Notes

1 Introduction

1. John Henry Newman, Lectures on the Recent Position of Catholics in England Addressed to the Brothers of the Oratory (London: Burns and Lambert, 1851), p. 1. 2. See her chapter on ‘Anti-Catholic Erotica’, in Julie Peakman, Mighty Lewd Books. The Development of Pornography in Eighteenth-Century England (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp. 126–58. 3. D.G. Paz, Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian England (California: Stanford University Press, 1992), p. 51. 4. Statistics taken from: Derek Holmes More Roman than Rome and Gloria McAdam, My Dear Sister: An Analysis of Nineteenth-century Documents Concerning the Founding of a Women’s Religious Congregation (Bradford: University of Bradford, PhD Thesis, 1994). 5. Robert Klaus, The Pope the Protestants and the Irish (New York: Garland Publishing, 1987), p. 281. 6. One prolific preacher and writer referred to in this study was Father Achilli, a defrocked Catholic priest who capitalised on the No-Popery movement and published various ‘revelations’ about Catholic convents that helped to confirm popular prejudices. Achilli won a libel suit against Newman in 1851 for accusing him of sacrilege and sexual misconduct. 7. Dawson Massy, Dark Deeds of the Papacy Contrasted with the Bright Lights of the Gospel, also the Jesuits Unmasked and Popery Unchangeable (London: Seeleys, 1851), p. 155. 8. Henry Drummond MP, To the People of England on The Invasion (London: Bosworth and Harrison, 1859). 9. See Shirley, p. 398 where Caroline Helstone observes Rose Yorke reading Mrs Radcliffe’s The Italian. There is evidence that Charlotte Brontë was well aquainted with this genre of literature. 10. For example, Ambrosio in M.G. Lewis, The Monk, 1786. 11. D.G. Paz, Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian England (California: Stanford University Press, 1992), p. 61. 12. Rev. M. Hobart Seymour, Convents or Nunneries. A Lecture in Reply to Cardinal Wiseman (London: Seeleys, 1852), pp. 14, 24. 13. Catherine Sinclair, Modern Superstition (London: Simpkin and Marshall & Co., 1847), pp. 4–5. 14. Lisa Wang, Uses of Theological Discourse in the Novels of the Brontë Sisters (London: Birkbeck College, PhD Thesis, 1998), pp. 17,146. 15. Harriet Martineau, an agnostic with a Unitarian background, found the anti-Catholic sentiments of Villette offensive. She voices her disapproval of them in an article in the Daily News, 3 February 1853. 16. Rosemary Clark Beattie, ‘Fables of Rebellion: Anti-Catholicism and the Structure of Villette’, ELH 5 (1986): p. 821. 17. Paz, Popular Anti Catholicism in Mid Victorian England, p. 63.

165 166 Notes

18. S. Gilbert and S. Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century Literary Imagination (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 414. 19. Robert Bernard Martin, The Accents of Persuasion: Charlotte Brontë’s Novels (London: Faber and Faber, 1966), p. 148. 20. In speaking about the kindness of Père Silas to Lucy Snowe at her confession, Martin comments: ‘It is the first indication in the novel, or for that matter any of Miss Brontë’s novels, that Roman Catholicism may have virtues in spite of being unattractive to her.’ The Accents of Persuasion, p. 162. 21. Tom Winnifrith, The Brontës and their Background, Romance and Reality (Basingstoke Hants: Macmillan Press, 1988), pp. 49–55. 22. Irene Taylor, Holy Ghosts the Male Muses of Emily and Charlotte Brontë (New York and Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1990), pp. 246–7. 23. According to Lisa Wang, there are over 450 direct allusions to the Bible in Charlotte Brontë’s novels. Uses of Theological Discourse in the Novels of the Brontë Sisters, p. 31. 24. Patricia Duncker, Writing on the Wall (London: Pandora Press, 2002), p. 34. 25. Lyndall Gordon, Charlotte Brontë. A Passionate Life (London: Chatto and Windus, 1994), p. 226. 26. Charlotte Brontë was surprised and hurt by criticisms of her depiction of Catholicism in Villette. She was particularly ‘upset’ by her friend Harriet Martineau’s review of the book which accused her of attacking Catholicism with vehemence. 27. Helene Moglen, Charlotte Brontë, the Self Conceived (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1976), p. 218. 28. For fuller comment on the love between Lucy Snowe and Paul Emmanuel, see Robert Colby, ‘Villette and the Life of the Mind’, in Fiction With a Purpose (Bloomington and London: Indiana University Press, 1960), p. 417. 29. Annette Schreiber, ‘The Myth in Charlotte Brontë’ [sic] Literature and Psychology xvii (1968): p. 66. 30. Gayla McGlamery, ‘This Unlicked Wolf Cub,’ p. 67.

