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ince 1922, the Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies (WAFWA) has served as a leader promoting management and protection of fish and wildlife in the western United States and Canada. An organization represented by 17 states and four Canadian S provinces, WAFWA has faced the difficult challenge of sifting through the ever-changing societal, economic, political and scientific issues that define natural resource management in a West that has undergone many changes. WAFWA is particularly concerned about mule deer, a species that lives in every North American habitat except for the tropics, arctic and extreme deserts. Mule deer numbers and distribution have been declining throughout the West since the latter third of the 20th century. To address this concern, the Mule Deer Working Group was established at the midwinter meeting of WAFWA in 1998. The group was charged with finding “solutions to our common mule deer management problems,” expanding “cooperative research and management in the Western states and provinces,” and sharing information with agency directors and administrators on mule deer issues. To achieve its goal, the working group set out to improve communication about mule deer, and make it easier for agencies to share information on mule deer management and research. Mule Deer in the West, Changing Landscapes, Changing Perspectives, is one of the outcomes of the working group. The goals of this publication are to share research and technical information on mule deer in an easy-to-read format, and to generate informed discussion on a species that defines the West and is of tremendous importance to many people. This publication sheds light on the single greatest factor that has caused declines in mule deer—loss and degradation of habitat. It offers an overview of mule deer, and looks at ways deer, elk, livestock and people inter- act. Feature articles expose issues affecting mule deer populations such as fire, disease, changes in habitat and predator-prey relation- ships, and the challenges biologists face in surveying big game animals. It explores a Gary Herron, Nevada Department of Wildlife Department of Gary Herron, Nevada concept called adaptive resource manage- ment, a relatively new method of managing Changing Landscapes, Changing Perspectives wildlife throughout the world. It concludes with a look to the future, and A Publication by the offers additional sources of information for you to learn about mule deer. Western Association It is our hope that this publication builds of Fish and Wildlife a foundation to generate informed discussion, and enhances understanding of the competing Agencies Mule Deer promises and visions for responsible manage- Working Group ment of mule deer.

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MULE DEER WORKING GROUP MEMBERS AND CONTRIBUTORS

Steven Huffaker Barry Hale Director Sponsor, Idaho Department of Fish and Game New Mexico Department of Game and Fish What's in a Name? Jim deVos Bill Jensen Chair, Arizona Game and Fish Department North Dakota Game and Fish Department ooks aren't everything, of variation within each species, Jim Heffelfinger Bruce Stillings but if you're a deer in some mule deer and white-tailed Chair, Arizona Game and Fish Department North Dakota Game and Fish Department the West, looks play an deer cannot be quickly identified. Matt Kirchhoff Dan Edwards Alaska Department of Fish and Game Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife important role in deter- Black-tailed deer further cloud the Bill Glasgow Tom Thornton mining whether you're identification issue because they Alberta Environment and Natural Resource Service Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife calledL a mule deer, black-tailed Bruce Treichel Peter Test display characteristics similar to both Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife deer or white-tailed deer. Behavior white-tailed deer and other mule Ron Bjorge Syd Barber and habitat contribute, as well. deer subspecies. Alberta Fish and Wildlife Division Saskatchewan Department of Environment Brian Wakeling and Resource Management When used alone, some of the Arizona Game and Fish Department Dennie Mann Species and Subspecies identifying characteristics can be Steve Rosenstock South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department confusing. Thus, it is important Arizona Game and Fish Department Ted Benzon Subtle variations in characteris- Ted McKinney South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department to use several characteristics to Arizona Game and Fish Department Clay Brewer tics such as size, behavior and identify species. Ian Hatter Texas Parks and Wildlife Department appearance in deer occur because British Columbia Ministry of Environment Mike Welch of local habitat, food or weather Ken Mayer Utah Division of Wildlife Resources California Department of Fish and Game Steve Flinders conditions. There have been as Craig Stowers Utah Division of Wildlife Resources many as 11 subspecies of mule California Department of Fish and Game Steve Cranney deer and 30 subspecies of Mary Sommer Utah Division of Wildlife Resources California Department of Fish and Game Jim Karpowitz white-tailed deer described – all Eric Loft Utah Division of Wildlife Resources of these subspecies belong to two California Department of Fish and Game Craig R. McLaughlin recognized species of deer in the Rick Kahn Utah Division of Wildlife Resources Colorado Division of Wildlife Lou Bender West; mule deer and white-tailed John Ellenberger Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife deer. Black-tailed deer are also Colorado Division of Wildlife Jerry Nelson Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife found in the West, but they are Bruce Watkins Mule deer (foreground) and white-tailed deer Colorado Division of Wildlife Daryl Lutz actually a subspecies of mule deer. (background) foraging together. Note the difference in Thomas Kaiakapu Wyoming Game and Fish Department All deer are members of the metatarsal glands and tails. By Pat O’Brien. Hawaii Division of Forestry and Wildlife Dan Stroud Cervidae family, hoofed mammals Jim Unsworth Wyoming Game and Fish Department Idaho Department of Fish and Game Doug McWhirter that have antlers such as elk, Lonn Kuck Wyoming Game and Fish Department moose and caribou. Tails Idaho Department of Fish and Game Thomas Jung Tom Keegan Yukon Department of Environment Mule deer were first described Idaho Department of Fish and Game Rob Florkiewicz in North America in 1817 based White-tailed deer have a wide, Brad Compton Yukon Department of Environment on field notes made by Charles Le flattened tail that is broad at the base Idaho Department of Fish and Game Len Carpenter and narrower at the tip. A darker Lloyd Fox Wildlife Management Institute Raye while he was held captive by Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks Carlos Alcalá-Galván the Sioux tribe on the Big Sioux backside contrasts the pure white Glenn Erickson Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, underside. The darker tail is edged Agricolas, y Pecuarias, Mexico River in South Dakota (see sidebar Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks with white fringe hairs that are an Dave Pac Nevelyn Headrick article). The scientific name of the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks Utah State University species, hemionus, literally means extension of the white underside. Gary Hammond Todd Black White-tailed deer lack a large, con- Utah State University "half-mule,” because the ears are Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks spicuous white rump, and have tails Kit Hams Terry Messmer similar to those of a mule. Nebraska Game and Parks Commission Utah State University that are at least 7 1/2 inches long. Bruce Morrison Warren Ballard Mule deer tails appear cylindrical, Texas Tech University Differences Nebraska Game and Parks Commission or rope-like, and are usually white Mike Hess William Miller Nevada Department of Wildlife Arizona State University Between Species on the backside, with a distinctive Mike Cox Michael Conover black tip surrounded by a large, Jack H. Berryman Institute Nevada Department of Wildlife There are several ways to tell a obvious white rump. Some mule Tony Wasley Archie Reeve mule deer from a white-tailed Nevada Department of Wildlife PIC Technologies, Inc. deer may have a thin dark line run- deer, a critical need for hunters Darrel Weybright ning down the back surface of the New Mexico Department of Game and Fish who must be able to identify tail. Mule deer tails are less than species in areas where both exist. 7 1/2 inches long. Mule deer differ from white-tailed Mule Deer, Changing Landscapes, Changing Perspectives, is a series deer in several ways, but because of non-technical articles based on technical papers from the book, “Mule Deer Conservation: Issues and Management Strategies” Published by The Berryman Institute, Utah State University This publication was produced and edited by Creative Resource Strategies, West Linn, Oregon.

Publication Design by Frey Design of Portland, Oregon

This publication may be photocopied or reprinted in its entirety for noncommercial purposes.

Financial assistance for publication provided by The Mule Deeer Foundation www.muledeer.org.

2nd Printing 2006

Suggested Citation: Mule Deer Working Group. 2003. Mule Deer: Mule Deer White-tailed Deer Changing landscapes, changing perspectives. Mule Deer Working Group, Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies. 1 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 3

Antlers those of a mule deer are 3/4 the gland of a white-tailed deer is very length of the head. small, appearing as a small slit Of Shipwrecks and Antlers are the least reliable with a maximum depth of 3/8 characteristic to use when trying to Alarm Behavior inch. The preorbital gland of a Captives – A Name differentiate mule deer from white- mule deer is comparatively large, tailed deer because of the variation When alarmed, a white-tailed forms a substantial pocket with a in the Making in antler shape and form in both deer usually raises its tail, expos- depth averaging 3/4 inch, and Giving an animal a scientific species. Antlers can, however, help ing the fluffy white underside to commonly contains a small ball of name doesn't sound like the stuff identification when used in combi- alert all other deer in the area of yellow, waxy substance. movies are made of, but the story nation with other characteristics. apparent danger. It then runs behind the genus and species of Mature mule deer bucks have directly away from the source of Hybrids mule deer includes tales of a antlers with main beams that danger. shipwreck and a trader held sweep outward and upward, fork- A mule deer does not "flag" its When two species breed, the hostage by Native Americans. ing once and then forking again. tail, and often bounces away in a offspring is called a hybrid. A naturalist that lived in the Brow tines are not always present. motion called "stotting," in which Different species of animals nor- 19th century is credited with giving Mature bucks typically have eight all four hooves push off the ground mally do not breed with one mule deer their scientific name, to 10 total points (including brow at the same time. A mule deer may another because they use different Odocoileus hemionus (Odocoileus tines that exceed one inch). These not escape as fast as a white-tailed habitats, or are geographically iso- means hollow tooth, while bucks are considered 4-point deer, but a mule deer is more lated. If similar species live in the hemionus means half-mule). effective in quickly moving bucks (the number of points on same habitat, then they generally Constantine Samuel Rafinesque through rugged terrain. breed at different times or have dif- one side of the rack excluding the (1783-1840) was traveling from Both species may stop and look ferent breeding behavior. brow tines). Sicily to the United States in 1815 Typical white-tailed deer antlers back at the source of potential In the case of white-tailed deer danger, but this behavior is more and mule deer, courtship and when his vessel shipwrecked off have several antler tines that arise of Long Island Sound. Rafinesque singly off a main beam that sweeps typical of mule deer. breeding behavior are different enough that body language and settled in North Carolina, where he outward and forward from the read the journals of a Canadian bases. The brow tines are nearly Metatarsal Glands scent cues from a female mule trader named Charles Le Raye always present and usually promi- deer during rut are not normally The best way to tell a white- who was held captive for almost nent. Mature white-tailed deer "understood" by a white-tailed tailed deer from a mule deer is the bucks frequently have eight total deer buck, and vice versa. In some 14 years by a party of Native size and location of the metatarsal points, including the brow tines. cases where ranges overlap, this American Sioux. The journal glands, but this is not a It is not unusual for white-tailed contained a wealth of information readily observable charac- deer to have forked tines like those on natural resources and geology teristic. The metatarsal of a mule deer, or for mule deer from the Midwest to the glands of both species are tines to arise from the main beam West Coast. located on the outside of like those of a white-tailed deer. In his journals, Le Raye the lower portion of the Mule deer bucks less than three described "A kind of deer (on the hind leg, and are sometimes years of age are frequently mistak- Sioux River), called mule deer. confused with the tarsal en for large white-tailed deer It is smaller and of a darker colour gland on the inside of the because the tines have not yet than the red deer, having large leg (hocks). developed the characteristic fork. branched horns. The ears are very White-tailed deer have There may also be regional dif- large, the tail about five inches metatarsal glands that are ferences in antler form. For exam- long with short dark hair, and at one inch or less in length, ple, the white-tailed deer in the and always encircled with the end a tuft composed of long Carmen Mountains of northern white hair. This gland is at black hair." Mexico seem to have a high Mule deer x white-tailed deer hybrid harvested by Jesse midpoint or below midpoint Lim in southeastern Arizona. By Steve Duarte. Rafinesque called this "new" degree of forked antlers like a on the lower shank of species, Cervus hemionus, and mule deer. the leg. likened it to a relative of the Facial Markings Mule deer have much larger system breaks down and mule already named "black tail deer," metatarsal glands that are encir- deer and white-tailed deer may Cervus melanurus. The forehead of a white-tailed cled with white hair. The gland mate and produce a hybrid deer. At the time, Rafinesque classi- deer is usually the same color as measures three to seven inches in Hybrid deer may have charac- fied mule deer and black-tailed the rest of the face, although it can length, and starts at the ankle joint teristics of both mule deer and deer as different species, but be slightly darker. The white eye and extends downward toward the white-tailed deer. But a young today they are recognized as rings and markings directly behind hoof. It appears as a large, long mule deer may look like a large different forms (subspecies) of the nose are prominent. tuft of hair. white-tailed deer, especially the same species. A mule deer usually has a There are regional differences in if its tail has a dark stripe down distinctive black forehead, or metatarsal glands within species. the back. mask, that contrasts sharply with For example, metatarsal glands of Every year numerous hunters a light grey face. The lighter facial mule deer in desert habitats are report seeing hybrid deer, however, coloration makes the eye rings reported to be shorter than mule it is unlikely a hunter will ever see and muzzle markings seem deer in more northern habitats. a hybrid deer in the field. The low less obvious. number of white-tailed deer that Preorbital Glands mate with mule deer, and the low Ears survival rate of hybrid offspring, The preorbital (“pre” means “in greatly reduces the chance of White-tailed deer ears are gen- front of”, “orbital” means “eye”) encountering a true hybrid in the erally 2/3 the overall length of the gland is located in front of the eye wild. Hybrids are rare and difficult Sketch of Rafinesque from The Kentucky head (back of head to nose), while and differs considerably between to accurately identify because of Encyclopedia, The University Press of the two species. The preorbital many varying characteristics. Kentucky, Lexington.

