Color Book Unformatted

New & Revised - Includes Genesis Heat Set Oils

1 PREFACE

There seems to be a mystique about mixing colors. The novice painter procrastinates or delgates this responsibility to a paint manufacturer bu tultimately the day arrives when the painter wants to take control of the palette colours. This can happen only when the painter takes the responsibility to learn to mix colour. Mixing colour is very exciting. The knowledge of how to control and create colour is the ultimate in creativity. It is not difficult to master, but it will take time, patience, practice, but most of all desire. The intent of this book is to provide a guide to mixing colour. It is my hope that it will be useful regardless of whether the preferred medium is oil, alkyd, acrylic, watercolour, pastel, pencil or coloured ink. Colour theory applies to all media. All that differs is technique. Colour is so closely interwoven with the other four basic elements of art that it would be impossible to discuss colour without examining its relationship to line, form, texture and space. The importance of colour to harmony and composition are also inseparable, as are chemistry and temperature. Please understand that colour reproduction of a paint mixture in printed form is almost always inaccurate. Every effort has been made to provide the highest quality of photography, colour separations and printing. How- ever, it is not possible to duplicate the myriad nuances of paint with only five colours of printer’s ink. Furthermore, oil reflects the light differently than acrylic. Pencil and watercolour have their own individual properties. Therefore it may be difficult, if not impossible, to accurately match the colour samples. Use these only as a guideline. The eye must be trained to analyze colour. The brain must be trained in the proper use of colour. Brands of paint also make a difference. Use the brand that is readily available, but do use the best grade of paint in that brand. Inferior pigment and inferior chemistry will never produce luminosity. Above the entrance to The Boston Children’s Museum hangs a quota- tion which reads:

I hear, and I forget I see, and I remember I do, and I understand

Mixing colour can only be learned and understood by doing, by actually mixing the colour.

2 “I am really enthralled by these laws and theories of colours. Ah, if only they had taught us about them when we were young!” Vincent van Gogh (1853-90)

Learning to see colour Scientifically, colour is energy measured by wave lengths, amplitudes and velocity. All colour originates from light rays and the eye sees that which is not absorbed by the receiver of the light. This is oversimplification, and the subject is expanded upon in the text where it is relevant. The usage of colour, in the concept of this study, lies beyond the realm of physics. If more information is desired, there are many technical manuals that answer the scientific aspect of colour. To the layman colour is light, an emotional experience, associated with personal perceptions and backgrounds. All colour is optical. Each person perceives colour differently. Each person brings different experiences and reactions to colour. These carry a strong influence which affect the usage and understanding of colour application. The first colour that an infant sees is red. The eye of the infant then slowly perceives other colours but shows a preference for the brightest ones. Gradually, the maturing eye is aware of the many differences in colour. This evolves naturally but the influence of teachers, personal preference, personal abilities cannot be denied. Atmosphere will influence how colour is perceived. On a clear sunny day, the colours will appear more intense than when viewed under an over- cast sky, through a fog, or in the dim moonlight. Favorite colours will be more easily managed than colours to which there is an aversion. Colours associated with happy occasions or special events in one’s life differ from one individual to another. In order to successfully see colours, in essence to judge them clinically, past histories and personal preferences cannot be ignored, but must be set aside. Colour is independent only when it is the solitary colour being used. Colour has relationships to each element in a design or composition. The visual perception is influenced by surrounding factors, the intensity and path of light, atmospheric conditions, and emotional factors. The eye must be trained to identify the basic parent colour, then manipulate that colour to be compatible with all of these factors. Toaccomplish

The black and white study/exercise charts in this book may be photocopied for the personal use of the purchaser. Any other duplication of any material, whether in black and white or colour, by any means whatsoever, (this includes photocopy and photography) is in violation of copyright laws.

3 this task, the colour must be judged first by its colour family, then whether it is light or dark, and ultimately whether it is bright or dull. The matter of manipulation to this end begins with understanding the logical process of problem solving, which is founded upon learning the basics of art theory and application. There are those who are blessed with a natural intuition who can feel the correctness of a colour. However, that intuition can be enhanced by knowledge, just as a musician who has perfect pitch finds that his performance is elevated by the study and practice of musical concepts and theories. Most of us do not have that natural intuition but must struggle through the learning process by first learning the names of the notes, then the scales in order to play a musical chord. One individual may prefer to learn country music, others direct their energies toward the classics, or possibly contemporary jazz. It’s all music from the same scale of notes. Many progress to creating original works, but only after a long period of dupli- cating the works of those they admire. As in music, there is order and logic in the world of art, colour and design. There are guidelines and basic formulae that produce that order. A period of study is required in order to learn the application of these guidelines. The artist will progress to creating original work if there is sufficient desire, dedication, and determination. We will approach this study of colour mixing from a casual, but academic viewpoint. It doesn’t matter if you perceive yourself as a folk artist, a decorative artist, a fine artist or a hobby and craft painter, the process for learning to mix paint is founded on the same time honored and proven principles. At first glance, the task may seem to be gigantic. You can eat an el- ephant if you take it one bite at a time. Digest that small amount then go back for more. The definitive word is digest. Give yourself time to absorb and use each concept a small amount at a time.

It is impossible to learn how to mix colour without actually doing it. The one thing I cannot teach is experience.

Please assemble the following materials: Palette pad Slim, flexible palette knife Fine Permanent Marker Brushes Brush cleaner suitable to your medium

4 Conversion Chart Archival OilsSoft Titanium WhiteCadmium Yellow MidCadmium Scarlet Winsor & Newton OilsAlizarinePermanent Titanium White Cadmium Yellow PaleUltramarine BlueOilSet Heat Genesis Burnt Umber + RYellow Genesis Raw Sienna Alizarin CrimsonRed Bright DecoArt Mars Black White Ultramarine BlueUmber Burnt Crimson Quinacridone Yellow Cad Raw Sienna Ultramarine BlueRed Genesis Alizarin Crimson Black Ivory Umber Burnt Soft White Ultramarine Blue Raw SiennaRed Cad Carbon BlackUmber Burnt Raw Sienna Black Ebony

5 “Forget where it is you have been and concentrate on where you are going.” Anonymous

Learning the vocabulary It is difficult to understand any instructions if the vocabulary is foreign. In this text I have used academic terms. It is my hope that this will enable the artist to study other manuals with better understanding. A bibliography of reference books is given. These were my major reference books, but my twenty years of experience in teaching colour theory has been my primary source of learning. Part of the vocabulary terms that will guide the reader to better understanding is defined below. Please refer to the Glossary for an additional index.

Binder: Refers to the vehicle which locks the pigments together to form paint. In oil it is usually refined linseed, poppy or safflower oil. Alkyd’s binder is a combination of alcohol and acid. Gum arabic is the watercolour vehicle. Polymers unite the pigments of acrylic and acrylic/ gouache. Egg yolk is used in egg tempera.

Extender: Refers to an ingredient thatwill make the paint flow or become more transparent. Winsor & Newton Blending & Glazing Medium is my extender of choice. Many artists who work in oils or alkyds mix an extender of stand oil, damar varnish and turp. Watercolour and acrylics are both extended through the use of water. The latter frequently uses a polymer emulsion as well.

Medium: Refers to the type of paint used, such as oil, alkyd, acrylic, watercolour, gouache, tempera, etc. The plural of medium is media.

Palette: Can be the surface onwhich the colours are arranged and mixed, or the colours used to mix other colours. For the purposes of these exercises the palette that I use is given on the previous page.

Pigment: The dry powdered colouring agent that is added to give paint its colour. Pigment is the same in all media.

Shade: To lower the value of a colour by using black or any colour value below the basic or local value.

6 Tint: To raise the value of a colour by using white or any colour value above the basic or local value. Also tint could mean to imbue a colour with a hint of another colour.

Hue, Value and Intensity: These three words describe the dimensions of colour. Each has different characteristics and will be studied one at a time.

Hue Hue, by definition, is the proper name of a colour. Hue denotes the family of colour and there are twelve “families” that compose the basic wheel of colour. The primary definition of hue in this text will refer to the proper name of each colour as it relates to the colour wheel. Hue also can alternately refer to the decorative or fashionable description of a colour. Sea green, powder blue, brick red, dusty rose, mauve are examples. The colour families are indicated in these examples. How- ever, when the names are Virginia Creeper, Carnelian, or Flesh the artist must have had experience with these in order to know their components. These names were found on swatches in a paint store. Who would guess that Virginia Creeper is pink, or that Carnelian is orange. Each individual’s perception of Flesh would be coloured by his/her own origins. The study of “Hue” begins with identifying and mixing the twelve families that are the integral parts of the basic colour wheel. Mix large amounts of paint. The same colours will be used for all the experiments and it is disruptive when concentration must be broken to mix additional paint.

Primary Primary means first. All colour originates from these three primaries. These are also frequently referred to as basic, original, ideal and pure. The primaries are: Yellow, Red, and Blue These three are the Adam and Eve of the pigmented colour families. Theygive birth to the other nine colour families on the wheel. These three colours must be pure. By pure, I mean that they cannot contain white, black, or any other colour additive. The primary colours cannot be mixed but can be manufactured. The three primaries that I prefer are: Cad Yellow Pale, Cad Red, and Ultra- marine Blue.

7 The name attached to a colour by a manufacturer differs. For instance, Cad Yellow Pale in Winsor & Newton is equivalent to Cad Yellow Me- dium in Grumbacher and Liquitex. Cad Yellow Mid is the counterpart in JoSonja Acrylic Gouache. DecoArt labels their bottled acrylic as Cad- mium Yellow. A Conversion Chart appears on Page 5 which should guide you in the proper selection of pure primary colours. Regardless of the medium in which you work, the primary colours must be pure for proper mixing of subsequent pure colour. I cannot urge you strongly enough to use the finest grade of paint available to you. The results are well worth the expense.

Secondary Secondary colours are mixed by combining primaries. Binary is synonymous with secondary. This will be the first step in training the eye to see and the mind to judge. Mix the secondary colours as follows:

Orange = Red + Yellow An ideal orange has been mixed when the eye can no longer see either red or yellow. Regardless of the paint medium that is used, this will be true. Colour analysis is a decision determined by what the eye sees.

Green = Yellow + Blue Look closely at the resulting mixture. A balanced green is achieved when neither the blue nor the yellow is obvious.

Violet = Red + Blue In mixing this colour, chemistry plays an important part. If Cad Red and Ultramarine Blue are mixed, the resulting colour is not violet. The chemical reaction of the pigments produces a brownish red, somewhat like rust. To preserve the purity of the violet, Alizarin Crimson must be used instead of Cad Red. This is problematic when working with acrylics since Alizarin Crimson is incompatible with the chemistry of the acrylic binder. Therefore, Naphthol Crimson or Acra Violet should be substi- tuted for the Alizarin Crimson. Depending upon brand, a bit of Dioxazine Purple may need to be added to the Crimson or Violet. If working with bottled acrylics, be certain that the violet you use does not contain an additive of white or black. A balanced violet shows neither a hint of red, nor blue. Since the eye cannot see this slight nuance in a colour this dark, add a tiny bit of white to the corner of the mixing pile (not the whole pile, this is just a test). White will reveal if one or the other colours dominate. Remember, you only want to see the violet.

8 Tertiary Tertiary means third. Not everyone uses the same vocabulary therefore confusion can exist when studying colour. The term “tertiary” has been defined in two different ways. Some European and early colourists use tertiary when combining a secondary with the primary that lies diametrically opposite on the colour wheel, or when combining two secondaries. Mixing this combination of the three primaries (1 + 1 + 1=3) results in dull mixtures that are no longer pure, better identified as russets, burgundies, or other earth tones. A contemporary definition of tertiary refers to the combination of a primary and its neighboring secondary. In this context, some manuals use the term “Intermediate” since the mixture rests between a primary and a secondary on the colour wheel. I feel this clarification is necessary in order that there is no misunder- standing with this possible source of confusion when doing further independent research or when using this manual. To argue which definition is correct is not productive. They both have merit. When teaching, however, it is important to be clear and consistent in the usage of terms. I prefer to use tertiary in reference to the third step in mixing colour; that of combining aprimarywith a secondary. It is easier to understand that the tertiary colours are mixed by combining a primary and a secondary (1 + 2=3). This will be less confusing when subsequently studying intensity. There are six tertiary colours which are a mixture of two parts of one hue and one part of the other. You must coordinate the eye and mind for the task of comparing each intermediate to its neighbor. The white background of the palette will influence perception. As each of the following tertiary colours are mixed, hold the palette knife with some of the colour on the tip, next to its neighbors. Decide if the colour is correct in compari- son to its neighbors.

Yellow Green = Yellow + Green Theoretically it should be possible to combine equal parts of yellow and green and easily achieve the correct mixture. However, only the eye can judge a colour since pigments do not always balance. The resulting colour should be predominantly yellow, showing just a nuance of green.

Blue Green = Blue + Green The heavily pigmented yellow may overpower the weaker blue and insist upon showing a yellow cast. The colour should be adjusted by adding blue until the green leans to the blue side. Optically it rests between the two colours, green and blue, showing a dominance of blue.

9 Blue Violet = Blue + Violet By adding blue to violet, the colour is shifted into the bluer range. As before, a small amount of white added to the side of the pile will reveal the dominant colour.

Red Violet = Red + Violet Red Violet again poses a challenge when working with acrylic medium since Alizarin Crimson is not available. In order to shift the violet into the red family, the suggested acrylic substitute is Acra Violet or Naphthol Crimson (with maybe a touch of Dioxazine Purple if too red). The problem does not exist in watercolour since Alizarin Crimson is compatible with its binder, gum arabic.

Red Orange = Red + Orange The pigment power in these two is nearly equal making it the easiest to proportion. The eye should be able to perceive a dominance of red in this colour, which lies between red and orange on the colour wheel.

Yellow Orange = Yellow + Orange Yellow Orange The pattern for mixing continues. As was experienced with the red orange, the nearly equal pigmentation allows easy mixing. The colour rests between yellow and orange, with the yellow dominant.

Colour management is dependent upon being able to find and identify the root of a colour: its family origin. These twelve colours are the families into which all subsequent colours are first categorized. These hues are pure and unadulterated. They are the yardstickby which all other colours are measured. When properly arranged in a circle they comprise the standard colour wheel. If a different brand or medium is used, the results may not be the same colour wheel as I have achieved with Winsor& Newton Artist Oils. Do not assume that they are incorrect because they differ from mine. There are many ways to be right and each artist must establish which primaries work best based on experience, personal taste and the medium used. Analyze the twelve hues that have been mixed. Judge the relationship of the primaries to the secondaries and the tertiaries to the secondaries, while searching for too much or too little dominance. When satisfied that the colours are balanced, paint them on the colour wheel. The colour wheel and all other charts may be photocopied. Heavily spray the copy with Krylon Matte or Crystal Clear to seal and the paper will be oil impervious. Some copy machines will accept the thickness of Vidalon matte paper. This makes an excellent surface for all media.

10 Place the sheet on a clipboard for stability and ease of handling. I might also suggest that the paper could be punched to fit into a notebook. If youwish, this entire book could be hole-punched and placed into the notebook as well. Simply pry up the staples in the center. Remove each page and punch. Re-assemble the book in numerical order. The pages could also be cut down the center. This would ease the insertion of your worksheets in the sequence where you prefer them to be.

