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© Brian J. Hurn and Barry Tomalin 2013 Foreword © Jack Spence 2013 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2013 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978–0–230–39113–0 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

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Contents

List of Figures vi Foreword by Professor Jack Spence, OBE viii Preface xii Acknowledgements xiv List of Abbreviations xvi About the Authors xviii

1 What is Cross- Cultural Communication? 1 2 Key Thinkers in Cross- Cultural Communication (1) 20 3 Key Thinkers in Cross- Cultural Communication (2) 47 4 The International Use of English 62 5 Developing Cross- Cultural Communication Skills 78 6 Selection and Preparation for Foreign Assignments 98 7 Leadership Across Cultures 125 8 International Team Building and Teamworking 141 9 The Effect of Culture on International Negotiations 162 10 Multiculturalism and Diversity 191 11 Globalization and its Effect on Culture 208 12 Cultural Diplomacy and Nation Branding 224 13 Transfer of Skills, Technology and Knowledge 241 14 Cultural Profiling and Classification 259 15 Teaching Cross- Cultural Communication 274

Index 294

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Summary

Influence of various disciplines on cultural studies Language and thought debate Semiotics Definitions of culture Corporate culture Communication styles Barriers to effective cross- cultural communication Problems of cross- cultural communication Perception, reality and stereotypes What influences our cross- cultural effectiveness?

Introduction

This first chapter looks at the influence of other disciplines on cultural studies. It examines different definitions of ‘culture’ and ‘communication’ and looks at key areas of cultural diversity in visible behaviour and underlying values. It analyses strategies for optimizing successful communication with people of other cultures and overcoming the barriers to cross- cultural communication. Many cross- cultural relationships break down because of failures in communication. This is not just due to speaking different languages, although that is certainly part of the problem; it is also due to different understand- ings of communication itself. In Chapter 4 we examine the role of the English language as arguably the prime medium of international communication worldwide. In this chapter we examine the role of communication itself in facilitating or hindering international exchange.

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Cross- cultural communication is a multifaceted subject which has elements from a number of disciplines:

• anthropology; • linguistics; • philosophy; • psychology.

Cross- cultural communication is about the way people from different cultures communicate when they deal with each other either at a distance or face to face. Communication can involve spoken and written language, body language and the language of etiquette and protocol. In essence there are two main schools of research: a) the Theory and Research (sociology and communications) school; b) the Theory into Practice school (an interdisciplinary approach using psychology, anthropology, sociology and linguistics).

How linguistics influences communication

The key influences are the study of semiotics, the study of signs, and the study of the relationship between language and thought and language and culture. There are three interrelated questions:

• Does the way we use language influence the way we think? • Does the way we think influence the language we use? • Does culture influence language or is it the other way round?

Semiotics

Semiotics was introduced by the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913). It is defined as ‘the study of signs and symbols and their use in interpretation’ (Oxford English Dictionary). Saussure put forward the idea that language is a cultural phenomenon and that it produces meaning in a special way. He developed the theory that any linguistic item such as a word represents a sign. A sign has three basic characteristics: it has a concrete form, it refers to something other than itself and it is recognized by other people as a sign. The physical form of a sign he called the ‘signifier’. The mental association it refers to is the ‘signified’. To illustrate the concept, we can take the word ‘friend’. A friend may mean someone who is not hostile to you, someone with whom you have a friendly association, a close lifelong buddy or someone who opposes the same things that you do. Similarly, the word ‘boyfriend’ or ‘girlfriend’ may signify a person you are going out with or in other countries simply a friend

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 What is Cross- Cultural Communication? 3 with no sexual connotation at all. The point is that ‘friend’ is a common word in all languages, but has very different connotations according to the society that uses it. Therefore, part of cultural study is to find out whether the same words mean the same thing in different cultures.

Language and thought

The first academic cultural studies were carried out by anthropologists in the mid- nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and were centred in the USA on the Native Americans. They wanted to understand the cultures of the rapidly disappearing Native-American tribes and, in particular, the study of their languages. They attempted to answer the question ‘which came first, language or thought?’. Was it the cultural features which then gave rise to the language needed to express them or did the language itself condition how people thought about their society? If the language came first, did that limit how people thought about their society? Briefly summarized, the debate is whether language determines what we experience and how we see the world or whether our experience of the world determines how we think about it and how we then express it. There has been much debate as to which comes first, that is, language or thought. This debate was continued by the American linguists and anthropologists Edward Sapir and his pupil Benjamin- Lee Whorf, who also had a special interest in American- Indian languages. They developed the Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis, which was based on linguistic determinism, in other words the proposition that language determines the way we think and speak. Sapir emphasized that the real world is, to a large extent, built upon the language habits of the group. We see, hear and otherwise experience as we do because of the language habits of our community, which predispose us towards certain choices of interpretation. The cultural anthropologist and ethnologist Franz Boas established the link between language and behaviour from his studies of native American communities. He concluded that: ‘The peculiar characteristics of languages are clearly reflected in the views and customs of the people of the world’ (Boas, 1938: 31). He maintained that it was necessary to view the world around us through the eyes of other cultures if we really wanted to understand it. However, Noam Chomsky (1975) supports the existence of linguistic universals (universal grammar), but rejects the existence of cultural universals. Chomsky is supported by Steven Pinker, who resists the idea that language shapes thought. Modern linguists tend to put the emphasis on the potential for thinking to be influenced rather than unavoidably determined by language. The American researcher Lena Boroditsky (2001) also criticizes the polarization of thought which leads to thinking that one feature influences the other. She

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 4 Cross-Cultural Communication maintains that there is a symbiotic relationship between language and the way we think about culture, with each constantly influencing the other. In the language versus culture debate, it is clear that sharing a language implies sharing a culture; for example, in Belgium, where Flemish and French are the main shared languages, the scores of the Flemish and French- speaking regions are on Hofstede’s four dimensions of culture (see Chapter 2) very similar to each other, but different from those of the Netherlands. Without knowing the language well, one misses a lot of the subtleties of a culture, for example, humour, and one is forced to remain a relative outsider. Therefore, in the cross-cultural encounter, experienced travellers recognize that it is prudent to avoid jokes and irony until they are sure of the other culture’s perception of what represents acceptable humour: ‘The essence of effective cross- cultural communication has more to do with releasing the right responses than sending the right message’ (Hall and Hall, 1990: 4).

Definitions of culture

ART? MUSIC? LITERATURE? HUMOUR? FOOD? LANGUAGE? VALUES? ATTITUDES? CUSTOMS? ETIQUETTE?

Figure 1.1 Culture – what is it?

As we might expect, there are many definitions of culture. Some of these include the following:

• ‘Culture is man- made, confirmed by others, conventionalized … It provides people with a meaningful context in which to meet, to think about themselves and face the other world’ (Trompenaars, 2000: 3). • ‘A shared system of meanings. It dictates what we pay attention to, how we act and what we value’ (Trompenaars, 1993: 13). • ‘Each cultural world operates according to its own internal dynamics, its own principles and its own laws – written and unwritten. Even time and space are unique to each culture. There are, however, some common threads that run through all cultures’ (Hall and Hall, 1990: 3).

It would seem that a comprehensive workable definition of culture is based on the belief that its value systems lie at its core. These are what defines a particular culture. It includes its norms of behaviour, beliefs, aesthetic standards, patterns of thinking and styles of communication which a particular group of people have developed over time to ensure their survival.

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Culture is therefore socially, and not biologically, constructed. Individuals are socialized into a particular culture and their individuality is developed within the overall context of that culture. All people carry within them patterns of thinking, feeling and behavioural responses which have been learned throughout their lifetime. Much of this is acquired during early childhood, when a person is most susceptible to learning and assimilating. We can summarize these definitions to say that culture is a system of shared beliefs and values which are learned rather than inherited. It is com- posed of those values and beliefs, norms, symbols and ideologies that make up the total way of life of a people. Culture has also been defined as a form of ‘map’ which each of us has implanted in us by the society into which we are born. This ‘map’ defines reality, sets the guidelines for behaviour, thus developing our value system, and establishes the rules for problem solving or explaining events that are not normally encountered. In most Western languages, ‘culture’ is taken to mean ‘civilization’, ‘education’, ‘art’. This is culture in a narrow sense. However, culture is also a form of mental programming. As soon as certain patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour have been established, for the individual to learn something different, the old patterns need to be unlearned. These patterns of thinking, feeling and behaviour can indeed be described as a form of mental programming, using a computer analogy, and have been called ‘mental software’, extending the analogy. Indeed, Hofstede describes culture as: ‘The collective programming of the mind, which distinguishes the members of one group or category of people from another’ (1994: 5). What we ‘learn’ is, in fact, modified by the influence of ‘collective programming’ (that is, culture) as well as by our own unique personal experiences throughout life. A useful method is to divide culture into implicit culture – basic assumptions which produce norms and values which show in the explicit culture – observable reality which includes language, food, music, dress, literature, architecture, public emotion, work ethic, noise, physical contact and so on.