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uropeans began replaced by sagebrush. A severe 2. Gas, mineral and oil exploration settling the West a winter in the late 1800s decimated fragment habitat and continue to mere 150 years ago, a many livestock herds and wildlife threaten important traditional drop in the geological populations. This was followed by mule deer range. bucket of time. The an abundance of wildfires and streamingE of settlers westward cre- about seven wet years in the Great 3. Predators play a shifting role as ated big changes on the landscape, Basin, which led to the widespread habitat loss and urban sprawl con- as land was planted to row crops establishment of bitterbrush, a high centrate mule deer populations on and grazed by livestock. Although quality preferred food of mule smaller tracts of land near human no accurate way to estimate mule deer. populations. A combination of fire deer populations was available at The increase in quality and suppression, oil-gas-mineral the turn of the century, accounts of quantity of plants preferred by 4. Climatic changes such as their presence indicate numbers mule deer caused mule deer drought and severe winters play a exploration and mining, were very low. populations to rebound by 1950. key role in quality and quantity of Hunting regulations, increased During the 1950s, biologists noted habitat, and the ability of mule predation, habitat law enforcement, creation of fawn:doe ratios of 75 to 100, or deer young to survive one year to fragmentation, spread of wildlife refuges breeding age. such as the Grand invasive plants, drought, Canyon National 5. Habitats are fragmented and lost competition between Game Preserve, as a result of human population species, livestock manage- and improvements The West growth and development in tradi- in wildlife habitat tional summer and winter mule ment and other human and predator man- deer range. agement resulted factors such as urban 6. Interactions with elk may in a collective development have affected that Was... increase when habitat is poor explosion of mule deer herds, with or limited. the habitats of mule deer. population esti- Today, virtually every ecoregion mates totaling 2.3 has a lesser ability to produce million in 1950. No Longer Is and maintain mule deer when The 1950s and 1960s were considered the "hey days" of mule deer populations. The population highs of the 1950s and 1960s were followed by sharp declines in mule deer numbers. Biologists don't believe there is one silver bullet that explains the declines in both numbers and distribution of mule deer. What biologists know is that the many changes that have taken place across large landscapes result in fewer mule deer that can call the West home. Chris Madson, Wyoming Game and Fish Publications Supervisor and Editor of Wyoming Wildlife Magazine, included some of these issues in an essay titled, "The Quiet Crisis" in the Riparian area in Great Plains Ecoregion. By Steve Knapp. September 2001 issue of Wyoming's magazine. even 100 to 100, something that is "The problems facing wildlife unheard of in many places in the and wild places in North America West today. are deeper and more complex Then some of the quiet crisis than they have ever been before, factors kicked in, resulting in but their root causes attract little greater competition for natural attention," said Madson. "All of us resources and a lesser ability of the who care about wildlife face a land to support large numbers of challenge of unprecedented mule deer. dimensions, an emergency that These include: western conservationist and states- man Stuart Udall once called the 1. Habitat changes caused by fire quiet crisis.” suppression, invasive plants and The quiet crisis began with the livestock management have less- settling of the West. After livestock ened the ability of habitats to sup- Housing in most of the remaining winter range along Wasatch Front, SLC. By Steve Cranney. were introduced into the Great port mule deer populations. Basin in the 1860s, native bunch grasses were overgrazed and 3 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 5

compared to the mid-1950s. The Ken Mayer, Chief of the On a very large scale, there are If it isn't possible to mule deer term biologists give to the amount Scientific Branch for Oil Spill fewer habitats in early succession- numbers that existed in the mid of food, water and cover an area Prevention and Response with the al stages than there were 50 years 1950s, then what is possible? can support is carrying capacity. California Department of Fish and ago. Mayer referred to a research - It is possible to manage mule deer Carrying capacity can be Game, and co-author of “A study on mule deer food habits in populations at optimum levels given likened in simpler terms to the Sportsman’s Guide to Improving 1954. "Ninety percent of the diet existing habitat conditions, and to amount of clothes a suitcase will Deer Habitat in California,” offered of mule deer was shrub compo- work hard to manage the hold. You can fill a suitcase, but at several insights to habitat changes nent, with the remainder herbs factors that limited mule deer popu- some point, there is no room left after his lengthy tenure as a deer and grasses," said Mayer. "We did lations over the past half century. for additional items. Habitat is biologist for California Fish and the same study again in 1994 and much the same way. Land cannot Game. He said that while many we got 80 percent herbaceous - It is possible to maximize the bene- support the numbers of mule deer factors have caused mule deer material in the diet. That shows fits to wildlife from development it once had if the what is happening to our ranges. of all kinds. quality habitat You can't support large numbers of doesn't exist to deer on grasses." - It is possible to restore habitats on a provide food, Mayer predicts it will be large scale to improve the ability of cover, water and impossible to return to the mule existing habitats to support mule shelter to those deer population levels of the deer and offset habitat loss. animals year- 1950s and 1960s. Mayer said it is especially impor- round. "I don't think it’s feasible from a tant to manage public perspective. On a land- resource habitat perspective or a "If we're really going to change scape scale, political perspective," said Mayer. things, we need to change the per- mule deer popu- "There's a hell of a lot more peo- spective of the public regarding what lations have not ple living in places like Colorado a healthy forest ecosystem is," said recovered since and California than the 50s and Mayer. "The public has a perception habitat began 60s, and we're converting habitat that a forest is trees. But a forest is declining in the at a high rate." really a variety of things, from grass- latter half of the A stand of cheatgrass that resulted from a 2001 wildfire, showing the es and forbs to old growth." last century. And skeletons of dead sagebrush plants that will not resprout due to the lack of moisture at this elevation. By Mike Cox. realistically, unless the human population stops growing declines, fire suppression and con- The Sierra Nevada Story and habitat loss and degradation version of shrub-scrub habitats ceases, people are facing a West have literally changed the face of George Gruell, a retired wildlife biologist from the U.S. Forest that will continue to look much the landscape. Service, compared landscape photos from the late 1800s and early different from the one that existed Early successional stages com- 1900s to recent times of the Sierra Nevada is his book, “Fire in during the mule deer “hey days.” monly have young forbs and Sierra Nevada Forests.” His photographic essay is a mule deer’s And this land will more than likely shrubs that are high in protein, nightmare. contain fewer mule deer. very nutritious and within the The Sierra Nevada is a 15.5 million acre chunk of land that reach of mule deer. Later succes- spans 360 miles north to south from California’s Central Valley to sional stages can provide cover for 50 plus miles east. Elevations range from sea level to 14,000 feet, mule deer, but generally provide and annual precipitation ranges from 20 to 75 inches. "Removing fire has had a poor habitat because of the lack of Gruell’s goal was to identify the factors that have caused dramatic effect," said food present. landscape changes. He noted that the health of the forests and habitats are declining, and that excessive fuel loads, a direct result Mayer. "We've taken fire of widescale fire suppression, make many areas susceptible to out of the ecosystem in the catastrophic fires. Gruell said changes in climate, livestock grazing, logging and fire have been the biggest agents of change forest environment. When in the Sierra Nevada. The end result, he concludes, is a dense we finally get a big fire, forest with much less wildlife habitat. 2-4-D (a herbicide) is The future of the Sierra Nevada may be bleak for wildlife and people if public opinion about management of the landscape does sprayed to kill the shrubs, not change. Gruell believes it is possible to improve the landscape then it's planted to trees. of the Sierra Nevada for people and wildlife, but only if fire is restored to the ecosystem. That eliminates early successional stages."

Is the habitat situation in the Sierra Nevada unique? Hardly. While this example is specific to California, each of the mule deer ecoregions has been subjected to many factors that have lessened the ability of western landscapes to provide homes for deer and other species of wildlife. Biologists have taken an in-depth look at each of the factors contributing to mule deer declines, and offer suggestions to improve habitats that support not only mule deer, but many western wildlife populations.

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Daryl Lutz, Wildlife "In alpine communities, there is Management Coordinator for about a three month growing sea- 1 Wyoming Game and Fish in son," said Mayer. "In some of that Casper, said that lack of fire is country, the snow doesn't come off creating overaged less useful aspen until July. The plants have a short and sagebrush stands. window to grow, and have adapted “On mule deer summer range, to fires over a long period of time. Losing Ground aspen communities are being lost If you eliminate fire, then introduce at an alarming rate due to natural fire in a big way (a large, hot, Fire, invasive species and digit numbers in the United States. vegetative succession,” said Lutz. intense fire), it takes 10 years for Wyoming Game and Fish Biologist The reason these habitats are being those plants to become useful for livestock management Steve Kilpatrick attributes the hey- lost is lack of fire. mule deer again." have changed western day populations of mule deer in “In an aspen stand, you can see Kilpatrick echoed the conse- the middle of the 20th century to a vegetative response within one quences of large, hot fires. “Mother landscapes the quantity and types of fires that or two years of a fire,” said Lutz. Nature says you can pay me now or burned in the decades prior to the But some plant communities do you can pay me later with interest,” 1950s. not respond as quickly. Lutz said, said Kilpatrick. “Suppressed fires will Fire “In the 1920s through 1950, “In a sagebrush stand, it could be be a lot larger, and the intensity and up to twenty years.” severity will be greater when they do f all the factors that we had some massive burns and Lutz emphasized the impor- burn. Wildlife love resprouting have shaped the resprouting shrubs,” said tance of creating patterns of shrubs. But fires that burn hot can ecoregions in which Kilpatrick. “We had high quality habitat. kill resprouting species of shrubs. mule deer exist, browse, and a lot of quantity - lots It’s quite a while before the fire has been moonscape appearance disappears. Othe strongest one with the We’re exacerbating the situation greatest positive influence. by our actions.” Fire is a critical force in main- taining and creating habitat for mule deer because fire sets back succession. Succession is the orderly and progressive replacement of one plant community by another until a fairly stable community occupies an area. If left alone, an abandoned Mule deer thrive in early crop field will not remain in successional habitats, where that state for very long. Generally, grasses, forbs and forbs, grassy plants and weeds will begin to grow, shrubs dominate. These followed by brushy plants, then by saplings that invade environments are not as open areas, until the site is stable as forest habitats, and finally occupied by a stand of trees. Historically, fire has Forest fire. By Gary Schafer. they rely on fire or some been the most effective tool in other type of disturbance to maintaining grasslands across the United States. Today, it is return them to an early “Whenever we do things in still considered to be the most of acres of good (mule deer) sagebrush communities, we always successional stage. If they important tool a biologist has to groceries. Browse was nutritious, emphasize and tailor our prescrip- manage habitat. young, palatable and easy to are not disturbed, they tions to a mosaic of burned and A quick peak at national histori- digest.” Now the plants are older, unburned,” said Lutz. “We’re eventually become more cal wildfire data provides insight and when it rains or they are starting to evaluate how we should into the frustration land managers browsed, they don’t respond as stable plant communities be doing prescribed burning so we face with fire suppression efforts. vigorously. In addition to fewer fires burn- don’t eliminate brood rearing or dominated by trees and large Decade Number of ing on fewer acres, fire suppres- nesting habitat for sage grouse, shrubs. Tree-dominated acres burned sion has changed the intensity and and help other species.” rate at which fires burn, resulting Ken Mayer of the California habitats offer mule deer a 1920s 26 million acres in different and unpredictable Department of Fish and Game place to retreat from severe 1930s 39 million acres communities of plants. Fuel loads emphasized the changes that 1940s 23 million acres build up such that when infrequent happen to a landscape over time weather, but these areas fires occur, they cover large if small, cool, frequent fires are 1950s 9 million acres offer very little in the way of amounts of land and burn very replaced by large, hot, infrequent 1960s 4 million acres hot. A recent example of that is the fires. food. That is why it is impor- "Hot fires burn minerals from 1970s 3 million acres Rodeo fire near Pinedale, Arizona, tant to provide mule deer 1980s 4 million acres that burned at 2,000 degrees the soil, and you don't get the Fahrenheit. In general, areas that regeneration you should," said with a mosaic or pattern of 1990s 3.6 million acres burn fast and hot become mono- Mayer. This lessens the potential of the site to be productive, and habitats that can provide Since the decade of the 1940s, cultures, in which there are fewer ultimately results in long-term fires have not burned in double types of plants that are similar food, cover and water. in age. changes to the habitat. 5 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 7

