here, presence of isolated or larger pockets changes are introduced through of resistance. This is common in any several of the modes described cultural context. We may also above. introduce the concept of ‘Anticipated terminal value’ here, which is These differences would fade in the applicable for all the modes described context of well-integrated or well-knit above. This can be suitably societies, but it is expected that some modelled. For example, vegetarianism differences would remain. Analyzing was unknown virtually till the 1960’s rates of adoption across different in the USA. In the year 1970, around ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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one percent of Americans described 4. Stage Four: Feedback, themselves as vegetarians. This figure achieving dynamic re- has now exceeded 6%. Is equilibrium and further action vegetarianism a fad? Will the Typically, any culture is at or between percentage of Vegetarians in the USA any of the four stages enunciated decline again? Will the percentage of above at any given point in time. The Vegetarians in the USA increase nature of the proactive measures to be further? Will all Americans ever taken depend on which stage the become vegetarians? Why are an culture or sub-culture is, and the increasing number of Americans researcher must tweak and hone his becoming vegetarians? When, how strategies accordingly to reach the and why will Vegetarianism hit a goal post. In these days of cultural roadblock? Cultural globalization and the ready modelling here can be accomplished availability of information, most by performing a root cause analysis cultures or sub-cultures would have and an analysis of American cultural easily crossed stage one. Proactive attributes at the same time, and this is measures would however be required something that only a Cultural to ensure that the goals are met Anthropologist is well-placed to do. without jeopardizing social stability, In our view, the following are the harmony or the society’s dynamic common stages involved in bridging equilibrium. According to inter-cultural gaps and intra-cultural Convergence theorists, this is a gaps. These stages would be common natural process as societies and to both internally-induced changes economies develop. Anthropologists and externally-induced changes and may one day develop metrics to would work commendably in both quantify the openness and scenarios. amenability of societies to general change, and in liaison with other 1. Stage One: Generation of specialists such as psychologists and awareness of other cultures or pedagogical practitioners propose sub-cultures and positive change-inducing proposals as well to aspects of other cultures or augment and strengthen cultural sub-cultures frameworks and institutions. 2. Stage Two: Overcoming Social Inertia Identifying areas of Cultural lag 3. Stage Three: Setting the ball rolling Cultural lag typically denotes the difference in evolution and maturity between material and non-material ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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aspects of a culture. Cultural lag proposals and propositions formulated arises due to cultural inertia, over- accordingly. The beauty of the Neo- reliance on tradition, lack of social centrist framework is that it is infrastructure, or several other factors. essentially long-term in orientation, Identifying cultural lag would be a and that short and medium term crucial component of proactive considerations are meshed with or are change. made subservient to long-term considerations. Thus, the core From a Neo-centrist perspective, a philosophy of Neo-centrism may be society is said to be in equilibrium summarized in one or two simple when there are no internal and sentences. What is good for humanity external paradoxes of any kind, or any in the long-term is good for individual paradoxes across space or time. cultures in the short-term as well. The Paradoxes are also inextricably necessary processes and techniques interwoven with the idea of cognitive for integration across cultures and dissonance, and Leon Festinger and timeframes must however be worked others have proposed that humans out. 33 seek out psychological consistency to not only to thrive, flourish and - Feedback (over Cultural Area or prosper but also to survive. Thus, beyond) cognitive dissonance and paradoxes are antithetical to human nature and Pull churn feedback or Push-Pull progress, and as such humans actively churn feedback: This involved the seek to eliminate them, either provision of a feedback to the consciously or sub-consciously. Some Cultural area in general or beyond. work has already been done in the For example, the cultural element is field, including the attempted reinforced and popularized and then extension of TRIZ in the field of re-introduced in alien contexts. In social sciences. The elimination of other cases, modifications may be paradoxes may be difficult to achieve made and the modified version is in the short-term, but an action plan reintroduced in alien contexts or must nonetheless be worked out to situations. achieve it in the long-term. Given its potential to tread upon and offend Mind-orientation human sensibilities, this may be a task easier said than done. However, multitudinous possibilities may 33 present themselves, if context-specific Festinger, L. (1957). A Theory of Cognitive studies are initiated, and workable Dissonance. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
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The theory of mind-orientation, we existent. In some other cases, their believe is one way of assessing social influences may be relatively high. and cultural change in society. Mind- The quantification of the impact of orientation refers not only to the such groups on an individual’s mind- thoughts, beliefs and values a person orientation may be attempted from fills up his mind with, but also how he scenario to scenario. In many cases, acts upon them to orient his attitudes other groups also exert powerful in life. These will ultimately affect his influences, examples being the values actions, and his direction and purpose of an external or third-party culture. in life. We believe mind-orientation is Analyze the American influences on shaped largely by (a) parenting and Indians living in the USA for upbringing (b) peer-pressure (c) instance. Other secondary groups can education and schooling (d) The also affect an individual’s mind- effects of the multi-media (e) societal orientation. The mind-orientation of constraints and restrictions including different groups is also determined by a multitude of factors such as the global socio-cultural landscape, language, religion, cults and and this is determined by the process ideologies (f) Socio-economic status. of cultural symbiosis as described in In the above scenario, parenting and this paper. upbringing, peer-pressure, education and schooling etc, are much stronger Thus, mind orientation is tightly influences than say, the multimedia, interwoven with culture and society, and these begin at a much earlier age, and even in this age of globalization, to boot. Factors such as parenting and an individual’s mind-orientation is upbringing, peer-pressure, education deeply impacted by a given society’s and schooling etc, are also determined values, preferences and constraints. by the values and attributes of Thus, the collective and general religious, linguistic and cultural or mind-orientation of individuals social groups which will in turn changes rather slowly, and cannot impact parenting, peer-pressure and change beyond a point. We refer to other factors impacting mind- this as general mind-orientation in orientation. However, the extent to society. As a result of this, an which religious groups, social or individual tends to acquire and retain cultural groups and linguistic groups thoughts that fit in with his mind- exert influence varies from context to orientation, and tends to sub- context. In some cases, the effect of a consciously ignore those thoughts that religious group, social group, cultural do not fit in with his mind-orientation. group, or linguistic group may be Thus, an individual’s mind- very low, marginal or even non- orientation impacts many aspects of ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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his life, such as his ability to acquire cascading effect or a domino effect, and retain language, his innovation, for instance. his creativity etc. This also explains the attitudes and behaviour of At the same time, a society’s values individuals in a society. also keep changing, often triggered by changes to individuals’ values and On the other hand, in any society, mind-orientation. A society’s values there will always be individual also restrain individuals at times. exceptions. This will be chiefly due Thus, the relationship between an to individual and personality individual’s values and mind- differences. Individual and personal orientation and the society’s values, differences can be found in almost more and norms is extremely every society through the world. interesting and worth exploring at a However, some societies encourage greater level of details. and promote personal and individual differences, while some others do not. An individual’s mind-orientation may This is why some societies are more also change suddenly or over a period tolerant of geniuses, prodigies and of time due to other factors such as mavericks than others. An individual cognitive dissonance, and this may tries to reconcile his personality traits result in a mind-orientation that is at with the expectations of society, and odds with the expectations of society. wherever this effort is not entirely We had discussed this under the successful, a degree of cognitive section dealing with ‘cognitive dissonance will remain. Thus, from dissonance’ in an earlier paper. Thus, our perspective, individuals may be an individual’s mind-orientation is classified into conformists, partial arrived at either very peaceably, conformists, non-conformists, and through a series of sub-conscious outcasts. In order to make such a mini-eureka points in a majority of classification, we define the zone of cases, or in a much smaller number of conformity and the zone of tolerance. cases, through great mental upheaval Non-conformity may also be assessed and trauma. In most cases, an by degree or magnitude of non- individual’s mind-orientation is conformity, and by the number or determined sub-consciously through: percentage or non-conformists in a society. The latter is a particularly (a) An internal assessment: Internal useful metric, and it can also have a assessments are usually carried bearing on the ability to bring about out sub-consciously and mass changes in society through a informally from time to time, and snowball effect, a ripple effect, a course-corrections automatically ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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effected. In this kind of individuals in a society would not assessment, an individual assesses choose to become intellectuals in his own strengths and capabilities the absence of a family support either in isolation or relatively system or career-opportunities at with the members of his group. large. This assessment is also The former is an absolute typically carried out keeping in assessment, while the later is a mind a wide gamut of cultural and relative or a comparative economic possibilities. If such a assessment. Both types of man can instead become a doctor assessments may be subjective and combine it with other roles to and unstructured, but may his convenience and satisfaction, nonetheless be highly effective. he would more easily opt to For example, most individuals in become one. a society would not choose to become intellectuals in the The above process may perhaps be a absence of self-confidence or a logical and a natural process, and if it family support system. is disturbed through the operation of (b) An external assessment: Like an external agency, may result in internal assessments, external great trauma and distress, particularly assessments are also carried out if it happens during the crucial period sub-consciously and informally of personality formation or from time to time, and course- sufficiently late in adulthood. corrections automatically effected. In this kind of assessment, an Mind-orientation may be assessed for individual assesses his own a nationality, sub-nationality, or even strengths and capabilities against religious group of linguistic group. the backdrop of cultural Mind-orientation leads to disparate requirements, cultural acceptance thought-worlds. In order to carry out or economic opportunities. this exercise, sub-categories and External assessments is usually subclasses of each culture or carried out vis-à-vis his linguistic or religious group along immediate environment i.e. family with their components and attributes, or friends or the society at large. their qualities and characteristics are This assessment is likewise, assessed. These may even be carried out informally and with represented by a Venn diagram, and minimal data, but that does not shifts tracked, along with a rule out the possibility that it may comprehensive analysis of the be effective. This would again, for underlying changes for change. It is example, explain why most also possible to carry out an analysis ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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of mind-orientation by socio- the latter is mostly left open-ended at this economic group. In such a case, stage for further interpretation and socio-economic groups may be elaboration. identified based on a suitable set of criteria. Changes of the mind- - Family orientation: In this case, the orientation of socio-economic groups individual’s efforts are primarily may also be tracked from time to geared towards the satisfaction of time, and the causes for the familial needs. This is perhaps the convergence or divergence (the latter most common type of mind- is unhealthy in a majority of orientation amongst a vast majority of circumstances and situations) of their people in different parts of the world, mind-orientation may be explored. and particularly in traditional and conservative societies including India. We may also reiterate that an Individuals with familial orientation individual belongs to a religious may be adept or expert in making a group, a social or a cultural group, a living through various means, but linguistic group, and any other group. these efforts are usually geared at In addition, he retains his own satisfying the needs of the family, and individual characteristics. Therefore, are not a goal or an end by an individual’s mind orientation is an themselves. Such individuals may be amalgam of all these. The sum total punctilious and meticulous, paying of an individual’s mind-orientation great attention to detail and execution. may again be defined as a thought- Such individuals may also be often world, even though a thought world empathetic to the needs of others, may comprise of elements that would often putting their own needs next or typically not be considered during as even last. Family orientation is very assessment of an individual’s mind- common among women, but not too orientation. However, a uncommon among men, either. A comprehensive assessment of the Family mind-orientation has several mind-orientation of any group must tangible benefits which include the be done by breaking it up into its preservation and transmission of constituent elements as described in culture. the paper. - Employment or Business orientation: In this case, the individual’s efforts Types of Mind-orientation are primarily geared towards employment of business. I.e. The following are the basic Mind-orientation satisfaction of livelihood needs, and types. Each Mind-orientation type may be all other efforts are subservient to further subdivided into several types, though these. Such orientations are common ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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in many parts of the world, including There may be several variations of the developing and developed ones, and basic theme, and each will be equate to a situation where livelihood characterized by different personal is a passion or calling in life. traits or attributes. A variant for Employment or Business orientation example may be the hedonistic is very common among men, but not personality type where are other too uncommon among women, either. endeavours are sacrificed to the Employment orientation may be pursuit of undiluted pleasure. Another distinct from Business orientation, variant is the Politician and the and the modal personal traits or Manipulator, and this type of person attributes may vary in each case. The typically seeks unnatural control over former may be marked by humility others, often going to great length to and attention to detail, while the later strategize and legitimize deviant may be marked by brazenness and behaviour. Yet another type may be acceptance of risk. An employment the basic introvert who may be or business orientation has several characterized by a general disinterest economic benefits for society, and in the affairs of others around him. will lead to a greater well-being for - Societal Orientation: This type of society as a whole. However, this Mind-orientation tends to put the may be suitably sub-categorized for a well-being and needs of society above more granular analysis. For example, individual and all other needs. This accountants may possess different type of mind-orientation is relatively modal attributes from doctors and this rare in most societies, in spite of the may be reinforced through parenting. fact that has some tangible benefits to This is why doctors’ children may be offer to society. more successful as doctors and not - Religious, spiritual or philosophical engineers. In some cases, changes orientation: In this case, a great deal may be introduced through of importance is placed on religious, rebelliousness and recalcitrance, and spiritual or philosophical needs often we have discussed this in another part at the expense of all other needs. It of this paper. may also be recommended to - Individual mind-orientation: In this distinguish religiousness from case, the individual sends to be self- spiritualism or a philosophical bent of centric in his pursuits. This type of mind for further analysis as there may orientation is characterized by a great be subtle differences between all the emphasis or satisfaction of individual three. Religious, spiritual and goals and aspirations. He may also philosophical orientation beyond a attach a great deal of importance to certain degree of measure may be his own personality or image makeup. