Relating Food Engineering to Cooking and Gastronomy Jos´e Miguel Aguilera

Abstract: Modern consumers are increasingly eating meals away from home and are concerned about food quality, taste, and health aspects. Food engineering (FE) has traditionally been associated with the industrial processing of foods; however, most underlying phenomena related to FE also take place in the kitchen during meal preparation. Although chemists have positively interacted with acclaimed chefs and physicists have used foods as materials to demonstrate some of their theories, this has not been always the case with food engineers. This review addresses areas that may broaden the vision of FE by interfacing with cooking and gastronomy. Examples are presented where food materials science may shed light on otherwise empirical gastronomic formulations and cooking techniques. A review of contributions in modeling of food processing reveals that they can also be adapted to events going on in pots and ovens, and that results can be made available in simple terms to cooks. Industrial technologies, traditional and emerging, may be adapted to expand the collection of culinary transformations, while novel equipment, digital technologies, and laboratory instruments are equipping the 21st-century kitchens. FE should become a part of food innovation and entrepreneurship now being led by chefs. Finally, it is suggested that food engineers become integrated into gastronomy’s concerns about safety, sustainability, nutrition, and a better food use. Keywords: cooking, food engineering, food materials science, food processing, innovation

Introduction Tepper Paley, 2015; USDA-ERS, 2016). This major shift in human About 2 million years ago, the discovery and control of fire led to alimentation has brought a concern that away-from-home foods cooking (Wrangham & Carmody, 2010). This marked a transition are more calorie-dense, have more salt, sugar, and fat, and provide not only cultural, emotional, and social but also technological: the fewer fruits and vegetables than recommended for consumers by beginning of the processing of foods. Much later, with the onset national nutrition authorities (Smith, Ng, & Popkin, 2013). of agriculture (ca. 10000 B.C.), came the need to preserve seasonal A close relation between science and cooking developed in the foods after harvest by sun drying and natural fermentations. By the 19th century with the contributions of prestigious scientists such turn of the second millennium and later in the 16th century, the as Justus Liebig and Benjamin Thompson (Count Rumford) to cornucopia of European foods was enriched with foods from help feed the poor. Anecdotally, in the early 1900s, a German sci- the Orient and the “New World”, respectively (Fellows, 2009). entist published a book encouraging housewives to learn and use In the meantime, regional cuisines and artisanal food technologies chemistry in order to improve their cooking (Abel, 1905). The developed without a sound and supporting scientific background. word restaurant dates back to the 1760s, when a Parisian merchant The past century witnessed the development of food science, the started to supply “restorative broths” or restaurants, and now the establishment of a food processing industry and supermarkets, the term applies to an establishment where meals are served at certain spread of restaurants and food outlets, and a massive international- times, either from a set menu or a la carte. The term gastron- ization of food trade and tastes. In the last 30 y or so, science-based omy, or the art of selecting, preparing, serving, and enjoying fine cuisine came onto the scene and with it some chefs who became food, was accepted by the Academie Francaise in 1835 and became major innovators in the food business (Myhrvold, Young, & Bilet, synonymous with “cuisine” or ways in which foods are tradition- 2011). As shown in Figure 1, in 2015, Americans for the first time ally cooked and consumed within a region or country (Courtine, started to spend more dollars for meals cooked away from home 1998). At the end of the 20th century, the concept of molecu- (for example, in fast-food outlets, cafeterias, and restaurants) than lar gastronomy emerged as the application of scientific principles in food purchases at grocery stores, consolidating a trend in ali- to unveil secrets and explore new possibilities for the culinary mentation observed for several decades (Anderson-Maples, 2015; arts (Barham et al., 2010; Brenner & Sorensen, 2015; Caporaso & Formisano, 2016; This, 2006). A number of fancy restaurants started using new ingredients, technologies, and devices, most CRF3-2018-0031 Submitted 2/16/2018, Accepted 3/29/2018. Author Aguilera of which had been standard in the food processing industry or is with the Dept. of Chemical and Bioprocess Engineering, Univ. Catolica´ de Chile, scientific laboratories. Some restaurants adopting the principles Santiago, Chile. Direct inquiries to author Aguilera (E-mail: [email protected]). of molecular cooking became top in the world, although in 2006

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the world of cooking and gastronomy, and to suggest future areas of interactions with these fields. Due to the extension of the sub- ject, this review article deals mainly with chefs and gastronomy of full-service restaurants where a broad selection of high-quality food is served at the table.

Engineering, Physics, and Foods As mentioned before, FE is the application of food sciences to develop industrial production, packaging, and distribution of manufactured foods (Barbosa-Canovas´ & Juliano, 2005). FE has pioneered in applying the principles of chemical engineering (for example, mass and energy balances, unit operations, transport phenomena, chemical reaction kinetics, and so on) to structured materials of biological origin (Aguilera & Stanley, 1999; Gekas, 1992). Recently, it has been suggested that FE should broaden its spectrum of applications to include also gastronomic foods Figure 1–Evolution of food sales at retail grocery stores and in places for (Niranjan, 2016). Food materials science became established as a eating out of home in the United States. Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census (2017a, b). Note that from 2015, people have been spending more dollars subdiscipline within FE some 40 y ago, and the enormous body of in food prepared away from home than in supermarkets and food stores. knowledge and instrumentation available in materials science was used to understand processes and physical transformations taking place in food products at multidimensional time and length scales three conspicuous “molecular” chefs made a strong renouncement from a more fundamental viewpoint (Aguilera & Lillford, 2008; of the concept as it did not reflect their cooking styles (Adria, Blu- Bhandari & Roos, 2012; McClements, 2007). Food materials sci- menthal, Keller, & McGee, 2006). But the move towards bringing entists introduced the concept of food matrix that establishes that more science into kitchens continues. Presently, novel curricula food components are distributed within complex microstructures for four-year bachelor´s studies in culinary arts include courses in laid down by nature or imparted during processing. The break- food science and ingredient fabrication and functionality, and even down of this food matrix is responsible for several properties of envision partnerships with departments of science and engineer- foods such as texture and flavor release during mastication as well ing (Cheng, Ogbeide, & Hamouz, 2011; CIA, 2017; Rodgers, as the liberation of nutrients during digestion (Aguilera & Lillford, 2009). 2008; Linford & Taylor, 2006; Turgeon & Rioux, 2011). It was not until the 1950s that food engineering (FE) emerged The book Experimental Cookery: From the Chemical and Physi- in academia as a disciplinary field related to food manufacturing cal Standpoint by Belle Lowe published in the 1930s introduced (Heldman & Lund, 2011). Its main focus has been “to advance the concepts of science in home economics courses in the United implementation of efficient industrial processing in the transfor- States (Lowe, 1932). However, one of the first signs that scien- mation of raw materials of biological origin into edible forms tific analysis was getting into the kitchens was the publication in which include packaging, storage and distribution” (Barbosa- 1984 of the book On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Canovas´ & Juliano, 2005). After its inception, FE rapidly expanded Kitchen by Harold McGee (McGee, 2004), which has become a to serve a manufacturing industry keen on increasing throughput mandatory reference for cooks. The notion of molecular gastron- and reducing costs (Aguilera, 2018). Evidently, the strong back- omy introduced in the late 1990s provided a sound background on ground in engineering (chemical and agricultural) of academicians the chemistry, physical chemistry, and sensory aspects hidden in and the prevalence of a vital food processing industry facilitated kitchen preparations, but it fell short of recognizing the engineer- an approach closer to manufacturing processes rather than to an ing behind cooking (Aguilera, 2017). The interest of physicists incipient food service industry and the culinary arts. In the 1980s, on phenomena occurring during cooking was certainly moti- with the advent of the consumer as the pivot of the food chain, the vated by the provocative lecture “The Physicist in the Kitchen”of focus changed from efficient processes to safe products that con- Oxford’s professor Nicholas Kurti to fellows of the Royal Society veyed pleasure, health, and convenience (Bruin & Jongen, 2003). (Kurti, 1969). Since that time, physicists found in foods a familiar A search in the Food Science and Technology Abstracts database (ac- material to demonstrate and teach their science, and jointly with cessed on December 30, 2017) of refereed scientific publications food technologists have proposed that the kitchen may be regarded containing the words cooking, engineering, and/or gastronomy as a laboratory (Donald, 2004; Swinbank & Parker, 2004; Vega, gave the following numbers of articles: cooking = 20,381; cook- Ubbink, & van der Linden, 2012; Vilgis, 2015). Recently, the term ing + engineering = 1,708; all three words = 3. For the author gastrophysics has been suggested for the application of theoretical (a food engineer), it was hard to find a connection of these three and experimental biophysics and soft matter physics to the study of papers between engineering sciences, cooking, and gastronomy. cooking and gastronomy (Mouritsen, 2012; Vilgis, 2013). Aguil- This outcome suggests that the three above-mentioned fields have era (2017) proposed the expression gastronomic engineering to refer not been explicitly connected or interrelated, at least in the sci- to the study of culinary processes using the analytical concepts and entific research literature. The aim of this review is to investigate tools of FE and food materials science. Table 1 presents some key whether interfaces between FE, cooking, and gastronomy have topics related to foods and cooking that have been addressed by existed in the past and if so, to what extent and which have made food physicists and engineers. They cover a wide spectrum of sub- specific impacts. Addressing this issue is quite timely as eating jects, some curious ones as the jumping and sound of popping corn habits are changing rapidly, new food service technologies appear and the insulating effect of meringue in a flaming Baked Alaska at a fast pace, and chefs are becoming important innovators. Thus, dessert to the application of heat transfer equations to cooking and another objective is to raise the awareness of food engineers about baking.