Arizona Game and Fish To avoid seeing homes burned, and fragmented habitat.” He said Cheatgrass found its way to the Department’s Chief of Research people are willing to pay a steep the increased presence of preda- United States from Europe and Asia Jim deVos said large, hot fires price. Suppression costs for wild- tors such as mountain lions in in the late 1800s on the backs of contribute to soil erosion. fires are easily three to five times suburbs is likely a direct result of livestock, and in some grain and hay “Another problem associated greater than the cost of prescribed the wildlife habitat that has been feed. By 1920, it firmly established with the catastrophic fires that are fire per acre. In the last seven created at the urban interface. itself as a formidable invasive plant. occurring due to long-term fire years, the cost of fire suppression It is a plant species with few suppression is that virtually all of for federal agencies has ranged endearing qualities. Cheatgrass is the vegetation is lost, which from a low of $256 million in not very nutritious or palatable to increases soil erosion,” said deVos. 1997 to a high of $1.36 billion “We’re so far behind the livestock and wildlife, although “It is important to remember that in 2000. livestock will graze on it in some it took eons to build the top soil According to Kilpatrick, the curve in terms of a land- desert habitats in the winter and layer, and its loss will alter the effects of fire suppression are spring, and mule deer will browse lands’ ability to rebuild. Where worsened because of habitat scape scale that we’ll never on it in early spring. this occurs, the land may never fragmentation. catch up with prescribed When cheatgrass is present, recover its capacity to support “You couple what has happened livestock overgraze native plants, wildlife populations as it did with fire, and compound winter fire,” said Kilpatrick. causing direct competition with before these incredibly range being used by urban sprawl, “Nature will catch us up, mule deer for food. But that's not the intense fires.” and then our exploration and worst of it. Overgrazing by livestock To complicate matters, habitats development for oil and gas on as she has during a actually helps cheatgrass gain a with plant species such as moun- winter ranges – it’s fragmenting drought.” foothold, both on the overgrazed tain big sagebrush are experienc- habitat,” said Kilpatrick. land, and on nearby land where ing fires every 100 or more years invasive plants compared to pre-European settle- may not have ment fire frequencies of 12-25 existed. years. Wyoming big sagebrush, a What gives habitat with large amounts of the cheatgrass the invasive plant, cheatgrass, is now ability to out- subjected to fires every 10 years compete native instead of every 50 to 100 years. plants? John Drastic changes in fire frequency Grahame and may result in changes in the types Thomas Sisk, of plants found in a given area. editors of Kilpatrick said that drought "Canyons, years compound the problem, cultures and making it more difficult for environmental biologists to use prescribed fire. change: An “We’re using prescribed fire as introduction to much as we can, but it’s more dif- the land-use ficult to use during these drought history of the years because of the risk factor,” Colorado said Kilpatrick. “It takes someone Plateau," a that can find the dotted line to say publication they’ll be responsible for doing from the prescribed burns in a risky situa- Center for tion. But fires normally burn twice Environmental as many acres in drought years.” Sciences and Kilpatrick said land managers Education at are behind the curve burning on a Burned sagebrush habitat from a wildfire that has regrown into exotic pant cover of mustard and cheatgrass in the foreground. Northern landscape scale, especially com- The area in the middle of the picture was disced and planted with a mixture of native and nonnative seeds. The dark green hills Arizona pared to the amount of land that in the background did not burn and contain native sagebrush. By Ken Gray. University, used to burn on an annual basis. describe the Kilpatrick said federal agencies As a result of these interac- Kilpatrick cautioned, “Don’t unique ability of cheatgrass to responded to the Yellowstone Fire tions, Kilpatrick said an blame the predators. They’re the outcompete native plants. in the late 1980s with a strong emphasis should be placed on symptom, we’re the problem.” "Most native bunchgrasses of the educational effort, but that habitat maintaining critical areas such Colorado Plateau are perennial, change often occurs over the long- as important winter ranges. Invasive Species – whereas annual plants like cheat- term, oftentimes longer than the “We need to put as much grass grow from a seed, then flower, life span of a human being. management effort on important A growing threat set seed, and die every year. “Fire was THE main player winter ranges, keep them unfrag- What harms 15 percent of our Cheatgrass usually germinates in fall forming the very landscape that mented in terms of oil develop- country's ecosystems, costs the and grows during winter, opposite we cherish and want to protect ment and maintain high quality United States at least $137 billion the cycle followed by common now,” said Kilpatrick. “People forages,” said Kilpatrick. a year in lost profit and eradication native perennial grasses. By the time realize it’s a dynamic system, be it Kilpatrick attributes increases efforts, and includes a group of the rain stops in spring, cheatgrass ever so slow. For example, aspen in predation with habitat frag- about 7,000 species? The answer – already is maturing its seeds. Unlike needs a fire every 80-100 years. mentation. invasive species. While many are native bunchgrasses, cheatgrass then People don’t see those changes “When you fragment the found throughout the West, one of dies by the end of July, avoiding the taking place in their lifetime. But habitat, prey doesn’t have the the most harmful is the winter hottest and driest part of summer. the public is accepting fire – they landscape to escape predators. annual grass called cheatgrass, Continued on page 7 just don’t want to see their homes Predators have a much easier alias downy brome. burned down.” time catching prey in reduced 6 LT MuleDeer_2006.Lynx8/31/062:29PMPage8 combat nonnatives. new anddifferentapproaches to settlement. And they'redeveloping have occurredsinceEuropean large-scale landscapechanges that spread ofinvasive plantsand steps tolearnmoreaboutthe plants? continued threatofinvading mule deer. bitterbrush, animportantfoodfor native shrubssuch asantelope Intense frequentfiresdestroy detriment ofmuledeerhabitat. frequent, largefires,much tothe ing largetracts oflandinthe West. Specialist, saidcheatgrass isalter- Management (BLM)Senior Wildlife deer asapaved parkinglot. about asmuch benefittomule stands ofsolidcheatgrass have cheatgrass emergefromthesoil, spring when newgreenshootsof Except forthebriefperiodin contain oneorafewspecies. ture, orastandofplantsthat native plant,creatingamonocul- can ultimatelyoutcompeteevery sagebrush habitat. wildfires, alteringthequalityof frequency andintensityof perennial forage, andincreasesthe Cheatgrass outcompetesnative poses two threatstomuledeer. and thistle." invaders such asknapweed often openstheway forsecondary eventually itdominates.Cheatgrass more andcommonuntil over time,cheatgrass becomes grasses inevitablydecline,andso this abilitytoreproduce,native in, andthus,dieofthirst. Without access water beforedroughtsets roots deepenoughintosoilto regions, seedlingscannotgettheir can getwater fromlower soil Although maturenative grasses water outofthetopfootsoil. May, cheatgrass hasstolenmost seedlings starttogrow in April or spring, by thetimenative grass develops alargerootsysteminthe thousand perplantinsomecases. produce abundantseed,over a fire releasestogrow largeand advantage ofmany nutrientsthe maturing cheatgrass seedscantake native grasses. Duringafire,early- fires which tendtodamageorkill causing earlyandabundantwild- The BLMistakingaggressive What isbeingdoneaboutthe Vast standsofcheatgrass cause Cal McCluskey, BureauofLand When cheatgrass takeshold,it A stronginvader likecheatgrass "Because cheatgrass quickly "Dead cheatgrass burnseasily, public land. plants onabout10millionacresof slow orstopthespreadofinvasive tain native plantcommunities,and organizations torestoreandmain- and localagenciesnonprofit Nevada iscooperating withstate Restoration Initiative, theBLMin cant muledeerwinterrange." burned, someofwhich was signifi- McCluskey. "Several millionacres the Intermountain West," said was thebadfireyear of1991in possible restoration strategies. changing grazing practices aretwo burned by fire.Reseedingand gency efforttorestoreareas Restoration Initiative, anintera- leading theGreatBasin underway, aswell. The BLMis distribution." show currentversus historical sagebrush fortheentire West to Survey toputtogetheramapof with theUnitedStatesGeological said McCluskey. “We're working larly asitrelatestosagegrouse," throughout itsrange, butparticu- way tolookatsagebrushhabitat the sagebrushecosystem. change onthelandscapewithin better handleontheextentof underway intheBLMtogeta said McCluskey. other annualslikeMedusahead," problems withcheatgrass and that have hadthegreatestinvasion particular concerntotheBLM. River BasinandGreatareof substantially thehistorical monoculture of cheatgrass, burned two or threetimes, increased thefrequency of "Cheatgrass has created a fire cyclefire that has altered Through theGreatBasin "The catalystforthatinitiative Other large-scaleeffortsare "We have amajoreffortunder- McCluskey saidaneffortis "Those arethetwo ecoregions McCluskey saidtheColumbia fires, and in many andin areas, fires, it oftencomes back a in once thelandscape gets just prime for burning just prime McCluskey. again andagain." again Cheatgrass cycle,”fire said “It has 7 deer survival. restoring landscriticaltomule threat ofinvasive plantsand habitats arekeystolesseningthe needed torestoretheseimportant time andthemanagementactions communities have changed over and managementvery challenging. conflict makeslanduseallocation mandate ontheotherside." That and awildlifeconservation a minerals missionononeside Jeckyll andHydepersonalitywith this inouragency. There's this “We're grappling internallywith perspective,” saidMcCluskey. and ahardspotfromourprogram happening onavery largescale. it's importanttolookatwhat's wildlife habitats?McCluskeysaid is nopanacea." ments," saidMcCluskey. "There by cheatgrass. habitats thathave beeninvaded spread ofcheatgrass, ortoimprove is noonesolutiontocontrolthe outcompete natives. germinating, lesseningitsabilityto may prevent cheatgrass from chemicals such aspre-emergents to fightinvasive plants.Useof McCluskey. the cheatgrass iscured,"said up laterandstay greenlongafter with perennialgrasses thatgreen stripping. We're plantingthem planting firebreaksusinggreen in theBLM. effective strategy ontherise such asgreenstripsisanother cy offiresby creatingfirebarriers of success." with thehighestprobability root stock. We targettheareas provide thenative seedandbare McCluskey. "Statewildlifeagencies areas thatburnandreseed,"said tation program togoback into using firetomanagesagebrush. the West, andtheimportanceof landowner ofsagebrushhabitatin the BLMbeingbiggest Understanding how sagebrush "We're caughtbetweenarock What doesthefutureholdfor "It's acombinationoftreat- McCluskey emphasizedthere The BLMhasanothertool "We've hadsomesuccesswith Reducing thesizeandfrequen- "We have amajorfirerehabili- McCluskey alsotalkedabout can plant.” their cattleoffgroundsothey and theranchers areanxioustoget cattle have beenonhay allwinter, livestock people,too,becausetheir “Spring grazing isvery valuable to ranchers thathelpus,” saidCranney. while helpingmuledeer. helps thelocalranching community grazing hasotherbenefits,aswell.It winter ranges.” can beavaluable toolonmany intensity ofthefire.Springgrazing bitterbrush respondsdependsonthe fire, butsagebrushdoesnot.How and oakbrushrespondfavorably to species such asmountainmahogany all winterrange areas.Somebrowse particularly sagebrush. don’t respondfavorably tofire, plant speciesondeerwinterrange use fireatany timebecauseseveral grazing even ifithadtheabilityto see. Hesaidhisagency would use vegetation responsehewould liketo the statusofhabitat,and uses cattleeach year, dependingon strictly inthespring.” month andahalfinthespring– on thegroundonlyforamonthto sage andbitterbrush. The cattleare the growth ofbrowse speciessuch as Cranney. “Springgrazing encourages succulence isinthevegetation,” said on thegrass species,where the of muledeerbrowse species. and maintainencourage growth game winterranges tograze grasses, of wildlifemanagementareasinbig intense springgrazing onanumber dense habitat. create much-needed openingsin of desirable plants,andmaintain can improve thetypesandquantities do itright,doeshave itsuse.” negatives,” said Cranney. “Whenyou grazing hasalotofpositives and if it’s donecorrectly. cattle tomanagewildlifehabitat– Cranney isvery positive aboutusing Utah andthe West. Butoverall, of allthreeonlandsinandaround Steve Cranney hasseenelements Resources BigGameCoordinator good goingon. mule deer, there’s awhole lotof good, badandugly. Fortunately for lands couldbecharacterized as Livestock management “We enterintoagreementswith Cranney commentedthatspring Cranney said,“We can’t justtorch Cranney saidhevaries how he “In thespring,cattleconcentrate Cranney saidhisagency uses Well-managed livestock grazing “From ourstandpoint,livestock Utah Division of Wildlife Livestock managementonwestern LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 9

Livestock grazing sounds like a 3. Control the number of livestock range and the amount of it State University. So there’s a big win-win-win situation for state on rangeland to prevent overgraz- is critical.” resource of information we wildlife agencies, ranchers and ing. Some ranchers recommend Cranney said one strategy his provide.” mule deer. The bad and the ugly stocking at a rate less than agency uses to protect mule deer Erickson said his agency uses side come into play when livestock 70 percent of average rainfall winter range is wildlife easements. livestock grazing to improve the are not managed properly. carrying capacity. Said Cranney, “Wildlife ease- vegetation and soil on the state’s Poor livestock grazing practices ments leave the property in the wildlife management areas. can help spread invasive plants, 4. Use rotation grazing to prevent hands of the owners and allow “We modify how livestock graze, interfere with plant succession, intensive spot grazing. them to conduct operations com- and where they graze,” said reduce nitrogen in the soil, and patible with good wildlife manage- Erickson. “We typically try to protect 5. Fence riparian areas and provide change the plant community. And ment.” He also noted the most riparian zones and manage vegeta- off stream watering sources. improper livestock grazing in and important aspect of wildlife tion zones in the pastures. It’s a rest around riparian areas may harm easements is that they prevent rotation system, and the purpose the stream and the rich diversity of Cranney said state of the art subdivision of property into is to benefit the vegetation for wildlife that thrive in these envi- wildlife management includes small ranchettes. all species.” ronments. Overgrazing reduces managing riparian areas as “Subdividing is the biggest Erickson commented that working water quality, changes stream flow, pastures with fence control. enemy,” said Cranney. with private landowners can multi- compacts and erodes soil, and “When the animals are in ripari- Glenn Erickson, Chief of ply benefits to wildlife. “In some affects native plants and animals an areas, they are there strictly to Montana Department of Fish, cases, we have our management that live alongside and in streams. Tom Fleischner, in his 1994 Conservation Biology article, "Ecological costs of livestock graz- ing in western North America," said that livestock grazing has had "the most severe impact on one of the biologically richest habitats in the region," and states that, "much of the ecological integrity of a variety of North American habitats are at risk” because of poor grazing practices. What kind of risk? Cottonwood/willow forests along arid western streams have declined about 90 percent since pre-settle- ment times. A 1988 report on "Restoring Degraded Riparian Areas on Western Rangelands" noted that "those narrow bands of green adjoining rivers, streams, and lakes, are crucial to the ecological health of arid western rangelands." Cranney commented that cattle do the most harm in riparian areas. “If they’re not fenced out, then they camp on it,” said Cranney. “The woody species and stream Grazing by livestock is a common and sometimes competing land use on many mule deer ranges. By Len Carpenter. bank cover in riparian areas get taken out.” Cranney said this can be a serious problem, especially in benefit those areas,” commented Wildlife and Parks Wildlife area tied to adjacent private land, states like Utah that are dry, and Cranney. “The areas are grazed Management Bureau, echoed and we’re able to expand the advan- have limited riparian areas. outside the fences.” This results in Cranney’s emphasis on keeping tage using a cooperative agreement,” The good news is that the bad better grazing in upland areas, and large tracts of land in private own- said Erickson. “The landowner and ugly can be avoided. How can minimal damage to streams and ership. “We want to keep large, benefits and we benefit.” land managers manage livestock riparian habitat. connected adjacent blocks of land Western wildlife agencies and grazing for the benefit of people Cranney said that sometimes the in private ownership if we can.” provinces will continue to place an and wildlife? By establishing a best wildlife management practice He said his agency places a emphasis on positive working rela- sound range management program on winter ranges is not the most strong emphasis on working with tionships with landowners and live- based on good range science and aesthetic, and visa versa. private landowners to improve stock managers to create mutually tailored to the local area. A good “You go to Salt Lake City where livestock grazing practices. beneficial programs that ultimately range management program cattle have been excluded for “We’re providing consultation to enhance wildlife habitat for mule should have the following decades and it looks good from a landowners whenever they request deer and other species. In doing so, elements: watershed standpoint, very little it,” said Erickson. “We have a cou- land managers can assure that open bare ground, and yet it’s poor ple of people assigned full time to proper livestock management will 1. Conduct prescribed burns to for big game because there are few deal with grazing systems, and we continue to be a strong, positive improve plant quality. browse species,” said Cranney. have a couple of consultants that change agent for mule deer habitat. “That’s why we concentrate on we work with through Montana 2. Do not graze stressed rangeland. winter range areas. In most of Utah, the condition of winter 8 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 10

2 The Mounting Pressure Oil-Gas-Mineral Exploration of Development and Mining

ou've read Stroud said efforts must be the bumper stickers - focused on "larger habitat "Wyoming - Like no assessments coupled with Place on Earth." And management solutions," but "Wyoming Wildlife - that the direct effects of large- YWorth the Watching." The scenery scale landscape changes are and solitude of the wildness of difficult to quantity. Wyoming is special in the hearts "We can't quantify the spe- of residents and nonresidents alike. cific effects of coalbed Add 100,000 wellheads to a methane development," said landscape that is already feeling Stroud. "We don't know the the effects of other kinds of energy effects on mule deer from a developments, and "Wyoming - stress standpoint." As an Like no Place on Earth," may take example, he added that mule on a new meaning significantly deer are living in and around different from the one bumper towns that seemingly aren't sticker creators had in mind. The stressed by people. Powder River Basin Oil and Gas But Stroud said wildlife are Project could be the catalyst for affected by development. that change in meaning. "The direct effects of The project is a proposed Oil development southwest of Big Piney in western Wyoming mule deer winter range. By Dan Stroud. development to mule deer are coalbed methane development habitat removal combined that would encompass over with the pressures of existing methane wellheads are small, but 7 million acres in northeastern winter range may have negative grazing of livestock," said Stroud. each comes complete with its own Wyoming. Coalbed methane is a indirect effects, as well as direct "You're reducing the forage base so road and utility line. No one form of natural gas generated in effects. there's more competition for what's knows the effect this project would coal seams. There has always been “The direct effects are roads and left." have on sensitive wildlife such as an interest in extracting this disturbance,” said Kilpatrick. The BLM’s Senior Wildlife sage grouse, a species of concern resource from the land, but tech- “Once you have those, you have Specialist Cal McCluskey believes it throughout the West. nology prevented it from happen- fragmented the habitat. Big game is important to look at oil, mineral Development has the potential ing. Recent advances in technolo- can’t always jump roads. Then you and gas exploration on a large scale to affect more than native fish and gy are forcing Wyoming to brace set yourself up for successful fire that crosses political boundaries. wildlife. Development will attract for unprecedented coalbed suppression operations where you "Places like Powder River basin more people to Wyoming, placing methane production, with an esti- can intercept fires. We can more and southwestern Wyoming are key additional stresses on existing mated 50,000 to 100,000 wells easily control and master natural areas, not just for Wyoming, but resources. Construction of new drilled in the next several decades. processes with roads. And we can’t regionally, and nationally, because power plants will place greater Development can sometimes go into these places to do pre- of the large mule deer winter ranges demands on water resources. create wildlife habitat, and in the scribed burns because of the risk. they provide," said McCluskey. One of the most significant case of this project, some above- We’re now limited with going in McCluskey said the BLM is devel- potential impacts is the visual ground improvements such as there and doing mechanical things oping a sagebrush biome conserva- effect on the landscape of watering sites for wildlife seem to mimic fire, but these techniques tion strategy to help identify key Wyoming. Visions of breathtaking possible. aren’t as effective because of areas within the landscape through- landscapes may be cluttered with But there are serious concerns, reductions in nutrient recycling.” out the sagebrush ecosystem. His the signs of energy exploration. as well. Biologists believe that And there are other issues, as agency will use that information to How do state fish and wildlife mule deer and their habitats can well. Ground water has to be help influence land use allocations. agencies respond to these be harmed because of oil, gas and removed to extract methane from "Land use allocation is where the challenges? mineral exploration and extraction. coal seams. If this water is contam- rubber meets the road," said Dan Stroud, a habitat biologist An increase in mortality, ingestion inated, where will it be placed? If McCluskey. "One of the limiting fac- with the Wyoming Game and Fish of toxins, loss of habitat, barriers to it isn't contaminated, where will it tors on past land use plans is they've Department in Pinedale, said migratory mule deer that move be used? If additional water is been developed with blinders on, issues concerning shrub habitats, from winter to summer ranges, placed above ground, it could ignoring what's going on by looking sensitive species and development and disturbance that fragments effect a positive change by creat- at the administrative boundary the are creating a crisis in agencies and degrades habitats have the ing new wetlands. Or, it could land covers. To make better deci- throughout the West. potential to affect mule deer change stream flow and the sions that have longer term value "We simply are not able to keep populations. habitats of native fish. for all resources, you have to up with the extensive wildlife Wyoming Game and Fish Coalbed methane projects have take a broader look on a larger habitat management needs we Biologist Steve Kilpatrick said oil the potential to disturb wildlife at scale, and ask how it relates to face across our vast landscape," and gas exploration in mule deer critical times of the year. Coalbed smaller pieces of land. That will said Shroud. help influence decisions." 9 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 11