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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counter-productive and lower the mind-orientation may also defined well-being of society. with a proper justification, but most - Intellectual or creative orientation: In may be subservient to and slotted into this type, a great deal of importance is the above categories. placed on intellectual needs and creativity. This type of mind- It may also be necessary to plot an orientation is relatively less common individual’s primary as well as his particularly in traditional or secondary mind-orientation, and an conservative societies, and may be the individual’s mind-orientation is exception rather than the norm in usually composite. It may also be most advanced societies. The exact necessary to assess his performance opposite of this kind of orientation is on various fronts, and in relation to regimentation and adherence to the different and varying roles he may bureaucracy or a procedural come to play in his quotidian life. The orientation, and this will stifle statistical relationships between creativity and imagination in the various mind-orientations may also ordinary course of events. need to be probed both within the - Militant-orientation: In this type of context of an individual, a society or orientation, individuals are geared to beyond, and one way to do this is fight and protect society from external through the concept of Mindspace. threats and forces. This type of mind- Thus, the increase in inventors in a orientation may be present to some society will bring about ripple effects degree in advanced societies, but may in that culture, and trigger further be more common in tribal and feudal positive changes through say, societies. improvement in education. This is - The Anarchist or the queer man: This somewhat akin to an intellectual type of mind-orientation may not be a revolution that was observed in bona fide category per se but a Europe a few centuries ago. The residual type and may be concept of thought worlds is linked to characterized by a partial or complete both mind-orientation and mindspace, disorientation on some or many even though it may cover a wider set fronts. Many would not accept this as of issues, including those which as a mind-orientation and may be a not included in an assessment of resultant of unique personal mind-orientation. All the three are experiences or a worldview shaped by related and measurable through cognitive dissonance. suitably designed qualitative and - Other types of Basic mind- quantitative techniques, unlike the orientation: Other types of basic idea of personality which is much more abstract, and to the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Anthropologist on the field, quite greater fulcrum for meaningful meaningless and useless. We may analysis and remedial action. also define the “Natural Mind- Controversial endeavours such as orientation” of the individual versus attempts to define intelligence at the his real-world mind-orientation, the level of a nation and other “race” difference between the two being centric definitions of intelligence mostly due to real-world exigencies notwithstanding, few will be able to and factors beyond his control such as deny that intelligence is largely cultural factors. The former can be culture-neutral. If the Flynn effect and suitably tested and demonstrated and other potential causes such as cultural this approach may be associated with factors, economic factors and lack of own real-world utility. Another opportunities (Also, the all important approach may be to sample factor of linguistic empowerment and individuals across cultures and disability not attributable to understand how their orientations Biological factors) are isolated, came about. This can be used for however, we can still reengage in theorization and model-building as meaningful debate as science must well, as it can be productively used as ultimately triumph over parochial a heuristic for individual-level considerations. Our hypothesis also reinforcement and development states that such studies lend exercises, programmes and activities. themselves to rampant misuse and open up a Pandora’s box of The interrelationships between unmitigated evil, setting a bad culture, mind-orientation and thought precedent for other researchers. We worlds are also deep-rooted, will even link mind-orientation (and fundamental, comprehensive and not justified or imagined notions of multi-directional enough to be of intelligence) with economic well- great practical value. Thus, thought being and prosperity. Richard Lynn’s worlds, which cover the entire and Tatu Vanhanen’s unfortunately breadth of the human experience can equate “intelligence” with “The be assessed rather elegantly on the wealth of nations” – their work has field through questionnaires or been quoted endlessly by racists and interviews and suitable course- Eurocentrists and may even, from our corrections be recommended. perspective, count as casual and irresponsible scholarship. It is even This would also be a superior difficult to define talent (or other approach to the idea of intelligence. related concepts such as aptitude) The latter remains rather poorly concisely, leave alone prove them to defined, and the former gives us a be culture-neutral or otherwise use ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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them meaningfully for cultural intellectual performance will vary on studies. In a nutshell, all the above different occasions, in different definitions will remain controversial domains, as judged by different for a long time to come. For general criteria. Concepts of "intelligence" are cultural studies and remediation attempts to clarify and organize this efforts therefore, the concept of mind- complex set of phenomena. Although orientation may still reign supreme considerable clarity has been and will open up a gamut of achieved in some areas, no such interesting inter-linkages and a conceptualization has yet answered plethora of possibilities. 34 all the important questions, and none commands universal assent. Indeed, Other studies support our assertions when two dozen prominent theorists overwhelmingly. According to were recently asked to define "Intelligence: Knowns and intelligence, they gave two dozen, Unknowns", a report published by a somewhat different, definitions.” special task force constituted by the Board of Scientific Affairs of the American Psychological While we cannot delve into the Association in 1995, Intelligence may intricacies surrounding the term be defined as follows, and definition intelligence here, it would suffice to this clearly demonstrates the potential say that these should ideally be ambiguities still associated with the quantified (Examples being cognitive term: 35 ability and mind-application) and included in an assessment of “Individuals differ from one another individual traits and attributes, at least in their ability to understand complex as per our approach, but again to what ideas, to adapt effectively to the extent these would be determined or environment, to learn from shaped by culture must be thrown experience, to engage in various open to debate and question. forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought. Although Individual Mind-orientation Chart these individual differences can be substantial, they are never entirely Name of the Individual: consistent: a given person's Age: Sex: 34 Lynn, R. and Vanhanen, T. (2002). IQ and the wealth of nations. Location: Westport, CT: Praeger Evaluated by: 35 Neisser, Ulrich; Boodoo, Gwyneth; Bouchard, Thomas J.; Boykin, A. Evaluated on: Wade; Brody, Nathan; Ceci, Stephen J.; Halpern, Diane F.; Loehlin, Primary Mind-orientation: John C.; Perloff, Robert; Sternberg, Robert J.; Urbina, Susana (1996). "Intelligence: Knowns and Unknowns". American Psychologist. 51:77– S. Mind- Va Pre Soc Addi 101. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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N orienta lue viou ieta tiona nt- o tion Ra s l or l orienta tin rati tota Rem tion g ( ng l arks 0 ave to rag Evaluation of a Societies Modal 10) e Mind-orientation rati ng Description of the culture: 1 Famil Evaluated by: y- Evaluated on: orienta Total Sample size: tion Modal Mind-orientation: 2 Busine S.No Sample distribution ss or / Family- Business or Individu Societal Religious, Intellec Militant Emplo Date orientat Employmen al orientati spiritual or tual or orientatio yment ion t orientation orientati on philosophi creative n orienta on cal orientat tion orientation ion 3 Indivi dual orienta tion Dimensional Analysis (Analysis by age, gender, geography etc) 4 Societ al orienta tion 5 Religi ous, Individual level changes to Mind-orientation spiritu can take place either due to Individual al or experiences, reactions to Cognitive philos Dissonance, changes to internal institutions ophica l and exposure to alien cultures. Society level orienta changes can take place due to political tion changes, economic development, spread of 6 Intelle education and emancipation of sections of ctual society. It would be necessary to track these or over a period of time, as these will throw up creativ vital clues about the inner workings of e orienta society. The maturity of a society can also be tion inferred from the existence of multiple mind- 7 Milita orientations and the tolerance of multiple ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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mind-orientations. We know that a society (a) To study the impact of culture in has arrived. A study of Mind orientation can fostering mind-orientation also be used to formulate context-specific (b) To study the role of various mind- Economic developmental models. Even in orientations in fostering cultural India, what works in Rajasthan may not work solidarity and the inter-relationships for Assam. of mind-orientation in a society (c) To study the tolerance of mind- Culture and Mind-orientation school orientation in a culture We advance four very serious criticisms of (d) To study variances in mind- Personality studies from a Cultural orientation within a culture Anthropological perspective. Firstly, (e) To study changes to mind-orientation personality types as canonically understood, within a culture over a period of time may be relatively more culture-neutral than (f) To study variations in mind- mind-orientation and there may be several orientation across cultures personality types within a culture. Secondly, (g) To study trends in convergence or personality types may not have a major divergence in mind-orientation over a impact on culture and the direction of cultural period change even though they may be somewhat (h) To study the role of mind-orientations influenced by it. Thirdly, personality does not in promoting cultural change lend itself to easy change and cannot be (i) To study the interrelationships targeted by Anthropologists for socio-cultural between cultural evolution and typical amelioration or emancipation. Fourthly, mind-orientation personality types cannot be readily assessed (j) To study the interrelationships on the ground through reliable techniques. between cultural evolution and However, personality types may manifest diversification of mind-orientation themselves in cultural traits such as (k) To theorize on modal mind- aggressiveness, love, sympathy, empathy etc orientations in a culture with possible variations in mean values (l) To theorize on possible across cultures, and are still included for the interrelationships between mind- purposes of our study. Such cultural traits orientation and personality type may be more easily neutralized over time (m) To theorize on various pedagogical than those pertaining to kinship, economic techniques and their impact on mind- structures , food and other elements. orientation; to evolve new pedagogical techniques to initiate We also propose the ‘Culture and Mind- course-corrections if and when orientation school’ here similar to the Culture required and Personality school. To summarize, the (n) To study potential relationships objectives of this school inter alia, would be between mind-orientation and as under: ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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economic development as a potential Advantages of a study Mind-orientation tool for planners and economists. (o) To assess the impact of various - Is much more easily understood proactive measures on mind- compared to personality types and orientation, and arrive at ideal mind-orientation is an indicator of approaches that lead to optimal results what an individual is likely to do in (p) To carry out root cause analyses for the normal course of events various economic and social scenarios - Can be gauged or assessed much and linking them with a study of more easily that personality types mind-orientations through simple observation (q) To link various mind-orientations to techniques individual traits or attributes. For - The concept is packaged into example, traits and attributes may convenient categories that can be vary between a predominantly easily understood even by the layman militant community to an agricultural - Can be linked to proactive measures community, and these are reinforced and satisfies the criteria of interactive through parenting and peer-pressure. reactive approaches. Thus, mind- Likewise, a community which orientation is variable unlike comprises largely of practicing personality types doctors may have different modal - Can be linked to pedagogical traits and attributes from a society techniques and root cause analysis for comprising largely of accountants. observed values performed (r) To identify traits or attributes that - Can be easily be understood in need to be inculcated or modified to relation to culture: the direction a achieve changes in mind-orientation culture will take can be inferred from (s) Accomplishing a multi-dimensional it study between cultural attributes, - While there may be no ideal mix of personality types, mind-orientation mind-orientations, suitable metrics types, individual traits and attributes, such as a culture’s ability to promote mindspace, thought worlds and diversity of thinking and to promote identity types. the natural growth of individuals’ (t) To identify how traits, attributes and mind-orientations can be proposed mind-orientations of individuals were Some potential limitations of the concept of formed. (This can be done by means mind-orientation of suitably devised statistical sampling techniques). The results - Mind-orientation is largely a may be used to refine categorizations determinant of cultural factors and and sub-categorizations within mind- may not be reflective of a person’s orientations even further. innate capabilities or talents ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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- Mind-orientation cannot be livelihood and business orientation. ascertained early in life The idea of standard personality may - A study of personality types may be vary from culture to culture, along more useful for career planning, with its attendant mind orientations. personality analysis and some other For example, most women in India forms of analysis than mind- may be family-oriented though in the orientation USA, this may not be so. However, - Mind-orientation may change much most individuals in any culture would more easily over a person’s life time belong to this category. Such than basic personality type individuals are conformists, may not be highly ambitious, or may be From our perspective, personality formation unwilling to do things any differently may happen as follows due to various from the majority of the population. lifecycle experiences within the context of a Even though the process of culture and would be related to, or result in determination of mind-orientation different mind-orientations. The may have been gone through, it is Anthropologist may identify these categories mostly sub-conscious and rarely of individuals in relation to each culture for conscious. the purpose of statistical analysis or sampling - Ideal personality and near-ideal as choosing the wrong types can result in a personality: This personality arises as flawed analysis. From our perspective, this is a result of a formation of composite a relatively more measure of personality for traits through observation, emulation, the Cultural Anthropologist than other amalgamation and adaptation conventional theories of personality. This (Reconciliation of contradictory approach therefore does not categorize strains). This type of personality individuals into personality