Oberg’s iceberg analogy

The Danish writer Kalvero Oberg (1960) uses the analogy of an iceberg to describe visible and invisible culture. Visible culture is what appears above the waves, for example, the explicit culture referred to above. This can be relatively easily observed, even by those who have only a limited exposure to a new culture, for example, tourists and infrequent business travellers, although its significance may not be fully recognized. The invisible culture is what lies below the waves: the implicit culture. This includes assumptions, values, attitudes towards authority, risk taking, punctuality, communication patterns, how status is defined and how power is distributed in society. The assumptions, at the deepest level, are the most important levels of

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culture and the most difficult to understand. We can at least be aware of the differences that exist and can develop sensitivity so that we are prepared for any ‘surprises’ when they occur.

Corporate culture

Corporate culture is often described as ‘the way we do things around here’ or ‘the glue that holds an organization together’. It is the collective behaviour of people in organizations where they share the same corporate vision, goals, values, customs and work procedures, a common working language and symbols. It is to be found in, for example, large multinational companies (such as Shell and Toyota), the Armed Forces and the Diplomatic Service. These common values are, in effect, a form of implicit control mechanism that permeates the ethos of the organization. Therefore, corporate culture is, to a large extent, how an organization exercises control over its members and how behaviour is regulated. A further example of corporate culture is found in professional life, codes of professional conduct and ethical standards, for example, those relating to lawyers, teachers and doctors. Corporate culture within an organization includes the logo, advertising slogans and the common jargon used; for example, McDonald’s employees are known as ‘crew members’. Other corporate symbols can include the myths and stories about the founders, its particular successes, the annual office party and the company uniform. Corporate culture embodies a corporate ethos, with its own code of ethical conduct and social responsibility which is communicated to all employees and suppliers, and can cover such areas as human rights, employment practices and concern for the environment. Large multinationals further develop their corporate culture through the setting up of corporate universities, an early example being the McDonald’s Hamburger University in Illinois, set up in the 1950s. Other large companies have followed this example and have set up branches of their corporate universities abroad to train their staff of various cultures in the corporate culture and strategy of the organization.

Communication styles

In modern cultural studies, the key issue is the way in which different cultures communicate. Communication is the process by which thoughts, information and instructions are passed between people. Communication breaks down into three broad areas:

• verbal communication; • non-verbal communication (body language); • written communication.

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A fourth area, which is rapidly becoming even more influential, is the increased use of technology in communication. This covers the use of language on the Internet, as well as communication devices such as smartphones which many argue are changing the way we think and use language. Tomalin and Nicks (2010) have developed a framework to help identify the key differentiating features in communication. In doing so, they represent the ideas put forward by Hall, Hofstede and Trompenaars (see Chapters 2 and 3) as they relate to communication. Their communication framework is summarized below. In the matrix, the key communication features are presented in opposition to each other. The contention is that if you, for example, understand your dominant style and compare it to your interlocutor’s dominant style, you will be well placed to understand how your communication style might be misunderstood and therefore will adapt it accordingly.

Direct Indirect Details Suggestions What/why Why/what Formal Informal Emotional Neutral Fast Slow

Figure 1.2 Communication styles

Direct/indirect

Direct communicators say what they think without adapting the message to the listener/reader. The result is transparent and clear, but may also be perceived as undiplomatic or even rude. Direct communicators, for example, North Americans, Scandinavians, Germans and the Dutch, have less sensitivity about causing offence. They have a reputation for expressing themselves in a direct manner and for being prepared to say frankly what they think. This approach may be misconstrued by indirect communicators, whose primary concern is to protect personal dignity and avoid causing offence. In extreme cases, this may even lead to the communication of wrong or mis- leading information to avoid the risk of upsetting the other person. Asian cultures are generally good examples of indirect communicators.

Details and suggestions communicators

Some societies, in particular the Chinese and the Japanese, believe that it is important to go into great detail so that everything is clearly understood and that there can be no misunderstanding. People in these societies will want high

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 8 Cross-Cultural Communication degrees of, for example, technical specifications and will ask many questions to gain clarification. Such an approach is often perceived by sugges tions communicators as time- consuming and overly complicated. Suggestions communicators like to leave room for interpretation and initiative and may prefer to be more general in their approach. They may prefer to hint or make suggestions either to allow the recipient the opportunity to interpret what has been said in his or her own way or because they assume that the recipient will understand the context in which they are speaking. However, such an approach can be seen by detailed communicators as rather too general and lacking in clarity.

What/why – why/what

This is a re- statement of Edward T. Hall’s concise/expressive communication paradigm, which is discussed in more detail in Chapter 2. A what/why culture corresponds to Hall’s concise mode of expression. People say what they want and then why they want it. Tomalin and Nicks (2010) call this group ‘the What/Why communicators’. The North European culture cluster will normally prefer this mode of communication. People tend to get to the point quickly and then provide explanations and context afterwards. A why/what culture corresponds to Hall’s expressive mode and is exactly the opposite. An expressive communicator will prefer to provide the context and background before saying what he or she wants. He or she focuses on context first and comes to the point at the end. The rationale is: ‘How can you possibly understand what I want unless I have explained the background first?’ Once again, perceptions play a part in miscommunication. What/why concise communicators tend to feel that why/what expressive communicators waste time in coming to the point. Why/what communicators become frustrated because they receive too little information from what/why communicators. They often feel they are being given orders and need more background information to understand what is required. Once again, simple linguistic strategies can resolve tensions. A why/what communicator who needs a little more patience from his or her counterpart simply has to say ‘I’ll answer your question, but I do need to give a bit of background first’.

Formal/informal communicators

This paradigm links into Hofstede’s power distance index (see Chapter 2) as it indicates how power and status are reinforced by the communication style. As a rule, high power distance normally requires more formal language, for example, the use of titles such as Mr and Mrs or their equivalents, the use of professional titles such as Dr and, above all, a clear distinction between the familiar and the formal ‘you’, which does not exist in English. Some societies prefer a relatively formal way of addressing you until they know you well. This is the case in many European cultures as well as in

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Latin America, Africa and Asia. The more informal style of communication has, to a degree, been adopted in the predominantly English- speaking countries of the UK, the USA, Canada, Australia and New Zealand. In many other cultures, formality equates with respect. Formality may be interpreted in informal communities as a wish to maintain distance, whereas informality may be interpreted in formal communities as showing a lack of respect for age or status. The strategy is to find out what is the accepted way of addressing people and also the accepted way of communicating with them and to respond accordingly. Although the UK has a reputation for formality, the British can be as informal as the Americans when communicating with their peers and superiors, and this has been increasingly the case in recent years. An example of the perceived inappropriateness of informality occurred when former US President George W. Bush welcomed Tony Blair, the former British Prime Minister, in public before the world’s press in Washington with the ultra- familiar ‘Yo Blair!’ greeting.

Emotional/neutral communicators

An emotional society considers that an element of communication is to show one’s emotions. Members of such a society believe that using their emotions is an important aspect of self- expression, so they use their voice, eyes and arms in a more demonstrative way. A neutral society is exactly the opposite because it believes that it is important to control your emotions, to keep a straight face devoid of expression and to restrict your body language while using neutral language. The most emotional societies are the Mediterranean and the Latin American cultures. Examples of neutral societies include those of Japan and Northern Europe, including the British with their supposedly famous ‘stiff upper lip’. Once again, the style of communication you use can cause a number of different reactions. To a neutral communicator, an emotional communicator may possibly convey unreli- ability, while to an emotional communicator, a neutral communicator may run the risk of conveying a lack of clarity and even possible dishonesty. When working with neutrals, a calm, measured approach is usually the most appropriate. You should keep your voice calm and your gestures minimal. If your counterpart does not smile, do not assume it is rudeness or anger. Similarly, if you are working with emotional communicators, be more expressive with your voice and gestures, be prepared to show your more human side and be ready to share personal stories about yourself and your family.

Fast/slow

This refers to whether the speed of communication is fast or slow and corresponds to Lewis’ (2004) distinction between ‘ping-pong’ cultures (fast speaking, interrupting and tolerance of interruptions) and ‘bowling’ cultures

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(slower speaking, observing strict turn- taking in conversation and avoiding interruptions whenever possible). In a ping- pong culture, a conversation is like a game of table tennis, moving at a fast pace with people interrupting each other and not minding interruptions. Conversely, a conversation in a ‘bowling’ culture is like the game of bowls, where players roll a ball along the ground to see who can get closest to another ball thrown earlier. ‘Bowlers’ pause before speaking, give themselves time to consider and then speak. They may find interruptions offensive. ‘Ping-pongers’ can be seen as rather shallow and inconsiderate listeners. Although all foreign speech probably sounds fast to a non- native speaker, the speed of delivery of languages like Spanish or Hindi has been found to be on average significantly faster than, for example, German or English. The pace of life in large cities, for example, in New York, Los Angeles or Chicago in the USA, may have an effect on the speed of speech delivery compared with that in surrounding areas, and the North of the USA is considered to have a faster speech rhythm than the Midwest or the South. The issue of speed of speech is probably less important than the significance given to interruptions. Some cultures accept interruptions called ‘overlapping’, but others consider it impolite.