2 The Construction of an Anti-Catholic Ideology in the Nineteenth Century: Sexuality, Gender, Patriarchy and the Discourse of Fear

1. Leeds Mercury, 30 March 1850. 2. Catherine Sinclair, Modern Superstitions, p. 6. 3. The Times, 19 November 1844. 4. See Robert Lee Wolff, Gains and Losses: Novels of Faith and Doubt in Victorian England (New York: John Murray, 1977), p. 30. 5. The Times, 15 November 1844. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. Notes 167

11. Ibid. 12. Anon., Intercepted Letters of a Romish Priest (London: Hall and Co., 1852), p. 3. 13. Ibid., p. 3. 14. Ibid., p. 5. 15. Ibid., p. 5. 16. Ibid., p. 6. 17. Ibid., p. 6, footnote 2. 18. Ibid., p. 11. 19. Rev. Michael Hobart Seymour, The Talbot Case (London: Seeleys, 1851), pp. xvi–xvii. 20. Ibid. 21. The Times, 31 March 1851. 22. This was taken from the court report in the Times, 31 March 1851. 23. The Jerningham family was one of the ‘old’ aristocratic English Catholic families. 24. The Times, 1 April 1851. Law report, Court of Chancery Lincoln’s Inn, 31 March. 25. Rev. M. Hobart Seymour, Convents or Nunneries a Lecture in Reply to Cardinal Wiseman (London: Seeleys, 1852), p. 10. 26. Ibid., p. 25. 27. Ibid., p. 17. 28. Ibid., p. 22. 29. Ibid. 30. For an example of how this idea developed see Stead, ‘Maiden Tribute’ ‘The Brothel Keeper’, in Pall Mall Gazette (London: 1885). Ronald Pearsall, The Worm in The Bud (London: Pimlico, 1969), p. 350 states: ‘The exploitation of young girls is the most repellent aspect of Victorian sex’. In Ivan Bloch’s Sexual Life in England (1938 edition) a woman in the West End is reported as saying that ‘In my house you can gloat over the cries of the girls with the certainty that no one will hear them besides yourself – a statement confirmed by other sources.’ 31. Seymour, Convents or Nunneries, p. 35. 32. Ibid., p. 39. 33. This is particularly evident in the Heldivier and Talbot cases cited earlier. 34. John Henry Newman, Lectures on the Present Position of Catholics in England: Addressed to the Brothers of the Oratory (London: Burns and Lambert, 1851), p. 88. 35. Ibid., pp. 112–17. Later in the century, during the 1860s, Newman again came under fire from the Evangelical wing of the Protestant Church for his close association with the Brompton Oratory. This oratory was at the centre of certain reported ‘scandals’ including the case of a young girl called Eliza McDermott whose mother claimed she was lured into a convent against her family’s wishes. This was reported fully in the Daily Telegraph in 1865. The Brompton Oratory was also put under suspicion by Alfred Smee, writing to Sir George Grey through the medium of the Evening Standard, who cast serious doubts over the private burial grounds at the oratory. 36. Ibid., pp. 83–4. 168 Notes