types per se, but would normally be associated with a seeks to categorize individuals on how their composite mind-orientation which are personality was formed: a combination of more common and - Standard personality: Personality relatively less common mind- formation through subconscious orientations. The process of identity- assimilation reflective of the standard formation and determination of mind- culture. Standard personalities may orientation is usually more explicit have had relatively uneventful here, and may often involve role childhoods or lifestyles or models and a conscious desire to conservative upbringing. This type of enhance desirable traits such as personality is normally associated extrovertness or sociability. with more mundane mind-orientations - Original or genius personality: such as familial orientation or Original ideas synthesized with existing ideas. This would stem from ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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knowledge, exposure or intelligence with usually through an external and lead to unique mind-orientations. agency, or due to some reason, lack - Rebel personality: Personality formed the foundational competencies to by rebelling against existing ideas. succeed in life. This is commonly induced due to cognitive dissonance. Such Statistical distributions of the individuals individuals may evolve into geniuses conditioned by the above factors are also as well, but this may require some largely culture-neutral unlike those of amount of self-channelizing or mind-orientations, and these would occur direction by an external agency. A across societies regardless of their Cultural Anthropologist can play a complexity, advancement or size. role in identifying such individuals. However, the results thrown up by the An example here was Harilal Gandhi, above process will vary over time, due to Mahatma Gandhi’s son, whose changes in society in culture. An personality development and mind- individual may be exposed to more peer- orientation was several interfered influences, peer-influences or may be with. He became severely disturbed brought up differently with the advent of emotionally as a result, turned out to new cultural changes. be a rebel, but failed to make anything of himself. This case study Theory of Mindspace can be easily analysed based on our principles. He ultimately became a We will also further describe the concept downer and a goner, dying a of ‘mindspace’ in this paper (This miserable and a lonely death. concept was introduced by us in an earlier - Queer personality: This category paper), and we believe this is a simple but comprises of mavericks and outliers. effective tool. The idea of ‘mindspace’ This type of personality is typically originates from the fact that every formed due to unusual experiences in individual has limited time at his childhood or in the formative years, disposal, or limited mental bandwidth to and such individuals do not normally focus on multitudinous issues. He can at developed into geniuses or prodigies. best devote his time and attention to a - Downers and goners: This category limited number of activities. Thus, if he comprises of individuals who have spends an inordinate amount of time on a not been able to make it in life, and particular activity, this automatically appear to have little or no prospects reduces the time available for other for success. Such individuals result activities. For example, if an individual when the personally-development spends more time watching television, process has been severely interfered this automatically reduces the time that he has for reading. Thus, the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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popularization of television has adversely groups, and propel them to greater impacted reading habits. Let us consider heights. It may not even be too far- another example. The advent of the fetched to claim that the rise of the internet has similarly led to the decline of internet has reduced tobacco and alcohol, television or cinema as a mode of not just by making them aware of the entertainment. It has also led to the dangers associated with them but also by decline of reading for pleasure, but has giving them a positive orientation in life. boosted access and availability of Last but not the least, it may have information. Thus, the internet and the allowed more and more people to reap the television have led to a general decline in benefits arising from the wide people’s reading skills in any given dissemination of knowledge and has language. However, this may have destroyed social barriers. It has truly boosted the demand for basic, functional become a great social leveler. skills in English and the popularization of many technical words among large This approach may also be used, with sections of the population in India. On some degree of success in analyzing and the other hand, knowledge of words predicting personality types or making pertaining to art, literature and poetry career decisions. Why aren’t intellectuals may have actually declined. Similarly the worldly-wise? Why aren’t worldly-wise interest or the ability to obtain profound people intellectually strong? This concept knowledge on any topic through a serious may also be analyzed and assessed with study of original material may have been what we call a “tipping point”. In other severely compromised. Thus, the advent words, after a person has spent or of technology may always not be for the invested some time and effort on an betterment of society. It may even induce activity, he may not deem it prudent to a shift from productive avocations and spend inordinate amounts of time on pastimes to less productive avocations another activity. Why aren’t bookworms and pastimes. This may impact a wide outdoors people? Why aren’t sportsmen variety of domains such as linguistic bookworms? skills, learning ability and consequently, even self-confidence or attitudes towards Thus, this approach may be examined life. from three dimensions. The first is self- driven re-orientation which does not However, the popularity of the internet involve any influence or action by third- has brought about several attendant parties. The second is re-orientation benefits. For example, it may have led to induced by third parties typically through greater access to knowledge, generated an some form of activism. The third is peer- interest in different fields of study, reduce driven re-orientation which may be a sub- the aspiration deficit among some social conscious process. Peer-driven re- ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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orientation is a more interesting and a why mindspace is a connecting thread more potent tool because it allows us to that connects other elements of a gigantic induce strategic shifts through awareness jig-saw puzzle, and is a pre-requisite for creation. This will allow changes to comprehending individual and societal spread through society horizontally, and change. through relatively minimal effort. At times peer-driven changes may be due to Mindspace shifts may also be triggered a ‘follow the herd’ mentality or a desire by ‘Eureka points’ which we may refer to to ‘keep up with the Jonases’. as unanticipated or unexpected shifts brought about through the occurrence of Mindspace shifts may also be approached specific events. These can often bring from another perspective. We would like about mind-altering or permanent to refer to the first type as horizontal, changes in an individual. where shifts are brought about through peer-interaction and changes in society. This approach not only allows us to The second type of classification is analyze the underlying causes of change Generational where changes in but also to predict cultural shifts due to mindspace are analyzed from generation disruptive technologies or other changes to generation. The third type is a with greater precision. It also allows us to individual-level temporal shift where prepare a cause and effects diagram with changes occur in an individual over a a great degree of precision by analyzing period in time. A fourth way of all downstream effects of any decision. analyzing mindspace is by segmenting Consequently, it also allows us to make society into different strata based on course corrections wherever they are education, income level, socioeconomic required in the interests of society by parameters or any other suitable criteria, taking proactive measures. and then analyzing changes in the composition of society. This is known as This approach also has several other a group-level temporal shift. A potential uses. For example, the spread of combination of such methods can yield Hindi in South India will lead to a rich rewards. This may also be situation where more and more people understood in terms of our Vertical- use Hindi instead of English. This will Horizontal factors approach. Mindspace automatically reduce the time people is however, more of a zero-sum equation; have to practice spoken English, or the if something gets in it marginalizes or desire among people of some sections of eliminates something else; conversely, if South Indian society to practice spoken something is consciously or sub- English. However, Hindi cannot replace consciously eliminated, it will eventually English per the dynamics of language make room for something else. This is spread. Therefore, English cannot be ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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rooted out from Indian soil, and the 1. The concept of mindspace can be promotion of Hindi may have actually expressed and modeled in non- entrenched English even more. How can abstract terms the seemingly contradictory observations 2. This concept can be expressed in above be used to model a shift in people’s terms that a layman can understand proficiency in English? It will indeed be unlike most theories related to no exaggeration to state that the concept personality of mindspace can even be used to model 3. This model is amenable to linguistic changes and the direction of questionnaires and other statistical evolution of a language in general. It can and non-statistical techniques also be used to tweak pedagogical 4. Changes in mindspace can be effected theories and approaches to create a relatively easily and rapidly, and such eureka moment in learners and students. changes measured as well What approaches can induce a positive 5. The concept of mindspace is closely change in mindset? Are they personality related to mind-orientation, and yet development and attitude orientation changes can be made extremely courses alone? Will changes to syllabus easily: changes to mindspace can be in core subjects also help? In this era of accomplished more easily than mind- near-universality of education, analyzing orientation and comparing different approaches to education can help arrive at optimal Cultural Sentiment solutions. A host of other possibilities We also introduce the concept of Cultural will readily suggest themselves upon Sentiment here. Cultural Sentiment is the more detailed examination, and we popular sentiment prevalent in a society or therefore strongly believe that the concept culture. The concept of Cultural Sentiment is of mindspace is worth pursuing to its related to thought worlds but there are at least logical end. three fundamental differences between the Advantages of Mindspace two: Firstly, Culture Sentiment tends to operate more at the level of a society, culture The following are the advantages of the or a sub-culture rather than at a level of an concept of mindspace, which is in some individual. Secondly, Cultural Sentiment is respects is a warped depiction of the more abstract than that of thought worlds, concept of thought worlds given that it can be gauged and assessed but not usually represents a reality where different measured in quantifiable terms. Third, thoughts and elements vie for each other Cultural Sentiment changes much more for attention: slowly and only as a result to fundamental changes to society, and Anthropologists should ideally adopt a long-term perspective ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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of such changes, and changing Cultural understandable categories. A mindset is an sentiment would be a much more complex individual’s mental makeup, but can be more exercise with its own unique challenges, easily categorized and assessed. operating principles and guidelines. Thought Understanding and categorizing Mindsets in worlds are largely shaped by the Cultural a culture, and suggesting remedial action for sentiment of a society, and would be change would perhaps constitute a vital constrained by it. Cultural Sentiment can also aspect of any cultural assessment. Cultural be studied at a level of a cultural category or Mindset can also be categorized based on a sub-category, though perhaps not at a great various parameters, the most common of level of granularity. The concepts of which would be flexibility or conduciveness functionalism and structuralism would apply to change; on the basis of this parameter, the to Cultural Sentiment too, though to a rather most logical classifications would be more limited extent and degree: Thus, the dogmatic, yielding, flexible and freeform idea of Cultural Sentiment shares some though more gradations or categorizations at similarities with thought worlds. The Cultural a finer level of granularity and precision may Sentiment of a culture or a society is also the be readily adopted. This approach therefore aggregation of the Individual Mindset of the furnishes multiple levels and platforms for members of the society, and would take into cultural analysis. The Mind-orientation of an account modal and non-modal mindsets. individual is also greatly dependant on his mindset, as also are this thought worlds. Cultural Mindset Thus, an individual’s mind-orientation and The Cultural Mindset on the other hand, thought worlds constitute a critical link would commonly operate at the level of an between an individual’s psyche and his individual, and yet would form a critical actions in the real-world. component of any assessment. The Thought worlds aggregation of Cultural Mindset including modal and non-modal ones (or typical or Thought worlds must be co-related with non-typical ones) in a given culture or society cultures, subcultures, cultural categories, will constitute the Cultural Sentiment of a cultural sub-categories, individual elements, Society given the fact that most cultural and also at the level of a cultural sub-group. elements would impinge on the human The latter would usually correspond to psyche and impact human behaviour, and that different dimensions such as age, gender and there would be some bi-directional religious affiliation. The assessment of an relationship between the two. The concept of individual’s thought worlds must be Cultural Mindset is somewhat more tangible comprehensive and complete and must be than that of the concept of Cultural presented in clear and unambiguous terms. Sentiment, and can be expressed in layman’s Any ambiguities must also be suitably terms or compartmentalized into easily presented and documented. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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There is an underlying structuralism and within or across societies due to improved functionalism in thought worlds, and it would technologies. The key assumption here is that be illustrative and instructive to build technologies will always improve because taxonomies and hierarchies of thoughts and they satisfy the utility factor. They are also ideas that make up an individual’s thought driven by competition and the desire to world much in the manner of a cultural maintain a profit. The second is that autarchic taxonomy. Thus, hierarchies of typical or economic, political or cultural paradigms will modal thought worlds in cultures, subcultures not sustain because they are against the and individuals can also be accomplished. All human spirit, and are tantamount to the the concepts that operate and are applicable obfuscation of knowledge. The third point to the theories of structuralism and that we would like to make here is that functionalism would be carried forward here periods of positive economic growth and as well including core doctrines of progress are associated with positive attitudes subconscious operations. It would also be and periods of economic recession, illuminating to understand how changes to depression or societal decadence. However, one aspect of a culture propagate internally experience has amply borne out that periods and cause a ripple or a cascading effect. It of economic growth and technological would also be instructive to understand the progress vastly outnumber the periods of role of an invisible hand in maintaining recession. This is because human endeavour internal or external equilibrium without and enterprise proactively seeks solutions to disturbing harmony. Proactive measures may problems, and the vested interests that desire result in changes, but these changes are progress in a capitalistic setup always usually introduced in such a way that they outnumber the vested interests that (if any) cause minimal disturbance or disharmony. benefit from economic decline. Most Changes that usually do not satisfy these recessions and economic depressions have principles are usually rejected or produce a also been surmounted through technological level of cognitive dissonance that result more innovations. However, the convergence will painful changes subject to the constraints of never be complete as it there will always be human nature and behaviour. room for individual differences.