Practical implications

The communication framework is a useful tool for identifying key verbal communication features, but it is important not to over- generalize. Clearly, the style of communication will vary according to the location, profession and lifestyle of the individual. The communication style may also vary between social groups. Nevertheless, it is a useful guide for applying theory to practice.

Barriers to effective communication

There is a Southeast Asian proverb that says: ‘Misunderstandings don’t exist; only the failure to communicate exists.’ There is certainly a lot of truth in this. ‘The essence of effective cross- cultural communication has more to do with releasing the “right” response than with sending the ‘right’ messages’ (Hall and Hall, 1990: 4). Hall places communication at the heart of all cross- cultural interaction: ‘Culture is communication – it may be seen as a continuous process of communicating and reinforcing group norms.’ Communication involves transmitting messages (verbally or non-verbally) to another person, who decodes (that is, translates) these messages by giving them meaning. These messages may be sent by conscious intent or not and may include information about both the actual content of the message and the relationship between those involved in the communication process. The process is completed by coding, transmission, decoding and finally feedback.

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However, misunderstanding often occurs in the transmission of the ‘message’ encoded by the sender and decoded by the receiver. ‘Noise’ or interference occurs along the way and the result can be distortion or misunderstanding which is shown in the feedback part of the loop, that is, in either the reply or the observed behaviour as a result of receiving the message. It may be dangerous to assume that others will necessarily decode our message in the way that we intended. It is therefore important to try to check how our message has been interpreted by the receiver. This is a typical sequence of events in which noise or interference can impact upon the correct delivery of the message sent.

Noise/interference

Encode Channel Decode

(Sender) (Receiver)

Message Message

Feedback

Figure 1.3 A typical communication problem

The problem is that whatever our message, we can be sure that it may often become distorted as it travels across cultures. Accepting this, we should:

• be aware of the distinct possibility of distortion or misinterpretation; • understand how a message may, in fact, be misinterpreted; • modify our behaviour to account for this in order to be prepared to correct any misinterpretation and, if necessary, remedy the situation.

Face- to face communication has the great advantage of providing instant feedback. In other forms of communication, particularly electronic communication, such as email, coding and decoding, problems occur when feedback is delayed.

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When we wish to communicate internationally, we rarely see the whole context. The result is that we often have difficulty in fully understanding the situation. The outcomes are as follows:

• we have to make decisions about how to behave on the information we have, which is often incomplete; • we choose to fill in or ignore contextual information in our attempts to make decisions; • we use our own already pre- programmed expectations to do this.

As a result, we often make mistakes in perception, interpretation and evaluation. Ideally, communication takes place in a continuous feedback loop: I communicate, you respond, I reply and so on until the communication is complete. However, in international conversations, misunderstandings are frequently liable to occur. We fail to evaluate the message properly, the result being that we do not give it appropriate importance.

Parochialism Fear of embarrassment, conflict Ethnocentrism Ignorance of culture of others Laziness Stereotyping

Figure 1.4 Barriers to communication

Ethnocentrism

We tend to judge other cultures according to the beliefs, values and tradi- tions of our own group or culture. We then categorize groups other than ours as bad, weak, immoral, stupid, crazy and so on. Ethnocentrism may be said to be almost universal. Members of nearly all the world’s cultures regard their own way of life as being ‘better’ than even closely related neighbours. We often ascribe generalized, unfounded and negative attributes to other cultures. Our reactions can be summarized as follows:

• Ignorance: we are often very ignorant of other people’s culture – their history, religion, art, customs, values and so on. • Fear and anxiety: we are often afraid of novelty, embarrassment and conflict. We suffer anxiety and stress because we do not know what to do in certain situations. • Laziness: we are often lazy, sometimes for good reasons, such as time pressures. This makes us reluctant to learn and practise tolerance and understanding. We also often prefer to take the easy way out by assuming similarity rather than attempting to understand actual cultural differences.

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Our reactions to a cultural situation which differs from our own experience often follow the sequence given below:

• we observe what is happening; • we try to communicate; • we find it difficult to understand; • we interpret the situation according to our own limited knowledge, our own values and possibly limited experience; • we become judgmental and often in exasperation make our prejudices apparent.

Cultural diversity

Different cultures have different norms and expectations of behaviour in both formal and informal situations, for example, social interaction, meetings or negotiations. A lack of awareness and understanding of these differences can create misunderstandings and, in extreme cases, even offence.

Assuming similarity with one’s own culture

There is often a tendency to assume similarities between the foreign culture and one’s own, rather than understanding the differences. An example is the British and American perceptions that there are very few differences between their cultures, although in reality there are many subtle ways in which the two cultures differ, and this is only fully recognized when the two live and work in each other’s culture.

Stereotyping

Stereotypes can be described as a group of beliefs and attitudes towards people who are members of another distinct group. People form pre- established expectations about how members of other groups are likely to behave and what they believe in. Experiences often do not fit into our preconceived categories and we are then faced with ambiguity. Our response is to try to force them into an inaccurate category, thus distorting our perception of reality, with the result that we feel insecure and uncertain. The danger is that categorizing can lead to stereotyping and we categorize people of other cultures in the simplest way possible. The end result is a tendency to often invest these categories with negative emotions because they constitute the unknown. Stereotyping provides a quick, simple way of classifying people, particularly those from other cultures, but it does not allow for variation and may be positive or negative. Stereotypes are usually harmless if used only as a general rule of thumb, but can be hurtful, dangerous and racist if taken to be the whole truth about another group of people. This is because

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 14 Cross-Cultural Communication all stereotypes contain value judgments. They are not based on personal experience but are often acquired from the media or the prejudices inherent in our own social group. For example, racial stereotypes reflect racial prejudices and when these are repeated in the media, there is the danger that they may become perpetuated and institutionalized. Another example is the way in which people are stereotyped or pigeon- holed due to their accent, dialect, physical appearance or social class and background. The result is the forming of often inaccurate opinions that have little factual basis and are grossly over- simplified. The socialization of people into particular cultures can give rise to distinct cultural values and associated perceptions, for example, views on poverty, immigrants, standards of economic development and so on. Our own group loyalty often encourages us to believe that our group is ‘better’ and more important than other groups. Although national barriers are disappearing as a result of globalization and the Internet, national stereotyping persists. A moderate amount of stereotyping is inevitable, acceptable and at times even humorous, but displays of deep ignorance which cause offence are matters of concern. There is therefore a need for objective and informed knowledge about other cultures. Common stereotypical categories may be labelled in terms of, for example, race, age, gender, social class and dress. The danger lies in the speed and intensity of these generalizations and assumptions about other people, which are usually based on very thin evidence and knowledge. Stereotyping can take two different forms:

• traits that we admire – ambition, modesty, cleverness, bravery; • traits that we deplore or dislike – laziness, stupidity, lack of ambition.

However, there is a place for stereotypes, as our brain tries to sort into categories, and stereotypes become initially useful pigeon- holes until we learn more about other people and realize that within any group there are large individual differences. Stereotypes also play their part in providing a basis for possible further closer investigation.

Perception

Perception lies at the very heart of cross- cultural communication. We all tend to categorize our experiences in order to make sense of the world we live in. The problem is that when we encounter a new world we are not familiar with, we are faced with ambiguity, which in turn causes insecurity. Faced with insecurity, our natural tendency is to fall back on our own norms and values and perceive the person we are dealing with as alien and even hostile. Our negative emotions come to the fore and we stereotype the person we are dealing with, and these stereotypes are frequently negative. We assume quite incorrectly that we all think about and perceive the world

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 What is Cross- Cultural Communication? 15 in basically the same way. We have a tendency to see things not as they are but as we are. Differences in culture are very often because of differences in perception. The problem is that when we communicate internationally, we often mis- understand the total context. We make mistakes in perception and we see things negatively that the speaker in his or her environment would consider totally non- confrontational. A good example is direct and indirect criticism. In China, Japan and, to a lesser extent, South Korea, it is important not to criticize anyone directly in order to save the ‘face’ of the person being criti- cized. The potential for communication failure is therefore greatly increased when the sender and receiver do not share the same cultural perceptions. We often assume other people experience the same physical, intellectual and emotional reactions as we do. We believe that what is pleasing or distasteful to us is pleasing or distasteful to others. This is clearly not the case in reality. We therefore need to understand why this is so and at least to recognize our differences of perception. Some examples of attitudes regarding perception are as follows:

• ‘Abroad is unutterably bloody and foreigners are fiends’ (Nancy Mitford, 1945). • ‘Everybody has the right to pronounce foreign names as he chooses’ (Winston Churchill). • ‘What is true on one side of the Pyrenees is not on the other’ (Blaise Pascal, seventeeth- century French philosopher).