Regardless of the types of deci- between a rock and a hard spot types of mortality, and therefore role in reducing the number of mule sions made, diligent, consistent because of the differing values the doesn’t change the total number deer. The problem is that it is long-term monitoring of mineral, public places on predators. of deer that die, then it is extremely difficult for biologists to oil and gas exploration sites will compensatory. pinpoint which mortality factors are be necessary to truly understand - Depending on a variety of factors, It is believed that when a mule playing the greatest role in a mule the effects of this type of develop- reducing predators may or may not deer population is at carrying deer herd on the sliding scale of ment on the landscape, people, help increase numbers of mule capacity (the ability of the capacity additive and compensatory mortality. and native fish and wildlife. In the deer in a given area. of the habitat to support it), mortal- meantime, Wyoming is one of many western states and provinces Societal Values that has the difficult challenge of grappling with the energy needs of Many segments of society place its citizens and nation, with the differing values on predators, with impressive landscapes that make ranchers and animal rights activists “Wyoming – Like no Place on opposite sides of the spectrum. on Earth.” Ranchers and farmers don’t appre- ciate a mountain lion, wolf or coy- ote in or around livestock pastures because predators are seen as a potential loss of personal property and income. 3 Animal rights organizations and others place a value on predators as charismatic megafauna, large wildlife species that embody the A Place for symbol of wilderness. And biologists have individual views regarding predators because of personal experiences, and pub- lished scientific information that is Predators conflicting in its conclusions about Grizzly Bear. By Wyoming Game and Fish Department. the roles predators play in the management of prey populations. ity is compensatory. Mortality Some biologists believe mortality hen farmers To understand how the values of becomes more additive and less is density dependent. For example, if and ranchers these three groups come into play compensatory as the population one type of mortality is reduced in a began settling and affect the ability of state agen- falls further below the carrying deer herd that is nearing capacity, the American cies and provinces to manage capacity of the habitat. another type of mortality will replace West, they predators requires a short course A mule deer herd that is at or it. In a herd that has severe winter as arrivedW with livestock to graze, in the population dynamics of above the carrying capacity of its its only major mortality factor, hunt- seeds to plant and a mentality to mule deer. habitat may produce fewer fawns ing does before winter would not tame the West. They perceived the than one that is below carrying hurt the population. Fewer does will greatest threat to their livestock capacity, and mortality will be likely die during the severe winter to and crops was predators. Predator The Numbers Game high so that the population compensate for those that were har- management, labeled "one of the Mule deer populations increase remains stable. vested. On the other hand, if the doe most controversial issues involving when more deer are born than die, A herd that exceeds the ability hunting occurs before a mild winter, North American wildlife" by James and decrease when more deer die of the habitat to support it will be the mortality could be considered Trefethen a quarter of a century than are born. Most mortality in in poor body condition, and have additive. ago in his book, "An American deer herds occurs in young deer poor birth rates and high death What does all of this have to do Crusade for Wildlife," continues to immediately after birth, or during rates. If the population continues with predation? That all depends. be highly controversial today. And mid- to late winter. Carrying to remain above carrying capacity, Long-term drought can reduce the there are few signs this controversy capacity, or the ability of the habi- it will damage its food resources, ability of a habitat to support mule is going to lessen. tat to support the herd, helps so that even when the herd does deer, causing significant declines in Six animals are identified as determine the size of the herd. recover, carrying capacity may be some populations. Drought reduces mule deer predators – gray wolf, Carrying capacity is estimated reduced and the herd may be the quality of the habitat and can mountain lion, bobcat, coyote, based on the body condition of unable to return to previous popu- affect the body condition of deer, black bear and grizzly bear. The mule deer and the amount of veg- lation numbers. potentially making them more vul- first three on the list have to kill etation that is browsed by deer. Predation and carrying capacity nerable to predation. prey species to survive. Coyotes Additive and compensatory are of the habitat are linked. When a If predators contribute to signifi- and bears have a varied diet that the two types of mortality that deer herd is at carrying capacity, cant mortality in a mule deer popu- includes plants, thus they can and occur in mule deer populations. the number of deaths equals the lation, and that population is near do kill prey, but do not have to do An increase in one cause of mor- number of offspring that survive to carrying capacity, removing preda- so to survive. tality or the introduction of a new age one. In this herd, it is not tors may not cause the population to Predators are controversial for type of mortality may or may not important if predators cause some increase because other types of mor- three primary reasons: increase the total number of ani- mortality, because if the predators tality may kick in and compensate mals that die, depending on are removed, another factor will for predation. On the other hand, if - Different segments of society place whether that mortality is additive cause a similar amount of mortali- predation is causing a mule deer different values on predators. or compensatory. If the increase or ty. In other words, mortality is population to exist below the ability introduction of mortality increases - Agencies responsible for manage- compensatory. of the habitat to support them, the number of deer that die, the ment of predators are caught The further below carrying reducing predators may allow the mortality is additive. If it is com- capacity the herd becomes, the pensated for by reductions in other more additive mortality plays a Continued on page 11 10 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 12

mule deer herd to increase until What does all of this mean? maintain artificially high numbers. Wildlife professionals determined compensatory factors kick in. Despite everything we've learned While this has the potential to that reducing the number of The true question is not whether about predators in the past centu- slow the growth of mule deer pop- predators in an area may help predation affects mule deer, but ry, they are as "good or bad" as ulations, scientific studies show deer populations if: how much. they were 100 years ago. that reducing predators does not - Predator management occurs when Jim deVos of the Arizona Game increase the number of fawns that the deer population is lower than the Research Results and Fish Department said, "In survive to adulthood. And it's the ability of the habitat to support it. cases where you can't The few predation studies that demonstrate that preda- - Predation is identified as a factor have been conducted on mule and tion is, in fact, a popula- that is limiting the ability of the deer black-tailed deer have been tion regulator, predator population to grow. somewhat limited in their ability to control is nonsensical. draw conclusions across mule deer When you can demon- - The predator population is reduced populations. But biologists have strate predators are hav- enough to yield results. been able to glean some useful ing an effect, predator - Reduction in predators occurs information: control can be effective." just before reproduction of The effects predators predators or prey. - Weather affects the impact have on prey populations predation may have on mule deer are dependent upon - Reduction in predators occurs on a by changing deer forage and cover, habitat conditions, the The wolf is one of several mule deer predators. scale of less than 250 square miles. the densities of prey species and numbers of predators and By George Andrejko. the physical condition of deer. prey, and the sex and age They also determined that preda- ratios of predator and prey popula- number of fawns that survive to tor management did not successfully - Wolves can effectively reduce deer tions. Sorting through these factors adulthood that determines the populations, particularly on island improve mule deer populations makes it very difficult to determine growth rate of a mule deer when: habitats, and especially if they are the effects of predation on mule population. - Mule deer populations were at or the primary predator. deer and elk populations because If there are big changes to habi- near habitat carrying capacity. - In some undisturbed arctic envi- every mule deer population is tat that result in different move- different, and other factors that ment patterns for mule deer, they ronments, severe weather or - Predation was not a key factor limit- affect a mule deer population will could become more susceptible to human over-harvest can cause a ing the ability of the deer population determine the extent of the effect predation. Changes in habitat may mule deer population to decline. to grow. of predators. also change predator communities. Predation can further reduce that Widespread predator manage- In the last century, there has been - Reduction of predators did not population or prevent it from ment may or may not increase a a shift in the predator community reduce predator populations to a recovering. However, most of the mule deer population. Smaller from wolves to coyotes. Human- significant degree. environments where mule deer mule deer populations may be induced factors have contributed exist today have been altered by more susceptible to predators than to loss and change of wolf prey - Reduction of predators occurs on fire suppression, development, larger ones. Larger populations can and wolf habitat, causing the large-scale areas. fragmentation of habitat and other afford more losses to predation elimination of wolves in many Wildlife professionals recommend factors. In these habitats (most of than smaller ones. If a mule deer parts of the United States. a wildlife management plan be the West), biologists believe preda- population experiences one or completed before reducing predator tion does not cause declines in deer more severe winters or droughts Recommendations for numbers. That plan should include populations. The effect predators and their numbers are low, they Predator Management the status of mule deer populations have on prey populations in these may be more susceptible to and the population objective desired environments is more complex and predators until their population Many of the human influences from a reduction in predators, related to how humans affect pred- numbers increase. that have caused changes to how desired removal goals for the preda- ators, prey and habitat, and the predators and prey interact make tor species, timing, method and types and densities of predators managing healthy populations of scale of removal efforts, and a that exist. both difficult and challenging. description of other factors that may Some segments of the public want be depressing mule deer popula- - The effects of predators are compli- "In cases where you can't effective predator management tions. The plan should also include cated because there is more than demonstrate that predation programs so that their livestock monitoring and evaluation of preda- one species of predator – wolves is, in fact, a population reg- and wildlife are protected, while tor and prey populations, and the have to kill and eat prey species to others place a value on the pres- thresholds when reduction of preda- survive, while coyotes can survive ulator, predator control is ence of predators in wildlands. As tors will cease or be modified. on plants. If mule deer and large nonsensical. When you can this debate continues, mule deer Professionals also recommend mammal populations decrease, populations have been declining. long-term studies on coyote, moun- coyotes are less susceptible to these demonstrate predators are Increasing concern with tain lion and black bear, and human prey reductions because of their having an effect, predator declines in mule deer and black- dimensions work to better under- ability to eat a variety of foods. tailed deer populations in large stand public acceptance of predator control can be effective." parts of the western United States management, and a cost-benefit - To warrant a reduction in preda- prompted several wildlife profes- analysis of predator control. tors, predation should be identi- sionals to review wildlife research The debate about the good and fied as an important mortality fac- In years when mule deer popu- and make recommendations on bad of predators will likely not be tor, and managers must estimate lations are lean, some predators future research and management resolved in the near future as habi- the population of deer relative to such as mountain lions and wolves of predators. tats continue to be fragmented and the carrying capacity of its habitat. may consume several wildlife susceptible to human influences, species including elk and small and the public continues to align mammals, causing the predators to itself with one or more “stances” on predators.

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Drought is a long-term, natural, lush, spring growth and receding cyclic event that is linked to snowlines. In mountainous regions declines in mule deer populations, with less severe climates, migration 4 particularly in arid regions. Both may be closely associated with seasonal and long-term droughts changes in relative humidity. can affect the survival of deer fawns. In general, higher levels of Predation rainfall correlate to improved pro- Precipitation- Interactions between predators duction, whereas lower levels of rainfall have been associated with and prey are related to the ability declines in production and num- of a habitat to support a population a driving force bers of mule deer. of deer, weather, human use patterns, the type of predator and Distribution and changes in habitat. For example, during drought periods in Texas, Movement of Deer mule deer numbers are below t doesn’t seem possible availability of forage in northern carrying capacity, and predation by Precipitation influences the dis- that raindrops or climates, while drought can lessen mountain lions may be significant. tribution and movements of mule snowflakes would affect availability of forbs and grasses in deer in northern, cooler climates the ability of mule deer desert environments. and drier, desert climates. Home Disease to thrive. But in fact, Inadequate precipitation ranges of mule deer increase with precipitationI is a key factor that reduces the availability, annual Little scientific research exists to a decrease in quality habitat drives mule deer populations. growth, digestibility and quality of suggest there is a direct relationship The amount and timing of pre- between spread of disease in deer cipitation affects plant growth and and precipitation. Deer may concen- quality, deer diet and nutrition, the trate around water during dry, hot ability of a habitat to support a summers, however it is more likely population of deer, distribution that drought causes poor nutrition in and movement of deer, predation deer, leading to greater susceptibility and management. Also, extreme to disease. weather such as droughts, pro- longed periods of extreme cold or Pollution excessive snow can directly cause Acid precipitation can damage mule deer mortality. foliage and roots of vegetation and destroy soil nutrients and organisms, Plant growth and quality resulting in greater susceptibility to Precipitation affects soil mois- disease, drought, and frost, and ture, ambient temperatures and reduced germination and seedling annual plant growing seasons, all survival. Acid precipitation may also of which affect the plants that lower trace minerals in forage, an mule deer eat on winter and sum- Group of mule deer bedded in deep snow in Colorado. By Len Carpenter. important component in the diet of mer ranges. In desert environ- ungulates. ments, precipitation is critical for important plants, and forces deer because the animals need to range new spring growth. In northern cli- to eat more food with less nutri- Management farther to meet their nutritional mates, severe winters with large tional value. Each of these affects needs. Deer populations may be amounts of snowfall may increase energy levels and the overall abili- During severe winters with deep managed with greater accuracy by mortality because deer do not ty of a habitat to support a mule snowfall, deer may be crowded on making correlations between climate have access to food. deer population. small winter ranges, unable to and survival of deer fawns. Mean If winter and spring precipita- travel through deep snow to meet snow depth, ambient temperatures, Habitat and Deer Nutrition tion are low and there is little new their nutritional needs. Providing wind speed, drought severity index growth of plants, deer are forced good cover to help deer conserve and several other climatic factors Mule deer eat browse tips, forbs to eat older plants that have less energy is critical during severe can help managers predict fawn and grasses, although their diet is nutritional value and are more dif- winters. survival, particularly in extreme primarily shrubs. How much of ficult to digest. Poor forage can In desert environments, plant desert scrub and montane conifer each kind of food a mule deer eats delay the age at which deer density and rainfall seem to be environments. is directly related to the availability become sexually mature. Poor good predictors of distribution of it in the environment. During nutrition makes it difficult for does and productivity. years of normal rainfall, deer may to successfully rear fawns because In mountainous regions, feed primarily on nutrient-rich of the inability to provide ade- seasonal migrations are based on deciduous shrubs. In years of quate milk during lactation. Even if availability of food resources. drought, they may eat mostly ever- fawns survive, their small size may Snowstorms cause deer to migrate green and drought-resistant plants. make them more susceptible to in fall, while migrations from win- Extremes in precipitation can predation, or the rigors of winter. ter to summer ranges occur with directly affect the ability of mule Severe winters with significant deer to eat nutritious foods. For snowfall and cold temperatures example, deep snow can reduce may lead to malnutrition of deer, resulting in fewer fawns produced, and a higher than average death of fawns and adults.