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Table 1–Engineering and physics related to cooking and some gastronomic Microwave heating is a form of volumetric heating, namely, the products. direct conversion of an external energy source (microwaves) to Topic References heat inside a moist product, important in cooking and warming- up foods (Parker & Vollmer, 2004). Ohmic heating, caused by the Materials science and engineering in Aguilera (2012) some culinary products passage of an electrical current through a product, is slowly finding Principles of heat and mass transfer as Barham (2013), Flick (2014), its way into the culinary scene (Jittanit et al., 2017; Shiby Varghese, applied to cooking and baking Zhou and Therdthai (2008) Pandey, Radhakrishna, & Bawa, 2014). Induction cooking relies Heat insulation in baked Alaska Burbidge (2012); Parker (2004) Diffusion of salt in cheese, ham, and fish. Chiralt et al. (2001) on the principle that the magnetic field produced in a cookpot Physics in the kitchen: creation and Barham (2013), Barham (2001), generates eddy electrical currents in a ferromagnetic cookware that interpretation of recipes Cassi (2004) dissipate as heat in its bottom and sides. This heating mechanism Capillary physics during soaking of Fisher (1999) biscuits provides improved thermal efficiency compared to gas and elec- Heating, toasting, and cooking with Parker and Vollmer (2004) trical stoves, and a faster, more precise cooking (Sweeney, Dols, microwaves Fortenbery, & Sharp, 2014). Ice cream structure and control of ice Barham (2013), Goff and Vega crystal size (2007) Evidently, engineering studies on heat transfer during food pro- Destabilization of food emulsions Dickinson (2006), Mueth, Crocker, cessing abound, but only a few pertain specifically to cooking. Esipov, and Grier (1996) Predictions of doneness of potatoes (that is, to complete starch Understanding rubber elasticity in gluten Singh and MacRitchie (2001) dough gelatinization) of different sizes during cooking in boiling wa- Whipped egg whites as a culinary Licciardello, Frisulo, Laverse, ter were based on Fourier’s equation for conduction heat transfer template Muratore, and del Nobile (2012), Vega and Sanghvi (Derbyshire & Owen, 1988). Basic concepts and simple equations (2012) for heat transfer and their relation to cooking are found in Barham Effect of critical variables during coffee Crease (2016), King (2008) (2001), while a review of the engineering aspects of heat transfer brewing Physics and mechanisms of expansion of Virot and Ponomarenko (2015), during baking can be found in Marcotte (2007). A synthetic ef- popcorn Gokmen¨ (2004); Hunt (1991) fort to relate basic engineering principles and equations to actual Expansion of starchy snacks van der Sman and Broeze (2014) cooking situations is that of Flick (2014), who analyzed the cook- Structural changes during cooking of Bernin et al. (2014) pasta ing in water of pasta and potatoes, steam cooking of potatoes, and Movement of bubbles in champagne and Liger-Belair (2015), Benilov, the baking of a sponge cake. beer Cummins, and Lee (2013) Although it may sound strange to cooks, refrigeration and freez- ing are also in the realm of heat transfer. Both processes are quite important in safe and quality cooking since improper cooling practices were responsible for more than 500 foodborne illness Process Engineering in the Kitchen outbreaks in U.S. restaurants between 1998 and 2008 (Schaffner Most FE processes in the industry are based on fundamentals et al., 2015). It has long been known that the freezing method and of heat, mass, and momentum transfer. This section aims at re- the freezer storage temperature influence the quality of cellular lating these engineering concepts to culinary processes and their foods such as meat, fish, fruits, and vegetables (Singh & Wang, particular nomenclature, as well as presenting examples of food op- 1977). Thawing loss (dripping, exudation), texture, and color are erations in the kitchen. The premise is that the body of knowledge affected by structural damage caused by slow freezing rates and in process engineering could be applied in food service operations, formation of large ice crystals (Aguilera & Stanley, 1999). used to explain some engineering phenomena inside foods, and eventually to scale down operations to the culinary level (Trystam, Mass transfer 2013). The flow of molecules under a concentration gradient or molec- ular diffusion is important in dehydration, extraction, impregna- Heat transfer tion, and aroma perception, among others (Aguilera & Stanley, Heat transfer is a major subject of FE as the food industry makes 1999; Cussler, 1997; Linford & Taylor, 2006). Srikiatden and extensive use of heating/cooling to pasteurize, commercially ster- Roberts (2007) presented a complete review of the main mecha- ilize, refrigerate, dry, and freeze foods. Heat transfer takes place nisms and equations underlying mass transfer in foods, specifically predominantly by 3 main mechanisms: conduction, convection, those related to moisture movement. Cooks are not much aware and radiation (Singh & Heldman, 2013). In the kitchen, how- of the concepts of diffusion and mass transfer, although they are ever, cooking methods involving heating are named depending fundamental in salting, brining, smoking, maceration (exposing on the heat transfer medium and its temperature: air (roasting, fruits pieces to sugar), marinating (soaking meat or fish in a sea- baking), hot water (boiling, simmering, braising), hot oil or fat soned acidic liquid), and so on. Diffusion is also important in (sauteing,´ frying, confiting), direct fire (grilling, barbecuing), and drying or whenever moisture gradients exist within a food, for steam (steaming) (Crosby, 2012; Myhrvold et al., 2011). Often, example, in freshly baked bread and French fries removed from a predominant external heating mode is accompanied by a sec- the fryer. Mass transfer by osmosis is important in osmotic de- ondary mechanism. For example, in grilling (cooking foods on a hydration of fruits and vegetables and in solute impregnation, as grate over open fire or glowing charcoal), heat transfer is primar- occurs in candied fruits and salted fish and meats. Food engineers ily through thermal radiation but some conduction heating occurs have contributed to explain the mass transfer phenomena taking between the wires or rods in the grill (that also sets marks on the place in flavor release from food matrices in the oral cavity, and pieces). In solid food pieces, the heat supplied to the surface is the migration of tastants and aromas to receptors in the mouth and transferred to the interior through conduction. Combi ovens that nose, respectively (Voilley & Etievant,´ 2006). combine the benefits of steaming with the advantages of convec- Molecules may also move in bulk by a pressure-driven flow as tion heating have found many applications in catering and food is the case of a solution during vacuum impregnation and the service. capillary suction in the rehydration of porous solids (Chiralt et al.,