Whenever we go to live and work internationally, we all begin our time abroad with certain preconceived ideas, attitudes and prejudices. These are rooted in our experiences and our culture, and, as we have seen, they are coloured and often reinforced by what we read and are told. We look at

Heaven is where: The police are British The cooks are French The mechanics are German The lovers are Italian It is all organized by the Swiss

Hell is where: The police are German The cooks are British The mechanics are French The lovers are Swiss It is all organized by the Italians

Figure 1.5 Definitions of heaven and hell (mostly apocryphal!)

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 16 Cross-Cultural Communication the world around us through the filter of our own values, prejudices and the stereotypes we have built up. The problems occur when we meet other people in other cultures who look at the same facts but come up with a different view. We may find this uncomfortable, even challenging, and perhaps at first sight somewhat intimidating. Other people’s views may well be different but not necessarily wrong. If we are to understand their world, we need to understand their perceptions, including their perceived view of us in our culture. Perception can often play tricks on us as things are not always as they seem. Perception is usually selective and culture- driven, and works on differences rather than similarities. Our perception of another culture is relative and comes from our own set of values in our own culture. Perception is, in fact, our reality; the ‘facts’ are almost irrelevant until we really understand the other culture. The problem is often that, despite all our best efforts to suspend our judgment as we have been taught to do and to avoid stereotyping and be tolerant to differences in other cultures, when we are under pressure and stressed, we often revert to type and reveal our prejudices. To overcome our perceptions of others, we need to recognize that other people are not better or worse, just different. To deal with others successfully and to control our own feelings when faced with ambiguity or insecurity, we need to do three things:

• Accept difference: we should accept that others are different from us. • Recognize ignorance: we should recognize that we do not know precisely how others differ from us. We choose to fill in or ignore contextual information in attempting to make decisions and use our own pre- programmed cultural bias. • Take responsibility: we should accept responsibility for our feelings and reactions when dealing with others.

One useful procedure for helping us to do this is to take the following five steps:

• STOP: in situations of ambiguity, our natural tendency is to speed up and extricate ourselves from the uncomfortable situation. In fact, we need to do the opposite, that is, slow down and reflect. • LOOK AND LISTEN: look at the people and listen to how they speak. What does this tell you about their style and manner? • FEEL: feel the atmosphere. Is it friendly, hostile or neutral? • DON’T ASSUME: making assumptions is the most natural thing in the world, but can be the most dangerous. • ASK: if you think something may be wrong, ask politely if there is any- thing you can do. This will not cause offence; in fact, people will be pleased that you are showing an interest (Tomalin and Nicks, 2010).

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STOP

ASK LOOK

DON’T LISTEN ASSUME FEEL

Figure 1.6 The STAR approach

Example

Mr Soto, a senior Japanese manager, was attending a presentation by a British company in Tokyo on its plans to open a large retail outlet there. The presenter, Mr Williams, spoke in English and included a number of jokes and what he thought were funny anecdotes about the culture shock he had encountered on his first visit to Japan. He noticed Mr Soto was not smiling, but sat straight upright with his arms tightly folded across his chest, a sure sign that the listener did not like what was going on. As soon as he had the opportunity, he asked Mr Soto whether everything was OK. Mr Soto looked uncomfortable and said he didn’t understand English jokes. No doubt he was also surprised at Mr Williams’ self- deprecating approach. During the coffee break, having realized his approach was not working, Mr Williams resolved to continue the next stage of his presentation in a more formal manner. He had, of course, followed the STAR approach.

How then can we reduce these barriers to effective cross-cultural communication?:

• We can develop our listening skills. This will help us to avoid jumping to conclusions when we only hear ‘words’ rather than their intrinsic meaning. • We should check our perceptions about what others say and do, realizing that our own perceptions tend to be rooted in our value system.

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• We need to seek feedback to check whether other people understand our message. This may be difficult, for example, in many Asian cultures, where it is considered impolite to say ‘no’ or to disagree. • We need at times to take risks in order to open up channels of communication.

Summary

• The study of cross- cultural communication is influenced by anthropology, linguistics, philosophy and psychology. • The key influences are the study of semiotics, the study of signs and the relationship between language and thought. • Culture can be divided into implicit and explicit culture. • The basic obstacles to cross- cultural communication are ethnocentrism, ignorance, fear and laziness. • Perception is reality – it is selective and culture- driven. We should check our perceptions about what others say and do and realize our own perceptions tend to be rooted in our value systems. • Our cross- cultural effectiveness is influenced by our own individual personality, our national characteristics, our corporate culture and our professional training. • We can reduce the barriers to effective cross- cultural communication by developing our listening skills to help us avoid jumping to conclusions when we only ‘hear’ words rather than their intrinsic meaning.

We can perhaps best summarize by formulating three basic rules to help us understand the importance of cross- cultural communication:

• We should accept that others are different from us. • We should accept that we do not know precisely how others differ from us. • We should accept responsibility for our feelings and reactions when dealing with people from other cultures.

In addition, we should remember that linguistic fluency does not necessarily equal conceptual fluency.

References

Boas, F. (1938) General Anthropology (Boston, MA: Heath). Boroditsky, L. (2002) ‘Linguistic Relativity’, in Galley Article 0056 (Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology). Chomsky, N. (1975) Reflections on Language (New York: Pantheon). Hall, T. and Hall, M.R. (1990) Understanding Cultural Differences (Maine: Intercultural Press).

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Hofstede, G. (1994) Cultures and Organisations: Software of the Mind. Intercultural Cooperation and its Importance to Survival (London: HarperCollins). Lewis, R. (2002) The Cultural Imperative (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing). Lewis, R. (2004) When Cultures Collide (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing). Oberg, K. (1960) ‘Culture Shock: Adjustment to New Cultural Environments’, Practical Anthropology 7: 177–82. Pinker, S. (1994) The Language Instinct: How the Mind Creates Languages (Harmondsworth: Penguin). Sapir, E. (1966) Culture, Language and Personality (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press). Tomalin, B. and Nicks, M. (2010) The World’s Business Cultures and How to Unlock Them (London: Thorogood Publishing). Trompenaars, F. (1993) Riding the Waves of Culture (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing). Trompenaars, F. (2000) Riding the Waves of Culture, 2nd edn (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing). Whorf, B. (1956) Language, Thought and Reality (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press).

Further reading

Axtell, R. (1993) Do’s and Taboos Around the World, A Guide to International Behaviour (New York: John Wiley & Sons). Bragg, M. (2003) The Adventure of English (London: Hodder & Stoughton). Crystal, D. (2003) How Language Works (London: Penguin). Harrison, B. (ed.) (1990) Culture and the Language Classroom (Oxford: Modern English Publications). Mehrabian, A. (1981) Silent Messages: Implicit Communication of Emotions and Attitudes (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth). Morris, D. (1977) Manwatching: A Field Guide to Human Behaviour (London: Jonathan Cape). Morris, D. (1979) Gestures: Their Origins and Distribution (London: Book Club Associates). Pease, A. and Pease, B. (2004) The Definitive Book of Body Language (London: Orion Books). Spencer- Oatey, H. (2000) Culturally Speaking: Managing Rapport through Talk Across Cultures (London: Continuum). Trompenaars, F. and Hampden-Turner, C. (2000) Building Cross- Cultural Competence (London: Nicholas Brealey Publishing). Whorf, B. (1998) Science and Linguistics – Basic Concepts of Communication: Selected Readings (Maine: Intercultural Press).

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Index

Abercrombie, D. 89 APEC 209 accent 80, 83 Aperian model 268–9 Accenture International Women’s Day Apollo Syndrome 145 Survey 134 Apple 217 acceptance stage 59–60 apologies 167 access to markets 212 appearance 93 achievement/ascription cultures 50–1 Arab Spring 209 acknowledgement 87 Arab countries/Arabs 22, 25, 31, 33, action chain 26 35–6, 56, 58 Action- Centred Leadership 127 communication skills 90–1, 93–4 active listening 86–7 negotiations 166, 168, 171, 186–8 Adair, J. 127 teamworking 150–3 adaptation stage 60, 88 Arctic region 221 adjustment stage 115–16 Argentina 221 Adler, N. 111, 118, 172 arigata meiwaku viii Aérospatiale 259 Armstrong, A. 129 affective versus neutral 49–50 artificial languages 68–9 affection 146 arts 225, 229 affirmative action 194–5 ascriptive cultures 51 Africa/Africans 9, 25, 33, 41, 56, 69 Ashridge Business School 100 communication skills 82, 90 Asia/Asians 7, 9, 25–7, 31–3, 36, 38, globalization 215, 221 39, 49, 56 multiculturalism and diversity 201 communication skills 79, 81–3, 92 negotiations 165 leadership 138 teamworking 151 multiculturalism and diversity 205 technology transfer 244 negotiations 169 agendas 151–2, 171–2 teamworking 146, 148, 152–3 agents and mediators 171 technology transfer 244 agreement in meetings 155 see also individual regions/countries aid advisers 244–5, 245 assessment centres 103–4 airlines 231 assimilation of immigrants 194, 202 Akhihito, Emperor 92 assumption of similarities 13 alienation 119 asylum seekers 204 Alliance Française 228 attendance of meetings 153 ambiguity 14, 16, 113 audience expectations 82–3 American English 71–2, 72 Aung San Suu Kyi 191, 231 Amsterdam Treaty 1999 197 Australia/Australians 9, 22, 25, 31, 33, Anglophone cultures 32–3, 35–6, 41, 63 69, 71, 194–5, 203–4 Anholt, S. 232–4, 236 authority issues 51, 130 animated profiling 268–9 see also seniority Annan, Kofi 171, 231 anthropology 3 back- up team-roles 143 anti-corruption laws 168 bad language 80 ‘any other business’ 173 BAE Systems 246