Theory of Convergence of Thought worlds The thought worlds of individual groups of people (some of which are driven by According to our theory of convergence of ideological predispositions) also tend to thought worlds, thought worlds possessed by converge and aberrations are ultimately left people pertaining to different segments of a by the wayside. For example, both left-wing society, or among people in different (Marxist) and right-wing (Hindutva societies tend to converge over a period. approaches) to history which are driven by This happens due to three factors. The first is self-imposed worldviews (A term that is the freer flow and circulation of information described separately) may be doomed and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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may be consigned to the annals of history. and overall fluctuations) and pessimism The worldview of the Archetypal American biases, cynicism-driven biases and optimism and the Asian Indian, are likely to move biases will reduce in the long-term, instances closer as time passes, driven chiefly by a of pessimism biases and cynicism-driven generational change from both sides. We will biases falling faster than optimism biases. see a convergence of thought in all such However, attitudes may improve up to a cases, albeit slowly. We may refer to this as point, and then level off. Improvement in the theory of Group Convergence of Thought attitudes will also trigger greater worlds. A primary assumption and a pre- rationalization, and this will in turn, led to requisite here is that the factors favouring convergence of thought worlds. There may convergence will always overwhelm factors be exceptions to this process, however. A favouring divergence, at least in the long general dissatisfaction with cultural term. integration may prompt or provoke variegated reactions such as the emergence of The third hypothesis that we would like to opposing groups. As per the Ascending Wave introduce here is that the ‘Theory of General Theory of Socio cultural integration, these Positive Drift of attitudes’. According to this are aberrations when viewed from a long- hypothesis, human attitudes tend to improve term perspective, and are largely irrelevant over a period and become more positive. By for the purposes for long-term cultural positive attitudes, we mean those attitudes studies or many theorization exercises. which aid in human or personal progress and Likewise, traits and attributes also tend to are associated with constructive pursuits. converge over a period and also improve This is because positive attitudes are essential gradually before leveling off. We may call to for survival in a cut-throat world, and other mind the concept of the ‘Psychic Unity of deviations and irregularities will be left to Mankind’ here. This would imply that bite the dust. There may be exceptions to this differences in values are predominantly due however, and these can be (a) Individual non to cultural factors which may include –conformities (b) group non-conformities (c) environmental and non-biological factors. Economic cycle driven non-conformities Thus, factors such as “ego”, “rivalry” and (Negative attitudes may be associated with “jealousy” are determinants of culture and a recessions and depressions). However, as per society’s fundamental institutions and these our hypothesis, attitudes in general have a would weaken and gradually wane in the face positive trend. This is because negative of the inevitable burgeoning of horizontal attitudes may be unsupportable in the long- factors due to the onslaught of socio cultural term and may be fraught with disastrous integration. Changes in attitudes have other consequences both for the individual and the downstream implications as well for a society at large. Thus attitudes tend to society’s core institutions such as religion become healthier in the longer-term (in spite and kinship systems, and the study of the of possible cultural-level, social group level convergence of cultures may be a fascinating ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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exercise by itself. Activism will however, orientations, and this is therefore still naturally lead to a faster rate of socio-cultural mentioned in passing. progress and convergence of thought worlds, and must be encouraged subject to other The Ascending Wave Model of Socio- constraints and limitations. cultural change We also propose the Ascending Wave Model Worldviews of socio-cultural Integration. This approach essentially takes a very long-term view of Another interesting concept is that of a probable socio-cultural trends from the early worldview. A worldview may be defined as days of human pre-history. It argues that a fundamental cognitive orientation of an socio-cultural integration has been taking individual or a group of individuals in a place at increasing rates ever since humans society or a society as a whole encompassing discovered fire several tens of thousands of the whole of the individual's or society's years ago, if not much earlier. This epochal knowledge and points of view. However, the even is sometimes traced to periods before concept of worldview is largely irrelevant for the advent of anatomically modern Homo the purposes of our study, and is only sapiens and may be construed as a seminal mentioned in passing. This is because of the event in human history. This discovery may following reasons: not have happened independently in many parts of the worlds and may have spread (a) Worldviews are merely subsets of though diffusion. The earliest Stone Age thought worlds as they incorporate tools, the later flake tools and microliths those elements of thought worlds along with percussion and other tool-making which possess an external orientation techniques may have likewise spread through or those that can be defined in relation a process of diffusion. In the earliest times, to the external environment. diffusion may have spread over a (b) Worldviews are shaped by thought geographically limited area, or have been an worlds and not the other way around. extremely slow process. In the early days, (c) Changes that are effected to thought cultural elements may have spread by virtue worlds will result in corresponding of their utility, and there may have been very changes to worldviews making them little glamour, glitz or allure associated with as such superfluous and redundant for the purposes of our study. technology. Over a period however, technology may have become less utilitarian. However, a Cultural Anthropologist may still Technology, and other cultural elements may wish to ascertain worldviews of individuals have, over a period in time, become more or groups on various cultural components as culture-specific and less culture neutral. a part of a study of thought worlds or mind- Contrarian and rival cultures may also have become more assertive, giving birth to the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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process of ethno genesis. There may be other technology-enabling and technology- economic, military and cultural reactions and facilitating environments throughout the backlashes against increasing cultural, social world. However, the marginal impact of and economic integration resulting in newer technologies on culture is also likely to temporary lulls and periods of disintegration decrease over time necessitating the or remission, but the forces favouring augmentation of proactive efforts. Beyond a integration including technological forces certain point, cultures may become more or will override other forces in the long-term. less immune to technological or any external Even though such forces can show up at stimulus excepting in rare or specific frequent periods, they would pale into circumstances. This naturally makes activism relative insignificance in relation to forces much more necessary in the Twenty-first promoting long-term socio-cultural century and beyond. integration. Examples of the latter would include technological changes. Thus, The rate of Socio-cultural change is inversely communism, economic protectionism or proportional to a culture’s dominance embargos and other autarchic measures, The rate of socio-cultural change is inversely would manifest themselves at regular proportional to a culture’s dominance, and intervals but are washed away by the tide of smaller cultures are likely to be swayed more socio-cultural integration. The process of easily by the winds of global change, than integration will however not proceed beyond more prominent and influencing cultures. a point, and will then taper off. In other Even though prominent and influencing words, while new technologies may present cultures may also be subject to rapid change, themselves continuously or at an increasing changes in such cases tend to be internally- pace, their incremental impact on socio- induced and generated. Only in a few cases cultural integration will wane. This would more dominant cultures be swayed by essentially is a long-term perspective and not less dominant cultures. We had presented this a short-term or a medium-term one. This observation as a case for activism in a theory has many implications for cultural previous paper. studies, and would imply that cultural outliers can be ignored from a purely theoretical Focusing on dominant cultures increases the perspective i.e. from the realms of available fulcrum theorization. Focusing on dominant cultures increases the Inverse relationship between technological available fulcrum in the hands of the progress and marginal impact on culture Anthropologist: even minor changes to major or dominant cultures are likely to be The rate of technological progress is likely to propagated to downstream or influenced increase with the passage of time due to cultures more easily. Thus, a truly globalized increase in synergies and the creation of approach is recommended for the Twenty- ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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first century. Activism is a must: but efforts these essentially make up the three levels of must be suitably and judiciously dispersed to socio-cultural change as per our symbiotic the right degree and the most commodious approach. However, it may be desirable to geographic locations. Fighting the ill-effects lay out some important ground rules at the of alcohol, tobacco or even colas in the USA outset, and they are as follows: is bound to produce a humungous multiplier and a downstream effect and would be well- (a) Internally-induced factors are worth the effort. Compare this with similar expected to continue to play a major efforts in Tanzania, for example to compute role in the Twenty-first century and the dollar for dollar or hour for hour return on beyond in driving socio-cultural investment. change. (b) However, the relative importance of On the other hand, we must also focus on the internally-induced factors in driving low-hanging fruit. Cultures with low mean or socio-cultural change is likely to median values for example, lend themselves reduce in the short, medium and long much more easily to change, and therefore a term. The rate of reduction will two-pronged approach may be provide however gradually taper off, and a optimal return on investment and lead to the floor level will be reached. In other best possible results with a minimal effort of words, internally-induced factors will time and investment. continue to play an important role in driving socio-cultural change into the Cultural lag denotes the difference in foreseeable future. evolution and maturity between material and (c) Cultural area driven changes are also non-material aspects of a culture. Cultural lag expected to play a major role in usually arises due to cultural inertia, over- driving socio-cultural change but their reliance on tradition, lack of social importance is likely to decline in infrastructure, or several other factors. relative terms in the Twenty-first Identifying cultural lag would be a crucial century and beyond. All observations component of proactive change, and focusing noted with respect to internally- on cultural lags can help usher in rapid socio- induced changes are valid here too, cultural change. but the role played by Cultural area Internally-induced changes and cultural- driven changes may be shakier still area specific changes in the age of than internally-induced changes, as globalization these may be more easily neutralized by the forces of globalization than Internally-induced changes and cultural-area internally-induced changes. specific changes are expected to continue in the age of globalization and play a major role The Vertical-horizontal factors approach alongside symbiotic-driven changes, and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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We recommend the Vertical-horizontal combined with a low incidence of horizontal factors approach for its simplicity and factors will produce a society that does not elegance. This simply involves plotting all want to or is unwilling or unable to change. Vertical factors, which in layman’s language Examples of such societies are autarchic or refer to historical factors or historical, closed societies. On the other hand, societies cultural or intellectual baggage, and those with a high incidence of vertical and aspects of a culture that are passed on from horizontal factors are characterized by a clash generation to generation (These also include in values. While such societies may environmental and ecological factors) and inevitably change, changes are bound to be horizontal factors which refer to changes painful. introduced from other cultures or subcultures or other dimensions of the same culture. In The effects of Vertical factors can however other words, horizontal forces may be be minimized through proactive measures generated from either within or outside the such as suitable changes to the education culture. Vertical factors may also be referred system and better social infrastructure. This to as change-inhabiting factors while will reduce the quantum of pain typically Horizontal factors may be referred to as associated with social and cultural change. change-inducing factors. The key advantage Vertical-horizontal analysis can also be of the Vertical-Horizontal Factors approach performed using a lifecycle approach. In this is its simplicity and its power. This analysis case, all the vertical and horizontal forces an can be carried out at the level of a culture, individual is subjected to during his lifetime sub-culture a dimension, or even a are identified and the impact on his psyche disempowered group of an individual, and a and mind-orientation assessed. Another root cause analysis done to identify the potentially useful tool may be Generational causes of slow or retarded change. Cross- analysis which analyzes how cultural traits or cultural analyses and snapshots at different attributes are transmitted from generation to points in time can also be generated. generation.