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2001; Saguy, Marabi, & Wallach, 2005). They may also separate as at the Restaurant Troisgros (3 stars Michelin, Roanne, France) an aqueous phase by syneresis due to the contraction of a gel matrix to put both things together in 1974. He discovered that when (for example, in yoghurt). A swarm of gas molecules migrate by a foie gras was wrapped in plastic film and cooked at a temperature density difference, as do bubbles of carbon dioxide ascending in a below 100 °C, it kept its original appearance and did not lose glass of champagne (Liger-Belair, 2015). too much fat (Keller, 2008). Sous-vide cooking involves placing a food in a flexible pouch, sealing under vacuum, and exposing it Momentum transfer for several hours to a constant temperature in a water bath usually Momentum transfer takes place in processes where forces act held between 55 and 80 °C. In meat cooking, the benefit of low- on a material that responds in various ways: flowing, breaking, temperature cooking is that most juices of the meat are retained, heating, and so on. Size reduction, emulsification, and mixing are while the flavor and tenderness are enhanced (Rodgers & Young, based on momentum transfer allowing food ingredients to become 2008). Today, sous-vide cooking is practiced in several restau- part of dispersed systems (Brennan, 2006; Levine & Boehmer, rants for cooking many foods and is also being adopted in home 1997; Niranjan, 2005). Most engineering analyses of these and kitchens using low-cost, portable clip-on immersion circulators. other mixing operations are centered on the power requirements However, restaurateurs and amateur cooks must acknowledge that and the degree of uniformity achieved after processing (McCabe, undercooked food represents a possible health risk and very strict Smith, & Harriot, 1985). However, mixing in cooking provides rules must be followed regarding time and temperatures of cook- foods with unique rheological properties as is the case of creamy ing (as well as refrigeration conditions after cooking). Cook-chill emulsions and viscoelastic doughs in baked products (Dickinson, (and cook-frozen) meals are increasingly being prepared by cater- 2006; Schiedt, Baumann, Conde-Petit, & Vilgis, 2013). ers and food retailers due to their convenience and eating quality. Operations in the kitchen involving momentum transfer take Again, the combination of mild heat treatment, rapid chilling many names: whipping, kneading, cutting, slicing, grinding, (to ࣘ5 °C), and packaging should ensure the product’s safety dur- expressing (juices), blending, emulsifying, folding, and so on. ing distribution and storage at home (Rodgers, 2004). (Thomas, Norman, & Katsigris, 2014). Most of them aim at cre- ating dispersed systems of solids, liquids, and/or gases with unique Spherification properties, which are known as foams, doughs, creams, sauces, The chemistry and technology of food gels have been avail- juices, gels, and so on (van der Sman & van der Goot, 2009). able for quite some time, and gelation used in food materials Food technologists have gained a basic understanding of the science to “structure” high amounts of water (Harris, 1990; Her- mechanisms of size reduction, flow of complex liquid foods, and mansson, 2008). A unique application of gelation in gastronomy stabilization of emulsions and foams at many length scales, and have came in 2003 when Adria´s elBulli restaurant used “spherifica- developed methodologies to evaluate quantitatively their proper- tion” to make fruit caviars, liquid ravioli, false gnocchi, and so on ties and functionalities (Barbosa-Canovas,´ Ortega-Rivas, Juliano, (Fu et al., 2014). Basically, there are 2 kinds of spherifications. In & Yan, 2006; Dickinson, 2015; Rao, 2007). All this knowledge direct spherification, a liquid containing alginate is dispensed with and these skills may be used by dedicated cooks to appraise the a submerged syringe (for example, as droplets or threads) into a role of ingredients in formulations as well as to prepare novel food bath with a calcium solution (usually calcium chloride) where it structures. gels into a semisolid structure (Lee & Rogers, 2012). In reverse spherification, a liquid already containing calcium (for example, Unit Operations in the Kitchen yogurt) or having added calcium is carefully exposed (for example, Processes in FE are organized into different unit operations with a spoon) to an alginate bath, so a thin gel membrane is formed involving major physical and/or chemical changes and taking place on the surface and the center remains liquid, resembling the struc- more or less sequentially. In the kitchen of a fine dining restaurant ture of egg yolk. Although spherification is today a well-practiced (for example, one with dedicated meal courses, high-quality food, culinary technique in many restaurants, it requires control of sev- lavish ambiance, and expensive), different parts of the dish are eral variables such as pH, the calcium content (and the unpleasant assigned and prepared by the line chefs, and then assembled and taste of calcium chloride), and the sinking properties of droplets finished by the expediter. In recent decades, some avant-garde chefs (Vega & Castells, 2012). introduced novel processes and equipment to prepare their own ingredients and refine the culinary techniques in their kitchens Extraction (Loss & Bouzari, 2016). Adams (2011) mentioned the many pieces Solid–liquid extraction is a technology vastly used by the of laboratory and pilot plant equipment he saw in Myhrvold’s “The food industry to isolate major food ingredients (for exam- Cooking Lab”: rotary evaporators, immersion circulators, rotor- ple, sugar, vegetable oils) as well as to remove specific solutes stator homogenizers, an ultra-high-pressure homogenizer, as well (Tzia & Liakadis, 2003). The colorant and flavoring industry pro- as a freeze-dryer and spray-dryer, and so on. The implementation duces many natural extracts from parts of plants and animal tissues, of some industrial technologies in the kitchen has had an impact barks, crustaceans, insects, and even microorganisms. In culinary on the quality and novelty of dishes as well as in consumers’ practice, the most common way of extraction is steeping a material perceptions about sound alimentation and healthy meals (Rodgers in a liquid medium. Oleoresins are produced by contacting a plant & Young, 2008). This section deals with technologies that have material (usually spices) with an organic solvent to yield a viscous been recently adopted by chefs and some that may find application extract that retains most of the flavoring characteristics. Enfleurage in the future. is a process for extracting aromas from plants and other materials by direct contact with a purified animal or vegetable fat. Although Sous-vide cooking it is rarely used by the food industry, chefs have utilized this tech- Controlling temperature in water baths has been a standard prac- nique (for example, using butter or egg yolks) to extract unique tice for decades in life science laboratories, and vacuum-packaging flavors from aromatic plants and even old books! Groenewold of meat cuts goes back to the 1960s. Yet, it took a chef working and Marien (2012) explain the fundamentals of partitioning of

r 1024 ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety Vol.17,2018 C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Relating food engineering to cooking and gastronomy . . . aromatic molecules into aqueous and organic phases. Thus, ex- into a dehydrated state that maintains most of the shape, structure, posing almost any food to an emulsion of oil and water and then color, and flavor of the original material. Freeze-dried foods re- separating both immiscible liquid layers by density (for example, in hydrate quickly or may remain dry providing a crispy texture. a separation funnel or by centrifugation) will give distinct fragrant However, FD is a complex technology that requires comprehen- (and possibly colored) phases from the same material (This, 2006, sion of several physicochemical, as well as engineering phenomena pp. 292–293). Recently, it has been proposed to extract, separate, to fully derive its major advantages (King, 1971). A sort of “natu- and purify nutrients and flavors from food materials, and make ral” FD of frozen potatoes was already practiced by ancient Inkas them shelf-stable to be used directly as ingredients in a “note-by- in the highlands of Peru to produce chuno˜ (black dried potatoes) note” cooking (This, 2014). or tunta (white dried potatoes) that were later ground into a flour (Penarrieta,˜ Alvarado, Bravo, & Bergenstahl,˚ 2012). The food in- Distillation dustry started commercial FD some 50 years ago, and it became Distillation is the workhorse among unit operations in a chem- a popular technology when NASA used it to prepare astronauts’ ical industry interested in producing very pure liquids and gases foods (for example, ice cream). Applications of FD for several food (that is, over 99% purity) to be sold as commodities. In the food raw materials are reported in the food technology literature (Loss & industry, distillation is mainly confined to the production of spir- Bouzari, 2016; Shishehgarha, Makhlouf, & Ratti, 2002; Valentina its, some concentrated volatile flavorings, and the deodorization et al., 2016). It is reported that chefs in restaurants are already of fats and oils. Chefs prepare aromatic extracts called essential using small-scale FD equipment in their kitchens to freeze-dry oils from many sources (leaves, flowers, wood, and so on) to im- yogurt and sauces (Carvalho, Perez-Palacios, & Ruiz-Carrascal, part flavors to their dishes. In steam distillation, steam percolates 2017; Rodgers & Young, 2008). through a bed of material vaporizing the volatile components at a lower temperature than their normal boiling point. The essential Cryocooking oil/steam mixture is condensed into an immiscible 2-phase sys- Cryogenic liquids, such as liquid nitrogen (LN2) and liquid tem consisting of the organic compounds and the water-soluble carbon dioxide (LCO2), have been used industrially to produce molecules, respectively. Gravity settling separates the essential oil individually quick-frozen (IQF) food pieces and small fruits and from the aqueous phase (Starmans & Nijhuis, 1996). Chefs are us- vegetables. When LN2 (boiling point of −196 °C) is sprayed onto ing rotary evaporators to distill many materials under vacuum and a food product or a food piece is immersed in it, freezing proceeds low heat using a spinning flask containing a solid and a solvent, rapidly to a very low final temperature driven by a high surface usually water (Loss & Bouzari, 2016; Ruiz, Calvarro, Sanchez, & heat transfer coefficient and a large-temperature gradient. LN2 Roldan,´ 2013). Yet to be explored is reflux distillation that would was initially used in gastronomy to prepare frozen desserts and allow having an almost pure volatile and odoriferous component now is used for the “cryogenic cooking” of many foods (Wayt in sufficient quantities (McCabe et al., 1985). Gibbs & Myhrvold, 2011). Pouring liquid nitrogen directly into a cream mix under vigorous agitation causes the formation of tiny Template technology ice crystals of sizes smaller than 20 μm, giving the ice cream a Highly porous sponges of biodegradable polymers are frequently smooth and velvety texture that fascinates modern chefs (Cassi, utilized in tissue engineering and medical technology as templates 2004). Safety precautions must be followed when handling LN2 for tissue regeneration (O’Brien, 2011). A good gastronomic ex- during kitchen applications. ample of the use of a template are souffles,´ where the stable foam of Another interesting culinary application of LN2 derives from whipped egg whites holds the added savory or sweet mixtures. In the extreme brittleness of deep-frozen materials. Individual juice the oven, the egg proteins in the lamellae of the foam denature and sacs can be prepared by freezing citrus slices (cuticles removed) to set into a rigid structure supporting the added mixture (Barham, less than −130 °C and then shattering them with a hard object. 2001; Vega & Sanghvi, 2012). Another example of template or These little sacs may be added to ice cream or used to decorate scaffolding is the use of gelatin in aerated desserts like bavarois. desserts (Cassi & Bocchia, 2005). Cryogenic grinding of frozen Gelatin is soluble in water at a temperature above 36 °C and forms brittle material produces finer particles and lower volatilization of a gel if cooled to a lower temperature. A warm gelatin solution aroma compounds than conventional milling, and it has been used can be folded into a whipped cream mix, and upon cooling to advantageously to grind various spices (Balasubramanian, Gupta, room temperature, the gelatin molecules form a gel structure giv- & Singh, 2012). ing a soft rigidity to the foam (Hirst, 2013, p. 114). Ice templating has been used in Japan to produce kori-tofu, a fibrous type of Cryoconcentration (cold reduction) soybean curd. Elongated ice crystals, produced by slow freezing, Reduction by boiling is the process used in gastronomy to con- act as templates, while the soy protein solution becomes concen- centrate a broth of meat, bones, vegetables, and so on, and to trated into a dense network. Melting or solvent extraction of ice intensify its flavors via products caused by the Maillard reaction leads to a fibrous gel structure with a chewy texture (Jantawat & (Snitkjaer, Frøst, Skibsted, & Risbo, 2010). Cryoconcentration (or Rojanakorn, 1996). The use of porous gels as templates or scaf- freeze concentration), on the other hand, involves lowering the folds, and possible applications in foods, has been recently reviewed temperature of a juice or broth until water is partially frozen as ice by Cuadros and Aguilera (2015). leaving behind a concentrated solution (Sanchez,´ Ruiz, Auleda, Hernandez,´ & Raventos,´ 2009). Cryoconcentration has been fa- Freeze-drying miliar to winemakers since ice wine is produced by freezing the Freeze-drying (FD) or lyophilization involves the removal of grapes to get a concentrated juice (Marx & Haumont, 2016). Chef water as vapor from a frozen product (that is, sublimation of ice) Joel Robuchon was the first to present in his restaurant a “nat- while being held under high vacuum. Thus, dehydration occurs in urally” cryoconcentrated tomato juice full of the original flavor the absence of liquid water. FD is an ideal drying process to con- (Gogois, 2013). The advantage of the freeze-concentration tech- vert high-moisture foods (for example, fruits and vegetables, meat) nique is that the nutritional quality, flavor, and color of the product