294

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Barakat, H. 90 Burger King 256 barriers to communication 10–12, burqa ban 203 11–12, 17 Bush, George Sr. 91 barriers to listening 85–6 Bush, George W. 9, 165 barriers to transfer of skills and business- specific training 110–11 knowledge 247 Byers, Roger 210 Barry, B. 192 Byram, Michael 136, 275 Barsoux, J. 102, 127–8, 130, 278 Basic English 68 Cadbury’s 210 BBC World Service 66, 231 Café Direct 220 Bechtel 246 call centres 80 Beckham, David 232 Camp David 165, 171 Beech, N. 138 Canada/Canadians 9, 22, 32–3, 194–5, Beijing Olympics 230, 236–7 199–200 Belbin, Meredith 141, 143, 145 Canadian International Development Belgium 4, 133, 154, 203, 265 Agency (CIDA) 104, 115, 243 Bennett, Milton 58–60 can- do culture 174 best practice 96 Cantonese 71 Bhaskar-Shrinivas, P. 112 Cardon, P. 169, 185 bias 37–8, 42–4, 103 Caribbean 69 bilingualism 73 CARICOM 209 Binyon, Michael 166 Carter, Jimmy 200 Blair, Tony 9, 216, 238 Cartesian tradition 175 BMW 210 case studies 280 Boas, Franz 3 caste system 179 body language 89 categorization 13–14 Bollywood 70, 234 Cattell, H. 266 Bond, Michael 37–8, 39, 43 Cattell, R. 261, 267 Borge, Victor 148 Cattell’s 16 personality factors 266–7 Boroditsky, Lena 3 celebrities 232 borrowings from English 67 Central Europeans 36, 43 borrowings into English 62–3, 63 Centre for International Briefing 108, 279 bowing 92 Centre for Humanitarian Dialogue 171 BP 213 Cervantes Institute 228 BP/Amoco 242 chairpersons 153–4 Brahm Levey, G. 192 change management 254 Brake, T. 137 Channel Tunnel 253 Brazil 72, 93, 112 charismatic leadership 131 brevity 81 charities 209 BRIC nations 72, 208–9, 211, 213, 216 Chartered Institute of Personnel and British see UK/British Development, UK 261 British Aerospace 253 Chatelaine, General 171 British Airport Authority 246–7 cheap labour 209, 214–15 British Airways 231 Chevron 213 British Council 64, 66, 225, 228, 235 Chile 231 British languages 65 China/Chinese 15, 22, 25–6, 32, 37, broadcasting 231 39–40, 42, 45, 49, 56, 58 Brooke, M. 247 communication skills 87, 90 Buddhism 184–5 cultural diplomacy and nation Bulgaria 91 branding 226–7, 230–1, 236–7

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China/Chinese – continued competitive identity 234 cultural profiling 265 competitive listening 85 globalization 211–15, 221 computer- generated profiles 268 language issues 66, 70–2 computerized testing 267–8 leadership 134, 138 conceptual fluency 18 negotiations 168–9, 183–6 concise/expressive communication teaching cross- cultural paradigm 8 communication 276, 279, 281–2 Concorde 253 teamworking 150 Confucianism 38–9, 39, 182–4, 184, technology transfer 242, 251, 253–5 185 China National 213 dynamism values 39 China Radio International 237 Constructiones and Aeronautica 253 Chinese Communist Party 236 consultative processes 33–4 Chinese Confucius Institute 228, 229, consumer tastes 248 237 containerization 220 Chinese language 72, 229 contextualization 12 Chinese Value Survey (CVS) 37–8, 43, continuum approach 47, 53 184 control 146 Chirac, Jacques 66 convergence 43 Chomsky, Noam 3 conversational overlap 80 chromatics 95 coping strategies xi, xiii, 116–17, 121 Churchill, Winston 15, 87, 178, 232 corporate culture 6, 30, 44, 109, 147, cinema 234, 237 245 citizenship tests/training 194, 198–204 corporate power 217 Civil Rights Movement 200 Costa 220 clarification 87 costs 99, 107 clear objectives for meetings 150–1 country of origin effect 232 climate change 220 country- specific briefings 109, 278–80 Clingendael Institute 108 courtesy 81 clothing 93 Cox, T. 142 CNN (Cable News Network) 217 Cranfield University 145 coaching 130, 244 creole 69, 71 Coca- Cola 210 crisis stage 114 codes of conduct 6, 164 criteria for overseas personnel 101 coding/transmission/decoding/feedback critical incident scenarios 188, 280–2 process 10–11 criticism, direct/indirect 15 Coe, Sebastian 238 cross-cultural learning process 59 cognitive training 279 cross- cultural traits 267–72 Cohen, R. 163–4, 166, 168 cross- national advertising 138 Cold War 229, 231 ‘crusade’ 166 collectivism 33–6, 49, 53, 132, 138, Crystal, David 63, 65 146, 178 culinary diplomacy 231 Collinson, S. 129, 209, 214, 217 cultural assimilator 282–3 colloquialisms 66, 70 cultural awareness development 101 colours 95 cultural convergence 217 committees 173 cultural determinism 44–5 communication styles 6–7, 7, 260, 262 cultural divergence 218 communication systems 251 cultural diplomacy xiii, 224–5 competencies 100–1, 129, 136–7, 172 evolution of 225–6 competitive advantage 212 instruments of 228, 228–32

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smart power 227–8 democratic leadership 130 soft power 226–7 denial stage 59 cultural diversity xii, xiii, 13, 48, 142, Denmark 36, 129 145 Department for International definition 191 Development 244 cultural imperialism 216–17, 237 details and suggestions cultural missions 228–9 communicators 7–8, 83 cultural pluralism 193–4 Deutsche Welle 231 cultural profiling developing countries 50 clusters 263 Developmental Model of Intercultural definition 259–60 Sensitivity 58–9 fault lines 264–5 diasporas 232 key indicators 261–3 difference, accepting 16, 88 limitations 271–2 diffuse versus specific 50 personality factors/ cross- cultural diplomacy 163, 167 traits 265–72 direct/indirect communicators 7 resources 261 disappearing languages 64–5 types of 261 DISC profile 267 cultural values 42, 44–5, 52–3, 237, distance 94 260, 285–9 distortion 11 culture Diverse Europe at Work Project 205 definitions 4, 4–5, 48 diversity 195–6 explicit 5 diversity team roles 143 invisible 5 Doha Conference 214 and language 58 Domino’s Pizza 256 manifestations of 41–2 Douste- Blazy, Philippe 229 CULTURE ACTIVE profile 268 Dowling, P. 142 culture capsules 282 dual career problem 107, 134 culture gap 95 Dutch see The Netherlands culture shock viii, xiii, 59, 105, 111–12 cycle 122 East Asia 146 responses to 113–14 Eastern Europeans 33, 43, 66, 73, 242, stages of 114–16 248, 276 symptoms 113 ECOLE approach 262–3 culture-distance concept 112 economic factors 234, 265 culture-rich approach 142 economic imperialism 221 Culturesfrance 229 The Economist 102, 134 cyclic time 58 Eddington, Rod 231 Cyprus 265 educational issues 134, 137, 175, 227, Czech Republic 49, 248 260, 271 Edwards, T. 137 Daimler-Benz Aerospace 253 Egypt 95 Daniels, J. 247 electronic communication 81 Davies, G. 142 emails 81–2 Davos meetings 209 emotional/neutral communicators 9, Dayton Peace Accords 171 49–50 decision making 182 emotive words 85 deductive/inductive approaches 175 empathy 87–8 defence stage 59 English ‘borrowings’ from other democracy 227 languages 63