Value This is the term used to define shades of gray, plus black and white. Value is also used to evaluate the degree of lightness or darkness of a colour. The terms value and tone are synonymous and interchangeable. Some artists combine the terms into “tonal value”. Value is the most important aspect of a painting, design or composition because it is the values used that create the form, dimension, mood, rhythm and emphasis. Think of value as a black and white television. When colour is tuned in it is exciting but it doesn’t alter the dimension. The scale that is used as a measurement of these tones is composed of nine gradations. White is the lightest while Black is the darkest. There are seven shades in between. Although the eye can discern many more tones between black and white, these nine are the standard reference. Other than artists, architects, printers, and photographers are just a few of the professionals that use the value scale as a standard of measurement. In the vocabulary of colour, there is dual reference to the nine grays. These are listed in the side bar. The columns diagrammed combine the Prang system which uses words, Munsell Prang and the Munsell system which uses numbers. These are named after two 9/ White 8/ High Light of the most respected colourists. 7/ Light Begin by mixing a scale of nine, or a scale that ranges from white to 6/ Low Light 5/ Middle black. Although results are more accurate if tube colours are used, do not 4/ High Dark hesitate to work with pre-mixed bottled colours. 3/ Low Dark 2/ Dark Black and white are not considered to be colours. When working with 1/ Black pigments, white is the absence of any colour and black is the total of all three primaries or total colour. Black can be mixed (as we will subsequently do), but white is not mixable. Like the primaries, white is manufactured. Even though black and white are regarded as being colourless, some brands of black have a tendency to assume a hint of colour. This exercise could be an opportunity to train the eye to identify this characteristic. Some blacks lean to brown while others lean to blue. This information will be useful in later studies. Don’t fret if you cannot decide. That may be an indication that the black is totally neutral

11 Most of the work will be done initially on the palette and transferred to the Value Chart on Page 87. Use a fine permanent marker to section off the palette by drawing nine lines across. Since paint will be mixed in these sections they should be evenly spaced. Write the same numbers and words on the palette that are shown in the first two columns on the left side of the Value Chart. This organization coordinates the palette with the chart. An added benefit is that it is the foundation of the value scale system of mixing colour. Mixing requires large quantities of paint therefore squeeze out an amount of white and black about the size of a half dollar or larger. Place the white at the top. It is Value 9. Black is Value 1 and should be placed at the bottom. Mix all nine values before placing them on the chart since adjustments may need to be made. Begin with the medium tone.

Middle value (5) Value 5, the middle tone, is achieved by mixing approximately equal por- tions of black and white. This will vary from brand to brand and from media to media. This should be mixed in the middle of the palette, on the square marked Value 5.

Low light (4) Move aportion of the middle value to the Low Light (Value 4) square and add a small amount of white until it appears to be lighter than the midtone. The eye should be able to discern the difference.

Light (3) Value 3 is mixed by moving a portion of Low Light into that zone and adding white again until the eye can see a lighter tone.

High light (2) Take a portion of Light and move this up to the next zone. White is added again to raise the value of Light to High Light. This tone is almost white.

Pause and evaluate the mixes. If there is a steady gradation of shades from middle value to white with no drastic step between then the goal has been achieved. However, defer transferring the mixes to the chart until the dark values have been mixed. Mixing the dark values is a bit more challenging because it is not easy for the human eye to discern the subtle differences in the dark ranges.

12 High dark (6) Take a portion of the Middle tone and move the paint into this section. Add black until the mix appears to be slightly darker than the mid-tone above it on the palette.

Dark (7) Divide a portion of Value 6 mixture and move this into the Dark section of the palette. Dark Value 7 is mixed by adding black to a portion of Value 6. Compare each value to the one above. Train the eye to identify the nuance that makes the difference.

Low dark (8) This is almost black and is the most difficult value to judge.

There is a reason for mixing these values in alignment. As each value is developed, it is compared to and evaluated with the value above and the value below. The eye cannot make this judgment if it must skip across a wide space. Form this habit in the initial study of mixing and it will become a habit that will help to judge when mixing value scales in colour. When the values are adjusted to your satisfaction paint the squares on the chart. Place the chart in a notebook or file as this will be used in a later exercise. The statement was made earlier that it is the values used that create the form, dimension, mood, rhythm and emphasis. The following pages contain examples.

13 Value creates form The four basic shapes that are formed by values are shown below. In these examples the light is originating from the upper right at a 45 degree angle.

14 Value creates dimension Both of the headings relating to value and dimension are broad state- ments and almost impossible to capsulize since any examples I might offer would be out of context with their surroundings.

Close value contrast recedes Receding areas are created by using close values. The light value recedes on light background, the darker value fades away on the dark background. The same illusion could be expected if a near middle value were placed on a medium background.

Wide value contrast advances The opposite reaction occurs when light is placed in front of a dark background, and dark is positioned on the light. This disproves a commonly held theory that dark recedes and light comes forward. The most important principle to remember in colour and value application is that “It’s all relative. Nothing stands alone.”

Close value contrast unites Just as strong value contrast will pull the eye to a particular section of a Close values unite composition, close value contrast will guide the eye to the next element. Consider how your eye was able to track easily up and down the value scale without distraction. Use this principle to add rhythm and flow to a composition. Close values can act as a bridge from one portion to the next and will help to create harmony.

Wide value contrast divides Value can be used to separate as well. A separation of values can create wide values divide an illusion of empty space. The eye can be fooled. A value can appear to be lighter when placed on a dark surface, however that same value will give the illusion of being darker when placed on a light surface. Refer to An Observation Exercise Using Some of Chevreul’s Laws on Page 52. This phenomena also occurs when values are placed side by side, such as on the value scale chart. Compare the value of each square where it touches the one above. For instance, look at the bottom of Value 3 where it touches Value 4. The tone of 3 where it touches 4 appears to be slightly lighter than where 3 touches 2.

15 Once again, the conclusion is reached that a value can only be judgedin relation to its surroundings. The equation of Value 1 through 9 is only valid when used in relationship to the standard value scale. There is a computer term that I love and frequently use when trying to explain this phenomena. The computer term is “WYSIWYG” (pronounced wizzywig). The acronym means “What you see is what you get.” The colour translation would be that what you mix on the palette is not always what you see when the mixture is applied to the painting. All of the above theories on value were first identified by M. E. Chevreul, an 18th Century French expert on colour. His works have had a profound influence on all schools of painting from Impressionism to Op-Art. Throughout these lessons, his time proven principles will continue to be a guide. Colour tonal values Earlier I compared value to a black and white television set. If colour is added, it is exciting to note that the values do not change. That is because colour also has value. Yellow is obviously the lightest colour on the wheel and violet is the darkest. When the eye travels from the yellow down the wheel it is apparent that each of the hues become slightly darker as they get closer to violet.

Each colour on the spectrum has a normal value in its original position on the colour wheel:

9/ White 8/ High Light: Yellow 7/ Light: Yellow Green Yellow Orange 6/ Low Light: Orange Red Orange 5/ Middle: Red Green 4/ High Dark: Blue Green Blue 3/ Dark: Red Violet Blue Violet 2/ Low Dark: Violet 1/ Black

To tint and to shade are descriptions of value. Since these two elements are so interwoven with intensity, chemistry and temperature, a discussion will be deferred until later.

16 Intensity Intensity refers to the relative brightness or dullness of the colour. Chroma and intensity are synonymous. Some other words that describe degrees of intensity are bright, dull, pure, raw, loud, soft, honking, density, satura- tion, quiet, toned, neutralized and grayed. These define the intensity of the colour, regardless of whether that colour is light or dark. Intensity is independent of value. Thus a blue could be a baby blue and it would be described as low intensity but of a high value since the true blue has been weakened with white. Navy Blue would be described as low intensity blue, but a dark value. In this instance the purity of the blue was weakened with black. The only time that the blue would be its full, pure intensity is when it is at its normal hue on the colour wheel. Intensity is that dimension of colour that is often the difference in achiev- ing the loud colour of a gypsy wagon or the quiet restfulness of an An- drew Wyeth interior. While intensity is independent of value, it has a scale of measurement which may use words or numbers:

Pure colour - Maximum Intensity - no additive 1/4 diluted - Strong intensity - the colour is still very bright 1/2 diluted - Moderate Intensity - the colour is apparent, but weak 3/4 diluted - Weak intensity - the colour is dull, but identifiable Neutralized - Totally grayed - the colour is gray, brown or black

There are several choices to be explored which will neutralize or dull a colour. An educated choice cannot be made without learning the results achieved from all the methods. The exercises and charts in this book have been designed and tested through seminars to give you exposure to each method. I think that as experience is gained, you will understand that proper control will require using a combination of neutralizing agents.

Neutralizing with gray Since we have some background with the value chart, let’s begin by neutralizing with a combination of black and white, or the gray scale. In this exercise we will complete the chart that was begun when the value scales were mixed. The objectives of this exercise are to:

Determine the reaction of the pure hue when gray is added. Train the eye to judge and compare values. Equalize values.

17 It is possible to become so engrossed in the exercises that the purpose or objective is frequently lost in the mixing process There are two choices in how to proceed with this exercise. The first is to mix large amounts of the gray value scale, ranging from black to whit e with the seven tones in between. Alternately, gray, black, and white ma~ be added independently to each value. As the exercise progresses it becomes apparent that both methods will be used. The other alternative for those working in heat set oil medium would be to use the Neutral Grays that are manufactured by Genesis. These have been formulated to the Munsell gray scale. The following colours should be remixed or you could determine which tubes or bottles are equivalent to those on the chart. Often the beginner feels more comfortable with pre-mixed colours but colour control will never be achieved until the hues are mixed from the pure primaries. Place or remix the following colours: Yellow, Red, Blue, Alizarin Crimson (or equivalent), Orange, Green and Violet. The above seven colours were selected because they represent the primaries, secondaries and a cool red (AC). Red is a peculiar colour in that another pigment must be used to create the darker pure red. This is an important facet to remember. Because of its chemistry, the red family of colour requires special handling. Record these colours across the top of the chart so that they align with the “White”. This will give a visual reference of what the colour looked like before the grayswere added. It is also beneficial to blend a bit of white into one side of the pure hue. This will document how the colour appears when tinted with white.

Yellow Hue - Value 8 Begin with the yellow hue. It is normally a Value 8 so by adding a Value 8 gray, the value of the yellow will remain the same when it is placed in this square. Here is where some judgement must be used. Add too much gray and the yellow will be lost. However, the value remains the same; only the intensity is changed. As the gray is added, there is a surprising result. The yellow may change to a greenish hue. This is because of the black in the gray mixture. If black must be placed in a family for colour management, it is normally treated as if it were in the blue family. It may be that the brand you are using did not result in green, but brown was produced. There are myriads of reasons for this. Accept that the reaction your colours made were different than mine and that this is a discov- ery process about how colour reacts when using gray as a neutralizer.

18 Add a Value 7 gray to the yellow. This yellow is lighter than the gray. The yellow may lighten the gray. If so, the values are equalized by adding a small amount of black - a wee bit - until the mixture is the same value as the Gray Scale 7. Is the colour now so grayed that the yellow hue is gone? Bring it back by adding yellow until the intensity of this square is about the same as the square above it. Compare the value of the grayed yellow to the value on the gray scale. It should be the same, but still be slightly darker than the grayed yellow above it on the chart. As before, too much gray will kill the yellow so also attempt to keep the yellow at the same pace as in the square above. Continue with this process, adding gray to the yellow to neutralize, then adding black and/or white, if necessary, to bring the colour to the same value as the gray on the same line. In other words, the Value 6 gray should equalize the Value 6 toned yellow. Value 5 gray should equalize with Value 5 toned yellow, etc. Each time white, black or colour may also be needed. Black, technically is colourless. However, a small amount of each of the seven hues will be added to black to illustrate how black can be forced to assume a bit of colour. The conclusions that follow throughout this text reflect my observations. Record any additional thoughts you may have.

Conclusions When yellow is neutralized with gray, the colour will shiftto the green side. The value of the gray will lighten when the lighter value yellow is added. In order to equalize thevalues, a darkervalue (black in this instance) must be added. * Valueswill only match when the values of the admixes are equal. *The amount of gray added will determine how much of the original colour is lost, or neutralized. *If the colour has become too gray, the original pure colour is added to equalize the intensity. *It is more difficult to identify the colour in the Values 3, 2, and 1. In darker tones, colour is not easily seen.

*These conclusions apply to all subsequent hues that are neutralized using these gray scales.

19 Visual aids Training the naked eye to judge values is a repetitive exercise. The more it is practiced, the stronger the judgment skills will become. There are some visual aids that may be helpful in this process. They are:

Cobalt glass Dark blue glass is mounted in a holder that looks like a magnifying glass. The subject being viewed must be in exceptional light in order to see it through the dark glass.

Acetate filters Originally I used only a red filter to judge values. I realized that the red was not effective when judging the warmer colours. When a green filter is put with the red filter the result is a “black” filter. To make them sturdy they were mounted between two pieces of 5 x 7 mats. The filter papers I use are 5 ml acetate. If you cannot locate these you might experiment with coloured book report covers. If the acetate is too thin, use two thicknesses of each colour. As the mixes are viewed through the filter they are reduced to gray tones. Thus the eye is not influenced by the colour. Hold the filter at various lengths from your eyes until you find a comfortable viewing distance. This does take practice.

Squinting As the eyelids are squeezed, the lashes act as a diffuser. This will not eliminate the colour but does help in making a better judgement.

Turn the work upside down This allows the dominant eye to judge the opposite half of the work. A dominance in vision is genetic and has no relationship to the dominant side of the brain. One eye will align objects better than the other. There is no advantage to being right eye dominant versus left eye dominant. Addi- tionally, there is no advantage to knowing which eye is dominant.

Take a break! Fatigue affects judgment. A short rest refreshes the eye, the mind and the spirit.

20 Red - Value 5 The step by step means of mixing the values is almost the same as withthe yellow. The major difference is that the red is basically Value 5. Itmight be easier to begin with the Value 5 and mix up to 9 and down to 1. Red is especially hard on the optical senses. Look away occasionally from the mixes and charts in order that the nerves may recover since the eye may begin to see the after image of red which is green. This will help to avoid eye fatigue which leads to brain fatigue. Because red is Value 5,white may need to be added with the gray tones above, and the darker tones below the Value 5 might require adjusting with black. If the red hue is lost and the colour becomes too indistinct, adjust by adding the pure red.There is no magic formula. WYSIWYG.

Conclusions Some reds turn brownish as the gray is added; others may take on a more mauve appearance. The results depend upon the chemistry, brand and medium. Because red is Value 5 it was efficient to begin the mixing process at Value 5.

Blue - Value 3.5 Continue along the same steps as above. The value of blue is quite dark, somewhere between 3 and 4. Because it is so dark it may be a bit more difficult to match. In the darker ranges the colour will disappear into gray very easily so more blue must be used to maintain the hue. This is especially true in the 3 and 4 range. In the Values 4 and above, the white that must be added to adjust the value may make the colour appear too blue. If so, add a lighter value gray. It is becoming more of a challenge to keep all three values equal to each other as well as equal to the Gray Scale. Compare the value first to the gray scale, then to its neighbor.