r C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol.17,2018 ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety 1025 Relating food engineering to cooking and gastronomy . . . are basically unchanged due to the low temperatures used in the porous as steam released from the dough cannot escape through process, which makes it an interesting technology to concentrate the impermeable fatty layers (Filloux, 2008). Edible films are used fruit juices while preserving the natural flavor and color. In the commercially as a barrier to moisture and gases in fruits and nuts, case of cryoconcentration of pomegranate juice, the solids content to reduce fat uptake during frying and to prevent interlayer mois- is almost doubled to around 35%, although the efficiency of the ture and juice migration in sandwiches, pizzas, pies, and ready- process (for example, % of solids recovered) may be only around to-eat foods (Montero Garcia, Gomez-Guill´ en,´ Lopez-Caballero,´ 30% to 50% (Khajehei, Niakousari, Eskandari, & Sarshar, 2015). & Barbosa-Canovas,´ 2017). Edible films can be fabricated from While the fundamental aspects of cryoconcentration are suitably food proteins, hydrocolloids, starches, and/or lipids, and they are resolved, industrial applications are hindered by low equipment easily made in the kitchen by casting and solvent evaporation, performance and the reduced efficiency of recovery, which are not with potential applications in designed gourmet foods. One early major concerns at the restaurant scale (Aider & de Halleux, 2009). application of edible films in a restaurant was the printed menu presented by chef Homaru Cantu in Chicago’s Moto restaurant Phase separation back in 2005 (Aguilera, 2013). Since Adria’s` transparent raviolis, Solid–liquid separation and liquid clarification by physical meth- edible films are now finding several applications in gastronomy ods are well-studied unit operations in the chemical and food in- from dissolving wrappers for mini-salads and flowers to “artificial dustries. Conventional particle separation methods include filtra- skins” that cover white portions of a large fish (Arboleya et al., tion, centrifugation, and membrane technologies (McCabe et al., 2008). 1985; Pouliot, Conway, & Leclerc, 2014; Svarovsky, 1981). In the Digital additive manufacturing is a technology that has the po- kitchen, cooks normally use a fine-mesh strainer or a muslin cloth tential to deliver customized food products with different de- to separate a clear liquid from its mother mixture. Filtration to a signs (Wegrzyn, Golding, & Archer, 2012). 3D printing refers very clear broth (consomme´) may be achieved by freezing a stock in to rapid prototyping based on digitally controlled depositing liq- the presence of added gelatin followed by separation of a particle- uid or powder materials, stacking them in layers and possibly laden gelatin gel (Lahne & Schmidt, 2010). It is reported that the heating or cooling the composite in the same device (van der Spanish chef Eneko Atxa in 2006 was the first to centrifuge a Linden, 2015; Zoran & Coelho, 2011). Commercial food printers meat stock separating the oily layer (on top) from particles (bot- are available for applications in the confectionery industry, par- tom) and leaving a transparent broth in between (Mans, 2010). A ticularly for chocolate printing (Izdebska & Zołek-Tryznowska, perfectly clarified tomato soup (gazpacho) obtained by membrane 2016). Complex food structures may be consistently produced filtration received the 2005 Technological Award at a major gastro- from carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids using several 3D printing nomic meeting in Madrid (Garc´ıa-Segovia et al., 2014). Given the techniques (Godoi, Prakash, & Bhandari, 2016). Printing tech- low volumes of liquid suspensions handled by restaurants and the nology has already reached a few high-end restaurants (Koenig, ample availability of separation equipment for laboratory prepara- 2016). With respect to laser technology, a computer-controlled tions, it is quite likely that novel clarification techniques will be laser cutter guided by video image-processing software can cook increasingly adopted for culinary use. selected parts of a food or engrave unique designed patterns and identifiers on surface (Schoning,¨ Rogers, & Kruger,¨ 2012). Encapsulation Cooks and food engineers alike should be alert to future develop- Encapsulation is a well-developed technology in the food fla- ments and concerns (for example, food safety) in the area of food voring industry to provide shelf-life protection and to facilitate microprocessing. delivery of molecules that are delicate and volatile. A flavor may be encapsulated in the hollow core of a capsule or become trapped Other Industrial Technologies within its matrix (Uhlemann, Schleifenbaum, & Bertram, 2002). Innovative chefs have been enthusiastic adopters of equipment The most common encapsulation technologies are spray-drying and technologies that provide superior-quality meals or astounding and coacervation, and given the availability of small-size spray dri- dishes. The cost structure and small-operation scale of restaurants ers and knowledge on the subject, chefs should soon be preparing allows them to use technologies and equipment that would not their own encapsulated flavors and ingredients. Garc´ıa-Segovia, be economically attractive for industry. On the supply side, there Barreto-Palacios, Breton,´ and Mart´ınez-Monzo´ (2011) microen- are several novel or emerging technologies that may be used ad- capsulated different essential oils by inclusion in β-cyclodextrin vantageously to achieve some of the important goals of modern molecules, and the ingredients were used later by a professional cuisine: natural/fresh taste, minimal processing, microbiological chef to flavor different dishes. On the anecdotic side, tasting menus safety, and unique dish designs. High-pressure processing (HPP) of some modern chefs use Pop RocksTM in dishes, desserts, and induces effects similar to heating (microbial inactivation, denatu- cocktails, exploiting the explosive and noisy sensation of the gas ration of proteins, gelatinization of starches, gel formation, and so trapped under pressure in a glassy sugar matrix (Aguilera, 2013). on), but it is a low-temperature process. It has been recommended to induce special gel structures and to produce starches with Thin-layer technologies unique characteristics (Barham et al., 2010; Rastogi, Raghavarao, Many salty (for example, lasagna, sandwiches, pizzas) and sweet Balasubramaniam, Niranjan, & Knorr, 2007). HPP is used at an products (for example, layer cakes, wafer cookies) exploit the sen- industrial scale to impart microbiological safety to meat prod- sory advantages of composite structures that combine layers with ucts, seafood (oysters), guacamole, and ready-to-eat meals, and to different textures, flavors, and colors (Marx & Haumont, 2016). increase the shelf life of fruit juices while maintaining their nat- However, to date culinary technologies lack the control of layering ural sensory quality (Knorr et al., 2011). Application of pulsed below a thickness of around 100 μm. Puff pastry is an artisanal case electric fields enhances mass transfer in expression, impregnation, of thin-layer manufacturing in gastronomy. It starts by interspers- and extraction, and may be a pretreatment to speed up cooking ing thin layers of dough and fat and folding-over the sheets many while keeping the natural freshness of foods (Blahovec, Vorobiev, times. During baking, the whole structure gets inflated and highly & Lebovka, 2017). Supercritical fluid (SCF) processing allows the