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English as an international language 72 Falkland Islands 221 English language 62–5, 212, 217, 229, false friends/‘faux amis’ 67, 80 276 family issues 100, 106–7, 119–20, 165 advantages/disadvantages 65–8, 166 fast/slow communicators 9–10, 79 varieties of 69–72 fear and anxiety 12 entertainment 26, 234 Feather, Vic 169 environmental issues 220, 227, 252, feedback 11–12, 18, 87, 275 254 Female FTSE 100 Board Report 133 equality 195–7 femininity 34–6, 132 Equality and Human Rights feng shui 186 Commission 197 Fernandez- Armesto, Felipe 191 Esperanto 68 Fiedler, F. 282 Estuary English 72 FIFA World Cup 232 ethnicities 43, 196, 196 financial climate 219 ethnocentrism 12–13, 58–9, 195–6 Finland/Finns 49, 56, 87 ethnorelativism 59–60 first- order factors 135 etiquette 164, 168, 180, 182, 260, Fisher, R. 163, 169 262–3 focus 87 EU Charter of Fundamental Rights follow- up 155 1989 197 foreign assignment interest groups 99 Euromanagers 102 Foreign and Commonwealth Office 228 Europanto 68–9 foreign culture questionnaires 288–9 European Airbus 253 foreign direct investment (FDI) 243, European Survey on Language 245, 251 Competence 74 formal/informal communicators 8–9, European Union (EU) 66–7, 73–4, 132, 81–2, 150, 165, 174 163, 166, 196, 205, 209, 212, 233 Forster, E.M. ix Europeans 8, 21, 145 Fortune Global 500 213 Eurostat Yearbook – Education 276 Fortuyn, Pim 202 Eurozone 209 Foseco case study 149 crisis 219 four dimensions (Hofstede) 30–1, 31 evaluation 85 framework approach 269, 270 expatriate failure 104–7, 116 France/French 26–8, 35, 52 expectations 151, 262 communication skills 90–1, 93–5 experiential learning 284–5 cultural diplomacy and nation exploitation 216 branding 231–2 extroversion/introversion 267 language issues 70 Exxon Mobil 213 leadership 131, 133 eye contact 91, 146 multiculturalism and diversity 192, 194, 201–2 FACE approach 87 negotiations 168, 175–6 Facebook 81, 209 selection/preparation process 103 face-saving 138, 148, 167, 169, 182, 185 teaching cross- cultural face- to- face communication 11, 157 communication 278 facial expressions 91 teamworking 144–5, 148, 150–2, facilitation 130, 244, 280, 284 154–5 factual information 279 technology transfer 253 failed states 209 franchising 256 failure 104–7, 116 ‘franglais’ 67, 67, 68 Fairtrade Foundation 219–20 French language 66–8, 74, 79, 229

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Fulbright Scholarship 229 glocalization 218, 219 future- oriented cultures 27, 52 Goethe Institut 228 ‘Good Tourism’ promotion 230 G8/G20 211, 213 government interventions 251, 254 Gaelic 65 Graham, J. 175 Gamble, A. 192 graphic profiling 268 Gandhi, Mahatma 232 graphology 103 Gap 209 Greece/Greeks 56, 91, 95, 154 gastronomy 231 group leadership 54 Gates, Bill 64 ‘guanxi’ 186 GATT 211 Guéant, Claude 202 Gazprom 213 guerilla linguistics 277 gender 34–6, 133–5, 174, 179–80, 183, Guirdham, M. 115 195 Gulf states 282–3 General Electric 248 Guy, V. 69 General Motors 220, 248 generalizations 43, 263–4 Hall, Edward T. 4, 7–8, 10, 20–9, 50 German language 73–4 Hall, Mildred R. 4, 10, 20–9, 50 Germany/Germans 7, 10, 22, 24–5, 28, Hall of Birkenhead, Lord 227 32–3, 35–6, 49–51, 56, 58 Hampden-Turner, C. 47, 274 communication skills 82–3, 94 Han, J. 217 cultural diplomacy and nation handshakes 92–4 branding 231–2, 235 haptics 93 language issues 70 ‘haragei’ 181 leadership 131 harmony 146, 184, 186 negotiations 176–8 Harvard Program on Negotiation 163 teamworking 144, 146, 148–55 Havel, Vaclav 219 gestures 90–1 head- hunters 138 Gibb, Nick 74 health and safety 250, 254, 256 Giddens, A. 208 Heath, Edward 226 gift- giving 168, 178, 183, 188 heaven/hell definitions 15 give- and- take relationships 146, 174 Heller, J. 128 glass ceiling 134, 174 Henley Management College 143 global corporations 213–14 Herberger Jr., R. 175 global media 227, 231 Heseltine, Michael 243 global village 210 Heywood, A. 192 globalization 39, 43, 53, 56, 126, 129, hierarchies 31–3, 82, 175, 178–9 157, 208–9 high/ low-context communicators 21–3, components 210–11 23, 28–9, 29, 50, 82, 155, 165, 187 cultural convergence 217–18 hijab ban 201–2 cultural divergence 218–19 Hildreth, J. 232, 236 definition 209–10 Hill, C. W. 210 driving forces 211, 211–12 Hill, W. 291 future trends 219–21 Hindi 10, 70, 73, 79 as a myth 214 Hinglish 70, 179 opposition to 214–17 historical factors 265 Global Leadership and Organizational Hofstede, Geert 4, 5, 7–8, 20, 25, Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) 29–46, 49, 53, 111, 114, 132, 184 project 45, 135, 268–9 research reviewed 42–5 Globish 69 sixth dimension 40–1

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Hofstede, Gert Jan 30, 39 Indulgence versus Restraint (IVR) 31, Hokkien 70 40–1, 41, 44 Hollywood 234 industrial psychology 29 homogenization 217 Industrial Training Research Unit 143 Honda 210, 247 inequalities 31–3, 214–17 honeymoon stage 114 inner/ outer- directed people 52 Hong Kong 40, 71 insecurity 14, 16 Hong Kong International Airport 246 ‘Inshallah’ 188 hospitality 168, 176, 183 insiders and outsiders 22 hosting events 227 inspirational leadership 131 House, Robert 45, 135, 268 institutional globalization 210–11 HSBC 94, 103, 242 insularity 74 Hu, President 236 intangible property rights 255 hugging 92 integration 59–60, 119, 194, 201–3 human resource management 100, interactive learning 275–6 107, 134 intercultural skills 205 humanitarian issues 226 interdependence 208–9, 220 humour 4, 82, 148–9, 165–6, 173–4, international aid 227, 230, 244–5, 177, 182 245 Hungary 49, 248 international communities 99 Huntington, Samuel 73, 216, 218, 264 International Finance Corporation 242 Hurn, B. 102, 133, 149 international graduate Hussein, Saddam 92, 166 programmes 138 International House, London 108 Iberia 231 International Joint Ventures (IJVs) 48, IBM 29–30, 44 141, 245, 251–4 iceberg analogy 5–6 international management 102, 126, ice- breakers 88, 148, 165 126–7, 128, 128–9 ignorance 12, 16 International Monetary Fund IKEA 217 (IMF) 209, 210, 211, 242 illegal immigration 204 international negotiation immigration 198, 204–5, 232 see negotiation implicit/explicit culture 5–6 International Olympic Committee 235, inappropriate locations 86 238 inappropriate technology 251 international organizations 225, 227 inattentiveness 86 internationalization 142 INCA Project 136 Internet recruitment 138 inclusion 146 interpersonal skills 243, 249 India/Indians 27, 39–40, 45 interpretations 85 communication skills 79–80, 91, 94–5 interpreters 148, 152–3, 167–8, 248 cultural diplomacy and nation interruptions 10, 85, 153, 187 branding 231–2 intonation 79 globalization 213, 215 Iran 209 language issues 63, 69–70, 72–3 Iraq War 228 negotiations 179–80 Israelis 33 Indian Oil 213 IT developments 212 indigenous minorities 203 Italy/Italians 22, 29, 51, 56, 58 individual leadership 54 communication skills 90–1, 93–4 individualism 31, 33–6, 34, 41, 49, 53, cultural profiling 265 132, 146 language issues 70

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leadership 131, 133 Latin cultures 26, 32, 81, 83, 92, 134, negotiations 168 151 teamworking 145, 149–50, 154, 156 Latin language 64–5 layers of culture 52–3 Jackson Personality Inventory 103 layout of meetings 151 Japan/Japanese 7–8, 15, 17, 22–3, 25–6, laziness 12 28, 31, 33–7, 40, 49, 51–2, 56 leadership 54–5, 154, 260, 262 communication skills 79–81, 87, across cultures 126–9 90–5 criteria for success 128–9 cultural profiling 271 cross- cultural implications 133 globalization 212–13, 220 definition 125 leadership 132, 134, 138 development for women 133 negotiations 167–70, 180–3 and gender 133–5 teamworking 146, 149–50, 152–4 global leadership training 135–7 technology transfer 247 styles 129–33 Japan Post Holdings 213 learning outcomes 284 Jenkins, N. 149 learning styles 275–6, 284–5 ‘jikoshokai’ 182 Lebanon 235 Joynt, P. 138 legislation 193, 196–7 less developed countries (LDCs) 214–16, Kachru, Braj 69–70 219–20, 230, 244 KcKenna, E. 138 Levin, A. 127 Kennedy, John F. 195 Levitt, Theodore 217 Kentucky Fried Chicken 256 Lewicki, R. 171 Kenya 171 Lewis, Richard D. 9–10, 21, 25, 44, Kerley, D. 243 56–8, 83, 130, 133, 268 Khan, Keith 238 Lewis Cultural Model 57, 262 kissing 94 licensing 255–6 knowledge agreements 246 lifestyle factors 260 knowledge transfer 110, 242, 254 linear- active cultures 56, 58, 130 barriers 247, 247–52 lingua franca 64, 64–5, 73, 78–9, 229 Korea/Koreans 22, 36, 56, 95, 231 linguistics 2–3 North 209 listening skills 17, 83–7, 170–1 South 15, 40, 91, 134, 138 Livable Rotterdam Party 202 KPMG 110, 242 local knowledge 247–8, 253 Kraft 210 London Olympics 237–9 Krio language 69 London terrorist attacks 2005 192 long- term orientation (LTO) 31, 37–40, Lagarde, Christine 211 39, 40, 43–4, 181 ‘laïcité’ 201 loyalty 51 laissez- faire leadership 130 Lufthansa 231 language issues 3–4, 58, 78–80, 82–3, 147, 152–3, 166–7, 181, 197–8, ‘Ma fi mushkilleh’ 188 248–9, 254, 264–5 Major, John 72 see also individual languages Malaysia 49, 100 language teaching/training 73–4, 109, management 148, 189, 229, 248–9, 276–7 change 254 Latin America/Americans 9, 25, 31–6, contracts 246 41, 49–50, 58, 66, 73, 82, 90–4, 146, cultures 32–3 263 Euromanagers 102