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5 Wilderness Breakup

he American West is effect on wildlife management in growing and chang- the future. ing, and nothing The Center for the American indicates there is West has a web site called going to be any Western Futures at www.center- Selling off critical deer winter range in Utah’s Uinta Basin. By Steve Cranney. Tslowing to the development and west.org. The purpose of the site is sprawl into what was once consid- to describe projected growth in the ered "natural landscapes." How American West. From 1960 to - More deer in and around urban As the human population contin- people and wildlife fare as they 2050, exburbs are projected to areas results in more vehicle/deer ues to grow, more pressure will be attempt to coexist will determine grow from about 10.5 million to collisions. placed on wildlife forced to adapt to whether or not people place a 40.8 million. The human popula- the effects of urbanization and habi- value on large tracts of open tion in the West is expected to - Urbanization may change move- tat fragmentation. Fragmentation of space. grow from 61.3 million in 2000 to ments of mule deer, causing deer land from development of all kinds, In 2000, Bill Riebsame of the 109 million by 2050. Every state that were once migratory to become whether it be homes, ranchettes or Department of Geography at the is expected to show an increase yearlong residents. gas and oil wells, poses one of the University of Colorado-Boulder, in urban, suburban and exburb greatest challenges to land managers - When wildlife become concentrated presented a paper titled, "Life in areas, and a loss of rural areas who must balance the needs and in an area, there is greater possibili- the New West: Human and Wild," as 2050 approaches. wants of a citizenry that values ty for spread of disease. at the Western Association of Fish Land developers can make well- open spaces and wildlands, yet and Wildlife Agencies conference intentioned attempts to incorporate What can be done to discourage whose very presence compromises in Redmond, Oregon. During that natural escape cover near areas the presence of mule deer in that goal. presentation, Riebsame said the where mule deer can find ade- developed areas? American West was "experiencing quate food. But overall, attempting - Human transportation corridors rapid demographic, economic, and to create habitat for mule deer in such as highways, railways and cultural change," and was growing and around urban areas is a bad canals pose threats to both people faster than any other region in the deal for both people and deer. The pace of development and United States. Most of the growth Why? and game mammals, especially when those corridors cross a traditional is occurring in what he called - Large numbers of deer in urban human immigration into migration path. To minimize interac- "exburbs," or non-metropolitan areas creates havoc with local western states and provinces tions with mule deer, vegetation areas next to cities. Exburbs are landowners who don’t appreciate along transportation right-of-ways has caused of rapid loss of characterized as having one house mule deer eating their expensive should be planted with species that per 10 to 40 acres, and it is these yard shrubs. mule deer habitat. In a six- areas that will likely have the most are undesirable to wildlife. year period from 1992 to - Construction that disrupts wildlife migration paths should be avoided. 1997, 16 million acres in the

- Passage structures along transporta- United States were developed. tion corridors should be designed to A large percentage of those minimize wildlife loss. acres were in places occupied - Creating wildlife habitat in urban by mule deer. interfaces should be avoided. Instead, set aside good wildlife habi- tat in areas removed from urban sprawl to keep wildlife away from human populations.

Interstate 70 in Vail, Colorado. The highway greatly impairs the movement of deer between summer and winter range in spite of efforts to maintain seasonal movements by building an underpass specifically for deer. By John H. Ellenberger.

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8. Population Dynamics - Elk are severe weather patterns. The mule 6 longer lived, produce fewer young deer population is being knocked during their life, and are found in back in local areas, and elk are fairly stable habitats. Mule deer increasing, and weather has exacer- have shorter lives, produce more bated the situation.” Elk & young during their life, and live in Lindzey said interactions between unstable habitats, or habitats that mule deer and elk generally don’t change over time. occur long-term. “I think these inter- actions occur periodically,” said Mule Deer Tom Keegan, Wildlife Manager Lindzey. “You’ve got mule deer on with the Idaho Department of Fish that human-agriculture edge with the and Game, said that making a elk above them and people below statement that elk are responsible them, and they can no longer drift Interactions for mule deer declines would not further down into these valleys - it’s be accurate because some mule the old winter range problem. Elk deer populations have declined in are separated from mule deer by ompetition is with greater digestibility than elk. the absence of elk. And Keegan vegetation, but in a bad year, they defined as a rivalry If resources are restricted because said, "Other deer populations have fall down on top of the mule deer. or a battle of wills of habitat or weather, elk would grown and responded well in con- Elk can physically displace mule and opposing sides, have the survival advantage. junction with growing elk herds. deer or keep them from using the and brings to mind “The problem I see is half the resources. This may happen one year theC classic image of sports teams 3. Changes in habitat – Landscape people wanting more elk and half out of six.” But that one bad year changes across the west have creat- going head to head on the grid- the people wanting more deer,” can hurt a mule deer population, ed habitats that may be better suit- iron. But competition between said Keegan. “One piece of land especially when winter range and ed for elk than mule deer. species in the animal world takes won’t fit their expectations. And transition ranges are being lost to on a different meaning, especially what people want quickly changes 4. Livestock - In some cases, deer development. when the subjects in question are all the time. At some point, state and elk may completely leave an “Mule deer are driven by environ- mule deer and elk. agency managers are going to get area that is heavi- mental factors,” said Lindzey. “We’ve Competition occurs when two stuck between a rock ly grazed by cat- lost critical and valuable mule deer species use the same limited and a hard place every winter range. Most of these winter resource, and one of the two suf- tle. Competition time they go down a between mule ranges just sustained mule deer fers in some way because of that management road.” through the winter. They don’t get fat deer and elk may use. But for true competition to Fred Lindzey, Assistant on winter ranges – they just expect increase if these take place, the suffering must Wildlife Cooperative to break even. If you shorten those species are forced occur at the population level, Unit Leader and opportunities where they can move to move from pre- where one of the two species has Professor at University of to secure the greatest reduction in lower survival rates or fewer young ferred habitats to Wyoming, said habitat energy – and that’s what is happen- that survive to adulthood. Merely less suitable and weather are driving ing with all this oil and gas develop- viewing mule deer and elk in the habitat types. forces for mule deer. ment - then in a bad winter, you lose same valley foraging on similar the fawns. If you can’t access those plants is not true species competi- 5. The Human Factor - Develop- resources to mediate the effects of tion. weather, then you have adult sur- ment in winter Given the definition of competi- vival problems. These guys are engi- range affects mule deer more than tion in wildlife, do elk, whose neered to handle the weather that is elk because elk are capable of win- numbers have been increasing in dumped on them. But now we’ve tering in higher elevations than the West over the past several started to muck up the good stuff.” decades, compete with mule deer, mule deer. Elk hunting seasons Lindzey stressed the importance and if so, in what way does that can cause elk to move into dense of long-term research to give biolo- competition affect mule deer pop- cover and forage in areas used gists the tools they need to make ulations? Looking at adaptations by deer. management decisions, respond to mule deer and elk have developed “A lot of livestock management 6. Parasites - Biting flies affect development issues and answer over time can provide clues that practices create grasses that benefit questions about mule deer and elk more than mule deer, and may help answer the question. elk more than mule deer,” said elk interactions. horseflies carry a disease called 1. Energy - Summer heat and severe Lindzey. “Elk can physiologically elaeophorosis, an arterial worm winter conditions place the great- handle more roughage. So you end that causes blindness, malformed up with competition for the food est stress on mule deer and elk. “If there’s anything antlers, loss of muzzle and ear tis- resources. Habitat manipulations Mule deer movements and foraging sue, and death in elk. Mule deer that we have brought about biologists are lacking as a become restricted in snow depths are unaffected by the disease, but have largely favored elk over of 10 inches or more, whereas elk group, it’s long-term are hosts for the worm. mule deer.” are not adversely affected until Lindzey said weather increases research that elucidates the snow depths reach 18 inches. If 7. Predation - The effects predators the potential for competition mule deer and elk are using the such as mountain lions, black between mule deer and elk. influence of potential same resources in severe weather, bears, coyotes, grizzly bears and “There were very few historic impacts on populations. elk will have the advantage. wolves have on prey populations records where we lost large num- are dependent upon habitat condi- bers of elk to bad weather,” he Without those data, we’ll 2. Digestion - Mule deer have small- tions, the numbers of predators said. “At the same time, we really er stomachs than elk and forage on always be sticking our and prey, and the sex and age lost a lot of mule deer during the shrubs and forbs, compared to the ratios of predator and prey severe weather of the 80s. Mule thumbs in the dike.” grass-dominated diet of elk. Mule populations. deer are extremely sensitive to deer need better quality plants

14 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:29 PM Page 16 ECOREG

Coastal Rain Forest

California Woodland Chaparral

Intermountain West

15 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:30 PM Page 17 REGIONS

Northern Boreal Forest

Great Plains

Colorado Plateau

Southwest Deserts

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Mule Deer Regions- No Two are Alike o two mule deer populations are alike because where Coastal Rain Forest deer. The deer are primarily non- they live differs from one part of their range to another. migratory, and are well distributed Biologists refer to the different areas as “ecoregions”. Ecoregion and occur at the greatest densities in By studying each ecoregion, biologists can better iden- early successional habitats in the Description: Along the west tify the factors that are limiting the growth of mule deer central and southern part of the coast of North America from Npopulations, and predict responses by mule deer populations to region. In the northern part of this northern California through changes in habitat. Habitat quality has an effect on survival of fawns, ecoregion, deer numbers are greatest southeast Alaska. Known for its the most important factor in determining how well a population fares on coastal islands, where marine dense rain forests of western from season to season, and year to year. weather lessens the severity of hemlock, Sitka spruce and natural Biologists have identified seven ecoregions that mule deer call winter. In the far north, winter snow and commercial forests of Douglas home. Each ecoregion is briefly summarized including a physical may force deer to lower elevations. fir. Clearcutting is common in description, a description of the deer, the climate, limiting factors Black-tailed deer are often unable commercial forests, and provides that reduce the productivity of deer, to meet their nutritional require- and recommendations to improve ments year round. Fawns rarely mule deer populations. breed, and pregnancy rates for All ecoregions are subject to the yearlings vary greatly from year to limiting factors such as urbanization, year, but are generally low. fire suppression and drought Deer in this region tend to be described in this publication. older than in other regions because The limiting factors listed for each the amount of secure cover deer ecoregion in this article are some of find in the dense forest limits hunter the most important, but certainly not success. the only factors, limiting mule deer Limiting Factor: The quality of populations. the plants. Heavy rainfall and soils Although each region is ecologi- poor in nitrogen cause nutrients to cally different, some common leach from the soil, and plants have factors exist: more moisture. Pound for pound, - Generally, habitats conditions that a deer consumes less nutrients while are less productive for mule deer. foraging in coastal rain forest than in other regions. - Human caused factor such as frag- Recommendations: mentation of habitat, changes in fire regimes, livestock management and Mixed conifer habitat of Coastal Rainforest Ecoregion, west slope of Cascade Range, 1. Create more grass, forb, shrub and changes in plant communities have Douglas County, Oregon. By Tom Keegan. sapling communities to improve limited deer populations. food quality. excellent habitat for mule deer - Return to higher mule deer numbers will require stronger land for eight to 10 years after harvest 2. Maintain forest canopies in places use planning and restoration efforts on a large scale. when grass, forbs, shrubs and where snowfall is heavy. saplings are common. In the - Climate and weather play an important role in habitat quality northern part of this region where 3. Manage forests for high quality in each region. winter snowfall can be heavy, it is plant foods to allow for large harvest important to retain stands of of deer to reduce overwintering popu- mature trees to intercept the snow. lations, and thus reduce browsing on Climate: A marine climate with young conifers. cloudy days, cool temperatures, high precipitation from fall to 4. Survey for diseases and parasites. spring, and a short, dry summer 5. Plant mast producing species such season. Precipitation ranges from as oak in dry and southern areas. 25 to 120 inches. Soils are coarse and nitrogen-poor. 6. Conduct small, cool controlled The deer: Black-tailed deer are burns. the dominant subspecies of mule

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Southwest Deserts in this ecoregion because browse plants don't contain adequate Ecoregion amounts of nutrients. Competition with other forb and Description: Includes the grass-eating species such as livestock southern portions of California, can have a great effect on mule deer, Arizona, New Mexico and west especially during years when rainfall Texas, extending into northern is limited and range resources are Mexico. scarce. Overgrazing in drought years Climate: This region is arid to can have long-lasting effects. semi-arid, and has extreme tem- peratures, high evaporation rates, Recommendations: low rainfall that varies greatly from 1. Create sources of water in areas year to year, periodic droughts and where water is limiting and where poor soils. Precipitation ranges other potentially limiting factors are from 5 to 20 inches annually. being addressed. The deer: Deer are nonmigra- tory and greatly affected by 2. Monitor grazing so that livestock droughts. Fawn recruitment is do not remove large amount of Live oak-chaparral woodland habitat shot taken of Bloomfield Ranch, Kern County, California. variable depending on amount and plants, particularly in years where By Marc Hoshovksy. timing of rainfall. During dry years, drought or other climatic conditions fawn recruitment is typically stress deer. California Woodland below what is needed to maintain the population. 3. Work with landowners to provide Chaparral adapted habitat, and frequent fires Limiting factors: Rainfall and hunter access to public land. occurred before European settle- competition with livestock. Winter Description: Includes the ment. Frequent fires rejuvenate the 4. Monitor human sprawl. Coast Range of southern rainfall affects the diversity, quality habitat and improve forage for and quantity of next years' spring California, and lower elevations of mule deer. Fire suppression results the west slope of the Sierra forbs, which directly affects the in infrequent, large, hot fires. The number of young deer that are Nevada east into central Arizona. lack of fire results in older, less Climate: Hot dry summers, born and survive to adulthood. nutritious plants for mule deer. Winter precipitation stimulates mild wet winters, and periodic Weather. Summer and early fall droughts create annual grasses and plant growth in the spring. Forbs is a difficult time for mule deer are critical to the survival of deer forbs in communities of oak wood- because of little rainfall, and dry land and chaparral. Precipitation plants with little nutritional value. ranges from 8 to 30 inches a year. Nursing does need high quality Chaparral was once maintained by forage to nurse fawns and build frequent, cool fires, but fire sup- body reserves for the coming pression created older stands of winter. chaparral with poor quality forage. The deer: Mule deer popula- Recommendations: tions in this region do not migrate, 1. Use fire to stimulate sprouts of except for those at higher eleva- shrubs over a large landscape. tions in the Sierra Nevada and San Gorgonio Mountains. Deer 2. Stimulate new growth of densities are greatest in the desired plants using light northern part of this ecoregion. livestock grazing. Nonmigratory deer move in response to changes in habitat on 3. Minimize effects of livestock north and south facing slopes. along streams and uplands to Limiting factors: Fire. Most of improve forage for mule deer on the mule deer range in this region fall and winter ranges. is in private ownership, and fire suppression is a high priority for residents. This region is in a fire- RegionsSpring wildflowers in the Southwest Deserts ecoregion. By Arizona Game and Fish Department. 18 LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:30 PM Page 20