A low incidence of vertical factors coupled The Vertical-horizontal approach can be used with a high incidence of horizontal factors is for other downstream analysis. An extremely representative of a change-conducive interesting study in our view would be the environment. In such a case, change-friendly study of individuals in autarchic or autarkic forces override whatever vertical forces are societies, and a study of such societies present, easily. A low incidence of vertical themselves. This study would attempt to factors coupled with a low incidence of answer questions such as: horizontal factors on the other hand, produces very little change. Such societies are usually (a) Why to people in autarchic societies rudderless lacking in initiative, change or possess different characteristics from direction. A high incidence of vertical factors the rest of the world? ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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(b) Why are such societies characterized Taxonomy much in the manner of Carl by a limited degree of socio-cultural Linnaeus’ taxonomy of species: integration? (c) Why are such societies characterized Each culture has subcultures by the presence of dominant Subcultures may be defined on the basis of personality types? ethnicity, social classes, occupation, religion, (d) Why are such societies characterized geography etc, or on a combination of one or by a limited tolerance of dissent? more of these factors. These are sometimes (e) Why are such societies characterized referred to as dimensions of culture. by the presence of suppressed identities? Each Culture or sub-culture has subcategories or subclasses This approach can also be used to study individuals who have grown up in isolation A list of standard subcategories or subclasses or who have been unduly mollycoddled or can be constructed and can be attempted to cosseted without any exposure to the real- be used across cultures. This list of world. This situation will naturally prevent subsystems can be expanded as more and the neutralization of traits and attributes and more cultures are analyzed, and the expanded allow them to develop in variance with list can then be used for a restudy of accepted or prevalent societal norms. These previously assessed cultures. This will scenarios are inter-related and are eventually and ideally generate a list of synonymous with unwholesome tendencies. standard and universal subclasses. This may be a virgin field, but one with Examples of subcategories within a culture potentially great value for Cultural include language, symbols, religion, music, Anthropology. As Richard L. Roe points out art, drama, cinema, folklore, marriage, in this connection, “Every society depends on cuisine, other aspects of tradition etc. Culture other societies, and with every advance in also typically consists of material items such technology, the interdependency increases. A as cars, trucks which etc. form an inalienable nation whose citizens are generally ignorant part of every culture. While building a of other peoples in the world, must, to that taxonomy, all dimensions of a culture such as degree, be impeded in achieving its own values, norms, philosophies, principles, goals, for we are in that stage of human dogmas, ideas, beliefs, attitudes, symbols, history where national affairs cannot be traditions, ideologies, and artifacts should be separated from world development.” included. Culture and its components Each subsystem has components Per our approach, an analysis of culture and For a meaningful and a structured taxonomy, its components should be carried out as we propose that subcategories be further sub- follows, and this would constitute a Cultural ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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divided into components. These will be either in absolute ratings or rankings. analogous to various classes under each Relative methods stem from the concept of subcategory. For example, we can have a cultural relativism. According to this concept, multitude of components under language no culture is innately superior or inferior to such as language policy, teaching methods, the other. Each culture has its own teacher competence, student evaluation etc. uniqueness, each shaped by its own history. Under cuisine, we can have focus on health, Attributes may also include intangible and focus on hygiene, nutritional balance etc. unquantifiable attributes, or those that cannot Material items include cars, trucks, tractors, be quantified with precision or certainty. locomotives, aero planes, rockets, computers, According to Bodley, culture is made up of telephones, mobile phones etc. Under what people think, what they do, and the kinship, we can have subcategories such as material products they produce. A.L Kroeber attitudes towards consanguine marriages, categorized aspects of culture into two broad attitudes towards class, caste and village categories i.e. ethos and eidos. Ethos refers to endogamous or exogamous marriages, the values of a culture such as aspirations and attitudes towards premarital sex, attitudes beliefs, and these must also be included in an towards dowry, attitudes towards relatives, analysis. Clyde Kluckhohn also differentiated attitudes towards child-rearing etc. While between the explicit and implicit values of a identifying components, both culture. Explicit values of a culture were comprehensiveness and atomicity need to be those that could be easily perceived, taken into account. In other words, expressed, and identified by sensory organs. components should be defined in such a way However, implicit values included elements that no further division is possible. such as motivations and impulses. As per our approach, an analysis of attributes leads to Each component has attributes the identification of ‘Cultural traits’ which Each component can have a list of attributes. are assemblages or aggregations of Each attribute should be capable of being sentiments or manifested actions. Traits can assessed either quantitatively or qualitatively. be combined to form patterns, and patterns Attributes for our purpose, may also be may be further classified into ideal patterns known as qualities or characteristics. or actual patterns. Attributes can be adjudged by means of Comparative methods can also be used as suitably-designed questionnaires or other such methods have been common in evaluation methods such as self-assessment Anthropological studies from the time of E B or third-party evaluation. Attributes should Tylor in 1889. The ‘Salient features’ be identified at a granular level such that associated with each cultures can also be questionnaires can be efficiently generated identified before carrying out a more detailed from them. Attributes can also be rated in exercise as this will have a bearing of the absolute or relative terms which will result taxonomy arrived at, and will throw hints on ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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what areas to focus on. A high level cultures. However, actual behaviour observed assessment of the Strengths, Weaknesses and on the field may be at variance with expected constraints of a given culture may be carried or ideal behaviour, and it would be necessary out as a precursor to a more detailed to carry out a gap assessment between the assessment. Likewise, third-party assessment two and perform a root cause analysis for the reports may also be scrutinized and utilized deviations. This would be followed by an as a pre-cursor to a more detailed assessment. action plan for remediation and eventual Preliminary and unstructured ‘gut feel’ course-corrections. Some traits can be sub- approaches may also have some utility, but divided into ‘good’ and the ‘bad’, but some must be subsequently vetted and ratified with cannot, and it would be necessary for any empirical data. Carrying out fieldwork to researcher to keep this in mind. Neo-centrist experience a culture first-hand would be an approaches can be used to identify the essential pre-requisite and mandatory. ‘desirable’ and the ‘undesirable’, but looking Fieldwork has been known from the days of at issues from a long-term perspective, or Franz Boas and Alfred C. Haddon who analyzing the long-term consequences of any carried out expeditions to British Columbia proposition. and Torres straits respectively. Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead, A.R Radcliffe- An analysis may then be carried out of the Brown and Evans-Pritchard also carried out traits with low ranking, followed by a root extensive fieldwork. These expeditions were cause analysis examining the underlying in stark contrast to the works of other causes of a low rating or ranking. This Anthropologists such are James Frazer, analysis must then be understood in which were based on secondary sources of conjunction with the ‘Enablers’ and ‘Core information. This is not however, to discount drivers’ discussed in our paper. An the role of armchair anthropologists who alternative approach may be to assess the often combine data from multiple sources attributes at two different points in time to into cogent and coherent hypotheses. A.C assess the rate of change. Strategies to Haddon who participated in an expedition to augment this can then be put in place. the Torres Straits (1934) acknowledged the Researchers have also attempted to break up role and the contributions of both cultures into traits and assign these fieldworkers and armchair anthropologists to developmental sequences, or develop anthropology. Methods used in fieldwork generalized heuristic techniques that could be have been many, but one of the more used to study other cultures. Attempts were common techniques is the participant- also made by Emile Durkheim, George Peter observation method which was popularized Murdock, Claude Levi Strauss, Donald by Bronislow Malinowski. Brown and others to analyze the universals It would also be necessary to identify ideal common across cultures. Murdock also set up cultural traits that can be applied across the Human Relations Area Files or HRAF in ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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which common categories of cultures were Another interesting idea is that of Memetics filed together. The objective of this was to which is used to represent the different units collect ethnographic information from all of a culture which aid in cultural transmission over the world. Murdock and Douglas R. e.g. ways of dressing, cooking etc. This idea White also introduced the concept of was popularized by Richard Dawkins in the “Standard cross-cultural sample” by 1970’s. Memetics proposes that ideas, skills, analyzing 186 sample cultures from Africa, practices, and so on, are entities that make the Circum-Mediterranean, East Eurasia, the copies of themselves and are used to Insular Pacific, North America, South propagate cultural traits, much like genes in America that could be used as a benchmark evolutionary biology. Memetics involves for other cultures and analyzing variables breaking down of a culture or a sub-culture such as money, water transport etc. These into discrete and manageable units. This efforts led to the compilation of the ‘World approach, which is similar to some of the Ethnographic Sample’. Another approach proposals in our paper, can be even used to recommends breaking up a culture into trait- construct the broad framework and the complexes, and further into traits. Ruth superstructure of a given culture by breaking Benedict believed that culture was made of it down into logical and inter-related sub- many patterns which were bound together in components. 39 40 41 a harmonious whole. Such patterns are known as cultural patterns, and bestow upon Personality attributes or traits culture a distinct individuality. In this In addition, we may also attempt to identify connection, she famously said “No man ever personality attributes or traits in relation to a looks at the world with pristine eyes. He sees given culture. These would represent either it edited by a definite set of customs and the mean or most common i.e. modal values institutions and ways of thinking.” M.E Opler of people in a specific culture. Various types recommended summative principles in of meaningful analyses are possible including culture called themes. Themes are general the computation of mean values for a motivations responsible for behavioural particular culture, analysis of value patterns of members of a society, are similar to, but more elastic than Ruth Benedict’s cultural patterns and crucial to an 37Divale, William, Pre-Coded Variables for the Standard Cross- understanding of cultural structure. Claude Cultural Sample from World Cultures. Volumes I & II. York College, CUNY, Spring 2000. Levi Strauss broke up words and cultural sections into phonemes, morphemes, etc. in 38 Benedict, Ruth (1959). An Anthropologist at Work: Writings of Ruth Benedict. Edited by Margaret Mead. Boston: Houghton Mifflin the search for the underlying reality of the Company. human mind. 36 37 38 39Dawkins, R. (1976), The selfish gene. Oxford University Press 40 Modernization of the structure of societies, Princeton University Press, 1966 41 Benedict, R. (1946). The chrysanthemum and the sword: Patterns 36 Ember, Melvin, Evolution of the Human Relations Area Files of Japanese culture. London, England: Routledge & Kegan Paul in Cross-Cultural Research, 1997 Limited ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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distributions, dimensional analyses, Negative attributes or traits may include computation of metrics such as standard deviations, assessment of outliers, and an - Pessimism analysis of drift over a period in time. Such - Cynicism an analysis must also capture cultural - Jealousy attitudes and the popular sentiment of a - Ego culture, particularly those geared towards - Snobbishness cultural adaptation and assimilation of new - Greed traits, and express them in relatively tangible - Past-orientation terms. Analysis across dimensions such as - Contempt or derision toward others age would also constitute another useful - <