Conclusions Blue holds its colour family when neutralized with the grays. It’s basic hue is easily lost in the three lowest values. Gray is an easy method for neutralizing blue without losing its basic colour. The ability of the eye to judge colour and value relationships diminishes when it must cross a distance to make those com parisons.

21 AC or Red Violet - Value 2.5 Two reds are used: pure red and a dark cool red. It is part of the chemistry of working with pigments. The dark cool red I have used is Alizarin Crim- son, Quinacridone Crimons, Naphthol Crimson, Acra Violet, Thalo Vio- let or Magenta are all reasonable substitutes in acrylics. As the AC is mixed with the gray values, some soft mauve tones result in the lighter range. Dull, quiet violets result in the darker values. Just one more review: Add white or lighter gray to adjust in the values above 3, and black or darker value gray to darken below.

Conclusion Red Violet/AC shifts into the violet family when merged with the grays and blacks. This is because of the bluish nature of the black. Gray might be a good choice to mix with the red violet when quiet lavenders are desired.

Orange - Value 6 Begin mixing to match the neighboring values at the Value 6 range. Reaction of the orange to the grayvaries greatly. Some brands have a high percentage of yellow and tend to assume a dirty green in the light values and a khaki tone in the dark ranges. Those with more red than yellow pigment react by turning into warm browns. Experiment with your brand so you will know what to expect. As with every other mixture, add orange if the colour disappears into the gray. Equalize both the value and the amount of colour that is visible.

Conclusions Some soft browns and mossy greens may result. Orange may not hold its family colour when mixed with gray tones.

Green - Value 5 When green is neutralized with gray, the hue is still apparent. It may seem redundant to say that the resulting hues are “gray-green” but this does produce quiet greens. The method for matching the values with the gray scale is the same throughout. Add white or lighter value gray if the mix is too dark. Add black or darker value gray if it is too light. Add the pure hue if it is too gray.

Conclusion Green mixed with gray stays in its colour family. Gray plus green results in greens that push to the blue side if the black leans to the blue side. Green is on a value par with red.

22 Violet - Value 2 This is the darkest colour value on the scale. Begin neutralizing with the Value 2 Gray. There is quite a bit of distance between the violet square and the gray scale square. In order to compare the values mixed, hold the mixing knife with colour on it over the square.

Conclusions Violets do not shift out of their colour family when mixed with gray. The colour tends to fade into gray in the dark range thus requi- ing an addition of pure colour. Depending upon the proportion of red to blue, the grays may take on a hint of mauve or blue.

File your completed chart in the notebook. This will give a ready documentation as to what results and reactions may be expected when gray is chosen as a neutralizer. Neutralizing with gray produces a range of colours which are often referred to as “dusty or misty”. Gray is just one of the options to use when neutralizing a colour. The next choice that we will explore is how to use the complements to change the intensity of a colour.

Neutralizing with the complement You will need the black and white Intensity Colour Wheel on Page 87. Please do not skip over this exercise because you fear it may be difficult or irrelevant. To truly comprehend and control colour, one must thoroughly understand the colour wheel. There are many types of colour wheels available commercially, but I developed this particular wheel in 1977 because I could find none that entirely served my purpose. This Intensity Colour Wheel was designed to reveal the effect of complementary colours upon each other; their relative value, and the changes that occur. Reference to the Intensity Colour Wheel on Page 38 should be kept to Intensity colour wheel a minimum. It is not productive to just match my colours. Remember your goal is to train your colour eye and your brain to perceive what is happening on your palette. Use mine as a guideline only. Caution is given that no printed colour reproduction is ever accurate.

23 Hues that lie directly opposite each other on the colour wheel are called Complementary colours. Webster’s Dictionary defines complementary as “that which completes”. In the context of colour studies this means that the complement of a given colour completes the missing two original primaries. For example, the complement of red is green. Red is the primary and green is composed of the other two primaries, blue and yellow.

Listed below is a table of the complementary colours. Since these are used continually, it would be well to commit them to memory:

Yellow Violet Yellow Orange Blue Violet Orange Blue Red Orange Blue Green Red Green Red Violet Yellow Green

Complementary colours It is necessary that you know this table as readily as your name. One becomes friendly with people when one knows their names. This is true also of colour. Squeeze out the colour onto the palette. Don’t skimp. If you waste paint you can always buy more. If you waste time it is irretrievable. Your concentration is broken each time you must put out more paint and remix. Waste paint, not time. Each pile of paint should be about the size of a half dollar. Line them across the top of your palette in value scale order, reading from left to right: White - Yellow - Red - Red Violet - Blue Habit can be a liberating servant. Develop the habit of thinking in terms of the value as well as the hue. By placing colours consistently in the same place on the palette, habit will find them when the mind is preoccu- pied with weightier problems. It is not possible for me to give accurate mathematical percentages to achieve a particular mixbecause colour is pigment and the reaction varies with each medium, brand, and choice of primaries. A manufacturer uses sophisticated scientific testing to control how much pigment is added. This controls the quality and consistency of the product. Percentages are of no value to the artist unless the desired results are always to be the

24 same. Even then, outside factors will influence how the colour harmo- nizes with its environment. The skill of mixing and adjusting the hues, By itself a colour is neither values and intensities in a painting is achieved only by learning the steps right nor wrong. The de- necessary to judge and adjust a mix. WYSIWYG. termination of the correctness of a colour lies in In this exercise the beginner will struggle to understand the difference how that colour is going to between intensity and value. Some of the colours will darken when they be used; how well it serves are neutraiized, others may appear lighter. The degree of lightness or the purpose for which it was darkness has no bearing on the dullness or brightness of the colour. I hope mixed. this can be clarified as the mixing progresses. There is an advantage to using a photocopy of the exercise page on intensity. The copy can be placed near the instructions and it will not be necessary to flip back and forth between the instructions and the chart. The pure colours were mixed earlier. I did not suggest saving any of the mixes since I no longer condone the practice of freezing colours. This alters the chemistry and contaminates the freezer. Acrylic/Gouache and watercolours may be reconstituted. Acrylics would not survive the freeze/ thaw process. In most instances it will be necessary to remix. The more you do it, the easier it gets!

Yellow - Violet The primary yellow cannot be mixed. As it emerges from the tube it is at full intensity. The goal will be to neutralize this colour in four stages. A review of the degrees that are standard to judging intensity follows.

Pure colour - Maximum Intensity - no additive 1/4 diluted - Strong intensity - the colour is still fairly bright 1/2 diluted - Moderate Intensity - the colour is apparent, but weak 3/4 diluted - Weak intensity - the colour is dull, but identifiable Neutralized - Totally grayed - the colour is gray, brown or black

Some colours have a wider range than others, as will become evident. The range depends upon the base value of the colour. The two that begin the experiment offer the best example. Mix the colours next to each other in order to judge the relationships. This procedure follows the same method used in mixing the values. Since the yellow from the tube is pure it can be painted in the outside of the circle as a reference. The first addition of the complementary colour will lower the intensity of the yellow. Each subsequent addition further changes the intensity, or changes its purity.

25 In the instance of yellow, as its complement Violet is added, the reaction differs. The result may appear to contain a hint of green, oranoe, or lean to brown. Green is produced when the blue in the violet is out of balance. Orange results if the violet has too much red. At this stage any mixes that have shifted away from the yellow must be adjusted in order to be an accurate reference on the intensity on the colour wheel. The brown tone will result when the pigment is balanced. If the green cast is undesirable, how can it be changed? Here is the remedy: What is the colour you wish to kill? Green. What is the complement to green? Red. So a small amount of the red is mixed into the pile. Continue adding meager bits of red until the green disappears. Should too much red be added to kill the red, the colour may shift to orange. How does one get rid of the orange? By adding orange’s complement, blue. I will repeat again that a colour is only correct if it serves its purpose. The green happens. The orange happens. Accept that and deal with it. This knowledge could be useful if ever those particular colours are desir- able and you will be happy you took the time to document your findings. The next addition of the complement to yellow will further dull the colour, but the yellow should still be fairly apparent. If green or orange result, it can be repaired. As the yellow is neutralized it soon becomes obvious that the colour also darkens invalue with each addition of the violet. This is an inevitable result because the violet is just above black on the value scale and yellow rests just below white. The darkening of the colour is a by-product that may be used to advantage. If the colour becomes too neutralized, it is cleared by adding the parent colour. In this instance the hue would be brightened with yellow. Yellow can be neutralized through many stages, but in order to keep the colour wheel somewhat standardized, mix only the four stages outlined above. The yellow is pure at the perimeter. During the first step the yellow is still bright but it begins to show a slight hint of brown. Each addition of violet further weakens the colour. Add violet in the fourth stage until the yellow totally loses its hue. It will appear to be brown or black. This totally neutralized colour should be placed in the center hub of the wheel. Five intensities will have been mixed progressing from pure, ideal yellow and becoming progressively more brown. Following each mixture are listed some of my deductions concerning the colours. Yours may differ. We are seeing through different eyes and experiences. Write down your own personal conclusions and observations so they won’t be forgotten. I might also suggest that you jot down what it is that you still may not understand. This will provide a feeling of accomplishment when the answers are found.

26 Conclusions Yellow may have a tendency to shift into the orange or green range depending upon the violet used. If it is necessary to “kill” the orange cast, the complement of orange is used - blue. If it is necessary to “kill” the green tinge, the complement of green is used - red. Neutralizing light value yellow with the dark value violet will automatically lower the value of the yellow. Yellow is considered to be totally neutralized when it becomes brown or black. Addition of the pure hue, in this instance yellow, will brighten the mix if it has become too neutral.

The addition of a pure hue will brighten any mixture with the exception of Red Violet. This is explained when the Red Violet tertiary is studied. It is useful to know how each of the neutralized colours appears when white is added. This will give a visual reference of how many soft mixes can be achieved. As each mixture is added to the wheel add a measure of white to the right side. For practice sake try to make each of these tints the same value in each segment. One side could be mixed with black to ob- serve that reaction. I chose not to do this because of lack of space in each section.

Violet - Yellow Violet has already been mixed. This is the complement that is used to neutralize yellow family. Each colour seems to have a challenge unique unto itself. Yellow dis- plays a habit of shifting towards its neighboring hues of green or orange. Violet’s peculiarity is that it is of such a dark value that the eye has difficulty in determining to what degree it has been neutralized. Therefore, in order to reveal what the results are, add a small amount of white to the edge of each pile. It is helpful to first add white to the pure colour when the value is as dark as this is. As the colours are mixed remember that it is the intensity that is being compared and each test mix should appear gradually more grayed. As white is added to test each neutral mix, bring the test value to the same tone as the pure colour tint. Each subsequent test should be at the same value/tone. This will continue to reinforce training of the eve.

27 The chemical ingredients in violet are much weaker than those in yellow. Add very small amounts of yellow paint. The powerful cadmium may have a tendency to continually push the violet to the yellow side. As before, the colour is cleared back to violet by adding the pure hue. Be alert to what is happening on the palette. Follow the same step by step procedure as with the yellow. When satisfied, apply the mixes to the wheel. Remember to add the white to the right side in order to record the gray tones. Controlling violet is not easy. This factor is the cause of many bright intense paintings wherein the violet screams. Compare this method of neutralizing violet with its complement to the previous experience of using the gray value scale. Did you find one method easier than the other? The answer would depend upon how and where the colour was going to be used. Don’t make a decision until all the remaining options have been explored.

Conclusions As violet is neutralized the value remains approximately the same. A small amount of white added to the corner of each mix helps to judge the intensity change. If each of the test patches are mixed to approximately the same value, it will be easier to compare the intensity relationships. Violet becomes black when totally neutralized. It is a bit more difficult to neutralize violet with yellow than it was when the gray scale was used. The dark value of the violet overpowers the yellow value. Thus a shift into green or orange family may not be visible. The cadmium in the yellow is so much stronger than the ingredients in violet that it was difficult to hold the violet in its own fam ily.

Red - Green Cad Red is a strongly pigmented true primary red. Cad Red Light and Cad Scarlet lean more toward the Red Orange family. Less expensive alternates are Bright Red, Grumbacher Red and Harrison Red. However, these reds tend to lean toward blue and do not mix as clear and bright an orange as does the Cad Red. If you are working in another medium and you have had difficulty with the reds and oranges turning muddy, it may be that the red you are using is too blue. As a result when it mixes with yellow, the resulting orange is slightly neutralized by the blue in the red.

28 The peculiarity of the red and green complements is that they are equal or nearly equal in value. There will be little or no obvious change in value as the colours neutralize each other. Mix green again. A balanced green will show no visual preference for blue or yellow. The red and green are so finely balanced that it will be difficult to keep each hue in its proper family. There may be a tendency for the red to suddenly appear green. The red has been over neutralized and should be adjusted by adding pure red to pull it back into its own range. Should the mixture take on a violet tint, the complement of violet (yellow) should be slowly added to bring the mixture back into its red range. This shift into violet maybe caused by having too much blue in the green mix or the red may be one that leans to the blue side. Some lovely hues emerge when red is neutralized with the green. Soft dull earthy tones result. When the colour is placed on the intensity wheel and the white is added to one side, the tints produced might appear to be dusty, misty grays or light earthy Southwestern colours.

Conclusions Red and green are nearly equal in value producing mixes that do not change appreciably in value. The red tone tends to easily lose its colour family in the dullest ranges. An imbalance of blue in the green complement could cause the red to show a violet cast. Red will usually turn to a deep rich brown when totally neutralized.

Green - Red This exercise should be easy because everything that happened with redwill probably happen with green. It shows a tendency to lose its family very quickly. Like red, it has a short range. Should the eye be unable to determine if the green has crossed over to the red side, adding a small amount of white to the corner of the mixture will reveal whether it is greenish or reddish. If any of the green mixes shift into any other family, it is brought back by adding the complement of the unwanted colour. The green should be painted in its proper place on the wheel. When white is added to the corner the colour is mellowed further. It is pretty exciting to think about the many uses for these gray greens. Compare these to the greens achieved on the value chart. The choices are multiply- ing.

29 Conclusions Green is equal or nearly equal in value to red. Like red, green shifts easily into its complement’s family When totally neutralized, green changes to a cool dark brown.

Blue - Orange This is the combination that will most readily produce black. The value of the blue is almost the same as violet. Therefore the same inability to judge the mixtures aswas experienced with violet canbe anticipated here. Repeat the neutralizing of blue in the same manner as the violet. Test- ing with equal value tints is so important. The eye can possibly become confused if the test values are not equalized. Like violet, it is a struggle to neutralize this colour with its complement. The blue is weaker than the orange and the orange has a tendenc\ to dominate. When this happens the blue family is lost and the result appears more brown than blue. As before, shift the family back by adding the pure hue.

Conclusions Blue is similar to violet. The dark value makes judging difficult. Blue can be neutralized until it turns black. This colour has a very short range of neutral scales. A small amount of white added to the corner of each mix helps to judge the intensity change. If each of the test patches are mixed to approximately the same value, it is easier to compare the intensity relationships. It is a bit more difficult to neutralize blue with orange than it was when the gray scale was used. The cadmium in the orange mix is so much stronger than the weaker blue that it was difficult to hold the blue in its own family.