3 Forgive Me Father: The Sacrament of Confession as a Means to Control and Debauch Young Girls and Women

1. Quotation by ex-Roman Catholic priest Blanco White printed on the cover of The Indelicacy of Auricular Confession as Practised by the Roman Catholic Church: Correspondence between Hon. George Spencer and Rev. W. Riland Bedford (Birmingham: William Hodgetts, 1836). 2. Jules Michelet, Priests Women and Families (London: Charles Edmonds, 1846), p. 47. 3. Ibid., p. 47. 4. Ibid., pp. 47 and 49. 5. See Kate Flint, The Woman Reader 1837–1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), p. 36. 6. For this reason, many biographies of worthy women were circulated in the nineteenth century, along with numerous tracts and pamphlets. 7. Letter from Bedford to Spencer 1 July 1836. The Indelicacy of Auricular Confession, p. 6. 8. A Catholic devotional book particularly used by penitents preparing for confession. 9. Letter from Bedford to Spencer 1 July 1836. 10. Rev. Andrew Thomson, A Course of Lectures on Popery, Delivered in Edinburgh 1851 (Edinburgh and London: Johnstone and Hunter, 1851), pp. 265–6. 11. M. Foucault, The History of Sexuality, vol. 1, pp. 138–45. For a more detailed discussion of this, see Kate Soper’s essay ‘Positive Contradictions’, in Caroline Ramazanoglu, ed., Up Against Foucault: Explorations of Some Tensions between Foucault and Feminism (London: Routledge, 1993), chapter 2, pp. 29–50. 12. See Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady Women, Madness and English Culture 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1987), chapter 3. Managing Women’s Minds. 13. Ibid., p. 77. 14. The Roman Catholic Confessional Exposed: in Three Letters to a Cabinet Minister (Dublin: Philip Dixon Hardy, 1837), letter 2, pp. 35–6. 15. Rev. Charles Brigham, The Enormities of the Confessional (London: Richards, 1839), especially pp. 3–4. 16. Ibid., p. 5. 17. Rev. John Armstrong, Preface to The Confessional, its Wickedness. A lecture given at the town hall Brighton, 5 September 1856 (Brighton: Edward Verall, 1856). 18. J.G. Millingen, Mind and Matter, Illustrated by Considerations on Hereditary Insanity and the Influence of Temperament in the Development of the Passions (1847), p. 157. Quoted in Kate Flint, The Woman Reader 1837–1914, p. 57. 19. George Spencer and William Riland Bedford, The Indelicacy of Auricular Confession as Practised by the Roman Catholic Church (Birmingham: William Hoggets, 1837), p. 26. 20. William Hogan, Auricular Confession and Popish Nunneries (London and Liverpool: G.B. Dyer and Edward Howell, 1846), pp. 34–7. 21. Ibid., p. 34. 22. Ibid., pp. 34–5. 23. Ibid., pp. 35–6. Notes 169