r 1026 ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety Vol.17,2018 C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Relating food engineering to cooking and gastronomy . . . selective extraction and fractionation of flavorings, lipids, essential computer vision or coupling image acquisition devices and im- oils, and so on, using CO2 as a solvent (GRAS status) at high pres- age analysis by algorithms and software (simulating the human sures (over 7.4 MPa). SCF extraction presents the advantage over vision–brain processing) is well developed in academia and finds organic solvents of being environmentally benign, nonflammable, applications in the food industry (Briones & Aguilera, 2005; Sun, and inexpensive (King, 2014). Membrane emulsification pro- 2012). Computer vision has been used for quality assessment of duces singly formed droplets of similar sizes and uniform size cooked foods such as pizzas, potato chips, and corn tortillas (Mery distribution that may become particulate structures (gel beads, et al., 2010; Pedreschi, Mery, Mendoza, & Aguilera, 2004; Sun, capsules, and so on) or nonspherical entities, and are used to tailor 2000). More advanced artificial intelligence methods allow the the rheological behavior of creams and sauces (Spyropoulos, Lloyd, design and manipulation of the esthetics and 2D patterns of ingre- Hancocks, & Pawlik, 2014). Ultra-high-pressure homogenization dients in dishes and even relating pictures of a dish with its most (for example, up to 400 MPa) of liquids such as milk analogs and probable recipe (Mizrahi et al., 2016; Reynolds, 2017). fruit juices provides “fresh-like” products with prolonged shelf- life, and improve the functionality of food emulsions (Zamora & Guamis, 2015). Mention has to be made up of extrusion-cooking, Materials Science and Cooking which is not a “novel” technology for the food industry but has Chemical modifications are quite important in cooking, partic- not been fully exploited by cooks. The ample variety of shapes, ularly those imparted by the Maillard reaction (color and flavors), textures, and physical properties imparted to proteins and starches caramelization, the action of enzymes, and those occurring during by extrusion-cooking (and already available in many commercial fermentations (Coultrate, 2002; McGee, 2004). However, cooking products) should be a source of inspiration for chefs. also involves physical and structural changes at different length and Reducing foods to controlled sizes and shapes is a time- time scales that are in the realm of food materials science. Protein consuming, labor-intensive preparation stage in the kitchen. Pro- denaturation, starch gelatinization, and fat crystallization are prob- fessionals use several terms to refer to these operations: cut, chop ably the most important microstructural transformations experi- (into pieces), dice (into cubes), Julienne (as strips), meat carving, enced by these major classes of food components during cooking, and so on (Crosby, 2012). Although cutting (shearing) has several while gelation, foam formation, and emulsification are among ba- engineering applications (Atkins, 2009), food engineers have been sic structure-forming processes (Aguilera & Lillford, 2008; Barham more concerned with size reduction of dry solids (milling) than of et al., 2010). This section discusses specific phenomena occurring fresh high-moisture material (Barbosa-Canovas´ et al., 2006). Wa- during cooking under the perspective of food materials science. ter jets, lasers, and ultrasonic cutters are potential alternatives for Table 2 lists aspects relevant to cooking that have already been precise sizing and cutting operations in culinary practice (Becker covered by food technologists and food materials scientists. These & Gray, 1992; Liu, Jia, Xu, & Li, 2015; Mizrahi et al., 2016). scientists have introduced several important concepts to under- stand the physical and structural behavior of foods, including the Measuring in the Kitchen plasticization of foods by water, the glass transition temperature Most culinary creations were never designed in the engineering and state diagrams, the viscoelastic behavior of complex food liq- sense they evolved by successive trial-and-error attempts. Thus, uids and gels, and concepts related to interface phenomena in dis- recipes list the ingredients and their proportions quite accurately, persed systems, among others. Food technologists and microscopy but they describe the culinary procedures in a rather unprecise way experts have expanded the knowledge of food structure (that is, (for example, “stir slowly over medium heat”). Hence, recipes are the spatial arrangement of the structural elements and their in- susceptible to be investigated and made more precise by exper- teractions) utilizing several probing and imaging techniques and iments and measurements that are simple for any food scientist related it to relevant product properties (Heertje, 2014; Morris & (McGee, 2004; Wolke, 2002). Food engineers and chefs may col- Groves, 2013). laborate in experimental kitchens applying the rationality of the scientific method, the rigor of the Materials and Methods section Texture of cooked meats and vegetables of a scientific paper, the measuring capabilities of modern in- Tenderness is a desirable textural attribute imparted to tissue strumentation, and using the predictive potential of mathematical foods by cooking. Plant cells and muscle fibers are bonded together models (Aguilera, 2017). Some test kitchens have already incorpo- by a biopolymeric structure (middle lamellae and connective tissue, rated basic laboratory and measuring equipment such as precision respectively) that becomes harder to dissolve by heating as the balances, graduated glass cylinders and burettes, pH meters, digi- tissue ages (Aguilera, 2013). Cooking of dry legumes solubilizes tal thermometers (with thermocouples), infrared thermometers, a part of the middle lamellae (mostly pectin), so cells of cooked stereo-microscope, colorimeters, refractometers, and so on (Lister legumes slide past each other during mastication, giving a soft & Blumenthal, 2005). Alliances of chefs with research centers or sensation. However, old beans (as well as old asparagus and stems scientists at universities give access to materials science instrumen- of broccoli) remain tough after prolonged cooking and fracture tation such as rheometers, texture analyzers, differential scanning across the cells on biting, possibly due to lignification of the cement calorimeters, and microscopy/imaging equipment. Data gener- binding the cells (Kinyanjui et al., 2015; Stanley & Aguilera, 1985). ated with this advanced equipment correspond to fundamental Collagen is the main component of muscle’s connective tissue and scientific parameters and the challenge is to relate them to sensory the number, strength, and heat resistance of crosslinks in collagen and quality terms used by chefs. increase with the age of the animal (Lepetit, 2008). Cooking Image processing techniques are finding increased applications meat to a tender texture is a delicate balance between slowing in numerous branches of science and technology. Food processing denaturation of myofibrillar proteins (leading to toughening and uses acquisition and processing of data from digital images gener- drip loss) and promoting the solubilization of collagen into gelatin ated by colorimetry, infrared thermography, and structure-imaging (a slow process). This is the basis of sous vide cooking of meats probes such as microscopes, X-ray micro-CT, MRI, ultrasound and the reason of holding them for many hours at around 60 °C imaging, and so on (Morris & Groves, 2013). The technology of (Zielbauer, Franz, Viezens, & Vilgis, 2016).

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Table 2–Materials science approach and examples of applications to culinary products/cooking.

Concept Relevance or applications Selected references Crystallization of sugars Production and stability of confectionery products Miller and Hartel (2015), Hartel, Ergun, and (for example, caramel) and sweet desserts Vogel (2011) Crystallization of fats Tempering of chocolate mass to induce snap, gloss, and Debaste, Kegelaers, Li´egeois, Ben Hamor, storage stability and Halloin (2008), Afoakwa, Paterson, and Fowler (2007) Glass-to-rubber transition Stability and texture (for example, crispness) of low-moisture Vilgis (2015); Tunick et al. (2013) products Ductile-to-brittle Applications in cryogenic grinding of spices and texture Murthy and Bhattacharya (2008), Payne and transition softening of low-moisture foods Labuza (2005), Singh and Goswami (1999) Rubber elasticity Understanding the viscoelastic properties of wheat doughs Schiedt et al. (2013), Lepetit (2008), Singh and connective tissues in meat. and MacRitchie (2001) Polymer viscosity Thickening of sauces and roux (a mixture of fat and flour) Krasnow, Hirson, and Shoemaker (2011), Saha and Bhattacharya (2010) Polymer rheology Flow behavior (consistency) of tomato sauces, dressings, and Bayod, Willers, and Tornberg (2008), Stern, mayonnaise M´ıkova,´ Pokorn´y, and Valentova´ (2007) Melting of starch Expansion of extruded products and popping of grains Gokmen¨ (2004), Hunt (1991) Gelation Spherification of alginate gels in molecular cuisine (faux Fu et al. (2013), Vega and Castells (2012) caviar, gnocchi, and ravioli). Interfacial phenomena Use of surfactants to produce airs (liquid foams) and novel Domene-Dan´es (2013), Cassi (2004) dishes (egg-free gnocchi) Demixing of polymer Relevant in structuring emulsions and mixed gels Mezzenga, Schurtenberger, Burbidge, and solutions Michel (2005), Tolstoguzov (2003) Composites Layering of components to tailor unique sensations in Scholten (2017), Marx and Haumont (2016) products and dishes Phase debonding Effect of debonding of cells (beans) and fibers (meat) on Tornberg (2005), Aguilera and Stanley softening during cooking (1985) Solid foams Control through formulation on microstructure and Licciardello et al. (2012), Corriadini and mechanical properties Peleg (2008) Microstructure Relating multiscale structures to properties of dishes and Vilgis (2013), Aguilera (2012) effect of cooking

Crispy textures of air due to the increase in temperature (This, 2009). How- Crispness is a prominent textural feature associated with mul- ever, expert cooks can make souffles´ that double or triple their tiple brittle microfracture events and the emission of particular original volume! The major contributor to bubble growth in sound signals occurring during mastication. Many food materials the souffle´ and other expanded products is the water vapor re- experience a sharp brittle-ductile transition at low-moisture con- leased from the hot and wet mix (McGee, 2004). Pommes de terre tents (for example, 5% to 12% g/100 g dry solids), in the water souffles´ (inflated potato slices) and puri or poori (inflated Indian activity interval of 0.3 to 0.5, which generally coincides with a dough) expand to many times their original volume during fry- loss of sensory acceptability (Corriadini & Peleg, 2008; Roudaut, ing (for example, ten times or more in puri) as steam rapidly Dacremont, Valles` Pamies,` Colas, & Le Meste, 2002). These aw val- inflates an impermeable and expanding outer viscoelastic layer ues are lower than the corresponding equilibrium relative humid- (Parimala & Sudha, 2012). Glassy pellets (that is, <10% moisture) ity values of most ambient air conditions, so commercial products expand in microwave ovens as moisture is converted into steam are protected by packaging, and in the kitchen crispy, structures and bubbles grow inside a hot and rubbery matrix (Moraru & must be rapidly transferred to hermetic containers. The sensory Kokini, 2003). effects of crispness are attractive to chefs, who induce crispness in many materials by drying or roasting, so some kind of crispy The perfect cooked egg food is almost always present in a multisensorial tasting menu Cooking eggs has attracted the attention of chefs and physicists. (Spence, 2015). Dry and crispy crusts in products having wet The famous French chef Fernand Point (the first in history to interiors (for example, French fries and bread) do not last very be awarded 3 stars in the Michelin Guide) asserted that achieving long due to moisture migration from inside the piece. Several the right cooking point of an egg took much patience and talent techniques are available to assess parameters related to crispness (Neirinck & Poulain, 2011). Cooking eggs in a hot water bath (for example, glass transition temperature, stiffness, water mobil- at precise temperatures between 60 and 66 °C results in novel ity), such as differential scanning calorimetry, mechanical testing, consistencies of the egg white and yolk due to better control acoustic emission, NMR spectroscopy, and so on (Tunick et al., over protein denaturation (Baldwin, 2012; Barham, 2001). Vega 2013). and Mercade-Prieto´ (2011) determined the kinetics of viscosity change (at a shear rate of 10 s−1) of egg yolk heated in a water bath Expansion of a souffle´ and other doughs at constant temperatures between 60 and 66 °C. These data allow Expansion of doughs involves rheological properties, moisture to cook a soft egg with a wide range of textures for the white and transfer, and physics, and the souffle´ is the most delicate in- the yolk by using different time and temperature combinations. flated gastronomic structure. The preparation of a soufflestarts´ They emphasized the critical role of temperature and time on by forming a stiff foam of egg whites and then folding it into the condition of the yolk: cooking an egg for 30 min at 63 °C a savory or sweet mix (Barham, 2001; Courtine, 2003). Many rendered a runny but viscous yolk, while holding it for the same cookbooks credit the raising of a souffle´ in the oven to the time at 64 °C resulted in a gelled yolk. On another facet of eggs air expansion in bubbles (Patent, 2014). A very simple calcula- and physics, it is possible to fry an egg over a sheet of paper if care tion using the ideal law of gases tells us that the souffle´ would is taken to keep portions of the paper in contact with the open only rise to around 30% of its initial volume by the expansion flame wetted by liquid egg white (Barham, 2004).