30 Orange - Blue Many similarities to yellow/violet will be seen. Unless there is a sufficient amount of red in the orange, the mixes will turn green. If too much red is in the orange, then the mix could show a violet tint. Green will kill the red tone and yellow will kill the violet. This is a very enlightening range to work with since it provides many surprises. Tones similar to burnt sienna, red iron oxide, and deep browns become apparent. Like yellow, a value change is seen in the orange as it is dulled. Orange has a much wider range from pure to “dead”. This is valuable knowledge that can be used when it is necessary to darken as well as dull orange. This method produced a very different set of neutral colours than when the gray values were used earlier. A decision about which is appropriate depends upon the circumstances and the purpose for which the colour is being mixed.

Conclusions Orange may have a tendency to shift into the green or violet range depending upon how much red is in the orange. If it is necessary to “kill” the violet cast, the complement of violet is used; i.e., yellow. If it is necessary to “kill” the green tinge, the complement of green is used; i.e., red. Neutralizing the fairly light value orange with the dark value blue will automatically lower the value of the orange. Orange can be neutralized until it becomes black. Pure orange will brighten the mix if it has become too neutral.

Neutralizing the tertiaries The tertiary colours are neutralized following the same system. The complementary toners will lie diametrically opposite each other on the colour wheel. There is one extremely important exception: Red Violet is a maverick. If Red violet is over neutralized, it is cleared with Alizarin Crimson or its equivalent, not Cad Red. Cad Red reacts to the blue in the red violet. Instead of clarifying the red violet the result may be a dull tone. This thought should be retained for the situation where a quick method for mixing a dull red is needed.

31 Alizarin Crimson or its equivalent is the bright red violet hue that be used to complement yellow green. A small amount of violet mix added to the Alizarin Crimson to bring it closer to the ideal red violet. To outline the method of neutralizing the tertiaries would be redundant since the system is the same as for the primaries and secondaries. The same traps need to be avoided. The hue takes on an unwanted tinge? The complement of the tinge will kill it. The colour has shifted? It is pushed back with the pure hue. The dark values are impossible to see? They are tinted to equal values. It all follows the same thought process. Remember to put the white in the side of the colour when it is painted on the intensity wheel. Heave a deep sigh. What an accomplishment. One hundred and forty- four colours and tints have been mixed from just five tubes of paint.Add to this to the 56 mixed on the value scale. And we have only just begun. If there is sufficient curiosity to continue, additional tones could he mixed by combining yellow with yellow-orange, yellow-orange with redorange, continuing around the wheel. It is truly mind boggling. I suppose that is why Albert Munsell devised his system of classifying hues, values, and intensities with a colour tree rather than a wheel.

Neutralizing with white If any pigmented ingredient is added to a colour, that colour is weakened or neutralized. White weakens colour. Adding white to a colour is just one form of tinting. When a colour is tinted with white it has also been dulled. When white was placed to one side of each mixture on the intensity colourwheel, the hue was further neutralized. This combination of methods produced mixes that were brought still more distant from their origin. The white also raised the value. When working with the Exercise Sheet on Page 87 (also pgs. 42-44), place the pure colour at the bottom. Add white by slow increments and see how many times the colour being studied can be diluted until it disappears into pure white. The lighter value pure tones have a much shorter range while the pure hues that are darker in value can be tinted many times before the hue disappears. Record the conclusions reached on the bottom of each sheet.

32 Neutralizing with black Black weakens colour. Adding black to a colour is one method of shading. Therefore when black has been added to darken a colour, the hue is also weakened and dulled. It would have been interesting to also add black to a portion of the intensity colour chart, but I chose not to because of space limitations. Black should rest at the bottom of the chart. Add the hue being analyzed to the black to judge the reactions. Yellow will probably act up again by turning green. Discover what happens as each hue responds to the addition of black. Record your conclusions. A colour may appear disagree- able, but place it on the sheet anyway. In a different situation it might be just what is needed and this documentation will help in remembering how it was mixed.

Neutralize with a neighbor The fifth method of neutralizing is by using the colour’s neighbor hue on the wheel. First let’s define “neighbor”. It is the colour that rests immedi- ately above or below a colour on the wheel. Neutralizing with a neighbor does not dull the colour in the sense that it robs the hue of its brightness, but it does neutralize in that the original colour is no longer pure. It has been imbued with another colour. For instance, orange is added to red. The red has been weakened by orange: it is no longer pure red. A result of this admixture is that the red is also lighter in value. Using red again as an example, red violet could be used to weaken the red. The value of the red is lowered, therefore it is no longer pure red. What is the purpose of using a neighbor? This method might be chosen when the intent is to keep the overall intensities fairly bright as well as to lower or raise the value in order to create the form. Refer to Page 39 (Colour Forms Chart). The red ball is quite intense. It is very bright throughout, even in the dark area. The purpose was to create an extremely bright shape. The ball must maintain its intensity in both the darker and lighter areas or it would no longer be bright. The red isweakened (intensity lowered) by the addition of neighboring colours on the wheel. Using this method is a classic example of the use of the values of each pure colour as they appear on the colour wheel.

33 A green ball could be formed in the same manner. Start with bright green. Add yellow-green, then yellow to lighten. Follow down the other side of the colourwheel to darken the green. Progress toblue green, blue. then to blue-violet and violet if necessary. The ball would register as a green ball of fairly high intensity. The green has been weakened by the addition of the neighbors. Some colours have a wider range. Yellow could be lowered in value by using the colours on the right or the left side of the wheel. The same would be true of violet. The lighter values on either side could be used to raise the value of the violet. The results would differ and the choice is determined by need. Green and red rest in the middle. These two hues appear to stay in their own colour families as their values are raised and lowered by the addition of their respective neighbors. Please remember that red violet must be used between red and violet if neutralizing of the red is not desired. Speculate how many different ways this method of neutralizing with a neighbor could be used, remembering that the addition of the neighbor also has the potential of raising and lowering value. As knowledge grows, so do the available options. No one should be able to dictate choices to you when there is so much from which you can pick and choose to suit your personal needs. I read that it has been computed that the unaided human eye can differentiate between ten million colours. That is mind boggling!

Neutralizing with earth colours In the portion of the exercise sheets on Pages 42-44 that use earth colours as toners I have used six of the most familiar tube colours. Generally,. Naples Yellow and Raw Sienna show the greatest variance from one brand to another. Different media may produce unlike results. The objective of these experiments is to learnwhat happens in your preferred medium using your preferred palette of colours. When using an earth toner it is important to know their colour families as well as the relative value of each earth colour. This will help to use this form of neutralizing to best advantage. The following information refers to tubed oil, watercolour, acrylic and acrylic/gouache colours. The medium being used is not an influencing factor. Pigment is pigment. How- ever, when using pre-mixed bottled colours, the colour may have been weakened with a white additive and this must be taken into consideration. Specific brands are mentioned only when it makes a difference in the colour family.

34 Red Family: Burnt Umber (Winsor & Newton, Rembrandt, Liquitex, JoSonja)

Burnt Sienna

Yellow Family: Naples Yellow Yellow Ochre Yellow Oxide Raw Umber Burnt Umber (Grumbacher or Shiva) Raw Sienna (Winsor & Newton, Rembrandt)

Orange Family: Raw Sienna (Liquitex)

Green Family: Green Earth Olive Green

Violet Family: Brownish Madder Mars Violet Burnt Carmine

Nentralizing with Glazes A glaze is a transparent colour that is applied over an already driedglazes opaque colour (See “Chemistry”). Veiling is synonymous with glazing. Antiquing is a decorative form of glazing. First, the colour family or unwanted characteristic of the undertone should be determined. The choice of the glazing colour could be that colour’s complement or an earth tone. I have provided a chart on Page 41 that shows some of the effects of glazing in oils. Make a chart that documents the effect your brand and media would have upon your colours. The surface could be Vidalon, Poster Board, masonite or watercolour paper. Begin by drawing one inch lines horizontally to coincide with the number of opaque colours you choose to analyze. Metallic colours were added at the bottom of the example since I felt this information would be valuable when working with the Wood- carver clientele in our art store. Include any colours that recur frequently on your palette or for which you might have specialized need. Paint the same colour all the way across, horizontally, between the lines. On the example a small amount of white was blended in the top of each opaque colour in order to view the reaction of the colour’s tint to the glaze.

35 If working in oil or acrylic/gouache a good safety measure might be to isolate the layers with a coat of varnish or other medium. Be sure to write the names of the opaque colours used along the left side. Some paints are transparent by nature. Others are made transparent by the addition of an extender. It has been my experience that more success is achieved if a colour is used that is naturally transparent or one that has been formulated to be transparent by the manufacturer such as Shiva Permasol Oils. These are outstanding. The basic Permasol kit contains the colours necessary to mix the secondaries and tertiaries. Black and white are also available in Permasol. Manufactured glazes are available in acrylic and acrylic/gouache. Watercolour can be transformed to a glaze by the addition of water. Suc- cess is more easily achieved with the less pigmented colours. Winsor & Newton brand of Raw Sienna is semi-transparent. Liquitex and most other brands tend to be more opaque. Your choice of transparent colours should be listed across the top in one inch increments. The glaze should then be drawn from top to bottom. vertically. Strive for a very even application. The colours that I used are listed on the Glazing Chart that appears on Page 41. The printing process cannot duplicate the luminosity that is achieved with glazing. The full optical experience can only be gained from making your own glazing chart. Do it. You’ll be amazed at the results.

Other choices for neutralizing A colour that is already mixed and dulled is one more option. The choice will be even more fruitful when the colour selected is of equal value to the tone that is being neutralized. It will then change only the intensity, not the value. This toner could be one that has been mixed for another purpose and is already on the palette or it could be a colour that has been dulled by the manufacturer, for instance Barn Red, Indigo Blue or Rose Pink. Use any or all combinations of the options available for neutralizers. It is now apparent that there is no one method suitable to dull all colours. When a neutralizer is added the value may change and/or the colour family may shift. Relate the judging of colour mixes to cooking. To taste the stew may not always reveaal what is in the stew but it could divulge what is missing. Colour is similar. Once the colour is mixed it is judged to determine if anything is missing, then identify which ingredient(s) may need to be added to make the mix suit your palette (or palate) and purpose.

36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 Should you wish to record how a colour will react to each of the options listed above, duplicate and use the chart on Page 87. Each column repre- sents one of the means available. Record the colours and your conclusions on the chart for future reference. There are coloured guides on Pages 42-44 which illustrate the reaction of the three primaries. It would be a tremendous learning experience to take all twelve hues and record their reactions to each option available for neutralizing colour. Repeat the exercise with any unusual colour that you use frequently. Burnt Carmine is a favorite of mine. The first step would be to identify the colour’s origin. I would place Burnt Carmine in the Red Violet family. Then test the colour’s reaction to all the choices for neutralizing. To analyze a colour in this manner will show exactly what may be expected of the colour thus allowing a more educated usage of the colour.

Recap of neutralizing options

Value of grey Complement Earth colour White Black Neighbor Glazes A dull colour previously mixed. A combination of the above options.

53 Brighten a Colour Brightening or clearing a colour is the opposite of neutralizing. This is a simple process once the original colour family is identified. The primary or parent hue is added to the dulled colour. Because of the chemistry of the paint, Alizarin Crimson is use to clarify dark reds, as well as those colours which borer red violet. A few suggestions to brighten or intensify your colors are:

Yellow: Add Cad Yellow Medium, Pale, or Light, Lemon yellow, Hansa Yellow. Blue: Add Ultramarine Blue, Prussian Blue, or Cobalt Blue Red: Add Cad Red, Grumbacher Red, Bright Red, Harrison Red, Naphthol Red Light Red Violet: Add Alizarin Crimson, Geranium Lake, Naphthol Crimson Orange: Add Cad Yell Deep, Cad Orange or a mix of CYM + CR. Green: Add (Yellow + Blue), Permanent Green Light, Brilliant Green, Emerald Green, Chrome Oxide Green. Violet: Add AC + UB, Dioxazine Purple, Shiva Astra Violet, Mauve. Black: Add any Blue Glazing: Pull a bright transparent colour over a colour of the same family and the undertone will brighten. Example, glaze an undertone of Cad Red with Permasol Scarlet.

One more reminder: In brightening dark reds, remember to use Alizarin Crim- son or its equivalent. When the colour has cleared to the ideal or pure red violet, it can then be further brightened by the addition of Cad Red, Bright Red, etc. If you add yellow or orange family to dark red, there is usually sufficient red violet in the dark red to react to the its compleementaryyellow, and the result is a dull rust instead of bright, intense red. In all honesty, I hate painting charts but I do love learning and that’s the price that must be paid. Now that the charts are completed, analyzed and placed in the notebook, it would be fair to question why intensity is so important. If value creates the form, what influence does intensity play in a painting? While there is no simple answer I will try to give some concise explanations at this point. This subject is expanded upon in the sections on Colour Schemes, Harmony, Dimension and An Observation Exercise Using Some of Chevreul’s Laws. High bright intensity helps to create the emphasis in a colour scheme. The eye will automatically zero in on the strongest hues thereby creating the lead- in necessary to form a center of interest area. (See Page 77)

54 Confusion is created when too many intense colours are used. The eye cannot focus on one area, therefore the eye jumps from one section or object to another. Low intensity hues provide resting places. Low intensity colours seem more quiet and harmonize with each other more easily. However, too high a percentage of low intensity tones can be boring. Intensity establishes space. Low intensity colours seem to recede while the colours that are relatively brighter push to the foreground. In order to completely understand the characteristics of colour it is necessary to explore temperature, chemistry and psychology. (This almost sounds like a medical report instead of a book about colour theory.) Temperature An individual’s perception of the temperature depends upon that person’s background and experience. If a Canadian were to visit Neebraska in the Spring, our temperature might be thought of as warm. Conversely, a visi- tor from Florida would think it quite cooL Colour temperature is relative and changes with the manner in which it is used. Colours are identified as warm or cool only on their own home base, the colour wheeL When the colour travels to the painting it must be adapted to the new environment. If a line were drawn through the colour wheel that intersected yellow green and green on one side, and that line were continued directly across until it intersected red and red violet on the other side of the circle, half of the colours would be designated as warm and the other half would be designated as cooL

55 Cool versus warm It is possible to warm a basically cool colour by the addition of a warm hue. Thus blue families can be warmed by adding a yellow or red family colour. Conversely, a warm colour can be cooled by the addition of blue or any colour that has blue as an ingredient. For example, green or violet. The temperature of a colour can also be altered with a glaze. A warm tone pulled over a cool tone will result in warming the cool colour. The reverse is true if a cool colour is pulled over a warm one. White will cool a colour while Black is considered to be a warming agent. However, this is not true of all blacks. Mars or Ferrous Black are warm, while Ivory Black and Carbon Black tend to lean to the blue side and do not warm. The names of the warm family earth tones are usually preceded by the word “Burnt”. The cooler earth tones are preceded by the word “Raw”. Naples Yellow and Yellow Ochre are cool earth tones. The complement of a warm colour is cool, and vice versa. This should be taken into consideration when neutralizing with a complement. The result is that the colour is not only dulled, but its temperature is also altered. Refer to the intensity colour wheel that was painted earlier. This temperature reaction is more obvious in some families than in others. Green is cool in relationship to yellow green, but warm when related to blue green. Yellow green is warm compared to green, but cool when used next to yellow. The temperature of a colour is used and judged by its relationship to its surroundings and neighbors, and by its purpose in the design. A choice of palette colours may be related to temperature. Some artists use a “double palette”. By that I mean that there is usually a Cool White and a Warm White. Each of the primaries are represented by their warm/ cool counterparts. For instance, Ultramarine Blue (cool) would be balanced with Cerulean or Thalo Blue (warm). Lemon Yellow or Cad Yel- low Light would represent the cool yellow, with Cad Yellow Pale or Cad Yellow as the warm yellow. Cad Scarlet or Naphthol Red Light (warm) would be balanced by Bright Red or Cad Red Medium (cool). It’s all relative.