Mule deer habitat used in the Great Plains ecoregion, Scotts Bluff National Monument in western Nebraska. By Mike Cox. Regions Great Plains Ecoregion Human activities are a double- Colorado Plateau winters that cause nutritional stress, edged sword for mule deer. While high fawn mortality and lower fawn Description: The largest grass- agriculture provides watering holes Shrubland and Forest recruitment. Some lower elevation land ecosystem in North America, and alternative food sources for Ecoregion ranges can be summer range limited. extending from central Canada to mule deer, overgrazing by live- Livestock grazing may affect the the Texas panhandle, west to the stock is harmful to the woody Description: High elevation quality of forage available to deer. Rocky Mountains. The region draws that provide cover and areas in western Colorado, eastern Limiting factors: Severe winters includes a transition from tallgrass moisture. Utah, southern Wyoming, and and droughts can impact the produc- to shortgrass prairie. Recommendations: northern Arizona and New tivity of mule deer by causing high Climate: This region is semi- Mexico. Habitat ranges from fawn mortality. arid, annual precipitation varies 1. Work with landowners to mini- spruce trees at high elevations, Improper livestock grazing has between 10 and 33 inches, and mize the effects of severe weather ponderosa pine and Douglas fir at caused changes in mule deer winter temperature varies greatly. conditions by providing hard mid-elevations, and sagebrush and range. The deer: Mule deer in this woody cover for mule deer by pinyon-juniper at lower elevations. Recommendations: region are nonmigratory, although improving grazing strategies and Climate: Much of this region is they shift their home range in riparian habitats. above 5,000 feet and includes 1. Limit disturbance to existing win- response to local moisture condi- many mountain peaks above ter range, and acquire additional tions that affect plant quality. Mule 2. Provide hunting opportunities 15,000 feet. Precipitation ranges winter range. deer forage on agricultural plant- consistent with habitat conditions from 8 to 24 inches. Winters can 2. Improve quality and quantity of ings in areas that are irrigated. and deer populations. be severe. winter range habitat. Limiting factor: Cover. The deer: Deer are migratory Drought and severe winter snows because of the heavy winter snow- 3. Maintain stands of aspen for mule can affect mule deer populations. falls at high elevations. Deer popu- deer fawns and summer range. Fire is important in maintaining lations are most affected by severe grasslands. 4. Limit development of and distur- Draws that contain shrubs, bance to summer range in areas hardwoods and moisture provide where summer range is limiting. mule deer with critical habitat, especially in the winter. Grassland and shrub/grassland communities interspersed with draws provide critical year-round habitat for mule deer. Irrigated fields grow nutri- tious grasses for mule deer forage.

Aspen stand in poor condition because there is no aspen generation and the stand is being invad- ed by conifers. Fire is needed to restore and rejuvenate this stand. By Dan Stroud.

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Northern Boreal Forest and deep snow limit their ability to forage that they experience die-offs Description: The higher eleva- and high mortality. tions of the Cascades and Sierra If mule deer populations Nevadas in the three most western experience a die-off, there is excel- states, as well as northern Idaho, lent chance for recovery as a result western Montana and Wyoming, of spring and summer habitat northern Washington, and the conditions. western Canadian provinces. The greatest threats to deer in this Steens Mountain, Oregon in the Intermountain Ecoregion. By Tom Keegan. Pine, spruce, fir, Douglas fir and region are development and distur- larch are the dominant forest bance of winter range, and barriers Intermountain West detriment of mule deer. types, and forests become more to migration. In the southern part of the thin as elevation increases. Mule Recommendations: Ecoregion region, invasive plants such as deer are not found very far north 1. Acquire winter range habitat and cheatgrass and changes in fire of the northern boreal forest in Description: The mountain minimize housing developments to cycles are limiting mule deer pro- subarctic woodlands. ranges west of the Rockies, east of protect and enhance winter ranges. ductivity. Climate: Winters are long and the Sierra Nevada, north of Habitat in spring and summer cold. Average annual precipitation 2. Use fire to maintain shrub- Colorado and south of Canada. affect mule deer productivity more varies with elevation and topogra- dominated habitats. The Great Basin, a large semiarid than severe winters because the phy, from 10 inches to as much as basin, makes up a big part of this quality of spring and summer 120 inches. 3. Maintain forest shrubs, forbs, land mass. Pinyon-juniper wood- range affects the number of fawns The deer: Because of severe grasses and saplings to provide lands, conifer forests and aspen surviving to adulthood. Urban winters and heavy snowfall, most foraging habitat in spring, summer woodlands are common at higher development may affect recruit- of the deer in this region are and fall. elevations. ment because it is occurring in migratory, although some are year- Climate: Lower elevation com- 4. Avoid and manage forest encroach- mule deer winter range. round residents at lower eleva- munities receive less than 12 inch- tions. The growing season is short, ment into high elevation meadows. es of precipitation a year. Areas to Recommendations: and the quality of food mule deer 5. Avoid barriers to migration. the north and at higher elevations 1. Manage motorized traffic to ben- find during this critical time is receive most of their precipitation efit mule deer. high. Deer follow retreating snow 6. Manage deer populations based on as snow. in search of food. the ability of winter range to support The deer: If you could draw a 2. Manage forests for both early and Limiting factors: Severe win- them, and avoid overharvest in years bull’s-eye around the portion of late successional stages to meet ters. Deer follow the growth of when early winters send migratory the West that was once the center year-round needs of mule deer. plants throughout the growing sea- deer to lower elevations. of mule deer distribution, you son. It is only when severe winters would draw it around this region. 3. Protect and plant important Mule deer typically migrate in this browse species for mule deer, espe- region (although some do not), cially in winter ranges. spending summer in conifer forests at higher elevations and winter in 4. Manage wildfires on mule deer lower elevations. Deer densities ranges to avoid cheatgrass inva- are highest in places where vegeta- sion. tion and topography are diverse. 5. Manage livestock grazing to min- Agriculture and urban develop- imize impacts to mule deer along ment have hurt mule deer popula- streams and in aspen habitats. tions in this region by destroying shrub communities and reducing 6. Develop cost-effective ways to winter range. reduce pinyon-juniper invasion, Limiting factors: Competition and place a priority on developing with livestock, agriculture, urban a patchwork of habitats so that development and timber manage- mule deer have woody cover near ment. Each year, thousands of places to forage. acres of sagebrush habitat and val- leys are being overtaken by piny- on-juniper stands, much to the Male black-tailed deer in mixed conifer forest, Douglas County, Oregon, December 1998. By Tom Keegan.

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Aspen are short-lived, and rarely survive more than 100 years. Fire is important to set back succession in aspen stands to retain grass Plant and forb communities, to set back conifers that outcompete aspen and to create forest openings for aspen. Many aspen Communities stands have not been subjected to fire in over Removal of juniper and reestablishment of sage-steppe habitat on slope in southern Oregon. By George Buckner. 50 years, creating older aspen stands with few grasses and forbs. A in Trouble... The following are some recom- study done in 1981 confirmed the mendations to improve habitat for average age of aspen stands in mule deer in forests: Colorado is 80 years old, and stands aintaining plant The greatest threats to sagebrush younger than 50 years of age were communities and communities are conversion of - Maintain portions of forests in difficult to find. wildlife habitat to habitat for agricultural purposes, early successional stages. The distribution of aspen is similar meet the expecta- development, grazing by livestock - Create markets for pulpwood tim- to its historical distribution, but the tions of the public and fire suppression. ber to improve mule deer habitat in stands are older, fewer and mixed Mand the life requirements of Biologists recommend sage- forests by thinning pole timber. with conifers. healthy mule deer populations brush habitats be disturbed using Biologists recommend stimulating requires more than individual fire or mechanical methods to - Promote the use of fires and the growth of younger stands of efforts by states and provinces. provide a mosaic of habitats, reseed with native plants mule aspen using fire, harvest, mechanical Policies that cross political bound- managing livestock grazing to help deer prefer. treatments and proper livestock graz- aries and address factors that con- vegetation recover, and managing ing to provide several age classes of tribute to mule deer habitat loss elk and mule deer populations - Limit the negative effects of roads. aspen stands throughout a mule deer and degradation, and greater based on the ability of the habitat Reseeding roads no longer in use, population's range. Fire will also emphasis on working with to support a certain number limiting traffic on roads, closing help control coniferous invasion of landowners to enhance habitat on of ungulates. roads during high stress periods, aspen stands. private land may be critical to the And they encourage creativity and estimating the impacts of new future of many mule deer herds. when reclaiming sites by planting roads over a landscape can help The following are a few plant native species that benefit mule mule deer. communities in trouble, and one deer. plant community that is thriving - Protect hardwood species such as to the detriment of healthy mule Forests oak to provide mast and cover for deer habitats. mule deer, and protect riparian Forests offer three benefits to areas from overuse by deer and Shrub-Steppe mule deer - places to hide, places other ungulates. to lessen the effects of severe Of all the habitats in the West, weather and places to eat. - Responsible timber harvest based the shrub-steppe community has Quantity, quality and diversity of on adaptive management practices probably fared the worst. Shrub- plants limit the number of mule can greatly enhance mule deer steppe is the largest natural grass- deer that can exist in a forest. populations that use forests. land in North America. It once Forests naturally go through six Aspen stand with healthy regeneration and understory vegetation in western Wyoming. covered more than 200,000 square stages before they become old By Dan Stroud. miles, and extends from southeast- growth - grass-forb, shrub, shrub- Aspen ern Washington and eastern sapling, open sapling-pole, closed Aspen is a component of many Oregon, through Idaho, Nevada, sapling-pole-sawtimber, large saw- forest types and covers up to 6.9 and Utah, and into western timber and old growth. Mule deer million acres in the western Wyoming and Colorado. Shrub respond favorably to forests in the United States. It is considered the refers to the most common type of first four stages because of the most widely distributed native tree plant that grows in this habitat, quantity, quality and diversity of in North America. Mule deer rely while "steppe" is a Russian word plants present soon after logging. on aspen communities for food, that means a vast treeless plain. The amount of time today's com- cover, hiding, fawning, fawn Grasses such as wheatgrass and mercial forests offer habitat quality rearing, and protection from bluegrass, and shrubs such as to mule deer is far shorter than in severe weather, making it a sagebrush, bitterbrush, rabbitbrush historical times because of how popular habitat type for them and greasewood are common quickly foresters are able to regen- three seasons of the year. types of plants found in shrub- erate a forest using herbicides, site steppe communities. preparation and seedling plantings. Aspen stand in very poor condition due to The shrub-steppe region is home overgrazing. Note: no young or suckering to more than 200 kinds of birds, aspen trees and no understory vegetation. and 30 mammal species, including This stand will eventually become too old to replace itself. By Dan Stroud. the mule deer. Mule deer eat sagebrush, particularly during the winter months.

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Pinyon-juniperBy GeorgeBuckner. devoid ofshrubsimportantformuledeerforage.Notesagebrushwithinforeground. Juniper invasionintomuledeerhabitat.Notebackgroundwithlargejunipersandunderstory ...and One ...and Community Troubling Plant 22 and shrubs. tity anddiversity ofgrasses, forbs encroachment andimprove quan- woodlands toreducefurther lands nexttopinyon-juniper fuel wood andusingfireingrass- biologists recommendharvesting woodlands formuledeerhabitat, area. when pinyon-juniper invades an mahogany andaspenarealsolost as antelopebitterbrush,mountain plants andplantcommunitiessuch the canopy ofanarea.Other when junipercovers 50percent of cent ofmountainbigsagebrush have documentedalossof80per- adjacent tograsslands. Biologists ly inplaceswhere woodlands are forbs, grasses andshrubs,especial- woodlands eventually outcompete drought tolerant, pinyon-juniper ment isshort-lived. Becauseitis of plantsandcover. The improve- improves withadditionaldiversity munities, habitatformuledeer encroaches intoshrubsteppecom- changes occurred. the landscapeandclimatic late 1800s,firewas reducedacross livestock wereintroducedinthe munities beganexpandingwhen West. Pinyon-juniper plantcom- lion acresoftheIntermountain ties have expandedtoover 74mil- Pinyon-juniper To managepinyon-juniper When pinyon-juniper initially Pinyon-juniper plantcommuni- LT Mule Deer_2006.Lynx 8/31/06 2:30 PM Page 24

Wisconsin and New Mexico and eases. She said chronic wasting dis- in game-farmed cervids in ease is high on the list of priority Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, wildlife diseases to monitor. Mule Deer Oklahoma, South Dakota and "Because of the concern about Alberta and Saskatchewan, similar diseases such as scrapie in Canada. sheep, CWD is among those dis- Loss of fear of humans, weak- eases the United States Department ness, inability to stand, dehydra- of Agriculture is interested in eradi- Diseases tion, listlessness, repetitive walking cating. It will be important in the in set patterns, dull coat, excessive future," said Williams. ou can walk into any The diseases are viral and they drooling, drooping head and ears, Scientists have not determined center for human cause blood loss. As a result, they inability to control muscle move- what causes chronic wasting disease, disease control in the are called hemorrhagic (hem-or-a- ments and emaciation are signs of but the most accepted theory is that United States and get gic) diseases - bluetongue (BTV) CWD. cell proteins called prions (pro- as much information and epizootic hemorrhagic disease CWD is a transmissible spongi- nounced preeons), change and Yas you want on both common and (EHD). Diagnosis of these diseases form encephalopathy (TSE), which become disease-causing agents. uncommon diseases in people. is difficult because it's tough to tell refers to the fact that in late stages Many believe the disease is transmit- Wildlife biologists wish the same one disease from the other. of this disease, the brain becomes ted from animal to animal, like could be said for wildlife diseases. Two other diseases, chronic full of holes like a sponge. The dis- scrapie. While humans have places such wasting disease and tuberculosis, ease usually takes years to devel- "CWD and the other diseases are as the National Center for are considered emerging diseases. op, but it can develop in a rela- similar, but not identical," said Infectious Diseases and the tively short period of time. Williams. "A lot of the features in Center for Disease Control and Hemorrhagic (Bleeding) scrapie are similar to deer. Clinically, Prevention, biologists aren't as Diseases deer don't scratch and itch, but fortunate. Organizations such as many of the other symptoms are The American Association of Bleeding diseases were first alike." Wildlife Veterinarians, the National identified in white-tailed deer pop- Increased monitoring by wildlife Wildlife Health Center and ulations, where death rates as high agencies, increased media attention, Wildlife Diseases Association exist as 50 percent were documented. stronger public interest in the disease to help monitor wildlife diseases. Mule deer fare better with these as a result of mad cow disease, and But the weak link in the chain is diseases, usually suffering no more increased numbers of people moving getting reliable, consistent, quality than a 20 percent mortality rate. into areas that were once wildlife data to these organizations. The diseases are common only in strongholds likely have resulted in Biologists usually have to rely late summer and fall until the first higher detection rates. on large-scale die-offs or individ- freeze kills the transmitters of the ual case studies to track and moni- virus, biting midges. Those deer Tuberculosis tor wildlife diseases. The behavior that die usually do so within five of wildlife, low numbers of ani- to 10 days after being bitten by an Another disease of importance to mals observed, lack of training infected midge. wildlife managers and veterinarians and cost to monitor individuals When mule deer contract either is tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is within a population make of the two hemorrhagic diseases, caused by bacteria, and is spread by studying wildlife diseases even they can show one or more signs direct and indirect contact between more difficult. of sickness. These include bleeding animals. Tuberculosis usually affects A mule deer displaying the symptoms of Biologists face other hurdles. from the eyes, ears, mouth and/or the lungs, causing difficulty breath- chronic wasting disease. The deer is in Large numbers of observations are nostrils, moderate fever, depres- ing, coughing, and discharge from poor body condition, appears to be sedated, the mouth or nose. required to detect and monitor dis- sion, anorexia, excessive drooling, and is not avoiding human structures or The United States Animal Health eases in wildlife populations. And swelling and ulcers in the cheek or activities. This animal was photographed in many of the biologists capturing tongue (thus the name blue northeastern Colorado in the CWD endemic Association (USAHA) is a science- the wildlife are not trained to col- tongue), swelling of one or more area. By Colorado Division of Wildlife. based national forum interested in lect and handle scientific samples of the linings in the stomachs and the eradication of tuberculosis from for analysis in a laboratory. Lack of blood in the feces and saliva. Scrapie is the oldest of the TSE wild and domestic animals in the adequate staff and lack of training diseases, and occurs in sheep and United States. It appointed a working make it difficult to monitor Chronic Wasting goats. It was first reported in the group in October of 2000 to develop wildlife diseases. mid-18th century, but has never strategies to address tuberculosis Cost is another critical factor Disease (CWD) been reported in other animals or issues. that prevents biologists from track- people. Affected animals lose con- The first diagnosis of tuberculosis Chronic Wasting Disease ing wildlife diseases. Monitoring trol of their leg and body muscles in white-tailed deer occurred in the (CWD) is so named because it animals requires capturing, tagging that causes them to stagger. State of Michigan in 1974. Feeder causes chronic weight loss that and following those individuals. Eventually they cannot stand. The cattle, dairy cattle and captive eventually results in death. It was For longer-lived animals or animals name "scrapie" refers to the fact cervids, along with wild white-tailed first documented in captive deer in with larger home ranges, these that the animals can become irrita- deer and many carnivorous species a wildlife research center in costs are prohibitive for many fish ble and develop an intense itch have been infected. Colorado in 1967. and wildlife organizations. that leads the animal to scrape off Williams said tuberculosis has not Since then, it has been diag- Difficulties aside, what do we their wool and break the skin. been found in any deer populations nosed in captive and free-ranging know about disease in mule deer? Dr. Elizabeth Williams is a pro- in the West, but that it is a disease of deer and elk in northeastern First, while there are several dis- fessor of Veterinary Science at the concern because of its ability to Colorado, southeastern Wyoming, eases that affect individual mule University of Wyoming and an spread rapidly. Nebraska, South Dakota, deer, only two are known to wreak expert in the field of wildlife dis- "Right now, we don't have any enough havoc to cause significant evidence of TB in free ranging popu- die-offs. lations in the West, but we know it's transmitted readily when deer are