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Cultural Category. However, bona fide two being almost irrelevant for the purposes exceptions may exist. For example, marriages of our study. This approach seeks to identify are uncommon among the Nu community of patterns that will replicate themselves China. Instead, we find here the concept of everywhere, or almost everywhere, with live-in relationships known as sese. While minor or no exceptions. For example, mobile incest taboos are near universal, the Tallensi phones are ubiquitous and preponderant of Ghana does not subscribe to this in toto. throughout the world. In this case, There may be customs that are region exceptions are so few in number that they specific. For example, in North India Sapinda deserve to be classified as exceptions. On the and Gotra rules are common, as are also other hand, automobiles are all-pervasive specific norms for village, caste and family today, but are confined only to the elites in endogamy and exogamy. Some other most societies. Thus, any study must be customs may be unique to certain accompanied by a dimensional analysis or an communities. For example, Marriage by analysis based on suitable parameters such as intrusion is known among the Birhor and Ho age, gender, income level etc. These may be of Bihar and the Kamars of Madhya Pradesh, defined as Universals or near-universals with but among few else. In a few other cases, a respect to a particular category. Some classification of kinship is possible. A patterns of change manifest themselves common classification is based on descent differently or uniquely depending on the i.e. Matrilineal descent, Patrilineal descent or Cultural Area in question. For, example, Ambilineal descent. Another less common Indian cuisine is relatively popular in the classification is that based on the relative Middle East, but not in Japan. It may also be status of bride-givers and bride-takers. instructive to study unique of revelatory Claude Levi Strauss analyzed a situation cases that may throw-up vital clues for where bride-givers had a higher status than theorization or model building. A classic bride-receivers, but this is not common in example here can be the popularization of most parts of India. Thus, when we talk about Japanese sushi bars in the USA, but not in Cultural Universals, we talk in terms of near- India. Some results may also run contrary to universals because bona fide exceptions anticipated or expected patterns. For always do exist. These exceptions may be example, the widespread popularity of Colas trivial and irrelevant for categorization or almost all over the world may not have been decision-making. Thus, the categories predicted a century ago. Some changes may involved here are universal, near-universal, propagate well in the short-term, some in the situational, or rare. medium-term, and some in the long-term. Some changes require a generational change, We will also introduce on this basis, the some do not. For example, the acceptance of concept of ‘Universals of Cultural Change’, spicy foods in the USA has been typically or from our analogy, ‘Near-universals of been a slow process, and may be associated Cultural change’, the difference between the with generational change. The pace of socio- ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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cultural change may also be dependent on, or allure or glitz required in any marketing mix vary based on the adaptation or prevalence of as a pre-condition for acceptance may specific technologies, and this can become steadily increase over a period in time before another topic of study. What effect did the leveling off. Any forecast also need to be introduction of smart phones have on integrated with other forecasting techniques. different categories of culture in different A knowledge of techniques such as parts of the world? What impact is the barometric techniques, judgmental possible success of Google pixel buds likely techniques based on a sound knowledge of a to have on specific aspects of different particular culture as well as a knowledge of cultures in different parts of the world? Some concepts used in Economics such as the cultural changes may also require attitudinal theory of Diminishing Marginal Utility, and a changes, and some do not, and this may form distinction between inferior goods and yet another focus area of study. superior goods can help given the fact that such analyses will be applied for both The rulebook may also vary substantially formalist and substantive economies. based on cultural category or sub-category. Besides, a knowledge other concepts such as Thus, the rules that apply with respect to Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and music may not apply to literature, or the rule other concepts used in behavioral economics that apply to religion may not apply to and human psychology can help too. folklore. Similarly, rules that hold with However, for the purposes of our study, respect to spiritual functions or religion may predictions must be neutral to non- not hold with respect to political functions of sociological factors such as economic trends, religion and vice versa.On the other hand, we and even if such factors are considered, they will also find that some studies can be best must be quantified and shown separately. In carried out at a very high-level only, and yet some cases, non-sociological factors may be yield rich and vital clues. A classic example an integral part of any study, but they must here is a study the differential rate of socio- be dependent on some sociological condition. cultural change or perceived socio-cultural For example, higher standards of living may change in Coastal Andhra Pradesh, result from globalization and this may result Rayalaseema and Telangana and the reasons in an increase for the demand of goods. thereof. Results can never be strictly anticipated; Another possible study can be the study of exceptions will always present themselves the spread of traits contingent on certain pre- with unfailing regularity. That is why conditions. For example, in the days of yore, Cultural Anthropology needs to be a heuristic new elements may have been imbibed strictly exercise based on the sensory experience and for their utilitarian value. This may no longer other third-party studies with exceptions also be the case with an increase in societal and carefully documented and analyzed. It also cultural sophistication; the proportion of needs to be a nomothetic or a rule-building ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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exercise based on a bottom-up approach and While many in-depth and multi-dimensional an inductive exercise as well. Thus, any studies have undoubtedly been carried out, deductive approaches or generalizations may including those involving intensive field throw up erroneous results and be fraught studies in alien contexts, there is a dearth and with unhealthy long-term consequences for paucity of long-term cultural studies, leave Cultural Anthropology. These approaches alone structured studies measuring cross- will help define ‘Universal of Cultural cultural impact in real-world situations, and Change’ and ‘Near-Universals of Cultural this may be in large part due to careerism and Change’ in addition to more specific the impracticality associated with such guidelines and principles, and are from our studies. Another potential problem perspective, as important as a study and associated with such studies in the potential identification of Cultural Universals loss of objectivity associated with knowledge themselves. transfer, and the need to rely on secondary material for many such endeavours. Base Culture, Current Culture and Ideal Cultural attributes Nonetheless, there are some landmark and path-breaking studies in the regard, and these We also introduce the concepts of Base should serve and a benchmark for future Culture, Current Culture and Ideal Culture Anthropologists. M.N. Srinivas was based in here, as these would be indispensible to a Karnataka, India and carried out ground- long-term study of culture. In this breaking studies on Westernization, connection, a base culture refers to a culture, Sanskritization, Hinduization, and the or a snapshot of it with all its attendant interfaces between castes, besides long-term attributes and metrics at the start of a long- studies on changing identities in an Indian term study or a stipulated time-frame. There context. 42 are no other major conceptual differences between Base Culture and Current Culture, as M.N Srinivas pioneered the Corporate Current Culture may form the basis of Mobility approach of the study of another study. However, where remediation Sanskritization, Brahminization and is involved, it may form a part of an Hinduization in India. He studied the process Experimental research design such as Before- of cultural mobility in Coorg in Karnataka in after experiment design of Ex-post facto South India. He also studied the possibility experiment design. Ideal cultural attributes for changes in caste equations and caste are the attributes that are targeted for relationships besides a study of caste achievement and are the goal or the yardstick mobility within the framework of the Indian of a remediation program. While identifying ideal cultural attributes, it is necessary to bear in mind what can be realistically achieved in 42 Religion and Society Among the Coorgs of South India M. N a given geographical or cultural context. Srinivas 1952
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caste system through hypergamy and other interests. Here again, push modes, pull self-initiated or society-sanctioned measures. modes and sub-conscious adoption were He studied cultural changes among the lower involved as Western values such as equality, castes initiated as a part of social and caste liberty, fraternity, emphasis of freedom of mobility. These included changes to food, thought and expression, humanism, dress, customs, festivals and rituals besides liberalism, individuality and rationality had abstinence from liquor and alcohol, besides some appeal across cultural boundaries. This an emphasis on newly-embraced values such eventually led to what we today call as an importance to higher education and the ‘mimicry’, a term that was much more like. He discussed the difference between recently popularized by the post-colonial ‘Brahminization’ and ‘Sanskritization’, and thinker Homi K. Bhabha. However, discussed mobility between other caste westernization did not always equate with groups such as the desire among certain modernization owing to the decadence often tribes in Central India to be identified as associated with such cultures. The rise of Kshatriyas. Srinivas also studied the process Japan, and in more recent years, China, has of cultural contact among different castes. amply illustrated that nations are willing to For example, it is common for lower castes to embrace modernity without sacrificing emulate upper castes in manners of dress and traditional values and often seek out a healthy customs, while upper castes move forward amalgam of the two. Thus, the major features embracing westernization or modernity. of modernity such as empathy, mobility and Thus, from our perspective, cultural high participation (Lerner 1958) can be integration occurred on the basis of ‘push attained without sacrificing their own modes’ (This was how, for example, traditional values of which there may be Aryanization proceeded in Ancient India justifiably proud. As observed by S. C Dube according to most acculturation models) and “There is no standard model of ‘pull modes’ (The perceived superiority of modernization and no fixed path of its cultural elements associated with upper attainment. Developing societies can adopt a castes), as well as ‘subconscious adoption’ mode of their own choice and are free to (Over a period in time). chalk out their own path for its realization.” 43 M.N Srinivas also studied the process of westernization and modernization while Arjun Appadurai has also been interested in emphasizing the differences between the two. globalization and multi-culturalism, The process of westernization originally particularly the movements of people and the started with the British East India Company emergence of diaspora that can create new and the process of Macaulization of Indian relationships or lead to the emergence of education which was initiated to serve the hybridized cultures. This phenomenon has, needs of the British rulers but later propagated as was entrenched due to vested 43 Contemporary India and Its Modernization S C Dube (1974) ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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according to him, fundamentally changed the diaspora in the USA, and this has triggered way the world operates, and has led to the important changes to American culture in the propagation of non-western values and traits domains of cuisine, art and literature with worldwide. This has led to true multi- such changes gradually entering the culturalism as opposed to older terms such as mainstream due to ever-increasing popular pluralism. Multi-culturalism not only entails acceptance. There is another type of a tolerance for diversity, but also a healthy hybridization constantly taking place without mélange of cultures and the emergence of a the movements of people. Examples of the healthy cocktail emphasizing the best of latter include the incorporation of elements of different worlds. This is more in tune with Western pop into Indian music. From our our doctrine of activism and remediation, and perspective however, this may be studied as the Theory of general positive drift of traits an inalienable part and parcel of the overall and attributes as well. As observed by process of cultural symbiosis. Again, from Gurupreet Mahajan, “A concern for equality our perspective the core differentiating factor and non-discrimination of people of between the former and the latter is a minorities links multi-culturalism to robustly-defined cultural unit which still democracy in a big way. The single most carries legitimacy in a post-globalized important value of democracy is non- context. In other words, the process of discrimination. Thus, the concept of multi- intermingling of cultures within the culturalism not only contributes to the idea of boundaries of a well-conceived cultural unit democratization and non-discrimination but is endowed with synergetic forces that are also provides safeguards against absent in other symbiotic scenarios. The majoritarianism in the garb of democracy.”44 crucial differentiator is geographical proximity which arises from different Cultural Hybridity cultures sharing the same geographical space. From our perspective, Cultural Hybridity We may refer to this as the “General theory arises due to an intermingling of two or more of Geography in Socio-cultural change”. This cultures within a cultural unit, often within a approach would seek to isolate inter alia specific context or situation as opposed to a changes that can only occur subject to the more general symbiosis taking place across existence of a common geographical space space and time. Hybridized cultures do from those that are not biased to its existence. 45 possess their own attributes and traits, and may in turn contribute to the ongoing process The idea of Cultural Hybridity has been of Cultural symbiosis and transculturation. proposed by several theorists such as the Hybridized cultures have arisen, for example Russian philosopher Mikhail Bakhtin who due to the presence of Indian and Chinese