Temperature contrast By nature, the warm colours are aggressive, assertive and attractive and generally thought to cause a subject to advance. The colours on the cool side of the wheel are by nature, quiet, restful and often formal and thought to spatially recede. This is only partially true: If a warmed colour is placed on a warm background, the warmed colour will recede. Conversely, a cooled colour will advance on a warm background. These principles of spatial dimension are illustrated on Page 50.

56 This seeming contradiction occurs because the closer or more equal relationships become, the more the objects tend to recede or lose importance. In a like manner, close values also recede. The same result could be expected when using close intensities. This warm/cool dichotomy exists in all media. The section titled “Ele- ments of Art” further addresses the role that temperature and its seeming contradictions play in determining variety, harmony and domiinance in a painting.

Conclusion To warm a cool colour, add a yellow or red family colour, the complement, black, a warm glaze, and/ or a warm earth tone. To cool a warm colour add a blue family colour, the complement, white, a cool glaze, and/or a cool earth tone. Temperature is relative to its surroundings. Warm temperatures seem to advance, but warm temperaatures recede on a warm background. Cool temperatures recede on a cool background, but cool tem peratures will advance on a warm background.

Chemistry I usually shy away from anything too scientific, but there are some areas of chemistry that must be addressed.

Opaque Denotes a colour that is dense. An opaque paint will block out any colour underneath. It is said to have good covering power.

Transparent The pigment in transparent paints have been separated with an extender to allow the light to partially pass through to expose some of the colour or value underneath. A colour may be transparent by nature or it may be manufactured to be transparent. The artist may also cause an opaque colour to become transparent by the addition of a transparent colour or an extender. Some extenders are liquid, others are gels. A transparent colour may be changed to become more opaque by the addition of an opaque colour. An opaque colour is weakened by the addition of a transparent colour. The previous section on glazing contains additional information concerning opaque and transparent colours.

57 Permanent Denotes colours that will not fade or change under normal conditions. If a painting is exposed to outside weather elements, hung in a sunny win- dow or an area subject to freeze/thaw cycles, the permanency of the colours will be threatened regardless of medium or chemistry. The wisest course is to choose permanent colours, then protect the object from the elements. The permanency rating of a colour is usually supplied by the manufaccturer and can be obtained upon request. Some manufacturers print this information on the tube or jar.

Fugitive The colour is not stable; subjectto change under stress and time elements. A fugitive colour cannot be changed to a permanent one. When a colour is thinned too far with a medium, the exposed pigment is at greater risk. Whenever possible it is wise to avoid stretching colours that are labeled as fugitive. If watercolour paper is not ph balanced, it could cause a paint to become fugitive.

Hue When the word “hue” follows the name of the colour on the label, this indicates that the hue, value and intensity are the same but the chemistry is different. Examples would be Cerulean Blue Hue, or Naples Yellow Hue. It is possible to closely match or duplicate the hue, value, and intensity of most tube or bottled paints. It is not always possible to duplicate the chemistry. As an example: Asphaltum originally had no pigment. Its colour was derived from asphalt tar suspended in a binder. Since this was a very unstable paint the hue, value and intensity of Asphaltum has now been replicated with permanent pigments. Carmine is another colour that may be matched in hue, value and intensity, but not its special chemical ingredients. However since Carrmine colours are frequently made with an extract from ground beetles, I prefer not to even attempt to duplicate the chemistry. “The Artist’s Handbook”by Ralph Mayer should answer almost any question concernning the chemistry of paint.

58 Tinting Strength Refers to the degree of the strength of the pigment used to colour paints. Think of it as pigment power; some have it, some don’t. For example, Prussian or Thalo Blue are the super powers, while green earth is a weak- ling. The degree of a colour’s tinting strength is coded on the manufacturer’s charts along with the permanency rating. One of the rules of thumb for mixing colour is to add a highly pigmented colour to a weaker one. In general, glazes are weak in pigmentation. Green Earth, Asphaltum, and Indian Yellow are examples of weak mixes. Prussian Blue and Alizarin Crimson, although transparrent, have tremendous tinting ability. Develop the habit of mixing the strong into the weak, the opaque into the transparent, and the dark into the light.

Compatibility Nature establishes rules and if these rules are observed there is usually no problem with compatibility. However, some cautions need to be pointed out concerning reactions that can occur if nature’s rules are ignored. Copper compounds (ex: Verdigris) should not be mixed with sulphur compounds or lake colours (ex: Ultramarine Blue, Alizarin Crimson or Geranium Lake). Lead based colours (Ex: Flake White) should not be mixed with sulphur based colours (ex: Ultramarine Blue and Alizarin Crimson) as they will darken and possibly craze with age. Prussian Blue and Chrome colours, when mixed together, may reduce and lose their colour. Oil base and water colour base paints will not mix. Oils will not mix with watercolours, acrylics or acrylic/gouache. Alkyds and oils are compatible and may be intermixed. It is risky to mix brands of acrylic since the ingredients may not be compatible. All brands of oil paint are similarly formulated and thus are compatible with each other and can be intermixed. Oil and alkyd base products may be placed over water base products but water base products should never be placed over oil base products. Oil paints and alkyds may be used over acrylics or acrylic/gouache. The reverse should never be done. This law of physics must be observed in the preparation and finishing of a painting. Water based sealers may be placed under oils. Oil base sealers should not be used under acrylics. The oil in the sealer will ultimately resist the water based product and the acrylic peels.

59 It follows that water base varnishes should not be used over oils. The seal will ultimately be broken and the air will separate whatever adhesion might have occurred and the acrylic varnish peels or crazes. You can’t fool Mother Nature. The oil will eventually rise to the top. Use a product that is formulated for the medium. Whenever possible it is wise to use the same brand from start to finish. Manufacturers expend enormous amounts of time, money, and expertise to develop products that are friendly with each other. If it is necessary to use hardware store products, test them thoroughly before applying to a painting. Paint a test board with sensitive colours. Those that are the most likely to react are: white, which may turn yellow; blue, which may turn green; and mauve, which may be neutralized to an orangey mud tone. This testing will also report if the products will react to each other by crazing, peeling, or cracking.

Health & Safety When penicillin was discovered it was purported to be a miracle cure. As the dosages became more frequent, intolerance levels were reached and allergic reactions resulted. These reactions were not predictable. Of course, not everyone becomes allergic to the drug. I use this analogy to discuss possible reactions to the chemical products in paints. There are many new painting products on the market that are purported to be safe and non-allergenic, but only time will tell. Just as the early medical professionals were not able to predict if and when intolerrance levels would be reached with antibiotics, sufficient time has not yet elapsed to truly evaluate what reactions could occur with the new discoveries. If you suspect an allergy problem, only an allergist can conduct the tests necessary to identify the offending agent. If an allergy truly does exist it is usually to the binder or extenders. Should the problem originate from the binder or extenders, try a different medium. If pigment is causing the problem, the offending agent would be univer- sal to all paint since the same pigments are used in oil, acrylic, watercolour, alkyd, gouache. Some water based products which contain ammonia, form- aldehyde and fungicides can cause respiratory reactions as levels of intolerance are reached. Only a doctor can advise you. You are responsible for your health and it would be foolish to just accept the word of another artist or manufacturer. In addition to allergic reactions, some products can cause other serious health problems when misused. Avoid over exposure to any product. Work only in well ventilated rooms. Wear a mask whenever spraying and only spray out of doors or where there is an exhaust fan

60 specifically designed to evacuate chemicals from the room. If pregnant, seek and obey your doctor’s advice. Use good hygiene by washing your hands frequently, especially before eating or preparing food. Don’t smoke while in your studio or around the media or sprays. As with penicillin, it may take a number of years to become sensitive to a product but the cumulative effects of working with paint or pastels can be avoided or delayed by using common sense. Use the same self-protective care with all products, regardless of the medium in which you are working. A more detailed study of this subject can be obtained by reading Artist Beware, by Michael McCann.

Psychology of colour Within the limited space allotment in this book it is not possible to delve deeply into this subject. However, the artist must be alert to colour association and symbolism in order to create mood, movement and dimension. Colour has a powerful effect upon on our emotions. Memory of and association with specific colours can bring opposing reactions to different individuals. Religions use colour symbolisms to denote happy and sad passages during the liturgical year. Advertising and marketing fields utilize colour to sell their products. Emotional response to colour is used in hospitals, restaurants, schools, the home, prisons, and the fashion in- dustry. Fast food restaurants are known to use hot colours to stimulate appetites or to hasten the turnover at their tables. Although a friend who owns several franchises of a major fast food company told me that the emphasis is changing and blue will be used more frequently because it symbolizes cleanliness. Additionally, she reports, the quiet blue hues seem to have a calming effect on the children that frequent these restaurants. Hospitals found that green surgical garments provide needed optical relief from the red blood. The patient’s rooms are usually quiet pastels to encourage rest and recuperation, while the sunrooms and activity rooms promote cheerfulness through the use of warm colours. Prisons place unruly inmates in a room painted in a particular shade of pink because of its soothing effect. However, there is a limited amount of time that the prisoner may be kept in the room or else there is an opposite reaction and irritability recurs. Fashion colours change frequently. If they did not, the clothing and furniture manufacturers as well as the interior decorators would suffer finan- cial reverses. The trends usually run in seven year cycles.

61 Introverts and conservatives prefer blue while red is the colour of the extrovert. Intellectuals are attracted to yellow, while green is the preferrence of well-balanced individuals. Theoretically, artists thrive on violet. Although pastels and misty colours are associated with babies, the nurs- eries that cater to children’s instincts are decorated in the primary colours. Infants first see black and white, followed by red. Children love bright intense colours whereas the mature senior citizen tends to prefer muted tones. It is interesting to note that the cold Scandinavian countries tend to use a high percentage of cooled colours in their folk art, while the South Ameri- can and African folk art is predominantly warm intense colours. The cli- matic temperatures in which these folks live affect the colours that they see and ultimately use in their art form. The temperature of a room can be affected by the colours used. The thermostat may read the same in a blue room as it does in a yellow room, but the body’s sense of temperature will react differently to each colour. Manis the only animal that sees colour. Contrary to popular belief, the bull responds to the motion of the Matador’s cape, not the traditional red tones. Hunters wear red hats in order that they will be obvious. Red is the symbol of danger and caution. Blue is easily recognized as the policeman’s uniform. Yellow has become the colour of fire engines because it is more obvious on gray days than the red that was formerly used. Just as colour relationship produces a warm and a cool side, colour association is also dual: a positive and a negative.

Yellow Most luminous of all colours, but usually the least popular. The colour of the sun, yellow is cheerful and gay. Negatively, yellow is associated with cowardice, treachery, deceit and illness.

Red The symbol of courage, red is aggressive, exciting, and an attentionngetter. Red is an erotic colour as exemplified by its association with bordello decorations. Negatively, red is associated with violence, defiiance and martyrdom. Red causes eye and mental fatigue and can cause restlessness and irritability if used at high intensity in large proportion.

Blue Cool, serene and tranquil. Blue is a passive colour. It is also a perspective colour because it recedes by nature. Negatively, blue is associated with loneliness, melancholia and cold temperatures.

62 Orange Sun, warmth, and gaiety describe orange. The warmest colour on the spectrum since it contains both of the warm hues. Suggests vitality and strength. Used in large quantities, orange can be overwhelming and causes irrita- tion and nervousness.

VioletViolet Rich, pompous, royal and aristocratic describes violet or purple. A symbol of authority and associated with mysticism. Negatively, violet is associated with melancholia, mourning and celibacy.

Green Thought to be God’s favorite colour because He used so much of it. Green is relatively neutral in its emotional effect, having many of the same elements as blue. Green symbolizes hope, faith and immortality. Negaatively, green can be a bilious tone and is often associated with the military.

White The colour of purity, innocence and associated with truth. White is a bridal colour. Negatively, white is also used as a colour of mourning in many countries and is the colour of surrender.

Gray Quiet, restful, the colour of maturity. An ideal background for most colours, especially if imbued with a portion of the complement of a colour in the center of interest area. Humility, resignation and the aging process are symbolized by gray.

Black Associated with darkness, secrecy and death. On the positive side, black symbolizes formality and stateliness.

Brown Earthy. Richness and growth are characterized by the brown tones. Browns can be sombre and sad or rich and warm. Negatively, brown symbolizes poverty and hopelessness.

Colour can induce moods, create excitement and dimension. Colour affects our physical and mental well-being. Experiments have been con- ducted supporting its curative effects. This fundamental understandding of the impact that colour associations can have upon the human spirit is fascinating and one that should be a guide when making colour selections in art, fashion, decorating and everyday life.

63 The elements of art

To learn and understand colour theory is important, but the application of that knowledge is the main objective. In order to do so it is beneficial to study colour schemes, the elements of art, how to create a strong emphasis or center of interest, to establish dominance, variety, and finally the summation of all these, harmony. Only principles and guidelines will be presented in this manual. It shall be the responsibility of the user to adapt these concepts to each individual situation. Webster’s Dictionary defines art as “acquired proficiency in doing or per- forming; creative adaptation of skill to the production of beautiful things.” The key words are “acquired proficiency ... adaptation of skill.” These phrases infer that technique is also an important part of the creative process. Technique, which is dictated by the medium used, is independent of theory. Technique can also be equated with personal style. The academics of art can be applied to all media and adapted to any technique. Colour is just one of the elements of art. The remaining elements of art line, form, texture and space. These must be considered singly and collectively when composing a painting. Each must be adapted to the subject matter, media used and technique being employed. Line When analyzing a person’s handwriting a judgement is frequently made concerning the attributes of the writer based upon the writing style exhibited and the presentation. Is it graceful, sloppy, rhythmic, or unintelligible? Do the thoughts presented in the written material tend to jump around, or do they flow easily from one area to another? Similarly, the line of design in a painting gives an impression of the artist in the same way that handwriting may analyze the writer. It is the line of design that leads the viewer through the painting, contributing to an impression of unity, variety, rhythm and interest. If the artist’s thoughts are orga- nized, the lines will lead the viewer’s eye casually from one section to the next, finally bringing the eye back to its beginning. A discussion follows which outlines some of the basic lines of design that are most frequently used. When I studied flower arranging several years ago I learned that the fundamental line of design used in arrangements is the Hogarth curve.