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concentrated," said Williams. She said it is a disease that needs to be closely monitored because of its potential impact to wildlife and Counting humans. Jim deVos, Chief of Research with Arizona Game and Fish Department, places a strong the Herds emphasis on the importance of increased wildlife research to monitor wildlife diseases. ou can travel all One of the first steps in manag- How is the data used after it is over the world, and ing mule deer populations collected? Most states analyze their any McDonald's throughout the West is figuring out data using computer models to esti- restaurant product, what everyone uses to base their mate population and determine the whether it's a ham- management, policy and harvest number of mule deer that should be burgerY or a French fry, will taste harvested each year, and any decisions. Members of the Western the same. McDonald's perfected Association of Fish and Wildlife changes in hunting regulations that standardization. Unfortunately, the Agencies (WAFWA) Mule Deer may be necessary as a result of pop- same cannot be said for the meth- Working Group set to work to ulation estimates. Harvest data from "I believe it is important ods to collect information about uncover this information. the previous year, in combination mule deer. They asked western states and with population estimates, are the that entities with manage- The first estimate of mule deer Canadian provinces to answer most common factors states and ment authority for mule populations in the West was questions about data collection, provinces use to determine annual probably exaggerated, harvest levels. deer make a more serious but that's understandable The working commitment to disease given the survey methods group developed available at the turn of a series of recom- research," said deVos. the 20th century. mendations to "Only when large-scale Biologists weren't flying encourage states around in fixed wing air- and provinces to die-offs occur do diseases craft and helicopters work together to become an important issue counting wildlife, and collect and ana- the ability of one state to lyze data about for wildlife management communicate about and mule deer popu- agencies. By then, it is collaborate on research lations. was primitive at best. - Strive to obtain often too late to do While technology has more standardized anything other than helped biologists and population meas- managers, not every state ures. document the number or province and its fund- ing sources are created - Each state and of mortalities." Mule deer running during a helicopter survey are classified and counted. equal, making it very dif- By Jim Heffelfinger. province should DeVos recommends a more ficult for states to survey develop a priori- aggressive, coordinated approach using the same methods. tized list of mule deer populations to wildlife disease research. This For example, well funded states methodology, modeling and range and measures to estimate those pop- includes increased communication may have the staff and financial condition. The results are eye ulations. They recommend estimat- between the western states, resources to survey their mule deer opening. ing fawn survival as the key parame- coordination of veterinarians in populations using helicopters and To survey mule deer, western ter. western states working on wildlife line transects several times during states and Canadian provinces are research projects, creation of a the year. Other states may have the using everything from fixed-wing - Personnel who collect data should be consistent funding base to resources to sample on horseback aircraft and helicopters, to horses, trained and experienced. study mule deer health issues, in places with easy access. trucks and good old-fashioned - WAFWA should develop a set of development of standard sampling Information about mule deer is feet. Some are using specific aerial guidelines and protocols to obtain protocols so that all mule deer collected a variety of ways techniques such as quadrats or and analyze mule deer harvest data. captured for any wildlife research because of differences in terrain, double counts, while other states weather (snow cover), the timing aren't using planes or helicopters purposes are sampled consistently - Host a workshop for staff that uses of breeding and fawning, and road at all. Some are using a sampling and using quality standards, and computer models to encourage stan- density (roadless areas are more design based on ease of access, participation in surveillance dardization. programs for diseases with high difficult to survey on foot). while others are more rigid in their biological or social concerns for Why count mule deer? A great sampling protocol. Some are sam- Surveying wildlife populations mule deer or human health. deal of time and effort can go into pling units once per year, while like mule deer is difficult and If western states and Canadian determining the ratio of bucks to others are surveying twice a year complex, certainly not as easy as provinces take this approach to does and fawn to does, and esti- or once every three years. The creating a recipe for fast food and wildlife disease research, there mating total population and fawn good news is that western states replicating it. But if biologists are may someday be a place people recruitment. This information is and provinces know what and ever going to understand mule deer can go to learn everything they used to develop harvest strategies how much work needs to be done on a regional basis, surveying and ever wanted to know about that biologists hope will result in a to improve survey information on monitoring their populations will wildlife diseases. healthy population of mule deer mule deer. need to be more consistent and that the habitat can support. standardized.

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this varied diet, mule deer forage - Manage for a wide diversity of across several different types of plants, especially forbs and landscapes, increasing the size of browse, across a broad landscape How their home range as forage quality so that mule deer can meet their decreases. year-round nutritional needs.

- Avoid supplemental feeding as a Biologists know that replacement for lost or poor Diet habitat. maintaining healthy body - Practice adaptive resource man- condition is critical to agement. Changes in mule deer Affects mule deer survival and condition and productivity should reproduction. Body be monitored and evaluated when habitat changes. condition determines Deer ability to survive severe here are two ways winters, birth size and food can influence survival of fawns, and mule deer popula- tions. The first is even sex of fawns. More density dependent, female fawns are born Tor dependent upon the size of the mule deer population in relation to to does in good body Supplemental habitat. If a mule deer population condition. becomes larger than the ability of the habitat to support it, it eats In addition to overall body itself out of house and home, condition, some nutrients such as feeding- Just and the body condition and phosphorus, calcium and selenium productivity of the animals affect overall productivity. decline. This happened on the Inadequate amounts of calcium Kaibab Plateau in Arizona, the can inhibit antler growth or cause classic textbook case of what can Say No lower weight gains in fawns. happen to mule deer populations Although measuring body con- if they become overpopulated. dition is time and labor intensive, nyone that has ever Mule deer are ruminants with The second way food can affect the payoff is substantial. If biolo- been a boy or girl a four-part stomach. Each of the a mule deer population is density gists can accurately measure body scout has likely had stomach chambers plays a critical independent, meaning that num- condition of mule deer, they can the opportunity to role in the ability to process food. bers of mule deer are not the better evaluate range conditions build a bird feeder. The first stomach is called the primary cause of declines in body AOver 110 million Americans feed rumen, a large storage chamber that and predict whether mule deer condition or productivity. populations will increase, decrease birds today, a pastime that makes it reduces bigger pieces of food to Examples of this include poor or remain stable. The bottom line one of the most popular hobbies smaller pieces through microbial range conditions or when an area is that reproduction rates for mule that knows no gender, age, or cul- action, much the same way that a receives a large amount of rainfall deer in high quality habitats is tural boundaries. People enjoy compost pile 's microbes begin to that causes nutrients to leach from greater than those in poor habitats. feeding birds because it gives them break down leaves. Microbes are the range. Animals are able to Body measurements and an opportunity to view wildlife, decomposers that break down matter ingest large quantities of plants, amount of fat and muscle give and it makes them feel like they're into nutrients and minerals that but the quality of those plants is biologists clues to the condition of helping wildlife survive, particular- plants and animals reuse. poor and does not provide the live animals. These measurements ly in the winter. While resting, mule deer regurgi- animals with adequate nutrients. can be taken by analyzing the People commonly make the tate or "spit up" food from the If mule deer numbers are amount of fat in organs, proteins in mistake in thinking that feeding rumen, and rechew their food. declining in one region of the blood, chemical makeup of urine, other kinds of wildlife, particularly This is also known as "chewing their West, taking a look at range and measuring the amount of species like mule deer, is equally cud." Mule deer chew their cud to conditions can provide solid clues muscle and estimating cell mass. helpful. When people see mule make the food they eat smaller, so to the cause. Knowing what mule All give clues to an animal's deer starving along the sides of that it can pass on to the next deer eat, and the times of year body condition. roads in the midst of a severe win- stomach, the reticulum. they feed on certain foods, is What can be done to enhance ter, compassion makes them want The reticulum does two things. equally important. body condition of mule deer and to help the mule deer by feeding First, it acts as a filter, The main part of a mule deer's improve mule deer population them hay. Like most things in life, sending larger diet is shrubs and forbs, and about numbers? this sounds like a simple solution. particles back 10 percent is grasses. Because of to the first - Improve range habitat for foraging But it's not that easy, and in fact, stomach for mule deer by setting back succes- supplemental feeding may do more harm than good to most deer additional sion. This can be done using fire, populations. breakdown. grazing, equipment or chemicals. The key to understanding how And second, Early successional stages provide supplemental feeding affects mule it breaks down the the best forage habitat for deer is to study their stomach, cell walls of plants, then passes the mule deer. or as in the case of mule deer, smaller food particles to the third stomachs. stomach, the omasum.

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The omasum also acts as a filter, During times of the year when commitment because it has to be sending particles that are too large mule deer are feeding on woody started before poor range condi- back to the rumen. The third stom- plants, their woody plant microbes tions and severe weather cause ach absorbs water and compacts are abundant in their digestive malnourishment. It must be contin- When mule deer feed across the smaller food particles for the tract. When mule deer are feeding ued until range conditions can a large landscape, the fourth stomach, the abomasum. on forbs and grasses, other kinds support the herd. The fourth stomach is a true of microbes roll up their sleeves These kinds of programs are microbes in their bodies stomach that functions much like a and take the lead in digestion as costly, and can cause both short adjust as their food sources human stomach, where food is woody plant microbes become and long-term behavioral changes digested with acids, and the nutri- less abundant. in wildlife. But the biggest threat to gradually change. If a mule ents are absorbed through the Len Carpenter, Southwestern feeding mule deer is disease. deer suddenly switches its intestines. Field Representative with the Mule deer and other big game This well designed digestive Wildlife Management Institute, animals that are fed by humans diet from woody plants to machine even has a bypass for emphasized the importance of tend to concentrate at feeding high quality alfalfa hay, the young mule deer that are not yet feeding mule deer the right type of sites, where disease outbreaks can feeding on plants. Mule deer fawns food. affect a large number of animals. microbes in its body do not bypass the first three stomachs and "With that smaller rumen, you Mule deer are susceptible to send the milk from their mother have to provide them the right chronic wasting disease and easily have time to adjust, and it directly to their fourth stomach fiber mixture such that the animals spread tuberculosis in crowded starves to death with a full conditions (see article on stomach. Many a hay-fed Wildlife mule deer has suffered Diseases for a description of this fate. these diseases). "The biggest these movement patterns and cause problem right mule deer that were once migratory now with feed- to become year-round residents. ing are the Year-round mule deer residents disease con- cause interactions human residents. cerns," said Mule deer sometimes find alternative Carpenter. sources of food such as vegetable "That has and flower gardens, and ornamental become a big shrubs, much to the chagrin of problem with homeowners. This problem can tuberculosis sometimes worsen during the spring, and Chronic summer and fall. Numbers of vehi- Wasting cle/mule deer collisions can increase Disease. in areas where mule deer are fed. Michigan Supplemental feeding can cause a feeds and baits population of mule deer to increase white-tailed beyond the capacity of the range to deer and has a support it. This causes overbrowsing tuberculosis of existing shrubs and forbs that has problem that In severe winters and deep snow, it may be necessary to feed mule deer to prevent extreme losses. It is important that the long-term effects on the range. Many ration fed is nutritionally balanced and that a feeding plan is in place. By Len Carpenter. affects their areas, particularly those in and livestock. If around deserts, take decades and because there is no need for the can eat it without doing harm to you feed mule deer with elk, the often centuries to recover from first three stomachs to break down the rumen," said Carpenter. "If you brucellosis problems with elk and overbrowsing. plant cell walls or make large just feed them grains and hay, par- livestock are a real concern." If mule deer numbers remain pieces of food smaller. ticularly low quality grass hay, But Carpenter said there are artificially high during times when Sounds pretty efficient? In some there's a real problem." some situations that are so severe range conditions are poor, two respects it is. Because of the num- A mule deer's digestive tract is for mule deer that consideration of things happen. First, the range takes ber of stomachs, mule deer can get so sensitive that natural climatic supplemental feeding is warranted. longer to recover because over- a large amount of protein and changes such as drought or exces- "There are some winter situa- browsing continues. And second, the nutrients from the foods they eat. sive precipitation that can quickly tions that are so bad, that if you number of malnourished deer actu- But this comes at a cost, and change the quality and diversity of don't feed, so many mule deer will ally increases because artificial feed- understanding the costs highlights their foods can also result in mal- die that a population won't be left, ing causes more animals to survive the complexity of supplemental nourishment or starvation. especially in high mountain areas," and reproduce. More mule deer feeding. Does this mean that all supple- said Carpenter. "In very limited means more competition for existing The microbes that break down mental feeding of mule deer is and extreme situations, it's okay to resources. The only option for these the food in a mule deer's stomach bad? Not necessarily, but be pre- feed deer." animals is to feed in an overbrowsed are very specific to the types of pared to pay a hefty price for suc- Disease isn't the only troubling range when they are not being food the mule deer eats. Some cess. Supplemental feeding helps side effect of supplemental feed- supplementally fed. microbes are good at breaking mule deer make it through a ing. Some mule deer are migratory, The bottom line? Leave supple- down woody plants, while others severe winter if the feeding is start- relying on traditional movements mental feeding to the birds, and plan do a great job breaking down ed early, long before the mule deer throughout a landscape to get the for healthy mule deer populations by forbs. show signs of malnutrition or star- food, cover and water require- providing adequate year-round vation. To effectively feed mule ments they need year-round. habitat for mule deer. deer requires a three to four month Supplemental feeding can disrupt