45 44 The Multicultural Path: Issues of Diversity and Discrimination in a Allatson, Paul (2007), Key Terms in Latino/a Cultural And Literary Democracy, Sage, Delhi, 2002 Studies, Oxford and Malden, MA: Blackwell ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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introduced concepts such as the in their native territories and beyond. The Carnivalesque and Multiglossia. The term process of Cultural Elitism continues to this Cultural Hybridity is also associated with day, through various newer channels: soft Homi K. Bhabha who was greatly power and grey power are the most common responsible for its popularization and manifestations of Cultural Elitism, through widespread adoption. Needless to say, the political institutions, quasi-political connotation of this term is somewhat institutions and the all-pervasive internet play different in our model and depends on the a role. Cultural change usually involves mass commonality of socio-cultural space. mobilization, but there is a nexus between the Hybridization may, within the context of a two, and any assessment would involve a cultural unit, trigger polyphony and multi- study of the quantum and general direction of vocality eventually precipitating a race for intellectual and cultural elitism. Some the survival of the fittest and leading to a institutions may be non-positive necessitating betterment of traits and attributes. the augmentation of remediation efforts. Examples of these may be religious or quasi- Cultural Elitism religious institutions stymieing socio-cultural Cultural Elitism refers to the role played by change. We may also refer to the ten enablers the elites or elitist institutions in propagating of socio-cultural change proposed by us in a 46 47 socio-cultural change. This is typical to most previous paper. societies or cultures and is traditionally Identity types associated with internally-induced change. The Scottish enlightenment was led, for Last, but not the least, we also need to example by Adam Smith and Adam discuss identity types. The following are the Ferguson, and their French counterparts were three commonly defined identity types in a Voltaire and Rousseau. In some cases, culture or a sub-culture: seminal works such as the Denis Diderot’s and Jean le Rond d’Alembert’s Encyclopedia Legitimizing identity: This type of identity which was published between 1751 and 1772 refers to the identity associated with a in twenty-eight volumes, Montesquieu’s dominant group in a society. These identities ‘Spirit of the Laws’, and to a lesser extent, usually seek to maintain religious, caste or Immanuel Kant’s ‘Critique of pure reason’, communal harmony without disturbing the played a role in the propagation of new ideas status quo. However, such identities may be and ideals, just the printing press by neutral to the feelings of resistance identities Gutenberg had done a few centuries earlier. and may oppose project identities. In India, Key political institutions like the British East this identity may be associated with dominant India Company and the Royal Navy were 46 Luchte, James. Kant's Critique of Pure Reason. Bloomsbury also cultural institutions because of the Publishing, 2007 cultural influence they came to exercise both 47 Montesquieu: Spirit of the Laws. Eds. Anne M. Cohler, Basia Carolyn Miller, and Harold Samuel Stone. Cambridge Texts in the History of Political Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1989 ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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caste groups, and may have produced paradigms. In due course, such identities may movement such as Hindutva. Such identities lose their power or distinctive attributes, but however sometimes produce beneficial this may not happen quickly or easily. One effects for society and may be associated outcome may be a “Yoyo type change” with the build-up of patriotic or nationalistic which was discussed in our paper. For sentiments given their general access to resistance identities, this may proceed from education, knowledge and technology vis-à- submissiveness to belligerence, and then vis other groups, and their propensity for stabilization. For legitimizing identities, it homogenization. may proceed from dominance, resistance to change in status quo, acceptance of change, Resistance identities: These types of and readjustment. identities are created by individuals who are devalued, stigmatized or shamed by a Cultural Remediation particular cultural order or setup. Such identities may actively rebel against the The key stumbling block to the idea of existing status quo, and seek to establish a Cultural Remediation comes from the new order. This group may manifest popular absence of a satisfactory definition of the undercurrents of anger and may demonstrate term ‘ideal culture’. An inspiration may aggressiveness and rebelliousness. Examples come from the term ‘Utopia’ which was of such identities were that of Dalits in India, coined by Sir Thomas More in his 1516 book and Blacks and coloreds in Apartheid-era “Utopia” and describes an imaginary South Africa, all of which produced popular community or society that possesses highly emancipatory movements and a desirable or nearly perfect qualities and transformation from ‘serie’ to ‘groups en meets the needs and aspirations of its fusion’. This is similar to the Marxist concept citizens. Such idealized and romanticized of ‘class-in-itself’ to ‘class-for-itself’. The notions apart, there is no real-world latter is associated with indignation, action equivalent of such a society, and the concept and change as opposed to resignation and the remains confined to the realms of the acceptance of status quo. (Castells, 1997) imaginary.
Project identities: This type of identity arises There are several scenarios here. In the first when a new kind of identity (which may also scenario, the values or the ideals or a be arrived at due to popular resistance or a dominant culture are allowed to propagate negotiated compromise) is sought to be and dominate without hindrance. This is forged. (Castells, 1997) This identity equated with a laissez-faire scenario, and attempts, and in some cases, successfully would the logical and inevitable culmination achieves a change in social structure. if no activism is initiated or allowed to be carried out. In the second scenario, an ideal These identities interface in networked culture or a set of ideal cultures is societies to produce altogether new consciously chosen and adopted as the ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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benchmark or the guiding principle for all characteristics such as individualism activism, often those with similar indirectly. An over-emphasis on the past may characteristics. In another scenario, ideals lead to a vindication or exoneration of the may otherwise be chosen and would be cultural baggage of the past and may impede dependent on non-controversial principles or cultural progress, both material and non- the firm knowledge of facts. If the material. Per the Vertical-horizontal model philosophy of Neo-centrism is adopted, an described in this paper, globalization leads to ideal should lead to betterment or cause the multiplication of horizontal factors, minimal harm in the long-run, and a purely thereby weakening vertical factors. We must long-term view should be adopted, with also bear in mind the fact that Western short-term considerations made subservient societies have also been typically future- to, or reconciled with long-term ones. For oriented since the age of Enlightenment. example, we can irrefutably establish that Thus, globalization and modernization tobacco is always addictive and injurious to gradually make more conservative societies health or that the burning of lignite coal is future-oriented as well. environmentally-destructive. In some cases, people may be interviewed to find out what Inward-looking cultures versus outward they want, and this can be used as a stepping cultures stone for action. In another scenario, cultural Some cultures are undoubtedly more bottlenecks are identified and eliminated with outward-looking than others, and many have the hope that they will eventually lead to the traditionally or quintessentially been so. This betterment of societies. In yet another may also be referred to as the internal or scenario, certain parameters may be external orientation of society. The presence identified for remediation, such as the ones or absence of Cultural Elitism, key political described below, with the hope that they will and cultural institutions as well as the level of produce a ripple effect in society. These are physical, educational and social infrastructure known as Cultural orientations unlike the and the general intellectualism play a role in Mind-orientations described earlier, and we determining the Internal or external propose the Seven Cultural Orientations as orientation of society. Remediation may be described below: brought about by means of suitable changes Past-orientation versus future-orientation in the education system through suitably- designed pedagogical techniques or an Past-orientation and Future-orientation is the improvement in social or physical relative emphasis placed by a society or infrastructure. A change in a society’s culture on its past and future. Future- orientation will increase its cultural orientation is associated with characteristics receptivity and bring in attendant benefits. such as planning, foresight, personality development directly and with other A Xenophobic culture is one that harbors a deep-rooted suspicion or aversion towards ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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other cultures as well-demonstrated pan- laissez-faire economics and neo-liberalism cultural trait. In some situations, Xenophobia and right-of-centre policies in the USA. may manifest itself in other forms such as condescension or a desire to maintain cultural Individualistic versus collective cultures or racial purity. Xenophobia may arise due to Some cultures like the USA may be more several reasons, one of them being individualist, while some others like the ethnocentrism, though there may be other erstwhile and the now-defunct USSR causes such as autarchy (autarky), cultural emphasized collectivism of thought and isolation or ignorance. This is strongly co- statism. Most others can be placed in a related with inward orientation, and often continuum between these two extremes, and with past-centrism. At the other end of the the merits and demerits of both points of spectrum, xenocentrism may be observed, view are still debatable. though this may not necessarily be accompanied with positive consequences, Material and non-material orientation and a culture may swing like a pendulum Some cultures like the USA may be more from one extreme to another. This may also materialistic, while some other developed be triggered by a popular disenfranchisement countries like Japan much less so. Most or disenchantment with a situation generating others can be placed in a continuum between a yoyo effect as a precursor to normalization a material orientation and various non- or stabilization (Yoyo theory of Socio- material orientations such as religious or cultural change). Examples of Xenophobia spiritual orientation, and the merits and have included the Islamophobia of the recent demerits of different types of orientation are decades and Anti-Semitism of Nazi still debatable. Germany. Xenophobia has also been attributed to mid-twentieth century Japanese Contentment versus innovation culture by some analysts and the more recent Hindutva movement of India. Some cultures do not wish to effect changes to the status quo, while some others pursue a Rigid versus flexible cultures relentless quest for perfection and changes in the status quo. This metric would indicate a Cultures may also be classified into rigid and culture’s appetite for innovation, and would flexible. Flexible cultures are often those will be commensurate with its innovation indices. less cultural and intellectual baggage, and are This metric may, however be affected by a amenable to change. Cultures which are cultures past or future orientation as well, and flexible in some respects, may be rigid in in some respects, all the six are inter-related. some others and it may be necessary to perform an analysis at the level of a cultural Rational-orientation versus Non Rational- elements. An example to illustrate this point orientation may be the Republican Party’s penchant for ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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In a rational society, less reliance is placed on preference for achievement, heroism, myths, legends, superstitions etc. It is assertiveness and material rewards for expected that all non-rational societies will success. Femininity is a preference for evolve into rational societies in due course, cooperation, modesty, caring for the weak and the Cultural Anthropologist has a core and quality of life), Long-term orientation and a crucial role to play here. vs. short-term orientation and Indulgence vs. restraint (This dimension is essentially a These are the only Seven basic Cultural measure of happiness and whether or not orientations that we propose from a Cultural simple joys are fulfilled). Shalom Schwartz, Anthropological perspective. Other an Israeli researcher, proposes six cultural orientations such as “Achievement values in three pairs, which are orientation” are not strictly Cultural Embeddedness (High value to tradition) orientations given that they would be versus Autonomy (Individuals have high determined by the above six orientations, control over their choices), Mastery (success and do not strictly operate at the level of a through individual action) versus Harmony culture. In addition, they are naturally too (People ready to accept their place in the ambiguous to be categorized as an world) and Hierarchy (Emphasis on roles) individual orientation. Therefore, these may versus Egalitarianism (Emphasis on be categorized at traits or attributes, and equality). Moreover, our approach is suitably monitored. Thus, our approach is dependant on a subjective analysis, with fully honed for a multi-variate analysis. A little scope for numerical quantification. 48 change in one orientation can bring about changes in other orientations, and thus, a We also propose the ‘General Theory of multi-pronged approach may be required. Hierarchy of Mind-orientations’ wherein However, other approaches such as Mind-orientations (and the diversity of mind- Hofstede’s cultural dimensions may also be orientations or the tolerance for mind- used. This approach involves a study of orientations) can be equated to societal dimensions such as Power Distance Index complexity. It may be instructive to theorize (the extent to which the less powerful on the increasing diversification of mind- members of organizations and institutions orientations (and the attendant increase in (like the family) accept and expect that inter-dependencies) with the increasing power is distributed unequally), complexity of society. This must also be Individualism vs. collectivism (degree to accompanied by society-specific studies and which people in a society are integrated into a necessary co-relation with Cultural Ecology groups), Uncertainty avoidance index (a and career and economic opportunities as any society's tolerance for ambiguity in which diversification of mind-orientations will not people embrace or avert the unexpected, 48 Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences: Comparing values, unknown, or deviation from the status quo), behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Masculinity vs. femininity (masculinity is a Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage