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Frying of potato strips Frying is one of the oldest and most utilized cooking methods worldwide. It is a food unit operation not inherited from chem- ical engineering and unique in that the liquid transferring heat is hydrophobic, yet it becomes part of the food. It involves heat transfer by convection (from the hot oil at 160 to 190 °C) and conduction (to the interior of the piece) as well as mass trans- fer in the form of loss of surface water (as steam bubbles) and oil uptake. Nevertheless, mass transfer is not by diffusion. Dur- ing deep-fat frying the massive production of steam bubbles at the evaporation front keeps oil from penetrating into the form- ing crust. Upon removing the fried pieces from the fryer, steam inside the crust condenses due to the cooling effect and the par- tial vacuum generated “sucks in” some of the oil that wets the surface (Aguilera & Gloria-Hernandez, 2000; Ufheil & Escher, 1996; Ziaiifar, Achir, Courtois, Trezzani, & Trystam, 2008). The Figure 2–Most cooking occurs in a transient state where conditions in the massive consumption of fried products in fast food outlets and at food (temperature, color, texture, and so on) change continuously with home has led to concerns about the health implications. This has time. The doneness of a steak as well as the temperature at the center prompted a search for technologies that reduce the absorption of varies constantly during this period. The “pseudo” steady state represents oil, preserve the nutritional value of raw materials, and prevent the a stabilized condition leading to overcooking. This type of behavior is formation of acrylamide while keeping the desirable eating quality amenable to kinetic modeling. of fried products (Medeiros Vinci, Mestdagh, & De Meulenaer, 2012; Oke, Idowu, Sobukola, Adeyeye, & Akinsola, 2017). ables. Another area requiring urgent attention in food structure design is that of modified-texture foods for the elderly (that is, Cooking of pasta people 65+ y old). This segment of the world’s population ex- In the case of cooking of dry pasta (for example, spaghetti) in hibits the fastest growth rate and by 2050, there will be more than boiling water, heat and mass transfer (hydration) occur simultane- 400 million individuals aged over 80 y. Providing soft, tasty, and ously and cocurrently toward the center of the piece. The average “healthy” texture-modified foods for seniors, particularly those moisture content of spaghetti increases from 12% to around 50% with masticatory/swallowing dysfunctions and/or needing special w.b., and the product changes from hard and brittle to a soft and nutrition is a major challenge for food materials scientists and food pliable material. Since the thermal diffusivity of the dense gluten– technologists alike (Aguilera & Park, 2016; Nishinari et al., 2016). starch matrix of dry pasta is almost 10 times higher than the water diffusivity through this matrix, heat transfer proceeds much faster Modeling Cooking than hydration (Horigane et al., 2006). The net result is that gluten Most times cooking takes place under unsteady state or transient proteins become progressively denatured and form a compact net- processing conditions. In the unsteady state, the relevant cooking work that precludes complete swelling and gelatinization of the variable (color, texture, temperature, doneness, and so on) changes starch granules located in the core of the piece. This makes cooked continuously with time and location inside the product. This gives spaghetti a low-glycemic-index food (GI = 61) compared to white cooks the critical role of deciding when a food is ready to be bread (GI = 100). However, mashing cooked spaghetti into a por- served, often attending to elusive concepts such as the “doneness” ridge significantly increased the GI to 73, emphasizing the role of of meat or the al dente texture of pasta. Figure 2 illustrates how particle size and food structure during digestion (Petitot, Abecassis, the color and central temperature of a steak changes with grilling & Micard, 2009). Structural changes in cross sections of spaghetti time and their relation with the different conditions of doneness during cooking have been studied by MRI, highlighting the po- of the meat. tential of this nondestructive, real-time technique to analyze food structure during cooking (Bernin et al., 2014). Engineering models Engineering models aim at describing in mathematical terms a Structured Foods for Health complex situation regarding a phenomenon and predicting out- In general, commercial “healthy” foods with reduced salt, sugar, comes based on the assumptions and within the range of situations and fat, as well as gluten-free and high-fiber products, do not com- covered by the model. The subject of food processes modeling pare well in taste and texture with their original counterparts. Ta- has rapidly expanded with advances in computer science and ble sugar is not easily substituted in cakes and biscuits, as in addition improved mathematical algorithms to solve the heat, mass, and to sweetness, it provides bulk, water binding capacity, and delays momentum-transfer equations in thermal, nonthermal, and low- the gelatinization of starch (Clemens et al., 2016). Gluten-free temperature food processing (Farid, 2010). This type of process pasta and bread show reduced textural properties when compared modeling has the limitation that foods are usually regarded as ho- to their wheat-based versions (Padalino, Conte, & Del Nobile, mogeneous materials and the calculations are based on average 2016). Even small additions of fiber to baked foods cause moder- parameters, disregarding the heterogeneous makeup of foods and ate to large reductions in appearance, flavor, and overall accept- changing physical conditions during processing. Recently, mul- ability (Grigor, Brennan, Hutchings, & Rowlands, 2016). Thus, tiscale modeling has been proposed to circumvent this drawback technological solutions to these limitations must combine the ex- by dividing the material into interconnected submodels at differ- pertise of people who know how to make tasty foods (chefs) and ent spatial scales, with each submodel responding to the physics food materials scientists who can enhance functional properties of involved (Ho et al., 2013). This tool recognizes that engineering ingredients by manipulating formulations and technological vari- phenomena in foods take place from the nanosize to the scale of

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Table 3–Examples of modeling quality factors relevant in cooking.

Product Modeled feature(s) References Soft-boiled eggs Gelation (viscosity) kinetics of the yolk under Vega and Mercad´e-Prieto (2011) low-temperature, long-time heating in hot water Hard-boiled eggs Temperature at the center of a shelled egg cooked in boiling Buay, Foong, Kiang, Kuppan, and Liew water (2006), Williams (1998) Meat cuts Colour changes and cooking losses during roasting Kondjoyan, Oillic, Portanguen, and Gros (2013), Goni˜ and Salvadori (2011) Beef burgers Juice loss during cooking and optimization to ensure a safe Tornberg (2013); Zorrilla, Banga, and Singh cooking temperature (2003) Salmon Changes in temperature and color at different positions Brookmire, Mallikarjunan, Jahncke, and inside the piece for several temperature–time Grisso (2013), Kong, Tang, Rasco, and combinations Crapo (2007) Potatoes Evolution of degree of cooking (for example, starch Flick (2014), Derbyshire and Owen (1988), gelatinization) or texture in whole potatoes and Kozempel (1988) specimens Potatoes (fried) Textural changes and quality changes during frying of Hindra and Baik (2006), Pedreschi, Aguilera, potato strips and Pyle (2001) Root vegetables Several textural parameters during cooking between 70 to Taherian and Ramaswamy (2009) 100 °C Rice Physical changes (dimensions, hydration, and so on), starch Shinde, Vijayadwhaja, Pandit, and Joshi gelatinization, texture, for various cooking conditions and (2014) (Review) types of rice Pasta Hydration, swelling, physical and structural changes, and Cafieri et al. (2008), Riva, Mariotti, and texture during cooking of several pasta products Saccone (2006), Horigane et al. (2006), Del Nobile, Buonocore, Panizza, and Gambacorta (2003) Bread Formation of a “crust” and weight loss during bread baking; Hadiyanto (2013), Jefferson, Lacey, and Sadd development of color and texture of crust and crumb (2007), Sablani, Marcotte, Baik, and Castaigne (1998) Pancakes Browning, moisture loss, and cooking time; temperature and Sanz-Serrano, Sagues, Feyissa, Adler-Nissen, structure development in crumpets and Llorente (2016), Pyle (2005) Dumplings Temperature of the cooking water and dumplings, water Zhu, Liang, and Shao (2015) evaporation, and doneness quality Tea Rate of extraction of components (polyphenols, flavonoids, Fernando and Soysa (2015), Spiro and and so on) of tea leaves soaked in boiling water and hot Siddique (1981) water Chocolate Prediction of temperature during melting and crystallization Le Reverend, Fryer, and Bakalis (2009), of chocolate Debaste et al. (2008) Sugars Color changes (caramelization) during melting of sucrose, Luna and Aguilera (2014) fructose, and glucose (160 to 200 °C) Umami Decomposition of umami flavor in meat during cooking at Ishiwatari, Fukuoka, Hamada-Sato, and Sakai low temperature (sous vide). (2013)