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 302 Index management – continued Min Zhu 211 international 102, 126, 126–7, 128, mini dramas 281 128–9 minimization stage 59 leadership 125 Minkov, Michael 30, 34, 40, 44 multi-active/reactive 131 misunderstandings 10–12, 166, 188 participative 130 Mitchell, George 171 performance 138, 250 Mitchell, T. 282 styles 48 Mitford, Nancy 15 Mandarin Chinese 73 Mitterrand, Francois 166 Mandela, Nelson 232 mobile phones 82 Mandelson, Peter 216 mobility lubricants 105 manifestations of culture 41–2, 52 Mole, John 44, 54–6 map, culture as 5, 55, 55–6 Mole Map 55 Marani, Diego 68 monochronic/polychronic cultures marginal listeners 85 23–8, 27, 51, 56, 247, 281, 283 maritime trade 220 monoculturalism 195–6 market forces 210, 215, 250 Morgan, C. 275 markets, access to 212 Morrison, Jim 267 Marks & Spencer 209 Morton, B. 138 Marshall Plan 228 mosaic approach 200, 203–4 Martston, William Moulton 267 motivation 132, 143 Marx, E. 129 MTV 217 masculinity/femininity index 34–6, 35, Mullins, L. 129–30 40–1, 132 multi- active cultures/managers 56, 58, mass communication 216 131 Mason, Philip ix multicultural executives 133 Master of Business Administration multicultural teams 110, 126, 141–2 (MBA) 134 multiculturalism 43–4, 192–3, 237 Mattock, J. 69 multiculturalism and diversity, national Maugham, Somerset 120 policies McDonald’s 6, 210, 256 Australia 203–4 McKinsey 134 Belgium 203 Mead, A. 266 Canada 199–200 Mead, R. 185 France 201–2 Médecins sans Frontières 209, 230 The Netherlands 202–3 Mediterranean cultures 9, 22, 49–50, Switzerland 199 93–4 UK 197–9 meetings 149–55, 150, 155, 174, 176, USA 200–1 187 Multilingual Capital survey 197–8 Mehrabian, Albert 89 multinationals 6, 100–1, 103, 209, 214, ‘meishi’ 182 218 melting pot approach 174, 200 Muslim cultures 41, 83, 93, 134, 171, Mendenhall and Oddou model 103, 186, 188, 201–3 267 Myanmar 231 mental programming 5, 30 Myers- Briggs Type Indicator Mexico/Mexicans 50, 95, 201, 231 (MBTI) 103, 261, 267 Microsoft 64 Middle East 82, 91–4, 134, 146, 165, Nakata, Cheryl 44 265 names and titles 185, 277 migration 191 ‘naniwabushi’ 182

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Index 303 nation branding 226, 230, 232–5 non- governmental organizations Nation Brands Index 234 (NGOs) 99, 133, 163, 209, 225, national cultures 30, 43 227, 230, 239, 242, 256 national heroes/heroines 42, 232 non- verbal communication (NVC) national identity 198 89–95, 90, 95 national policies 197–204 Nordic cultures 33, 35–6, 41 Native Americans 3–4 Norman, W. T. 266–7 NATO 228, 231, 233 norms and values 52–3 natural disasters 220 North America/Americans 7–8, 25, natural resources 221 32–3, 35, 56, 58, 73, 83, 92, 130 nature 52 see also Canada; USA Nebenzahl, D. 235 North American Free Trade Agreement needs focus 127 (NAFTA) 62, 209, 212 negotiating styles 164, 254 Northern Europeans 9, 33, 90, 94, 133, American 174–5 155 Arab 186–8 Northern Ireland 265 British 172–4 Norway 133 Chinese 183–6 Norwegian Government Training French 175–6 Scheme (NORAID) 108 German 176–8 note- taking 86 Indian 179–80 Nye, Joseph S. 226–8 Japanese 180–3 Russian 178–9 Obama, Barack 92, 214 negotiation 162–3, 164, 164–5 Oberg, Kalvero viii, 5–6, 59, 112–13, 122 agents and mediators 171 occupational psychology 102–3 assessment of cultural influences 170 Occupy movement 215 definitions 163–4 offence 7 ‘face’ 169 office spaces 28 fundamentals 172 off- shore English 69, 147, 153 gifts and hospitality 168 olfactics 94–5 ice- breakers 164–6 Olympic Games 230, 232–3, 235–9 interpreters/translators 167–8 one child policy (China) 40 language issues 166–7 online recruitment 138 negotiating styles 172–88 open door policy 25 skills 110, 170–1 ordnung 177 training 188–9 organic organizations 54 Nelson, Horatio 232 organization 262 Nerriere, Jean-Paul 69 Organization of the Petroleum The Netherlands/Dutch 4, 7, 22, 25, Exporting Countries (OPEC) 62 33, 35–6, 58, 131, 133, 149, 153–5 organizational theory 47, 54–5 Biafran War 230 Orwell, George ix national policies 202–3 outsourcing 209–10, 214, 216–17 networking 87–8, 150, 187 Overseas Assignment Inventory 102 neutrality 49–50 New Zealand/New Zealanders 9, 25, 33 Panama Canal 220 news coverage 237 panda diplomacy 226–7 Nicks, M. 7–8, 16, 262, 269–71 Papua New Guinea 69 Nissan 247 paralinguistics 95 Nixon, Richard 226 paraphrasing 86 Nokia 217 Pareto, Wilfredo 269

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 304 Index participation style in meetings 155 presentations 82–4, 277 participative management 130 present- oriented cultures 27, 51 particularism 48–9, 53 PricewaterhouseCoopers 106, 242 Pascal, Blaise 15 primary leadership dimensions 135 passive listening 85 primary team-roles 143 past-oriented cultures 27, 51 production globalization 210 patois 69 professional differences 264 perception 14–18 progress 250 perception distance 145 project definition 249, 251, 254 perception exercises 290–1, 291 promotion systems 51 performance management 138, 250 protectionism 214, 217 Perham, Marjorie ix protest 215 ‘Permanent Sovereignty over Natural protocol 154, 164, 277 Resources’ UN Resolution 253 proverbs 285, 285–6 Permex 213 proxemics 94 personal issues 100 psychological assessments 103–4 personal relationships 146, 179, 186–7 public/private spheres 50, 88 personal space 28, 94, 151 punctuality 152, 180 personality factors 265–72 Putin, Vladimir 165 personality testing 266 Petrobus 213 quality control 250, 254, 256 Phillips, Trevor 198 questions, ability to ask 88 phonetic/ non-phonetic spelling 66, 71 quotas for minorities/women 133, ping-pong/bowling communicators 9–10 194–5 Pinker, Steven 3 piracy 220–1 race issues 265 Pizza Hut 256 RADAR profile 269–71 Plain English Campaign 68 Radebaugh, L. 247 Poland 86, 248 rationalism 54, 175 political elements 43, 220, 226, 234, Ravitch, D. 192, 194 265 reactive cultures/managers 56–7, 131 pollution 217 Received Pronunciation 72 polychronic cultures see monochronic/ receiving 85 polychronic cultures recession 204 popular art 229 recognition of difference 142 population control 40 recovery stage 114–15 Portugal 35, 49, 154 recruitment 137, 260, 265–6 posture 92 Rees, C. 137 poverty 215–16 reflecting 87, 89 power distance index (PDI) 8, 31–3, refusals 180, 185 32, 129, 132, 184 regeneration 237 PowerPoint 83 regional differences 264 pragmatic approach 173 regionalization 214 prayers 187 relationship orientations 48–51 pre- departure training 108 relationship with nature 52 prejudice 16, 85, 145–6 relationship with time 51 preliminaries 25 relativism 42 preparation 150, 162, 165, 176 religious sensitivity 80, 93, 152, 187–8, preparatory training 100, 102, 106–8, 201, 247, 260, 265 110 remembering 85