24. Although Hogan originally wrote for American Protestants, his work was published in London and Liverpool and was widely read in England, especially pp. 62, 63. 25. This information is taken from a pamphlet, Father Chiniquy, the Reformer of the Far West (reprinted from The Record) (London: Macintosh, 1859). 26. Chiniquy, The Priest, the Woman and the Confessional (London: W.T. Gibson, 1878), p. 8. 27. A good example of this type of tale is Chiniquy’s story of a young girl called Mary who was educated in a convent school where she was seduced and corrupted by two confessors. Mary dies from her guilt. The Priest, the Woman and the Confessional, pp. 20–32. 28. Daniel O’Connell was a democrat and a Dublin lawyer whose ultimate aim was Home Rule and Catholic Emancipation was the first step because it already had support in the House of Commons. O’Connell thought that once there were Catholic MPs in the Commons they could use their influ- ence for Home Rule. In 1823 the Catholic Association was set up by O’Connell. It was so active that by 1825, the year O’Connell appeared before the House of Lords, that it was declared illegal. O’Connell simply changed its name and continued as before. Also in 1825 Sir Francis Burdett proposed another Emancipation Bill. It was passed by the Commons but rejected by the Lords. 29. O’Connell quoted in The Roman Catholic Confessional Exposed in Three Letters to a Late Cabinet Minister, p. 36. 30. Ibid., p. 39. 31. He is referring to the priest’s manual written by the the Catholic theologian Peter Dens, Circa Actum Conjugalem. The Roman Catholic Confessional Exposed in Three Letters to a Late Cabinet Minister, letter 2, p. 39. 32. Robert Steele, The Priest in the Confessional (London: The Author, 1887), p. 15. 33. The Confessional Unmasked: Showing the Depravity of the Priesthood and the Immorality of the Confessional being the Questions put to Females in Confession (London: Thomas Johnstone, 1851). Page 3 of The History of the Confessional Unmasked states that the compilers of the work preferred to remain unknown. 34. Ibid., p. 31. 35. Peter Dens was a Roman Catholic theologian who wrote manuals for priests which were used by ordinands studying at the Catholic college of Maynooth. In 1786 he wrote Theologia ad Usum Seminariorum Leodic, which was still being used in Catholic seminaries in the nineteenth century. 36. Author unknown. The History of the Confessional Unmasked. The Liberty of England Imperilled by the Confessing Priest (London: The Protestant Evangelical Mission & Electoral Union, 1865), preface. 37. The Confessional Unmasked (London: Thomas Johnston, 1851), preface p. 4. 38. Liguori was canonised at Rome in 1839. He was a favourite of Cardinal Wiseman. 39. Dens, vol. vi, pp. 299–300. Quoted in The Confessional Unmasked, p. 38; the exclamation marks are Bryce’s insertions. 40. Ibid., p. 38. 41. Bailly, vol. 7, p. 366. Quoted in The Confessional Unmasked, p. 39; the final sentence in square brackets is Bryce’s addition. 170 Notes

42. The Confessional Unmasked, p. 43. 43. Quoted in Bailly, p. 51. 44. Ibid., p. 57. 45. Quote from The Weekly Register 20 July 1867. Cited in The History of the Confessional Unmasked. 46. January 1866 edition. 47. Ibid., quoted in The History of the Confessional Unmasked, p. 15. 48. Ibid., quoted in The History of the Confessional Unmasked, p. 12. 49. William Hogan, Auricular Confession and Popish Nunneries (1846), p. 37. 50. Catherine Sinclair, Beatrice or the Unknown Relatives (London: Richard Bentley, 1852), preface, pp. xiii–xiv. 51. Ibid., p. xv. 52. Frederick Edwards, Inez, a Spanish Story Founded on Facts, Illustrating One of the Many Evils of Auricular Confession (Lyme: W. Landray, 1829), p. 18. Canto 1 xvii and Canto 1 xvi, pp. 31 and 34. 53. Eliza Smith, The Progress of Beguilement to Romanism: A Personal Narrative [sic] (London: Seeleys, 1850), p. 10. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid., p. 41.