64 It was only after I began to incorporate the academics of art into decorative painting that I realized the Hogarth curve is used somewhere in almost all designs. The second most popular line used is the “C”. This is often used to balance a Hogarth curve, especially in rosemahling, china painting, and wood carv- ing. In addition these curves are integrated into still life and flower compositions although the lines are usually more subtle. The lines of a design may create a particular mood. For instance, the lines shown at the side suggest movement. For that reason they are encountered in seascapes, flower painting, border designs and any painting that is graceful, casual and restful. All lines characterize mood of some sort, but some are more outspoken than others. When lines are painted as shown, the effect is likely to be one of static movement. This type of line is often used in opposition to graceful lines to suggest contrast. Consider a mountain in opposition to a smooth flowing “8” curve of a stream or road. Vertical flower stems are held together by flowing, curved ribbons. In essence, these lines could also make the viewer uncomfortable when the static; erect lines are independent of any relieving curvatures. Lines of expression become important when painting people. A lift of the comers of the mouth can indicate pleasure and happiness, while lines slop- ing downward give an attitude of sadness. This theory is relevant to other areas that might not be as obvious. For instance, if a pansy is painted with the edges of the petals drooping this can give a negative impression of sadness or that the flower is wilting. Vertical lines indicate movement and action while horizontal lines are usually restful and calm. The eye should always be led to where there is something to see. Direct the viewer through the painting, never out of the picture. Often the line of design is improved by the simple action of lifting the tip of a leaf to point back toward the flower, fruit or other element. The viewer’s attention can be directed towards strength in the design, a particular object, the center of interest area, and rhythmically through the composition by proper usage of the lines in the painting. Tangent lines are defined as touching or nearly touching lines. When these occur, confusion is the result.This is poor art form and is easily corrected by either overlapping or separating objects.

65 Recap A curved line is more pleasing than a straight line. The Hogarth curve is the most rhythmic line of design. The “C” is also popular, frequently used to balance a Hogarth curve. Static, angular and jerky lines create unrest. The eye should be led to where there is something to see. Vertical lines indicate strength and movement. Horizontal lines are usually restful and calm. Contrast is created when static or straight lines are used in opposition to curved lines. Avoid tangent lines by either overlapping or separating objects. Form or Structure With the possible exception of folk art or stroke designs, compositions that are properly developed begin with understanding the form or anatomy of the objects contained in the painting. In order to be dimennsional the forms or shapes must be stated correctly. Otherwise the objects appear flat and distorted. As discussed earlier, the form of an object is shaped by the values used. It is the effect of light falling upon the object that causes the varying degrees of light, medium and dark which produces a three dimensional look on a one dimensional surface. In effect, an optical illusion is created. When the path of the light is interrupted by an object, the result is a cast shadow. Included in the following illustrations are diagrams of the shadows as they might occur. A more comprehensive study of shadows can be obtained in my Notebook Series edition titled “Shadow Study” which may be ordered from this author. There are four basic forms that singly or in combination shape most objects. These are: cube, sphere, cone, and cylinder. The trihedron, a solid tri- angle, is frequently included as one of the basic shapes. It is not included here because it is an angular cone and its inclusion would be redundant. Angles can be added to any of the basic shapes to create additional planes. However, the formation begins with the basic shape, then the angles are sharpened to create the “hedrons”. The chart on Page 14 illustrates the formation of the four basic shapes in values, while the chart on Page 39 shows the same forms composed in colour.

66 Cube A cube or rectangle is a flat surface, three sides being exposed to view. The cube is frequently encountered when painting buildings, boxes, furniture, blocks, etc. In general, the side closest to the light source will be the lightest in value. The side furthest away from the light is overall the darkest, and the remaining side is predominantly medium value. Note that the corner closest to the viewer is slightly lighter on the medium value portion where it joins the dark area. This is termed “forcing” an edge to create greater contrast. This same edge or line should also be slightly longer than the other in order for the cube to be in proper perspective. The vertical lines of a cube are always vertical to the horizontal line or the horizon line. Failure to pay attention to this rule of perspective is responsible for the illusion that a building is sliding down a hillside, or that a box is sliding off a table edge. Incidentally, the table also would be categorized as a cube even though only the top and front is visible.

Sphere This form is illustrated showing the effect of light cast upon it. The cast shadows are on a flat surface. We encounter the spherical shape more frequently than any other. Sometimes it is only the bottom half as in the bowl of a rose or cup. At other times it may be only the top half as exemplified in an igloo or mushroom cap.

Cylinder Some examples of the cylinder might be a smokestack, a pencil, an arm, a bottleneck, tree trunk, crock, bucket. In essence, anything that is tubular in shape. A cylinder is frequently a connecting factor between other shapes, such as on a mushroom or a flower stem. A milkcan is a classic example of how various shapes are combined to form an object. The bottom is a cylinder, a portion of a cone connects this to the cylindrical neck, and the top half of a sphere is used as a lid. The cylinder in the example is shown with only one dark area with the top closed. A cylinder with an open top is demonstrated in the value chart.

Cone This shape is probably used the least. A funnel, old tole coffeepot, spire on a church, ice cream cone, carrot root, throat of a morning glory, are all examples of items that are cone shaped.

67 Texture This element of art describes the surface quality of an object. Texture is directly related to the sense of touch. A glass is smooth, a cactus is prickly, a brick is rough, a tennis ball is fuzzy. These are all examples of varieties of textures. Contrast can also be created through use of texture. For example, placing a smooth apple in front of or next to a rough, weathered bucket. Confusion can result if texture is overused. A visual image of an artichoke in front of a woven basket against a background of a field of daisies paints a very busy picture. In addition, texture affects the manner in which light and shade are depicted. A tennis ball would absorb much more light than would a chrome ball. Reflected light and colour would either be absorbed or bounced off in a similar manner. Texture must be considered when depicting reflections of other objects in a still life or landscape. In order to reflect shapes or colours, the texture must be smooth and sufficiently polished to mirror the colour or objects. Space Creating an illusion of space can be difficult when working on a flat or one dimensional surface. To give a feeling of depth, it is necessary to know a little about perspective. There are many excellent books on the technical drawing aspect of perspective, but for the purposes of this study only those areas which relate to colour perspective will be covered.

Spatial Sometimes referred to as aerial perspective, this category encompasses the planes or geometric surfaces of a painting. In this instance space is divided into front, middle and rear planes. The front plane is also referred to as the foreground. This plane consists of the objects or area closest to the viewer. The elements on this plane will be nearest the bottom of the picture, the front table line, or the flowers in front of a bouquet. Because there is little atmospheric interference these items are in sharper focus and would:

Have the widest range of values. Display the highest degree of contrast. Be relatively warmer on a cool background, and cooler on a warmer background. Exhibit the greatest degree of detail. Be in sharper focus.

68 Each of the above principles has been discussed previously with the exception of how to create sharper focus. Please note that I have used “er” at the end of the word sharp because the degree of crispness is relative to the composition and the style and technique of the artist. In itself, sharp focus is recognized as a style of painting wherein all objects are rendered as photo realistic. Within the realm of this principle, the objects in the foreground should be depicted with more defined edges. The texture and detail are developed more fully. A crisp edge is more obvious because of color and value contrast, but in the realm of my realistic style this edge is also neat and tidy.

The rear plane consists of the elements that are the farthest from the viewer. There is a greater degree of atmospheric haze encountered in a Rear plane landscape than in a still life design. Therefore the degree of graying of colour in a landscape could be greater depending upon the light source and intensity as well as the time of day and the season. Normally, this atmospheric distortion does not occur in a still life or flower arrangement. The objects to the rear of a design or at the farthest distance in alandscape would relatively:

Be very close in value within the elements and in relation to the background as a whole. Be neutralized grayer than foreground material, particularly landscapes. Be closer to the temperature of the background. Warm against warm, cool against cool. Show softer edges. Be in softer focus, exhibiting less detail.

A discussion of the last two principles would be in order at this point since this material has not been covered previously. Softer focus occurs in a painting when the values and intensities are close where objects meet. This is challenging to accomplish when a light value rests next to a dark value and the basic values cannot be changed without altering the form or colour. Often the problem can be solved by reflecting equal value or colour from the edge of one object or area onto the other. Another suggested method for creating softer edges would be through application of a shadow. Pulling a small amount of the shadow’s colour onto the edge of the object causes a closer value relationship, thus soften- ing the receding edges.

69 An accent or colour common to both objects helps to soften an edge by reason of minimizing contrast and providing each object with a common factor. Contrast can be lessened by glazing or by mixing a common colour into both objects or areas. One final suggestion. Use a soft brush to slightly blend two adjacent lines together. Take care that the object or area, is not distorted, but only that the touching edge is slightly muffled.

The middle plane is the section that rests midway between the front and rear and acts as a connecting link. Detail will be evident in this section, but in relationship to the front, it is a bit less sharp. However the detail in the middle plane is not quite as soft as the rear plane. The colour is not quite as bright as the foreground, but less muted than the rear plane. This is also true for the value relationships.

Size and proportion The relationship of the size of objects in a composition portrays a feeling of space. Those objects closest to the viewer in a landscape will be sized much larger than those in the distance. The size of individual objects in a still life or floral will not usually diminish with distance since the composition does not project sufficient depth. However, the size relationships are a consideration. A pea obviously should not be larger than an apple. The proportion of objects to each other should be in scale to the overall height, width and breadth of the entire composition. Colour can be effective when trying to alter the visual size of an object or area. A large objectwill appear smaller if it is paintedwith a darkvalue, low intensity colour. A small object will appear larger if it is painted with a colour that is light in value and bright in intensity.

Lineal Two bodies cannot occupy the same space. To be sure that this physical law is not beingbroken, check the design for accuracy before transferring the drawing to the surface. Place a ruler at the bottom of the sketch and slowly slide the ruler toward the top. The ruler should first touch the object closest to the viewer (flower arrangements excepted). As this pointis checked, also notice whether the ruler also touches the bottom of any other object. If so, shift one to a slightly different level.

70 As the ruler progresses upward, continue analyzing that each item rests on the correct plane, with none on exactly the same level. The planes of a flower arrangement would be divided in a different manner. The flower(s) in the front of the bouquet would collectively formthe front plane. As the flower groupings recede deeper into the bouquet, the planes are assessed accordingly. Should the flowers be placed in a container, then the guidelines for still life or landscapes would apply to the objects that are seated on a surface. There must be room for an object to occupy the space required by its depth and dimension. Rear table lines mustbe sufficiently behind objects in order to avoid the illusion that any subject matter is falling off the back edge. Every element in a still life, landscape, flower arrangement, or any other type of compositional art requires its own space. When several objects are included in a still life design, it is beneficial to draw in the bottom of each object where it rests on the surface as if the object were transparent. Spherical object should be defined at their widest angle instead of at the bottom. Any lines that would overlap would indicate that the object does not have its own space. The line drawing should be changed accordingly. The painting is the responsibility of the artist and it is foolish to knowingly copy any faults in a sketch.

71 “Go Slowly. You make fewer mistakes.” Michelangelo, (1475-1564) His Diary

Elements of harmonious composition Harmony has been defined as the pleasing arrangement or combination of parts. Thus a harmonious composition is a pleasant balance of hues, values, intensities, contrast, size, space, lines, and texture, with a small measure of discordance for interest. Harmony is the summation of all of the elements of art. In essence, harmony is the action of organizing these elements, a process of selection and problem solving that involves unifying all parts to compose a pleasing whole. The first consideration towards this objective is to identify the goal or objective of the painting. One of my favorite sayings is “If you don’t know where you are going, there is no road that will get you there”. This is especially appropriate to colour composition because if there is no clear cut objective or plan for reaching the destination, the probability of success is limited.

Goal One cannot hope to arrive at any given destination unless there is an identifiable purpose or plan. Therefore the first step is to establish those objectives. While this sounds so simple it is probably one of the most complex problems since it dictates that thought must be given to the project before the artist picks up the paint and brush, or sets out the palette.

Central idea The painting should have a theme or purpose. Is the desired result to be a still life, stroke painting, flowers, folk art, landscape, primitive, rosemahling, etc. Is the mood of the painting to be one of quiet serenity, action, country life, antiquity, nostalgia, formality, gaiety, or any other of a myriad of themes. Once decided upon, everything else within the project must serve this purpose. The selection of the individual elements to be contained in the painting are directed toward fulfilling the goal statement. The surface or

72 object the painting decorates, the colours used within the colour plan, the line, form, texture, space, brush strokes and finish must all support the stated purpose. Select only those colours and values that will complement the central Purpose is primary idea of the project. The best choice of colours will be those that are typical of the mood, period, and articles in the painting. Review the section concerning the psychology of colour. Determine which colours are more supportive of the mood, theme and central idea that is planned. A knowledge of which colours are associated with a particular period or which fashion colours are currently popular can be an indicator to select- ing colours that are appropriate to the theme. If the work of art is a commissbn, the client may prescribe which theme and colour scheme is indicated. Folk art infers traditional colours indigenous to the country of origin. Research along these lines is beneficial.

Colour schemes A scheme is a plan, therefore a colour scheme is a plan of how to organize colours. Colour schemes are also referred to as colour harmonies. It is helpful to have a colour compass as a guide when planning colour themes. One of the finest is a Grumbacher product and should be available from most art suppliers. In the center of this book are examples of the colour schemes which are the standards. In the diagrams the intensities were lowered by using the complementary colour. Colour schemes are divided into two categories: related and contrasting harmonies.

Related harmonies: Monochromatic This particular plan uses variations of one hue. Blue was used in the illustration. The values and intensities may and should differ. While this is a very safe harmony it can become a very boring scheme. Monochromatic harmonies produce serene moods if the values are very close. Contrast in texture, values, and subject matter will often compen- sate for the lack of interest in tonal change. Monochromatic schemes are dependent upon value contrast to create the center of interest area. Study the squares along the bottom marked A, B, and C on Page 45. These are painted in light, medium and dark values. The B square is bright and intense and commands attention. In C, the blue has been neutralized to nearly black and except for its contrast

73 with the light background, is much more quiet. The A square demands the least amount of attention because it is so close in value to the background of the paper. Compare the three squares painted inside A, B, and C. Note how the dark square in light valued A seems to advance, while the light squares in the darker valued B and C are the advancing squares. Conversely, the light square on the light value A recedes, while the darker values recede on B and C.

Neutral This colour scheme is similar to monochromatic but is composed of colours that have been neutralized almost beyond identity. The component that separates neutral schemes from monochromatic is that several colours of very low intensity are used. The harmony is related through the common tones of colours. Andrew Wyeth is a master at manipulating neutral colour schemes without boring the viewer.

Analogous The third friendly or related harmony colour scheme is analogous. There are two schools of thought on how to compose an analogous scheme. One suggests that the colours should range from one primary to the next. For instance, from red to blue. Another theory declares that an analogous scheme is composed of five neighboring colours on the wheel, and that these should have one colour in common. Use either or both, the choice is yours. In the example shown on Page 46, I opted to use the theory of one colour in common. Each of the five colours are descendants of yellow. When planning or using a scheme, the neutralized and earth tones are considered part of the scheme. It is necessary to include these quiet tones to provide a resting place or a bridge across intense areas. Analyze the ABC squares at the bottom of the page which are shown in light, medium and dark values. The green is the most intense while the other two have been totally neutralized.The brighter colours command attention in A, while the neutralized seem to relax. Those tones which are closest in value are the least competitive. The same is true of the other two squares and it is interesting to notice how the lighter and duller value recedes in C versus the darker and duller values in B. In the latter instance the warm, dull dark provides less contrast with the warm, dull dark background. If a section of a painting is to be minimized, equalize value, hue, and intensity as closely as possible.