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Index 305 repatriation 117–22 Self- Perception Inventory Analysis 143 repeating 86 semiotics 2–3 Research and Development 253 seniority 82, 154, 164, 168, 181–2, 247 resistance to change 250–1 Shanghai Expo 2010 230, 244 respect 82 shared experiences 164–5, 187 responding 85 Shaw, George Bernard 71 responsibility 16, 138 Shell 6, 103, 105–6, 213 restraint 40–1 Expatriate Survey 105 reverse culture shock 117–19 Shenkar, O. 263 reversion 119 short- term orientation (STO) 31, Richard Lewis Communications 261, 37–40, 39, 44 268 Shuler, R. 142 Rieth, Lord 231 Sierra Leone 69 right response/right message 10 signposting, signalling, summarizing ‘ringi-sho’ 271 approach 83–4 risk 36–7, 175, 212, 245–6, 253 silence 79–80, 87, 95, 152, 170, 181, Ritterband, David 238 187 rituals 42, 279 simulation 283–5, 284 role playing 283–5, 284 Singapore 69, 232 Ronen, S. 263 Singlish 70–1 Roosevelt, Theodore 200 Sinopec Group 213 Rosneft 254 situational leadership 127–8 Rugman, A. 129, 209, 214, 217 skills transfer 110, 242, 247, 247–52 Russia/Russians 42, 72, 93, 131, 165, Skoda/Volkswagen 248 171, 178–9, 221, 229, 251, 253–4 Skype 82 Russian language 73 slogans (tourism) 230 small talk 25, 165, 185 Saatchi & Saatchi 238 smart power 227–8 Sainsbury’s 209 ‘smart sanctions’ 166 salad bowl approach 194 smells 94–5 Sapir, Edward 3 smiling 91 Sapir- Whorf Hypothesis 3 Snyder, D.P. 210 Sarkozy, Nicolas 202 social media 82 Saudi Arabia 246 social responsibility 6 Saussure, Ferdinand de 2 socialization 4 Scandinavian countries 7, 22, 25, 29, socializing 155, 174, 187 32–3, 35, 50, 83 soft power 216, 226–7, 236 Schein, Edgar 125 Somalia 221 Schengen Agreement 197 Sony 217 Schneider, S. 102, 127–8, 130, 278 South Africa 231–2 Schutz, W. 146 Southeast Asians 9, 39, 41, 152, 171 science 230 Southern Europeans 25, 49, 146 Scott, J. 169, 185 Soviet Union 226 screening methods 102–4 space 28–9 secularism 201 Spain/Spanish 50, 70, 79, 90, 94, 129, security concerns 157, 252 131, 133, 150, 154, 231, 235, 253 selection process 100, 102–4, 137–8, Spanish language 10, 72–3, 79 143, 145, 252, 265, 271 Speak Good English Movement 70 selective listening 85 specialization 175 self-awareness training 156 specific/diffuse cultures 50

Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 Copyrighted material – 978–0–230–39113–0 306 Index speed of speech 79 culture capsules 282 spoken language 78–80, 277–8 foreign culture questionnaires 288–9 Spony, Gilles 268 methodology 275–6 Spony Profiling Model 268 perception exercises 290–1, 291 sport 230, 232–9 presentations 277–8 Standard English 72 proverbs 285–6 STAR approach 16–17, 17 simulation and role playing 283–5, Starbucks 220 284 State Grid 213 stereotypes exercise 289–90 status 50–1 true/false exercises 286 Stelzer, Cita 87 team building 141 stereotypes exercise 289–90 cultural synergy 147 stereotyping 13–14, 145–6, 195, 263–4 main issues 147–9 Stiglitz, Joseph 215–16 meetings 149–55 Stockman, N. 184 requirement and challenge 142–3 Storti, C. 116, 121 roles 143–5, 144 Strait of Hormuz 220 training 149 Strauss- Kahn, Dominique 211 training methodology 156, 275 stress in speech 79 trust 145–6 stress of change 112 technology 7, 44, 81–2, 150, 157, 178, stressors 112, 112–13 212, 227, 230, 248 Strine 71 inappropriate 251–2 structured approach 177 technology transfer 241–3, 255, 256–7 subjective well- being 41 barriers 247, 247–52 subsidies 220 case study 254–5 Suez Canal 220 knowledge agreements 246 Sullivan, D. 247 management contracts 246–7 summarizing 147 risk 245–6 survey approaches 44, 53 turnkey arrangements 246 swearing 80 temporal elements 23–8, 51–2, 57–8, Swedes 32, 56, 131, 133, 144, 231 247, 281, 283 Switzerland/Swiss 24, 56, 152, 199–200 territoriality 28–9 symbiotic language- thought 4 terrorism 157, 192, 219–21 symbols 41 texting 82 symptoms of culture shock 113 Thailand/Thais 58, 91–2, 94, 169 synergy 147, 200, 251, 253 Thatcher, Margaret 166, 231 systematic organizations 54 thought and language 3–4 Szaly, L. 166 Tibet 265 The Times 227 taboo subjects 88, 165, 265 timing in speech 79–80 Taiwan/Taiwanese 40, 227 timing of meetings 152 Taoism 184–5 TNK- BP 253–4 Tata Group 213 Toffler, Alvin viii tax evasion 217 Tomalin, B. 7–8, 16, 83, 157–8, 262, teaching cultural awareness 274 269–71 case studies 280 tonal languages 277 country- specific briefings 278–80 Torbiorn, I. 115 critical incident scenarios 280–2 Toubon, Jacques 67 cultural assimilator 282–3 touching 93 cultural values 285–9 tourism 230, 235

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Toyota 6, 213, 247 UN Charter 163 trade barriers decline 212 uncertainty avoidance index (UAI) trade in goods and services 241–2 36–7, 37, 39, 53, 132, 175 trade missions 243–4 unemployment 250 trade unions 247 UN Resolution: Permanent Sovereignty Trades Union Congress 169 over National Resources 253 training 254, 260, 271 Uniting Europe through Cultures business- specific 110–11 (UNEC) project 88 citizenship 194, 198–204 universal grammar 3 cognitive 279 universalism 48–9, 53 courses 109–10, 137, 143 updating of analyses 42–3 language 73–4, 109, 148, 189, 229, urbanization 216 248–9, 276–7 Ury. W. 163, 169 leadership 135–7 USA/Americans 9–10, 21–2, 27–8, 31, methodology 111, 156, 275 33, 49–52 negotiation 188–9 communication skills 81, 94–5 preparatory 100, 102, 106–8, 110 cultural diplomacy and nation requirements 249 branding 228, 230, 232 self-awareness 156 cultural profiling 265, 269 team building 149, 156 globalization 213–14, 220 transfer of skills and knowledge 242 language issues 69, 71, 73 transformational leadership 131 leadership 132 translators 148, 167–8 multiculturalism and diversity 194–5, Triandis, H. 282 200–1 Trompenaars, Fons 4, 7, 25, 44, 47–53, negotiations 165–6, 171, 174–5 181, 274 teamworking 144, 146, 148–9, 151, true/false exercises 286 154–5 trust 34, 145–6, 165 technology transfer 246 Tung, R. 105, 118, 129 Turner, Charles Hampden 47 value judgments 14, 16–17 turnkey arrangements 246 value systems 4, 30, 248 turn- taking 80 values 42, 44–5, 52–3, 237, 260, 285–9 Twin Towers attack (9/11) 157 verbal communication 78–80 Twitter 81–2, 209 Victor, D. 167 virtual meetings 157–8 UK/British 9–10, 17, 22–5, 27–9, 32–4, Voice of America 231 37, 49, 52, 58 volume 79 communication skills 81–2, 90–1, 93–5 Von Clausewitz, Carl 226 cultural diplomacy and nation branding 230, 232, 235, 237–9 Wal- Mart 210, 213 cultural profiling 269 Watson, C. 193 globalization 221 Welch, D. 142 leadership 131, 133 Welsh 65 multiculturalism and diversity 192, Western Europe 130, 133, 146, 153–4, 194–9, 204 214 negotiations 164, 172–4 Wharton Business School 47 selection/preparation process 103 what/why – why/what teamworking 145, 148–51, 153–6 communicators 8 technology transfer 242–3, 246–8, white Australia policy 203 253–5 Whorf, Benjamin- Lee 3

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Wild, J. 217 World Trade Organization (WTO) 163, Wild, K. 217 209, 210, 211, 251 wine production 231 written communications 22, 80–1, 173 Women in Diplomatic Service ‘wu lun’ 184 Group 135 Women’s Global Leadership Xinhua News Agency 237 Forum 134–5 Women’s Matters Global Survey 134 Yao Ming 237 word-association 267 Yin, R. 280 work- life balance 50 ‘young lady/old lady’ image 291 World Bank 211, 215, 242 youth 237