the product itself (spanning almost 8 decades in size) and that the change in a specific property with time. They started to be used in science supporting the prevailing phenomena changes with scale FE in the 1970s to predict quality changes in foods during process- (Aguilera, 2012). ing and storage as well as to optimize the retention of nutrients and Although modeling has had a major impact in food process sensory quality during microbial inactivation by heating (Kessler, engineering, its applications in cooking has been limited (Farid, 1981; Labuza, 1984). Kinetic modeling is then reduced to fit the 2010; Jousse, 2008). Several of these models pertain to processes experimental data (for example, any measurable physical, chem- not found in the kitchen (for example, retort sterilization, drying ical, or microbiological indicator at different times) to the best with microwaves, industrial heat exchange, and so on). Moreover, kinetic expression using any advanced statistical software. The ef- some simplifying assumptions underlying processing models are fect of temperature can be taken into account using the Arrhenius not valid for cooking. For example, the fact that physical properties equation that describes how the rate constant changes with this of foods keep changing during cooking (for example, those related variable and defines an activation energy involved. Although foods to gelatinization of starches and denaturation of proteins) is seldom are quite complex structures and kinetic modeling does not shed taken into account in process modeling since the data are not light on the mechanisms underlying the changes, these models easily available. Furthermore, results from engineering models are have proven valuable in many situations varying from controlled not of much relevance per se for cooks (for example, moisture or laboratory conditions to real food situations (van Boekel, 2009; temperature profiles in a product) or are usually presented in a van Boekel, 2008). format that is difficult to be understood by them. Nevertheless, Hence, kinetic models should be particularly useful for cooks, several examples of engineering models applied to the cooking of since they relate changes of meaningful quality parameters (texture, various foods are available in the literature (Table 3). flavor, color, and so on) with time and under various conditions (temperature, pH, size, pretreatments, and so on). Mathematical Kinetic models expressions can then be displayed as graphs representing the Models based on heat, mass, and momentum transfer phenom- change in the physical property of the food with cooking time. ena in foods are complex mathematical constructs and amenable Several examples of kinetic models relevant to cooking (nonen- to be solved and applied mostly by engineers. Kinetic models, zymatic browning, caramelization, gelation, protein denaturation, on the other hand, are based on reaction kinetics and yield simple gelatinization of starch, and so on) are available in the food mathematical expressions easily transformed into graphs showing a science literature and shown in Table 3. Kinetic modeling has

r 1030 ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety Vol.17,2018 C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Relating food engineering to cooking and gastronomy . . . been applied to the cooking of eggs, potatoes, meat, rice, beans kitchen appliances have become more “intelligent” through em- and pasta, baking of bread, and frying of potatoes, among other bedded displays and sensors for product tracking. Smart kitchens foods. Singhal et al. (2012) presented a good description of the are starting to be connected with smartphones via Bluetooth and various cooking methods, physicochemical changes in major WiFi technology to activate and monitor cooking from the dis- food components, and nutrient losses during cooking, as well as tance (Blasco, Casas, Cirujano, & Picking, 2014; Siio, Hamada, some data for the kinetic rate constants and energies of activation. & Mima, 2007). It is predicted that cutting-edge restaurants may Cooking experiments in actual kitchen conditions followed by lead in incorporating digital technologies to assist routine cook- modeling that predict cooking outcomes for time–temperature ing techniques or enhance the dining experience, and some of combinations should be encouraged as an area of collaboration these technologies will be slowly adopted in home cooking as between chefs, food scientists, and engineers (Barham et al., 2010). well (Mizrahi et al., 2016; Spence & Piqueras-Fiszman, 2013).

New Equipment and Technologies Gastronomy and Innovation In the Western World, the kitchen has been a place where food Top chefs are compelled to innovate and rapidly update their is prepared or cooked, a task traditionally performed by women menus to guard themselves against plagiarism, since in gastron- (Meah, 2016). An anecdote in the evolution of the modern kitchen omy, there are no possibilities for legal protection (Albors-Garrigos was the Khrushchev–Nixon “kitchen debate” that occurred et al., 2013; Fauchart & von Hippel, 2008). In the search to cre- in 1959 at the opening of the American Natl. Exhibition at Sokol- ate new dishes and gastronomic experiences, some of these chefs niki Park in Moscow. On that occasion, an entire house was built (that is, those with avant-garde mindsets) have adopted novel tech- by American exhibitors and Vice-President Nixon claimed that niques and ingredients to make the dishes of their tasting menus anyone in America could afford it and it would make easier the (Hill, 2009). Ferran´ Adriaand` ElBulli restaurant incarnates the life of housewives. Khrushchev responded that they did not have creativity and innovation within the modern haute-cuisine busi- that capitalist attitude toward women (Safire, 2009). ness and his case has become a subject of study in some business Time spent in food preparation and cooking has decreased schools (Domene-Danes,´ 2013; Norton, Villanueva, & Wathieu, steadily in the United States in the last 30 y (Smith et al., 2013). 2008; Opazo, 2016). Recently, engineering education is adopting The average American now spends only 37 min a day in food concepts of innovation and entrepreneurship at times when the preparation and cleanup at home (Hamrick & McClelland, 2016). innovation capacity of the food industry is under severe scrutiny Busy lifestyles, the rise of convenience products (that is, com- (Badran, 2007; Byers, Seelig, Sheppard, & Weilerstein, 2013; mercially preprepared products), and advances in kitchen tech- Traitler, Coleman, & Burbidge, 2017). The creativity and talent nologies are contributing to this trend (McGowan et al., 2017). of some chefs is demanding the attention of large food companies, At least in affluent societies, it appears to be a negative valua- some of which have made them part of R&D efforts as “research tion of convenience foods and ready-to-eat food, deriving from a chefs” or “culinary scientists” (Valdovinos, 2010; Zemser, 2014). moral conviction that effort and time should be put into meal Avant-garde chefs usually follow a more or less formal and stream- preparation at home as well as form health-related considera- lined innovation process, with stages similar to those practiced by tions (Costa, Schoolmeester, Dekker, & Jongen, 2007). In fact, industry in product development (Valdovinos, 2010). However, the global kitchen appliances market is growing steadily and was there are some differences: (i) chefs normally start with a culi- valued at over $150 billion in 2015, tripling that of industrial food nary concept or concrete message to communicate, which de- processing equipment (Aguilera, 2018; Attfield, 2017). pends either on their cooking style or “discourse” (Opazo, 2016); Conventional kitchen equipment is the pillar of cooking in any (ii) they usually work simultaneously on hundreds of ideas (liter- restaurant (Thomas et al., 2014). Food engineers have been active ally), based on raw materials and ingredients, culinary traditions, in the design of food processing equipment and industrial control terroirs, novel techniques, and/or scientific discoveries, manip- systems but not much interested in kitchen equipment, as can be ulating texture and structure of a dish (Kudrowitz, Oxborough, deduced from FE courses and specialized books (Niranjan, 2016; Choi, & Stover, 2014); (iii) a detailed business analysis is usually Saravacos & Kostaropoulos, 2002). However, a good proportion not necessary as they are able to pass on costs to the menu price; of the innovations introduced by chefs of top-end restaurants are (iv) the development stage is often carried out in their own test based on the use of novel cooking equipment either adopted kitchens; and (v) testing of prototypes is actually a “tasting” ex- from scientific laboratories or designed for specific purposes perience among employees, waiters, trainees, and some suppliers. (Albors-Garrigos, Barreto, Garc´ıa-Segovia, Mart´ınez-Monzo,´ & Scaling-up is often unnecessary, since production in the kitchen Hervas-Oliver,´ 2013; Ivanovic, Mikinac, & Perman, 2011; matches the needs of service delivery (Harrington & Ottenbacher, Myhrvold et al., 2011). Table 4 lists some equipment that has 2013; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2007). Figure 3 shows a hypo- entered the kitchens of restaurants and homes along with their thetical open innovation funnel for haute cuisine restaurants based applications. Demonstrations in small versions of industrial equip- on the previous points. The scheme suggests how ideas, methods, ment (for example, HPP devices, supercritical extractors, extrud- and technologies borrowed from FE may add value to the differ- ers, spray-driers) and in prototype versions of emerging tech- ent stages of the innovation process. Innovations generated in fine nologies (for example, membrane emulsification, sonication) may dining restaurants may trickle-down to more casual restaurants, draw the attention of cooks. Conversely, traditional and promising eventually becoming adopted by institutional feeding services, to cooking techniques may be scaled up into institutional or indus- finally reach the home kitchens (Abend, 2015; Ottenbacher & trial processes using engineering design, as is the case of cooking Harrington, 2007). in a wok (Adler-Nissen, 2007). Restaurant and home kitchens are undergoing important tech- Societal Impacts of Chefs and Gastronomy nological changes driven by information and communication Several famous chefs are promoting sustainable agriculture, an- technologies. People now share recipes and cooking experiences cestral cooking, use of locally grown or sourced products, reduced through the Internet, place orders for food delivery by phone, and food wastes, and ascribing to a “healthy” diet, as can be deduced

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Table 4–Equipment that has entered the kitchens and their specific uses.