74 Contrasting harmonies: Triadic This type of colour harmony is composed of three colours which are equidistant on the colour wheel. The easiest to use are the primaries. The illustration on Page 47 uses Yellow Green, Red Orange, and Blue Violet. As colours from this scheme are patched on the various backgrounds in A, B,and C, the conclusions reached are consistent with previous experiments. The pure red-orange tends to dominate in every square, but particularly so when placed against the dulled red-orange background in Square B.

Complementary This colour plan consists of two colours which lie diametrically opposite each other on the colourwheel. The most dramatic of the complementary arrangements is violet and yellow since these hues are also the highest and lowest values of the colour circle. A complementary scheme using red and green are the most difficult to develop because the value of red versus green shows very little variance. A type of visual vibration occurs when two complements are touching. This is called “simultaneous contrast”. The optic nerve is soon irritated by this phenomena and quickly darts to another spot in the painting. This effect is relieved by imbuing a bit of each colour into both hues. For example, a bit of red is put into the green, and an amount of green is infused into the red. Because the complements tend to create this excitement each pair has been used to symbolize holidays. Yellow and violet are Easter colours, orange and black (black is blue neutralized) are used at Halloween, and of course Christmas is traditionally associated with red and green. Study the effects of the swatches of colour placed on the background colours of the ABC Squares diagrammed on Page 48 and form conclusions as to what reactions occur. Which colours seem to advance; which to recede. Which are the most commanding of your attention and why. Train the eye to identify and the mind to analyze why and soon it is apparent that colour relationships follow a sensible, logical pattern.

Split Complementary This colour scheme uses three hues on the wheel (see Page 49). Deter- mine which colour is to be the dominant hue (I used red), then locate its complement on the wheel. The complement of red is green. The green is split into its two neighbors, yellow green and blue green. It is also permis- sible to use the green as part of the opposing range of colour.

75 Double Split Complementary The starting point for this plan (Page 49) is to identify two complementary colours. In the example, yellow and violet were selected. The yellow is split into its two neighboring tones of yellow green and yellow orange. The violet is split into its two neighbors, blue violet and red violet.

Split Analogous Refer to the example above. When the complementary colours between the split, yellow and violet, are included in the scheme it is often referred to as a split analogous scheme.

Polychromatic he colour wheel would be the example for a polychromatic scheme. All scheme twelve hues are used. This can be a pleasing usage of colour or it can be extremely confusing. As the range of colours widens so does the risk of producing a scheme that is erratic and static.

Planning a colour scheme The thought of planning a colour scheme may seem intimidating until it is equated with getting dressed. I don’t know a person who goes into their closet and says “I think I will dress in a split complementary colour scheme today.” The decision as to what clothing to wear is exactly the same as deciding what colours to use. What is the occasion? Different clothing would be selected if going golfing than for the office, or a Ball. Whatwill the temperature be like? What kind of image is to be projected? The first item of clothing selected may be a blouse or shirt. Then a pair of slacks or skirt is chosen that “goes with” the top. Each subsequent item is related to the developing ensemble. The extremities of the body normally receive the small parts, such as shoes and earrings and these are chosen to harmonizewith the other clothes. A favorite pin may not exactly “go with” the outfit but maybe you want to wear it anyway because it makes you feel good, or your intuition tells you that this one area needs a little pizzazz. If the discipline of planning a colour scheme according to the traditional method seems intimidating, try the clothing method. Put it together using your past experience and intuition. I loathe to see intuition minimized. It is that part of the psyche that speaks for the subconscious. A truly balanced artist uses both intuition and intellect.

76 Value keys It is as important to plan the value proportions in a painting as it is to plan The three standard value plans are called High Key, Low Key and Full Range and examples are shown on Page 50. The spot of contrasting value placed in each square indicates suggested placement of the focal point. This value is the darkest in the high key and the lightest in the low key. Two spots are shown on the full range because in this type of value key there is a choice. The emphasis may be light against dark or dark against light. This placement of the two locations for the center of interest area was meant to illustrate that there is more than one choice for this emphasis. However, I must stress that only one focal point should be established.

High Key A painting which is composed predominantly of the values ranging from Value 5 and upwards to Value 1 is considered to be high key paintings. This is not to suggest that lower values are never used, but these lower ranges are used sparingly and in small percentages. The darkest value in a high key painting usually occurs in the center of interest area or focal point but may be repeated elsewhere in meager por- tions.

Low Key Dark paintings are referred to as low key. These result from using the darker tones of the value scale, ranging from Value 5 downward to Value 9, black. The lightest value in a low key painting occurs in the center of interest area, but can be repeated in meager measure throughout.

Full Range As the title implies, a full range of values is used in this type of value scheme. This value key is one of the most difficult to balance, especially when used in a polychromatic colour plan.

Center of interest There should be one major interval, one outstanding section of a painting. This center of interest area or focal point acts as a beacon to guide the eye into the composition. Stroke designs, still life, landscapes, florals or any other collective subject matter benefits if one section is dominant. As a general guideline, the placement of the section of the composition that is going to be the most attractive follows what is termed “The Rule of Thirds”. Divide the painting surface into thirds both horizontally and

77 Rule of Thirds Placement vertically. The center of interest subject matter can effectively be placed at any one of the four intersecting lines. While it is generally suggested that the center of interest should not be placed in the exact center, there are exceptions. For example: in Rogalund Rosemahlingwhere central placement is traditional, in a landscape where the viewer is looking into the interior of the woods, or if the artist feels it is important to the success of the painting. The placement of the emphasis in a painting will be more successful if the objects in the center of interest section are facing the light source. Additionally, it is easier to place emphasis on those objects that are in the foreground or front plane. The section of the painting that has the greatest collection of objects (the mass) is easier to emphasize. Some of the devices that can be used to establish a strong center of interest area follow. It is not necessary to use all of them.

Strong contrast • Smooth versus rough • Short versus tall. • Light versus dark • Warm versus cool • Round versus lineal. • Complement versus complement. • Intense versus neutral. • Hard edge versus soft edge. • Wide value changes within the area. • Quiet versus busy. • Dull versus bright.

Embellishments: • Waterdrops. • Strong accents or tints. • Fractures, graining, leaf tears, etc. • Details such as veins, bark, texture, etc.

The center of interest area should be established first. As each section of the painting recedes away from the dominant area it should become gradually less important.

Dominance When everything in a painting is equal the result is either boredom or conflict. Dominance, when used correctly, restores harmony. Creating dominance in a painting is similar to a stage performance. The star vocalist is identified first, then the back up singers are given the parts and costumes that will enhance the star. Finally the “doo

78 wah” singers (so called because all they are allowed to sing is doo wah) receive material that is the least important of all. The stage is the atmosphere in which the performers function. None compete with the star, but help in every way possible. Can you imagine the result if the back up singers began to sing a different melody, the doo wahs sang off key, and the back drop fell forward? Recall this visual image when developing a painting. No section or object should be permitted to compete with the area that is designated to be the dominant focal point. Do not misconstrue this to mean that the remaining areas are neglected. Indeed not. They are developed to the fullest, but progressively a little bit less than the focal area.

Dominant colour In any well balanced colour composition there should be a dominance of one colour over the rest. Dominance should not be equated with bril- liance since the dominant hue may be the quietest colour. The dominant colour is usually the colour that is represented by the highest percentage. When viewing a colour scheme, one colour will be proportionately greater than the rest. This colour may not appear in the center of interest area, but could help to determine the hues and intensities for that section. For instance, the dominant colour is a middle value, low intensity blue and the blue has been slightly warmed. Then the colours selected for the focal area might be cooled reds. The cool to offset the warming of the blue, the red as a near complement to the blue. The values could be very light or very dark to contrast the middle value. Relationship of colour revolves around hue, value and intensity.

Background colour Backgrounds must never be permitted to be aggressive. This would be thesame as the falling back drop in the stage analogy given earlier, The selection of a colour for the background of a painting is one of the most important decisions to be made. The background is the atmosphere in which a painting thrives or dies. The subject matter is constantly influenced by the background hue, value and intensity. As a general guideline backgrounds must be quiet, must not distract from the subject matter, but must complement the painting. If the background is obvious before the center of interest area, they are in competition. An exception might be if the background is intended to be the actual focal point. Do not hesitate to repaint a background in a different colour, value or intensity should it fail to complement the completed painting. It is tediousto paint around objects already developed, but if the alternative is a failed painting, then the tedium can be borne. Glazing or antiquing the background colour could be another alternative.

79 The colours of light seem to be the most unifying colours for a back- drop. When yellow, yellow orange and orange are dulled to their grayest tones, almost any hue looks well against them. The value of the grayed tone would be dependent upon the value key selected. Cool grays, grayed blues and greens are always good complements to to warm foreground tones. These are especially harmonious to portraiture since they complement the warm face and body tones. The values in a background may change, but this change should be subtle. The path of light is a consideration in value placement. Generally the lightest side of the background will be opposite the lightest side in the foreground. Any rouging or colour repetition in the background will be moreeffective if it subtly repeats the colours in the composition. Regardless of the colour and value choice it is imperative that the intensity should be dulled. Bright colours can be used in small amounts but the larger the area, the lower the intensity used. This could apply to objects within a painting as well. Because the background is the atmosphere in which the painting lives, some of the background colour should be repeated in the composition. Depending upon placement, this should be suitably neutralized or brightened.

Colour proportion If a guideline is needed to apportion colour in a scheme, the following may be a key. The highest percentage or largest areas of colour should be of the lowest intensity. The next largest area is still neutralized, but is slightly brighter, and the smallest or least percentage may be the brightest.

Unity Unity is the thread that holds a painting together. Many of the elements of unifying a composition have already been discussed. For instance, one idea should dominate, one major focal point adds emphasis, a painting is keyed to value and colour. Other means of establishing unity in a painting are through repetition, consistency, and continuity. Repetition of colours is pleasing when the colours are echoed. A strong statement is echoed slightly weaker, then the colour weakens as it fades away. This is true in accents in particular.

80 To repeat a colour three times is a good objective, but spacing is important. A colour that appears on one side of the design can beRepeti- tion balanced by placing its weaker cousin on the other side. The third application can be somewhere in between. Using one colour in various intensities and values as accents or turning colours throughout a composition unifies. The path of light through a painting provides unity. One light source is used in order to avoid creating conflicting shadow patterns. Consis- tency in placement of these lights and shadows provides harmony. The artist cannot always paint what is seen. A classic example is a painting I saw in a local art show. The artist began the painting in the morning and depicted the roof shadows as being cast west. The landscape was not completed until late afternoon. She saw the ground shadows casting east and painted them as she saw them, casting east even though previously applied shadows were casting west. Keep this in mind when working with a set up. Paint things as they should be not as they might be perceived. The difference between an artist and a camera is that the artist improves on nature to suit the purpose while the camera records what it sees. Manipulate light and shadow to be harmonious.

Colour Keys A method for unifying colour is through the use of colour keys. Keying unifies colour by giving each colour a common denominator. To use one colour in all the colours used is a means of keying a scheme. The analogous colour scheme where yellow was used in every mixture one colour exemplifies this quite well. Early tole painters used an earth colour in every mixture. By adding a bit of the dominant colour or background colour into every mixture is another means of keying one colour throughout the scheme. Antiquing is a means of colour keying. On one occasion I added Umber to the varnish to darken and age a painting. This produced a unifiedcolour overall. Glazing is another option. A colour can be glazed over the entire design, as in antiquing, or just on a small area or a few objects.

Balance This may be solved with repetition of values, intensities, colour and temperature throughout a composition. An overall light scheme requires some dark values for balance just as a dark composition must be relieved with light passages throughout. Cool dominance is relieved by a few warm touches,

81 Accent colours are repeated throughout the entire colour scheme These become the thread that sews the colours together. In each of the above instances, the repetition must never be exactly the same. It is varied through a difference in metering, intensity, size, tints and shades. Organizing the path of light and shadow promotes balance in the composition. If the light originates from one source and consistently illuminates the objects in the same manner, the dark value in the shadows on the opposite side will balance this light.

Variety Variety is developed after unity is established. It is the small touches of discordance that provides interest and relief. Variety is considered to be the spice of art. Subtle touches flavor a painting, while too much spice can be distasteful. Use these touches carefully. These maybe added as the painting is developed with necessary additions at the final stages. The accent colours in a painting are one form of adding these touches. Accents are relatively bright colours used in small amounts. Accents are useful for repeating colours and they also can act as transition areas or bridges to pull the eye from one area to the next. Since these accents are not intended to change the form or anatomy of an object they are usually placed at the edge. This is especially relevant when painting fruits and containers. If the value of the accent is nearly the same value as where it is placed, distortion should not occur. As an example, if a light accent is painted over a dark receding edge, the edge could appear to have a bulge. The reverse would be true if a dark accent is placed on a lighter value receding edge, it could appear that there was a hole.The value of accents in flowers may not distort the shape as in fruits and containers but the same consideration must be given to the placement. While there may be several accents of the same colours, the size, value and intensity should never be equal. The focal point will be strengthened if the brightest accent(s) are positioned in this area. Variety is achieved through opposition. Straight lines are relieved by curved lines. Large areas of dulled colour are relieved by small areas of brighter hues. Dominantly warm colour schemes should have touches of cool tones for contrast. High key paintings should have some dark values for accent. Variety should be established when painting groupings, such as leaves or grapes. Any collection of objects can be harmonized through use of common colour, but that colour should be varied through different tones, different intensities of hues, change in size, change in direction of veins or stems, change, change, change. Equality is boring. Remember that any living thing is constantly changing otherwise it dies.

82 Methods for judging harmony and balance

Turn the painting upside down and set the painting at arm’s length or several feet away.

Look in the opposite direction of the painting. Close your eyes and squeeze your eyelids together (this lubricates the eye).

Slowly turn back toward the painting and determine what is the first area you see. This should be of highest contrast. Remember, the definitive word is area, not object. This judges the center of interest or focal area.

Analyze the dominant colour. This should be the highest percentage of colour in the painting. It does not necessarily mean the brightest, although that may be true. The background is part of this percentage.

Analyze what colour is in the next proportion or what hue you see after the dominant tone. This is the sub-dominant hue and should travel in measure throughout the painting. While this is lesser in percentage than the dominant, it may be slightly brighter in small areas, and should be different intensities.

The third colour percentage you see should also repeat, but in lesser measure. Small amounts may be intense and are often used as accents.

The last colour you see should be a discordant tone. For example, you should be able to see some cool tones in a warm dominant composition, and warm tones in a cool dominant.

Are there any areas over which the eye must jump a great deal in order to connect with the next repetition; the colour should easily transfer from one area to the next. Pretend that the repetition of colours is the thread that sewsyour painting together. If any area is lacking, the harmonywithin may unravel.