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only call for innovative thinking but also an Some cultures may be differentiated on the expansion of economic opportunities. We are basis of age, religion, gender etc. The GINI tempted to relate this to a vortex or an index is often used to represent the wealth outward spiral driven by consciously-induced distribution among the citizens of a country. change that will further induce irrevocable According to some studies, the inequality and irreversible cultural complexity, and between rich countries and poor countries increased diversity and complexity of increased steadily till the 1990’s, but since thought. then the position has been somewhat reversed. Many developing countries also In addition, the following scenarios may also likewise improved their score due to the rapid call for remediation: rise of middle classes and declines in the Cultural Bottlenecks: Cultural bottlenecks number of poor. This appears to lend such as the over-sized presence of religious credence to the theory that Cultural institutions in certain societies may be integration at a global level has had an detrimental to the process of cultural impact on Socio-cultural integration within advancement or prove antithetical to the cultures (This is because factors promoting process of cultural integration. inter-cultural integration have tended to promote intra-cultural integration too), but a Undesirable traits: The widespread presence more detailed analysis must be based on of specific undesirable traits and dimension-level metrics. Intra-cultural characteristics in societies may warrant a root integration may produce other tangible cause analysis and remediation. For example, benefits such as the annihilation of social Cora du bois observed that the Alorese of the barriers, and may induce welcome attitudinal Dutch East Indes were uncouth and slovenly, changes, changes in human behavior and end lacking any direction in life. This was not all other kinds of social and cultural wholly without justified reason: the culprit maladaptations. This is a process that needs being the less than ideal child rearing to be thoroughly and scientifically practices as a result of their mothers pre- understood. occupation with work. Multi-dimensional Analysis Low mean or median values for traits or attributes: Low mean or median values for A multi-dimensional analysis is also assessed traits or attributes may warrant necessary, and the effects of culture (along course-corrections as well, particularly if with its ten enablers), sub-cultures, these are well below the means observed for components, sub-components, the different similar cultures. dimensions of culture, its individuals, their mind-orientations, discrete and aggregates Uniform versus differentiated Cultures: Some values of traits and attributes, thought- cultures may be egalitarian, some others not. worlds, the effects of other cultures as well as ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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personality types and their effects of all these predictive modelling based on the factors on each other must be analysed techniques presented and is particularly through the horizons of time and space to of value in long-term predictive analysis, derive laws and assist in the process of rule- and complements existing cultural building. This may be a time-consuming models to achieve a greater degree of process but ultimately well-worth the precision and accuracy. Dimensional investment of resources, and will in turn analysis can also be performed with trigger a plethora of downstream uses and further implications for cultural applications a few of which are described modelling and predictive analysis. This below. Studies must however be necessarily approach therefore has many potential simple enough to be understood and focussed downstream applications such as enough to serve their objective well and economic analysis, demand forecasting without clutter, and this assessment must be etc. 49 We can also use this for predictive made in each context or situation to analysis. Will inter-cultural differences formulate an ideal approach. remain strong? Will intra-cultural differences be smoothened out over a Applications of a Symbiotic study of Socio period in time? Will time annihilate cultural change cultural differences? Such questions may The following are the potential benefits and be eventually addressed if the process of applications of a Symbiotic study of Socio law-building is assiduously adhered to. cultural change: Though Applied Anthropology was pioneered by Daniel G. Brinton, Allan 1. Cultural analysis, predictive modelling Holmberg, Northcote Thomas and others and long-term cultural analysis in various situations and scenarios, our proposals can give the field a substantial One of the key benefits of a Symbiotic leg-up and shot in the arm by permitting approach to socio-cultural change is that greater precision and accuracy. is presents new tools that can be of great utility in any socio cultural analysis. This DPPF Techniques for better predictive approach combines the best-of-breed analysis and modeling: We had approaches such as unilinear models of discussed the use of DPPF Techniques or cultural evolution, multilinear models of Dialogue between past, present and future cultural evolution, historical particularism techniques in an earlier paper. This is and culture and personality studies in the possible because the Cultural context of the changed circumstances of Anthropologist, in addition to his own the Twenty-first century along with other unique tools, techniques and all-new tools and techniques that can be methodologies, often has the entire map of great use in cultural analysis and 49 Holland, Dorothy and Naomi Quinn (1987) Cultural Models in cultural modelling. It also permits Language and Thought. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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of human history at his disposal and can his attention on major influencing even integrate it with pre-history and cultures and wayward cultures for a proto-history. For, example, the maximum return on time and money. American war of Independence towards Cultures that can be more readily the end of the Eighteenth Century was an accessed and those that are amenable to example of rebellion against colonialism. change must also be targeted for intensive Similar revolutions have included the focus, as this approach alone will result in French Revolution and the Russian maximal return on investment. revolution. An analysis had shown that
similar conditions led to all three 3. As a tool for theorization and ideation revolutions, these being the loss of prestige of the established authority, harsh economic conditions, growing This approach can be used as a tool for disparity of wealth, and alienation of theorization and the formulation of people from the rulers. Such tools can general laws that can be used for any permit him to offer advice in specific study across cultures. For example, contexts and situations while keeping in religious beliefs may not change quickly mind context-specific conditions. These in most if not all cultures. Changes to techniques can further revolutionize food habits too may change slowly, but Applied Anthropology which began to faster than religious beliefs. We have emerge as a distinct subject in its own referred to this as ‘Universals of Cultural right after the Second World War, and change’, ‘Near-universals of Cultural can assist in the formulation of “High change’ and may recommend some kind road” approaches. (Hackenberg, 1997) of a ‘Change taxonomy’ as well. In order
to do this, we follow a truly inductive 2. As a guide to activists: where, when, approach, moving from the specific to the what, how general and documenting exceptions to
nearly universal rules. Thus, this We have discussed the importance of approach is defined as an aggregation of activism in a previous paper, and have micro-level studies. also examined why activism is necessary
to speed up the process of socio-cultural Assessor: change. We have also discussed some Date: methods available at an Anthropologists Culture: disposal to bring about socio-cultural Subculture: change. This approach can serve as a heuristic tool and guide the S. Comp Sub- Patter Possib Anthropologist on where to focus his N onent comp ns of le efforts at what time and by how much. o onent Cultu genera ral lized Ideally, the Anthropologist needs to focus integr laws ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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ation nature and direction of globalization and and its potential implications for the patter company, and brief them on the attendant ns of risks. The Anthropologist may also Cultu ral highlight social issues and risks and steps chang being taken to remediate them. The e Anthropologist can help vet marketing 1 Music Tradit plans and forecasts in the light of ional specialized information, and can also help Music prepare culture-specific plans. He can 2 Music Non- also help advice on the likely demand for traditi the company’s products on the basis of onal Music social and other data. These approaches 3 Cuisin Tradit are likely to provide an incremental e ional benefit in decision-making over standard cuisin forecasting models, and even techniques e that are already in use within the field of Perip Cultural Anthropology. Cultural heral anthropology has traditionally brought cuisin e intensive-field studies and a strong social- 4 Religi Religi orientation to the table to add value to on ous corporate decision-making. Newer institu techniques such as those proposed in this tions paper and the newly-placed emphasis on Spirit specificity, generalization and rule- ual building, can take these efforts several practi ces notches and rungs higher, and towards Myths their logical conclusion of bullet-proof and reliability, seamless replicability and legen accuracy. ds 5. As a tool for economists to develop 4. As a tool for corporate decision-making context-specific economic development models This approach can be used for corporate decision making in conjunction with This can be used as a tool for economists other decision-making techniques. The to develop context-specific economic Social Anthropologist can provide the develop models on the basis of a study of organization with valuable advice on the mind-orientation and thought worlds. ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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Thus, culture-specific mores and norms groups into account and analysing them can be used to interface various formalist in the larger context of dominance and and substantive models for greater non-dominance of languages. welfare and economic growth, adding new meaning to Developmental 6. As a tool for Government departments Anthropology or Anthropology in and planning agencies Development. This will help avoid the perils and pitfalls associated with one- This approach can also serve as a tool to size-fits-all approaches. Similarly, Government departments and planning dimensional analysis can help identify agencies to help in economic planning outliers and laggards for quick remedial activities by identifying outliers and action. Thus, aid can be targeted towards laggards and performing a root cause individuals or groups that are more in analysis. This can serve as a catalyst for need of it, rather than those that are more short-term, medium-term and long-term accessible or enjoy more clout. Our projects like road-building initiatives, dimension-level approaches provide data educational reform and infrastructure at an enhanced level of granularity when projects as well, and can be effectively compared to raw economic data with are combined with other decision-making culture-neutral and consider means or techniques. averages. This approach can also help investigate the reasons for the non- 7. As a guide for donor and international adoption of new cultural elements and agencies potential measures to overcome them. Thus, this approach can help lead to This approach can also furnish an better economic welfare and faster invaluable heuristic guide to donor and economic growth. This is something only international agencies to help them a Cultural Anthropologist is amply geared choose projects that can provide the to co-ordinate and orchestrate. More maximum return on investment. This specialized fields of study may also approach can also help identify a list of eventually emerge from interfaces with disenfranchised people for example, or other Anthropological sciences. For people badly in need of developmental example, the linguistic competence of a stimulus. It can also provide a valuable group of people may be assessed with guide with regards to development- regard to the strength of the language vis- conducive or change-unfriendly attitudes à-vis other dominant languages to and belief-systems among different propose suitable course-corrections to the peoples in different geographical education system or formulate communities. It can also identify if developmental models that take linguistic people of a particular community want competencies and limitations of cultural change or not by providing a unique and ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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a people-centric approach and Anthropologists have been interested in perspective. Thus, a Cultural several aspects of psychology as well, Anthropologist can promote polyphony even though they have largely tended to and multivocality as opposed to cultural- keep personality structures as constant insensitivity and context-indifferent and investigate variations in social points of view, thereby enhancing structure. This exercise attempts to program efficacy and audience remediate the flaws associated with such satisfaction. an approach and provide a more seamless integration between the two, without in 8. As a guide for Social workers any way stepping outside the traditional dominions and comfort zone of a Cultural There has always been an interface Anthropologist. Thus, the multi- between Cultural Anthropologists and dimensional approach presented here can social workers. Even though most Social be of some value to the psychologist. workers are not trained in Anthropology, they need to understand not only social 10. Research on the ethics of activism problems, but also cultural issues and the inferface of a given culture with society We have discussed the benefits of activism in at large. Thus, Cultural Anthropologists great detail in a previous paper. We have also can provide general and specific inputs to discussed the potential risks and dangers different types of Social workers associated with activism. This approach can including general workers and specialized be used as a stepping-stone for research on workers such as Public Health workers. the ethics of activism from an emic and a The tools and techniques proposed here stakeholder perspective as it gives the can naturally take their endeavours to a Anthropologist an opportunity to interact higher level. with people on the field and take into consideration their points of view. Activism 9. Better interface between Cultural can take on myriad forms which were Anthropology and psychology discussed in brief in a previous paper. Subtle and less time-consuming approaches may be Psychologists have traditionally used as a starting point before efforts are investigated a wide range of topics such scaled up suitably. An interesting approach as personality development and may be that of Action Anthropology which a behaviour. Social psychology has also technique that combines research and investigated man’s behaviour in relation activism. This approach was first popularized to his environment and this branch of by Sol Tax, who was an American psychology is more closely related to Anthropologist. This approach can be Cultural Anthropology than other successfully used as a feeler and a precursor branches of psychology. Cultural to more forceful and explicit change-inducing ELK ASIA PACIFIC JOURNAL OF SOCIAL SCIENCE
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measures and techniques, and in addition to mere empirical observation or hypothesis formulation and building. - Other uses and potential applications may - readily suggest themselves in different contexts and situations with the passage of time thereby greatly contributing to the general value and utility of a Cultural Anthropologist, but few will deny that the endeavours listed above strongly fall within the realms and jurisdiction of a Cultural Anthropologist and present him with a strong and a very unique value proposition and irrefutable case. With a strong focus on cross-cultural studies, inter-disciplinary approaches and a view of cultures across time and space, few if any will ever perhaps ever be able to deny that these are activities that almost no one else is well-geared or poised to do.
The global socio-cultural landscape would be determined by the process of symbiosis depicted below
A visual depiction of the concept of Mindspace
A visual depiction of the concept of Mindspace from another perspective