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that information so that others can responsibility for management of benefit. There are four to six steps migratory birds across all states, to adaptive resource management: mule deer are state-regulated. Learning 1. Gather existing information "The USFWS is one entity, and about a population and its habitat, across all states they can dictate define a management objective, what can go on," said Carpenter. forecast outcomes of several man- When it comes to mule deer man- agement actions, and identify agement, "All states like to do their by Doing own thing. To impose the will of one areas where knowledge and infor- system on all states collectively is mation is needed. Managing Mule These shortcomings created a difficult. Each state has its own system of managing wildlife that 2. Design a management plan and agency and commission - those Deer with Uncertainty could be likened to a dog chasing monitoring program that will meet groups are all different, and they see its tail, where seasons and harvest things through different colored he similarities the desired management objec- "chase" habitat conditions and glasses. Adaptive resource manage- between managing tives, yield information where it is population levels. One of the ment is going to have to be done fish, forests and needed, and provide feedback biggest casualties of this approach state by state, recognizing that prob- wildlife and playing about management actions. to management was an unin- lems with mule deer are common the stock market are formed public that expected across all states." uncanny.T When playing the stock 3. Implement the plan. wildlife populations to respond He cites the need for a multi-state market, you establish clear objec- exactly to the predictions of biolo- 4. Monitor the results of the plan. approach to coordinate mule deer tives for how you want your gists, a no-win situation for both census, herd composition, fawn sur- money to work for you over the 5. Compare actual outcomes to parties. vival and harvests, and standardized long-term, then you tweak and forecasts and interpret results. Recognition of these shortcom- data analysis. Goals for harvest man- make adjustments as changes in ings led to the birth of a new way agement activities could include the market occur and new infor- 6. Make adjustments to forecasting of managing called adaptive buck:doe ratios, fawn:doe ratios, or mation becomes available. When models and management objec- resource management. Also called population densities. States could you're managing species with fins, tives to reflect new information adaptive harvest management use these goals to develop models to feathers, fur or leaves, the same and understanding. Repeat the because harvest is often used to evaluate the response of mule deer conditions exist, including the process with adjustments. help regulate mule deer inherent risks and uncertainties. numbers, adaptive Biologists began to get a handle resource management on describing the uncertainties of introduces the uncer- managing natural resources in the tainty of managing natu- mid 1980s. Until that time, natural ral resources - and resource managers used a very tra- attempts to minimize ditional approach to managing that uncertainty with fish, forests and wildlife that was consistent monitoring often reactive and passive. The tra- and evaluation of pro- ditional approach was based on grams. In other words, it precise predictions, single uses the "feedback" from answers, and the belief that man- past decisions and agement policies could be effec- actions to make adjust- tive if they were long-term and sta- ments and future deci- ble. It was an approach destined sions. for conflict and failure. It was a lot The goal of this like dumping a large sum of approach is to adapt money into one stock market fund, Helicopters are the vehicle of choice by biologists gathering data on mule deer populations. By Len Carpenter. management practices then walking away from it, despite to fit the changing val- changes in the economy, age to ues of society, and the retirement and new information habitat conditions that affect our The first observations about populations to different harvest and about stocks. fish, forest and wildlife popula- adaptive resource management are regulation strategies. Biologists recognized the tradi- tions. It's a method of learning by that it isn't easy to do, it can be "Adaptive resource management tional approach was failing them doing that allows biologists to bet- very costly for individual states, per se is very complex and rigorous," in four basic ways. ter understand how, for example, a and it may be very difficult to said Carpenter. "It requires the estab- - They were not setting clear long- watershed and the natural coordinate throughout the West. lishment of objectives, the develop- term management objectives; resources that live in that water- Len Carpenter is the Wildlife ment of models, and monitoring and shed respond to alternative poli- Management Institute field repre- testing of models. Many states don't - They were not monitoring the cies and management practices. sentative for eight states in the have the facilities or resources need- results of regulations, harvest and Using this approach can better West and Southwest. He believes ed, and often can't follow all of the policies; define how a mule deer popula- adaptive resource management steps necessary to truly implement - They were not adjusting manage- tion responds to a specific land would work well for mule deer, adaptive resource management." but recognizes there are inherent Carpenter emphasized what adap- ment activities based on the management practice and harvest problems with implementing it tive resource management is not - results of their actions and pro- program. across a large landscape with "We'll try something, and if it does- grams; Adaptive resource management is a way managers can better meet numerous political boundaries. n't work, we'll do something else." - And there was more conflict with goals, learn from and respond to Unlike waterfowl management, in It's going to take time for western the public who didn’t have much management actions, and share which the United States Fish and states and provinces to fully imple- opportunity to understand what Wildlife Service (USFWS) has key ment adaptive resource manage- agency managers did and why. ment.

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"No matter how much data are collected and analyzed, some level of uncertainty will always exist. A land manager must make deci- sions with the information available and continue to learn from both mistakes and accomplishments."

agencies take a proactive approach to keep interested constituents involved and informed. Today, adaptive resource manage- ment is being used throughout the world to manage intercontinental Southern Utah desert landscape near Boulder, Utah. Henry Mountain is in the background. By Steve Cranney. waterfowl populations, quail, pronghorns, and mule deer, to name a few. Biologists are even One of the first states out of the When asked about the manage- complaints about the process or using the concepts of adaptive chute to apply adaptive resource ment goal of Montana's mule deer, the directions we're going. The resource management to conduct management to manage mule deer Montana doesn't throw out a num- public has supported our approach prescribed burns. is Montana. And they're taking the ber. Instead, they describe the to adaptive resource management Will adaptive resource manage- public along with them for the ride long-term health of mule deer process to this point. Things are ment ever be fine-tuned such that via their Internet site, populations and optimal hunting good now as deer numbers are responses by wildlife to management www.fwp.state.mt.us/hunting/ahm/ opportunities. starting to increase." activities will always be predictable? content.asp. The Big Sky state also does a Erickson commented that keep- Not likely. Anything and everything you great job of explaining that adap- ing people updated is critical. J.E. Mitchell and D.R. Freeman, in ever wanted to know about adap- tive resource management is a "Sometimes, what tends to happen their 1993 technical report on tive resource management and work in progress. "With more con- is we put out an informational wildlife-livestock-fire interactions on how Montana is using it to man- sistent data collection on mule piece, and as we're halfway the Kaibab Plateau, said it best. age their mule deer can be found deer populations around the state through implementation, some If western states and Canadian on this site. One portion of the site and this computer modeling capa- other crisis happens. By the time provinces can overcome the political is titled, "Mule Deer Hunters - Are bility, biologists will increasingly you get to a point where you have and economic barriers to imple- You in the Know?" The site asks be able to compare what is actual- to have everyone supporting you, menting adaptive resource manage- hunters questions, then provides a ly observed each year with what they or you have forgotten to keep ment, both mule deer, and the hyperlink with the answer. the computer modeling predicted people informed. To prevent that publics that reap the benefits from The interested public can learn the year before. Over time repeti- from happening, we developed an healthy mule deer populations, will about surveying mule deer, using tion of this modeling/in-the-field informational plan along with this profit - even in the face of computer modeling to estimate monitoring feedback loop will process to keep everything in front uncertainty. population numbers, and manag- improve wildlife management per- of everybody." ing herds using different harvest formance by reducing the amount Adaptive resource management strategies. And through the use of of uncertainty." can only be successful if state questions and answers, Montana Glenn Erickson, Wildlife clearly explains that the driving Management Bureau Chief for force behind whether or not a Montana, said public reaction on mule deer herd is holding its own, adaptive harvest management shrinking or growing is the number strategies for mule deer has been of fawns that survive to adults. guarded. "Everyone has accepted the process and the objectives as gen- eral consensus," said Erickson. " A lot of what people are doing is waiting. We haven't had a lot of

Three to four month old mule deer fawns at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, September of 1992. By Tom Keegan. Mule deer habitat along the Utah-Nevada border. By Steve Cranney.

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ment techniques to manage buck harvest or improve buck:doe mule deer populations and ratios. their habitats. Hunting seasons used to occur Managing Deer Biologists know that: over relatively short periods of time. Today, many states and provinces - Harvesting does can be used to offer a range of hunting seasons over decrease a mule deer population a longer period of time and with a Herds with depending on whether or not the variety of harvest methods such as removal of the does is additive or muzzleloader, archery and centerfire compensatory mortality. If the rifle. The purpose of expanded sea- desire is to reduce the population, sons is to offer additional types of enough does must be harvested to hunter opportunity and reduce Harvest reach the level where mortality is hunter densities to improve hunt additive. quality and lessen landowner/hunter unting is the seasons can effect changes in age conflicts. wildlife biologist’s structure, sex ratios, and timing of - By understanding how doe harvest most often used tool breeding, but these do not signifi- affects a population of deer, man- Antler point restrictions to effect changes in cantly affect the population as a agers can better meet population the size and com- whole. Under normal conditions, objectives within a habitat. Creating mule deer harvest sea- positionH of mule deer populations. fawns are born at a time when sons with antler point restrictions is Studies have shown that most Establishing hunting seasons and habitat conditions are optimal. popular amongst hunters who think environmental factors that reduce it will help increase the number of harvests are within the control of There is concern that if breeding is survival of fawns have little effect fish and wildlife managers, and significantly delayed, fawns may mature bucks and buck:doe ratios in on adult does, which have a low mule deer populations. But research this activity generates much need- be born late, and have a more dif- natural mortality. ed revenue for conservation pro- ficult time surviving during winter. in many western states shows that grams. Season length and timing antler point restrictions do not pro- The recipe for success to create Antlerless harvests duce more deer or larger-antlered deer. effective hunts is to be very specif- Managing season length and Colorado implemented antler ic about the desired results. Doe harvests can be effective timing are two methods managers point restrictions statewide for six Harvest and population structure tools for managing population lev- have used to attempt to alter the years, and in a number of game are monitored closely so that hunt- els. Antlerless harvests can prevent age and sex structure of mule deer units for seven years. The result was ing seasons can be adjusted to large-scale die-offs or overbrows- populations, especially when a shift of hunting from pressure on properly manage mule deer herds. ing of habitat. The population has hunters become vocal about too all age classes of bucks (primarily All of this must be done with the to be monitored closely, and the many hunters, too few bucks or yearlings) to bucks two years and support of internal and external manager has to have reasonable too few large bucks. older, and an increase in illegal or constituents. If any piece of this estimates of population size, and Restricting season length accidental harvest of yearling bucks. recipe is missing, it is very likely adult and fawn survival. Each of reduces hunter days in the field, The number of mature bucks did not hunting will be ineffective in man- these factors will allow biologists but doesn't necessarily reduce aging mule deer. to use adaptive resource manage- increase over time. Some of the most useful harvest strategies include buck-only sea- sons, antlerless harvests, changes in season timing and length and limited licenses. Buck-only seasons Buck-only seasons generally have little effect on mule deer pop- ulations because the remaining bucks breed all reproductively active does. Wide buck:doe ratios and an abundance of younger males may delay the timing of breeding, but there is no evidence this significantly affects the repro- ductive rates of does or the num- ber of fawns that survive to adult- hood in a mule deer population. Some people have expressed concern that heavy, buck-only har- vest degrades the gene pool of a population, but there is no evi- dence to support loss of genetic diversity as a result of younger males breeding does. Buck-only

A successful mule deer hunt. By Dave Neill.

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Idaho and Montana implement- Washington tried antler point Limiting licenses ed two points or less seasons to restrictions in a few of their hunt- reduce hunting pressure on older ing units and experienced a small- Limiting hunting licenses is anoth- bucks and improve buck:doe ratios er harvest of mule deer bucks, a er way to manage harvest and meet at the end of hunting seasons. switch in harvest from mule deer population objectives. In some areas, Over the long term, two point sea- to white-tailed deer, and no mule deer populations have not sons did not improve buck:doe increase in the number of mature been able to keep pace with human ratios at the end of the hunting Attempts to increase the bucks. They did experience an populations, and demand for harvest seasons. number of mature bucks increase in buck:doe ratios exceeds availability. In these areas, Wyoming’s experience with four because of the lower buck harvest biologists have little choice but to point or better seasons resulted in and buck:doe ratios using and improved recruitment of limit the number of hunting licenses. fewer hunters and a reduction in four-point seasons in fawns. In other areas, several years of total harvest, fewer mature bucks, Oregon abandoned antler point severe weather forced states like and a significant number of deer Montana reduced buck har- restrictions in a few popular hunt- Colorado to limit mule deer licenses. harvested with fewer than four vest by 28 percent, ing areas when the number of The state saw a corresponding points. older bucks and buck:doe ratios increase in mule deer numbers as Utah abandoned efforts to increased illegal harvest of decreased after 12 years. weather conditions improved and implement antler point restrictions bucks with 3x3 points or Most western states have con- fewer mule deer were harvested. after five years when officials cluded that changes in buck:doe By limiting licenses, fish and documented illegal harvest, less by about 40 percent, ratios and increases in the number wildlife agencies offer fewer big reductions in overall harvest of mature bucks can only be game hunting opportunities, but can and fewer mature bucks. and increased harvest of accomplished through reductions more effectively improve the number bucks having more than in harvest of bucks. of large bucks, post-season buck:doe ratios and buck age structure. 3x4 points. Our Summary As you worked your way through this publication, you may have realized that manag- ing mule deer and public expectations is complex. The hey days of the 1950s, when fire and other natural forces enhanced habitat for mule deer and favored them over other species, are gone.

Given the permanent loss of winter and summer mule deer range that has occurred, it is not likely that we could ever return to mule deer population numbers that existed in middle of the last century. It is, however, possible to improve habitat management practices, reintroduce fires, reduce the spread of invasive species and focus on other factors that have contributed to the loss and decline of mule deer numbers. But it is also important to recognize that despite these and other well-intentioned efforts, many other factors such as climate are outside of human control.

Efforts to increase mule deer populations will require tremendous coordination that crosses political boundaries. These efforts may force each of us to make choices about expanding the communities where we live, or allowing exploration for minerals and gas in undisturbed wilderness.

The Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies is facing the challenge with a cooperative, realistic approach in the hopes that stable, healthy mule deer populations can once again grace the western landscape for present and future generations.

WAFWA Mule Deer Working Group

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“Delivering Conservation through information exchange and working partnerships”

Western Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies – Member Organizations Alaska Department of Fish and Game Alberta Department of Sustainable Resource Development Arizona Game and Fish Department British Columbia Ministry of Environment California Department of Fish and Game Colorado Division of Wildlife Hawaii Department of Land and Natural Resources Idaho Department of Fish and Game Kansas Department of Wildlife and Parks Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks Nebraska Game and Parks Commission Nevada Department of Wildlife New Mexico Department of Game and Fish North Dakota Game and Fish Department Oklahoma Department of Wildlife Conservation Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife Saskatchewan Department of Environment and Resource Management South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks Department Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Utah Division of Wildlife Resources Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife Wyoming Game and Fish Department Yukon Department of Environment