Finally, there may be discordant notes in extremely small measure. A discordant is usually a colour outside the colour scheme or one that is out of harmony with the composition. A discordant provides variety.

There should be a dominant value in the painting; i.e., high key (mostly light values), low key (mostly dark values) or mid-value.

83 All three values should be represented in a painting. A dominantly high key painting should have some dark sections and some medium value sections. It is the percentage of light that determines if the painting is high value keyed. The same is true of low key, or dark value keyed paintings. A representation of light and medium value is necessary for harmony. A dominantly mid-value must carry through in the same manner; adequate representation of lights and darks.

How to usethevalue scale system of mixing This method of mixing colourfor usage in still life and floral compositionscan be applied to many other subjects as well. The exception might be for landscapes where the principles of spatial perspective could prescribe a different flow of colours. It might be well to first review some of the basic guidelines to mixing colour. Wipe knife each time before picking up colour additives. This will keep mixtures pure, as well as retain the purity of original colours. Whenmixing alightvalue, add darkvalues to lightvalues. When mixing a dark value, add light values to dark values. Add the stronger pigment to the weaker pigment colours. Example: Burnt Umber to Ultramarine Blue; Alizarin Crimson to Green Earth. To brighten, or clear up a muddied colour, add the pure, raw colour family. To dull a colour, see Page 53. Set up the palette in the sequence previously given. The pure colours should spread across the top, leaving the entire center section for mixing. Use an indelible marker to mark off the palette as before. If the values are mixed in the proper zones on the palette, it then becomes a simple transition to place them on the painting as outlined on the colour guideline maps that accompany each lesson. Establish the medium value first. This value is always relevant to the background and any neighboring tones already established. It is the most important value because it is the colour seen in its natural state. This is sometimes referred to as the body or mass tone. Almost all the scales beginby establishing the mid-tone of the object first since all other values are relevant to this local value mixture. The medium value has no equation to the medium value on the gray scale system. The value and intensity of this local colour changes with every situation and the corresponding lights and darks are judged in relationship to each new local or mass tone.

84 As the colour nears the light source it should: Lighten in value (add white, colour wheel neighbor, or both). Warm (add a warmer colour such as yellow or red family). Clarify or brighten, i.e., slightly intensify. (Add pure colour family or warmer neighbor on the wheel).

As the colour recedes away from the light source, it should: Darken in value (add black, neighbor, or darker valueearth tone). Cool (add a cooler colour). Dull in intensity (Add complement, black, neighbor, earth tone, or darker value gray).

Refer to the chart on Page 51. This illustrates some of the reactions when the primaries and secondaries are mixed according to the above formula. The mid value (body, mass tone or basic) should be evaluated before any of the succeeding mixes. Do not judge by what is seen on the palette. The reference on the palette is to the white background. Evaluations are more successful when the colour is judged in its own environment, the painting. Put a small amount of the color on the surface, then decide ifit is proper. Ugly on the palette may be picture perfect, or vice versa. Close value ranges are easier to blend than wide value separation. Close values are Strive for five to seven values. When placing the values, you may skip one easier to blend value, but not more. Medium value must separate lights and darks. I have written several books that explain the technique of applying the value scale system to a painting. The video Blending Techniques of a Mastervisualizes the value scale method. My video Introduction to Colour complements the material in this manual. Please contact me if these are not available in your area.

Chevreul’s Laws Please make the time to study the example on Page 52 concerning this most important facet of colour relationships. I use the term “colour sur- prise” because what is mixed on the palette takes on an entirely different appearance when placed in the context of its surrounding colours. For this reason all mixtures must be judged in the atmosphere in which they are going to be used.

85 In closing You must want to learn about colour or you would not be reading this book. Therefore you have met the first requirement for learning: Desire.

The next requisite is Determination. It takes a large measure of determination to make (not take, you have to make) the time to study andapply the principles of colour mixing. You must stop reading about how to mix colour and start to mix, experiment and possibly falter the first time or two. But remember that you have not failed until you stop trying.

Dedication is the third “D” for success. Dedication to a cause or objective means that you must give up something you want in order to achieve something you want more. It may be necessary to give up some free time, diversification, non productive habits, pre-mixed paints, to name a few.

Of course, there is a fourth “D” and that is Dollars. Consider the spend- ing of dollars for new products an investment because six to nine tubes of new standard colours of paint could replace a multitude of premixed products. You may feel that paint is being wasted while learning how to mix colours, but this is only temporary. When the mixing process is understood the savings in dollars and time is tremendous.

Additionally, you will have control. You will be out of the passenger seat and into the driver’s seat and on the path to personal creativity. Paint in Peace,

86 87 Glossary of Terms

Accent: A colour added to an area to provide coordination, extra interest and intensity. This colour is generally proportionately small.

Admixtures: Combining of two mixes or ingredients.

Binder: Refers to the vehicle which locks the pigments together to form paint. In oil it is usually refined linseed, poppy or safflower oil. Alkyd’s binder is a combination of alcohol and acid. Gum arabic is the watercolour vehicle. Polymers unite the pigments of acrylic and acrylic/gouache. Egg yolk is used in egg tempera.

Extender: Refers to an ingredient that will make the paint flow or become more transparent. Winsor & Newton Blending & Glazing Medium is my extender of choice. Many artists who work in oils or alkyds mix an extender of stand oil, damar varnish and turp. Watercolour and acrylics are both extended through the use of water. The latter frequently uses a polymer emulsion as well.

Fugitive: The colour is not stable; subject to change under stress and time elements. A fugitive colour cannot be changed to a permanent one.

Glaze: A thin layer of transparent paint applied over a dried underpainting. Used frequently in placing shines and shadows, as well as for value adjustment. Veiling is synonymous with glazing. Antiquing is a decorative form of glazing. Also refers to the extender used to make an opaque colour more transparent.

Hue: The family name of the colour. When the word “Hue” is added after the generic name of a paint (Ex: Alizarin Crimson Hue, Cerulean Blue Hue) this means that the colour dupli- cates the hue, value and intensity of the colour, but is not the same chemical compound.

Ideal: A colour is said to be ideal when it is in its purest form at the perimeter of the colour wheel, in its proper family.

Intensity: Describes whether the colour is bright or dull.

Medium: Refers to the type of paint used, such as oil, alkyd, acrylic, watercolour, gouache, tempera, etc. The plural of medium is media. Neighbor: The colour that rests directly above or below a pure colour on the colour wheel.

Opaque: Denotes a colour that is dense. An opaque paint will block out any colour underneath. It is said to have good covering power.

Palette: Can be the surface on which the colours are arranged and mixed, or the colours used to mix other colours.

Permanent: Denotes colours that will not fade or change under normal conditions.

Pigment: The dry powdered colouring agent that is added to give paint its colour. Pigment is the same in all media.

Shade: To lower the value of a colour by using black or any colour value below the basic or local value.

88 Tint: To raise the value of a colour by using white or any colour value above the basic or local value. Also tint could mean to imbue a colour with a hint of another colour.

Tinting Strength: This refers to the degree of strength of the pigment used to colour paints.

Turning Color: This is a color that is placed on the blending line between the dark and medium values. The value and temperature is turning from medium to dark; from warm to cool. Also may be referred to as burnishing color.

Transparent: The pigment in transparent paints have been separated with an extender to allow the light to partially pass through to the colour underneath. A colour may be transparent by nature or it may be manufactured to be transparent. The artist may also change an opaque colour to transparent by the addition of a transparent colour or an extender. Some extenders are liquid, others are gels.

Value: The relative lightness or darkness of a colour in relationship to a value scale.

WYSIWYG: Pronounced wizzywig, a computer term whose acronym stands for “What You See Is What You Get”. I use the term in reference to colour to indicate that no matter what formula or process is used, all that matters is what the eye sees, because that is what you got

89 Bibliography

Birren, Faber. Color & Hunian Response. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1978.

Birren, Faber. History of Color in Painting. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1965.

Birren, Faber. Principles of Color. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1969.

Blake, Wendon. Creative Color. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1972.

Blake, Wendon. Color in Watercolor. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1982.

Chevreul, M. E. The Laws of Harmony and Contrast of Colors. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 198

I. Covino, Frank. Controlled Painting. Cincinnati, Ohio: North Light Publishers, 1982.

Fabri, Ralph. Color, A Complete Guide forArtists. New York: Watson, Guptill, 1967.

Fabri, Ralph. Light, Color& Environment, Revised Edition. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1982.

Goldstein, Harriet and Vclta.Art in Everyday Life. New York, New York: The MacMillan Company, 1950.

Graves, Maitland. Art of Color and Design. New York: McGraw Hill, 1951.

Grumbacher Color Compass. New York: Grumbacher Company, 1977

Guptill, Arthur. Color Manual ForArtists. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1962.

Itten, Johannes. The Color Star. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1985.

Itten, Johannes. The Elements of Color. New York, N.Y.: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1970.

Kobayashi, S. A Book of Colors. New York. Harper & Row, 1987.

Leland, Nita. Exploring Color. Cincinnati, Ohio: North Light Publishers, 1985.

Munsell, A. H. A Grammar of Color. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1969.

Powell, William. The World of Color and How to Use It. Tustin, Ca.: Foster Art Service, Inc., 1984.

Sargent, Walter. The Enjoyment And Use Of Color. New York: Dover Publications, 1964.

Salemme, Lucia A. Color Exercises For The Painter. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications, 1970.

Van Wyk, Helen. Successful Color Mixtures. Rockport, Ma.: Art Instruction Associates, 1983.

Van Wyk, Helen. Basic Oil Painting. Rockport, Ma.: Art Instruction Associates, 1985. Van

Wyk, Helen. Welcome To My Studio. Rockport, Ma.: Art Instruction Associates, 1989.

Van Wyk, Helen. Your Painting Questions Answered fro»t A to Z. Rockport, Ma.: Art Instruction Associates, 1988.

Wilcox~ Mitchell. Color Theory For Oil Colors orAcrylics. New York: Watson, Guptill Publications, 1983.

Winsor & Newton. Notes On The Composition and Permanence of Oil Colours. London, England

90 Genesis Heat Set Oils Addendum

What are Genesis Heat Set Oils? Genesis Heat Set Oils is an entirely new product, composed of chemistry not previously used in artist's paints. It works so much like traditional oils, and lacking a better description it is characterized as oil paint. The main advantage of Genesis is that it does not dry until you use a heating process to set the oils. This means that the paint, mixes and their application to the painting are fluid until you decide to dry them. It is not the same chemistry as oils; therefore certain adjustments must be made in its usage. Genesis cannot be mixed with any other medium. This means that it is not intermixable with traditional oils, acrylics, gouache, watercolor, etc. Do not seal the wood since the heat setting process could cause blistering of any sealer that contains shellac or alcohol. Chemical incompatibili- ties have also been reported when other types of sealers have been used. However, two coats of acrylic (not latex) paint will sufficiently seal raw wood. After a slight sanding, additional coats are applied to further smooth the surface. Wipe any sanding dust with a moist cloth. A tack cloth could leave an oil or varnish residue, which repulses the Genesis. Use only high quality wood or Masonite. Inferior wood contains sap or pitch that rises to the surface when the Genesis is heat-set. If in doubt, test by subjecting the wood to the heat-setting process before painting. Should any sap or resin appear, this indicates that the object is not a good candi- date for Genesis. Porcelain techniques will be featured in a later article. Trupan or MDF wood is also suitable for Genesis.

How do you Heat Set? There are three methods for heat-setting the paint:

Use a home oven. Preheat the oven to 300 degrees. Turn off the oven. (This prevents accidents should you need to leave or should you forget there is a painting in the oven). Cover a cookie sheet or pizza stone with foil and place the painting on this. Set the timer for 15 minutes. Tie something on the oven handle or place a Post It Note on the oven door to remind you that there is a painting inside. To place the painting directly on the oven rack could create "hot spots" possibly resulting in blisters. The cookie sheet or stone allows easy removal. When removing the painting, use a hot pad for safety.

91 Use a Genesis Oven following instructions supplied with the oven.

Use the Genesis Heat Gun or a similar gun used for stamping. A hair dryer does not generate enough heat to set the paint. The Genesis Gun is used differently than a hair dryer. It is much hotter and must be used with all safety precautions. The nozzle should be held about four inches above the surface and is held in one place-not rotated. If the gun is held too close to the surface there is a risk of blistering the surface. Heat-set in areas of four to six inches at a time. Hold the gun in one spot until the surface feels uncomfortably warm then move to the next section.

Does the paint look different after heat set process? You will find that the painting does not change in value or sheen as it is heated. This makes it difficult to determine when it has dried. Wad a chemical-free facial tissue and softly wipe the tissue across the painted area. If any color shows on the tissue, this indicates that the paint needs further heating. The entire design may be transferred at once since it is not affected by the heating process. If erasing is necessary, use an art gum eraser to remove unwanted transfer lines.

What Type of Palettes? A glass palette must be used for this product. Wax palette or parchment palettes tend to leech out the binder in the paint, thus negating the chemical factor that allows the paint to remain fluid. The paper palettes may be used temporarily, but the paint must be transferred to a Wingate or glass palette. Only ¼" glass should be used for safety reasons. These can be custom cut to fit palettes by any glass company in your area. Plexiglas is not an option. Large amounts of mixes of paint may be stored in glass jars or Genesis jars.

Paint in Jars As the paint is removed from the jar it is in a solid state. Mixing with a palette knife renders it more fluid. However, too much mixing causes it to become somewhat transparent. This is an advantage if you wish to use the paint as a glaze but is not productive if you wish it to remain opaque. Allow the paint to set and it will congeal. This characteristic permits the artist to totally control the paint's consistency. It is necessary to use more paint than you might be accustomed to using in our blending techniques. If you have worked in Alkyds you will find the amount of paint to be applied to the surface to be about the same. Should you find the paint becoming too transparent on the surface the cause may be over-mixing or over working the product. Allow the paint to rest a bit. The cause also could be that not enough paint has been applied to the surface. 92 How do you Glaze? Glazing Gel can be used when glazing. Our method is mix glaze with color until the desired transparency is chieved. Then load the brush very sparingly with the color or mixture to be used as a glaze. This allows the luxury of using any color as a glazing color. Solid paint may be added where additional opacity is needed.

Can you mix with other oils? Any product containing oils or any other chemical should be avoided to minimize chemical reactions. Edges may be cleaned with a clean brush moistened with Genesis thinner. Wipe off any excess thinner from the surface. Fingerprints and paint smudges can be removed in the same way or you may choose to erase them with a product called PlastiTak. Its primary use is to adhere posters to walls, etc and may be found in the school supply or office department of most stores. Mona Lisa brand paint thinner is another option.

How do you clean up afterwards? Brushes do not need to be cleaned between painting sessions. When you feel it necessary to clean brushes there are several products that are efficient. We recommend soap-based products, such as Dawn Dishwashing Detergent. The only brush cleaner we use is Mona Lisa Paint Thinner as it is odorless and totally non-toxic..

What type of Varnish is best? Spray products should not be used over or under the heat-set oils. We have used Final Coat brush on varnish with success. The first application may separate or "bead". Ignore this as subsequent coats will fill in as the varnish is self leveling.

View Free Usage Video on our web site at www.kingslan.com