East Tennessee State University Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University Electronic Theses and Dissertations Student Works 8-2009 Environmental Determinism: Broken Paradigm or Viable Perspective?. Gerald L. Hardin East Tennessee State University Follow this and additional works at: https://dc.etsu.edu/etd Part of the Place and Environment Commons Recommended Citation Hardin, Gerald L., "Environmental Determinism: Broken Paradigm or Viable Perspective?." (2009). Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 1839. https://dc.etsu.edu/etd/1839 This Dissertation - Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Works at Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Electronic Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ East Tennessee State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Environmental Determinism: Broken Paradigm or Viable Perspective? A dissertation presented to The faculty of the Department of Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis East Tennessee State University In partial fulfillment Of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership and Policy Analysis by Gerald Larson Hardin August 2009 _____________ Dr. Terrence Tollefson, Chair Dr. Robert Peplies Dr. Louise McKay Dr. Glenn Bettis Keywords: Environment, Determinism, Possibilism ABSTRACT Environmental Determinism: Broken Paradigm or Viable Perspective? by Gerald L. Hardin The research was to examine the issue of environmental determinism. It was an ideology that was prevalent throughout the early decades of the 20th century that held that the natural environment was responsible for virtually all human development. It helped bring the study of geography into the venue of postsecondary education, where it was viewed as a tool for study of human activities. It was a new science inspired by Darwinism that viewed human adaptation to the natural environment as critical to socialization. Relying on historical sources, the purpose of the study was to reveal how environmental determinism became a controversial extension of an ancient belief system. It played a role in religious thought, philosophy, and the rise of the social sciences. It likely dates back to the Neolithic epoch in which cultures explained the mysteries of the natural world in terms of fearsome anthropomorphisized elements. Today, the gods and goddesses have fallen by the wayside, while environmental determinism has not. Eventually, the ideology lost its major supporter and then became a topic of disapproval. However, it was never entirely disproven, but it did fall from grace. And, it is a belief that has persisted for centuries. It was central to Calvinism and some versions of Protestantism that were relocated to North America where it took root. In view of the evidence, it is proposed that 2 environmental determinism be reopened for reassessment and debate. It is manifest that future generations be apprised of the potential problems that it may inspire. To paraphrase Ellen Churchill Semple, the study of humans without consideration of the earth, would be like studying cactus without consideration of the desert. 3 DEDICATION Dr. Robert Peplies imbued his students with an appreciation of the geographic perspective – to see beyond the obvious, to discern underlying factors, and to piece together meaningful connections that make up the panorama of reality. He pointed out the patterns elements of material culture consisting of built-up areas, deteriorated areas, commercial strips, business districts, residential areas, vacant areas, recreational areas, and so on. Considering the world from a geographical perspective Peplies pointed out how cultural, economic, and political elements are reflected in spatial arrangements upon the landscape. Further, he challenged his protégés to discern spatial patterns that exist at virtually every scale of human operation from the most minute to immense levels. During the scores of expeditions that ―Dr. Bob‖ led during his tenure at East Tennessee State University he revealed the less-known world and expanded the thinking of generations of students. It is to him that this project is dedicated. 4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Teachers, mentors, friends, and family have all played a role in this study. It is impossible to adequately credit any one individual because so many provided so much. Every individual played a role that was unique, timely, and reflective of his or her character and wisdom. A ―thank you‖ alone, seems inadequate to convey the gratitude owed to Dr. Terry Tollefson, who went far beyond the requirements of committee chair giving counsel, guidance, encouragement, and more assistance than anyone could ever ask of another. Because of his endless patience and unyielding support the light at the end of the tunnel became attainable. No recognition could be more deserved than that of Dr. Robert Peplies, Emeritus professor of geography at East Tennessee State University. He was a mentor and friend who introduced new ways to see the world as a whole of interconnected elements. Through a decade of lectures, discussions, and explorations in the field he enlivened the study of geography with his insight and humor. And, his peripatetic teachings shall be remembered among the most joyful learning opportunities ever experienced by this grateful student. Dr. Glen Bettis and Dr. Louise MacKay, who patiently contended with a plethora of manuscripts that progressed by fits and starts, are owed my sincerest appreciation for their input that helped direct and tune the focus of the study. My wife Teresa, who struggled and stressed tirelessly at my side; and, who inspired and provoked me toward completion, deserves an honorary degree to go with my love and deepest appreciation. 5 CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………….2 DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………….4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS..………………………………………………………………….5 LIST OF TABLES………………………………………………….………………………..8 Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...9 Toward a Definition of Environmental Determinism….…………………………….9 Significance of the Study ....................................................................................... 12 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... 14 Research Design .................................................................................................... 17 Delimitations of the Study ..................................................................................... 18 Summary ............................................................................................................... 23 2. HISTORY OF ENVIRONMENTAL DETERMINISM ................................................. 28 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 28 The Sumerians………………………………………………………………………32 The Ancient Greeks…………………………………………………………………39 The Romans…………………………………………………………………………54 The Europeans………………………………………………………………………56 The Americans………………………………………………………………………68 Geography and East Tennessee Normal School ..................................................... 93 Possibilism ............................................................................................................ 94 6 Summary…………………………………………………………………………...109 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………….122 Introduction………………………………………………………………………..122 Methodology, Design, and Strategies……………………………………………...124 4. AN EXPANDED PERSPECTIVE……………………………………………………..135 Man Land Relationships…………………………………………………………....135 Eurocentrism and Racism…………………………………………………………..137 Elevation and Evolution…………………………………………………………....140 The Medieval Warming……………………………………………………………144 The Little Ice Age………………………………………………………………….157 The Volcano Gods…………………………………………………………………167 Testosterone Behavior……………………………………………………………..170 The Culture of Salmon……………………………………………………………..171 Fur and Codfish……………………………………………………………………173 The Eugenics Movement…………………………………………………………..177 5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS………………………………………………….189 Summary…………………………………………………………………………...189 Conclusions to the Research Questions……………………………………………197 REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………….200 VITA……………………………………………………………………………………….207 7 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Research Questions……………………………………………………………… .. 22 2. Definitions of Terms……..……………………………………………………… .. 27 3. Roorbach‘s Ranking of Importance of Geographic Studies……………………… . 72 4. Fleure‘s Regional Taxonomy...……………………………………………….........74 5. Sample Statements Reflecting Environmental Determinism...……………………132 8 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION Docendo Discimus (Lat. ―We learn by teaching‖) Broadly speaking, environmental determinism was at the center of one of the longest debates in the history of the social science of geography (Beck, 1985). Yet, in spite of years of debate over the issue, there has yet to be any clearly defined disposition of the matter. Rather, it was an idea that stirred considerable debate in the emerging field of human geography, eventually dispatched by the majority that felt it unworthy of further discourse. In spite of that ruling, the theory has reemerged periodically to haunt scholars and the public alike. The fact that it continues to be revived among various writers, scholars, and others is cause for consideration. Toward a Definition of Environmental Determinism The simple definition of environmental determinism is