Equipment Principle and use References From the laboratory Temperature-controlled Products are vacuum-sealed and heated in a water bath at a Baldwin (2012), Keller (2008) water baths (sous-vide) constant temperature (below 100 °C). Unique soft textures are obtained in eggs, meats, and other products. Vacuum rotary evaporator Aromatic extracts from plant materials and other sources Ruiz et al. (2013), Castells (2011) (flowers, soil, and so on) are extracted/distilled under reduced pressure and low temperatures. Cryogenic freezing Direct addition of liquid nitrogen (-196 °C) to liquids and Cassi (2011), Rister and Blumenthal (2005) creams so that very small ice crystals (for example, 10 μm in size) are formed. Applied also to fine grinding. High-speed blenders Shearing devices consisting of a stator and a high-speed Lee and Rogers (2012) rotor used to disperse, disintegrate, and emulsify (for example, Ultraturrax) Household kitchenware Combination microwave Modern appliance that heats and cooks using microwave Datta and Rakesh (2013), Parker and oven energy in combination with other heating methods: Vollmer (2004) infrared, hot air convection, hot air jets, steam, and induction. Induction range Heaters that generate magnetic induction that is converted Sweeney et al. (2014) into heat in the base of the cookware. It is highly energy-efficient and reliable. Multifunction food Programmable multipurpose apparatus that can weigh, Castells (2016) processor slice, grind, spread, mix doughs, steam, and cook in the same vessel (for example, ThermomixR ). Coffee-making machines Devices that force water at high pressure and temperature King (2008) through a bed of ground coffee (expresso coffee). Immersion blender Hand-held, high-speed rotary device used to mix, pur´ee, or Castells (2016) emulsify food. Restaurant operations Steam/convection ovens Ovens that cook foods by circulating moist and/or dry heat, www.fishnick.com/equipment Isleroglu and creating unique textures and flavors. Also used as driers Kaymak-Ertekin (2016) and roasters. Vacuum packaging Equipment that allows to package foods and meals in Perdue and Marcondes (2010), Dondero, machines pouches under vacuum, facilitating handling, minimizing Cisternas, Carnaval, and Simpson (2004) cooking losses, and extending the shelf life. Sous-vide Technique to cook raw materials inside vacuumized pouches Baldwin (2012) by submersion in a temperature-controlled water bath for extended periods of time. GastrovacR Equipment for cooking/impregnation under vacuum in an Garcia-Segovia et al. (2014) oxygen-free atmosphere. Low temperatures protect color, texture, and nutrients. PacojetR A high-power mixing and cutting machine whose sharp knife Barham et al. (2010), Barham (2013) shaves μm-thick layers from a solid. Usually used to make sorbets and ice cream. Mini Teppan nitroR Small griddle rapidly cooled by liquid nitrogen reaching Ivanovic et al. (2011) −100 °C that freezes all kinds of liquids, foams, mousses, pastries, and so on.

nutritional food options and designing ad hoc menus (Navarro, Serrano, Lasa, Aduriz, & Ayo, 2012; Ozdemir & Caliskan, 2015). Among nutritional issues, nutrient losses under various process- ing conditions have called the attention of food scientists for a long time and ample data are available (Karmas & Harris, 1988; Rickman, Barrett, & Bruhn, 2007; Rickman, Bruhn, & Barrett, 2007). Nutritional losses (for example, vitamins) during actual cooking are not consistently reported but are known to depend on the type of food matrix, pretreatment (for example, frozen or frozen-thawed), and the cooking method (Fabbri & Crosby, 2016; Leˇskova´ et al., 2006; Nursal & Yuceca,¨ 2000; Singhal et al., 2012). On the other hand, cooking conditions appears to promote the bioaccessibility of some nutrients during digestion by softening or obliterating the food matrix and facilitating their release (Miglio, Figure 3–Scheme showing that the stages and gates of a hypothetical Chiavaro, Visconti, Fogliano, & Pellegrini, 2008; Parada & open innovation funnel used by haute cuisine chefs. Possibilities for Aguilera, 2007). Hence, determining changes of specific nutri- external inputs from food engineering and food technology are ents under restaurant handling and cooking conditions, as well represented by arrows pointing to holes in the funnel and the final dish. as in vitro/in vivo studies of the bioavailability of key nutrients, will be areas of active research as consumers become increasingly from their gastronomic manifestos. They are becoming progres- concerned about the health value of what they eat. sively concerned about the nutritional value of their dishes and Consumers expect to obtain safe meals when eating out or menus, so many restaurants are increasing their “healthy” and buying prepared foods. It is trendy in many restaurants to offer in

r 1032 ComprehensiveReviewsinFoodScienceandFoodSafety Vol.17,2018 C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Relating food engineering to cooking and gastronomy . . . their menus food which is “fresh,” “natural,” “locally sourced,” habits, promoting cooking at home, the development of sustain- or “minimally processed.” Chefs should be aware of the risks in- able food chains, and the design or redesign of tasty foods to curb volved in serving inappropriately processed food, with salmonella overweight and obesity and feed the elderly population. To ac- and norovirus contamination being the most reported causes in complish this interaction, the academic programs on FE should restaurants (Angulo, Jones, & Angulo, 2006). In this respect, food be broadened to include examples and applications not only at technologists and engineers may assist the food service sector in the industrial scale but also at the kitchen level, and stimulate implementing good handling and preparation procedures by ex- problem-solving opportunities, innovation, and entrepreneurship ecuting HACCP system practices in their premises, and assuring among students. that safety standards are maintained when translating technologies from industry to the kitchen (Djekic et al., 2014). Another area Acknowledgments where these professionals may make a difference for the restaurant The author acknowledges financial support for research at the business is in supporting their sustainability claims and those of Gastronomic Engineering Unit of the School of Engineering from the food procurement chains (McGinn, 2015). Cooking utilizes a FONDECYT Project nr 1150395 Formation and breakdown of model large amount of energy and emits a significant amount of green- food matrices based on starch and protein, and from contract 3527-022, house gases (Xu, Sun, Zhang, & Zhu, 2015). Life cycle assessment of the Korea Food Research Inst. (KFRI) and the Pontificia Univ. (LCA) methodologies, already available for many food processing Catolica´ de Chile. systems, should be executed in restaurants to substantiate their sustainability claims (Roy et al., 2009). One area where chefs’ contributions may have a large social References and health impact is in curbing children’s overweight and obesity Abel, G. (1905). Chemie in Kuche¨ und Haus. Leipzig: Teubner Verlag. trends. Chefs in collaboration with nutritionists and food technol- Abend, L. (2015, November 29). Denmark’s restaurants benefit from ‘Noma effect’. Newsweek. Retrieved from ogists may provide nutritional messages to children and culinary https://www.newsweek.com/2015/12/11/denmarks-restaurants-benefit- advice to food service workers involved in feeding the young, noma-effect-399042.html change the perception of some foods (for example, vegetables), Adams, P. (2011, February 1). A tour of the Modernist Cuisine kitchen promote school gardens that produce fruits and vegetables, and laboratory. Popular Science. Retrieved from https://www.popsci.com/technology/article/2011-02/tour-modernist- design tasty, “healthy,” and cost-effective menus for school lunch cuisine-kitchen-laboratory programs (Cohen et al., 2012; Just, Wansink, & Hanks, 2014). Adler-Nissen, J. (2007). Continuous wok-frying of vegetables: Process Chefs may also help in endorsing the consumption of under- parameters influencing scale up and product quality. Journal of Food utilized food sources (for example, algae, small fish, mushrooms, Engineering, 83, 54–60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2006.11.002 insects, and so on), foods grown locally and ancestral dishes. Adria, F., Blumenthal, H., Keller, T., & McGee, H. (2006, December 10). Statement on the ‘new cookery.’ The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2006/dec/10/ Conclusions and Future Prospects foodanddrink.obsfoodmonthly. Urban consumers are increasingly eating foods prepared or Aguilera, J. M. (2012). The engineering inside our dishes. International Journal cooked out of home and expect to have safe and “healthy” meals of Gastronomy and Food Science, 1, 31–36. with good taste and a consistent quality. At the same time, cook- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijgfs.2011.11.006 ing is becoming more scientific and innovative, a trend initiated Aguilera, J. M. (2013). Edible structures: The basic science of what we eat.Boca by haute-cuisine chefs and now extending from restaurants to the Raton, FL: CRC Press. Aguilera, J. M. (2017). The emergence of gastronomic engineering. entire food service segment. Food engineers, who contributed to Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies, 41, 277–283. the establishment of a flourishing food processing industry, have https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.03.017 the possibility of interacting with this expanding sector that ac- Aguilera, J. M. (2018). Food engineering into the XXI century. AIChE counts for over half of every dollar spent on food in the United Journal, 64, 2–11. https://doi.org/10.1002/aic.16018 States. This review suggests that food engineers have certainly Aguilera,J.M.,&Gloria-Hernandez,´ H. (2000). Oil absorption during made contributions to cooking and gastronomy but have not es- frying of frozen parfried potatoes. 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