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Dike-Driven Hydrothermal Processes on Mars and Sill Emplacement on Europa

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Dike-Driven Hydrothermal Processes on Mars and Sill Emplacement on Europa Dike-Driven Hydrothermal Processes on Mars and Sill Emplacement on Europa Kathleen L. Craft Dissertation submitted to the faculty of the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy In Geosciences Robert P. Lowell Scott D. King Erin Kraal G. Wesley Patterson Donald Rimstidt September 3, 2013 Blacksburg, VA Keywords: hydrothermal, dike, sill, ice, Mars, Europa, Athabasca Valles, fracture Copyright @2013 Kathleen Craft Dike-Driven Hydrothermal Processes on Mars and Sill Emplacement on Europa Kathleen L. Craft ABSTRACT Evidence of hydrothermal and tectonic activity is found throughout our solar system. Here I investigated hydrothermal and fracturing processes on three planetary bodies: Earth, Mars and Europa. For the first project, we set up a dike-driven hydrothermal system and calculated heat and water flow using boundary layer theory. Water flow rates and volumes were then compared to the requirements for surface feature formation. Results found that the water volumes produced were adequate to form Athabasca Valles, except the flow rates were low. Episodic flood releases could enable the higher flow rates if water was first collected in aquifers, possibly stored beneath ice. On the icy moon Europa, I modeled a proposed sill emplacement mechanism using a finite element code and found that water could flow up through an approximately 10 km thick ice shell without freezing. The analysis also found that shallow cracks in the ice combined with deep cracks cause a stress direction change that helps the fracture turn and propagate more horizontally. However, the sill lifetime is less than the time a study by Dombard et al. [2013] calculated to be necessary for the formation of flexure fractures along margins of double ridges. Replenishment processes will be explored in future work to help extend sill lifetime. The last investigation calculated dike induced permeability changes in the crust on Earth and Mars and related the changes to water and heat flow rates and water volumes. Comparisons were made to event plume heat and elevated fluid temperatures observed at mid-ocean ridges. Heat values determined by the models agreed well with the 1014 to 1017 J expected. For the Martian model, water flow rates and volumes were compared to formation requirements for the valley system Athabasca Valles. Results found that flow rates would be adequate in the high permeability damage zone adjacent to the dike. However, the lowered permeability outside the damage zone would restrict replenishment flow and could cause the need for water storage and periodic release between flood events as the volume within the damage zone is not adequate for the valley formation. iii DEDICATION This dissertation is dedicated to my boys, Liam and Corbin, may you always be curious, bright eyed and looking for the next adventure. Find joy and also help to make some. I also dedicate this work to a friend and colleague lost along the way. Kurt Frankel, you were taken too early, yet in the short time we knew each another your laughter and wisdom inspired and encouraged me. Thank you. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without the tremendous support of many people. I first would like to thank my advisor, Robert Lowell, for his constant support, donation of his time, and guidance over the past 7 years we have worked together. I look forward to future collaborations. I greatly appreciate the guidance from my committee members: Scott King, Erin Kraal, Wes Patterson, and Don Rimstidt. Much appreciation goes to Louise Prockter and Wes Patterson for introducing me to the icy body Europa and helping me get involved in mission work. And a very big thanks to the geophysics students at Virginia Tech who helped me remain steadfast in my goal, especially my dear friends Pavithra Sekhar, Karina Cheung, Aida Farough, Sharmin Shamsalsadati, and Kristie Dorfler. You ladies rock. I cannot thank my family and friends enough for their continuous support including: my parents, Lynn and Wayne Hale, and in-laws, Liz and Bill Craft; friends Nancy and Dan Dudek, Laurie and Jon Fritsch, Cindy Rosenbaum and Matt Wisnioski, Sandie Klute, Cathy and Mike Field, Pam and Ethan Swint and Jeni Walke. Thank you to my children for providing distraction when I needed it (or didn’t), and most of all so much laughter and perspective on life. Last, I could not have completed this dissertation without the incredible love and support (and patience) of my husband Michael Craft. Thank you honey, you are wonderful. This research was supported in part by NASA grant #NNX10AO38G to R. P. Lowell, a Virginia Space Grant Award to K. L. Craft and Virginia Tech Multicultural Awards and Opportunities Program funding to K. L. Craft. iv Table of Contents ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................. iv LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................ vii LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................... xi LIST OF SYMBOLS ....................................................................................................... xii PREFACE ....................................................................................................................... xiii 1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 2 Boundary Layer Models of Hydrothermal Circulation on Mars and its Relationship to Geomorphic Features ............................................................................. 3 1 Introduction…..…………………………………………………………………………..4 2 Hydrothermal Circulation……………………………………………………………...6 2.1 Model Set-up……………...………………………………………………………...6 2.2 Boundary Layer Theory…………………………………………………………….6 3 Results………………...…………………………………...............................................10 3.1 Heat and Volume Flow Rates………………...……………………………….…...10 3.2 Two-Phase Boundary Layer………………...………………………………..….....11 3.3 Additional Source of Fluid-Ice Melt…..……………...……………………..……..12 4 Discussion……………………………………………………………………….....…...14 4.1 Comparison With Earlier Model……………………………………………...…...14 4.2 Comparison to Athabasca Valles...…………………………………………...…...15 5 Summary………………………………......................................................................16 References……………………………………………...………………………….……...…...17 3 Shallow water sill formation on Europa ................................................................. 20 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Vertical Flow Velocity ................................................................................................... 24 3.3 Sill Emplacement Through Fracturing ....................................................................... 29 3.3.1 Horizontal fracturing processes ................................................................................ 31 3.3.2 Finite element models ............................................................................................... 36 3.4 Sill Lifetime .................................................................................................................... 42 3.5 Discussion ....................................................................................................................... 43 3.6 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 46 References ................................................................................................................................. 59 4 Dike induced stress and permeability changes: Implications for hydrothermal fluid flux on Earth and Mars ......................................................................................... 64 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65 4.2 Methodology .................................................................................................................. 68 4.2.1 Dike emplacement and stress field calculation ......................................................... 68 4.2.2 Calculations of crustal permeability change ............................................................. 69 4.2.3 Description of damage zone permeability change .................................................... 74 v 4.2.4 Water flow rate and heat flux calculations ............................................................... 75 4.3 Terrestrial Dike Emplacement ..................................................................................... 78 4.3.1 Model Set-up ............................................................................................................ 79 4.3.2 Stress induced permeability change ......................................................................... 80 4.3.3 Water and heat out rates ........................................................................................... 81 4.4 Martian Dike Emplacement ........................................................................................
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