4 The Danger of Gliding Jesuits and the Effects of a Catholic Education

1. L.H. Tonna, Nuns and Nunneries: Sketches Compiled Entirely from Romish Authorities (London: Seeleys, 1852), p. 306. 2. S.J. Abbott, Revelations of Modern Convents or Life in Convents on British Soil in the Closing Years of the Nineteenth-Century. Intended as an Earnest Appeal to the British Public (London: W. Wileman and John Kensit, 1899), p. 157. 3. Rev. M. Hobart Seymour, Convents or Nunneries. A Lecture in Reply to Cardinal Wiseman (London: Seeleys, 1852), p. 10. 4. Catherine Hall, White Male and Middle Class, Explorations in Feminism and History (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1992), especially chapter 3, ‘Victorian Domestic Ideology’. 5. Wilberforce, A Practical View of the Prevailing Religious System of Professed Christians in the Higher and Middle Classes of this Country contrasted with Real Christianity (1797), p. 453. Quoted in Hall, White Male and Middle Class, p. 86. 6. The political importance and the history of the Jesuits makes the society an excellent example of the dangers of Roman Catholicism for the Evangelical Protestant writers who are able to exploit this knowledge in their anti- Catholic writing. Interesting books to refer to on the history of the Jesuits are: Francis Edwards S.J., The Jesuits in England: From 1580 to the Present Day (London: Burnes and Oates, 1985) and Peter Rawlinson, The Jesuit Factor: A Personal Investigation (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1990). 7. For a comprehensive explanation of these terms see Elaine Showalter, Hystories: Hysterical Epidemics and Modern Culture (London: Picador, 1997), chapter 6, ‘Hysterical Narratives’. 8. An alias for either Helen Black or Charles Edwards Lester (according to the British Library catalogue). Notes 171

9. Helen DHU, Stanhope Burleigh: The Jesuits in our Homes (New York: Stringer and Townsend, 1855), pp. vii and viii. 10. Andrew Steinmetz, The Jesuit in the Family. A Tale (London: Smith and Elder, 1847), p. 6. 11. Cited in: Frank Wallis, Popular Anti Catholicism in Mid-Victorian Britain (Lampeter: The Edwin Mellon Press, 1993), p. 38. 12. Steinmetz, The Jesuit in the Family, p. 23. 13. Frank Wallis, Popular Anti-Catholicism in Mid-Victorian Britain, p. 30. 14. Anon., Review of Jemima Luke, The Female Jesuit, and the Sequel to The Female Jesuit: Female Jesuits and Jesuit Agents (London: Partridge and Oakey, 1853), p. 427. Bound together with Charles Seager, The Female Jesuit Abroad. British Library class mark 4905.b.34. 15. Jemima Luke, The Female Jesuit, or, a Spy in the Family (London: Partridge and Oakey, 1851), p. x. 16. Jemima Luke, The Female Jesuit, p. 5. 17. Ibid., p. 327. 18. Ibid., p. 431. 19. Ibid., p. 432. 20. Ibid., pp. 432–3. 21. Quoted in the introduction to, Frances Trollope, The Vicar of Wrexhill (Stroud: Alan Sutton Publishing, 1996). 22. In his recent article, ‘Charlotte Brontë and Roman Catholicism’, Jan Jedrzejewski states that Father Eustace is representative of ‘often less-than-subtle religious propaganda.’ Although on the surface this is a fair comment, I would contend that the novel contains more intuitive representations of gender and power than he gives credit for. See Jedrzejewski, ‘Charlotte Brontë and Roman Catholicism’. Brontë Society Transactions 25, 2 (October 2000). 23. See Pamela Neville-Sington, Fanny Trollope, the Life and Adventures of a Clever Woman (London: Viking, 1997), p. 358. 24. Frances Trollope, Father Eustace: A Tale of The Jesuits, vol. 1, pp. 45–6. 25. Ibid., p. 46. 26. Ibid., p. 51. 27. Ibid., pp. 71–2. Trollope emphasises her point by the use of double exclama- tion marks. 28. Frances Trollope, Father Eustace, vol. 1, pp. 152–3. 29. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 168. 30. Ibid., vol. 1, pp. 236–7. 31. Ibid., vol. 1, p. 237. The description of Eustace’s hands would have been of particular significance to the Victorians. During this period small, delicate, white hands were a fashionable sign of femininity. Very tight gloves were worn to show off the shape of the hand, hence the use of glove stretchers which were only in use for about 100 years. Arthur Munby, famous for his diary and photographs of Victorian working women had what could be termed as almost a fetish about women’s hands. His writings give a good insight into the social implications and the importance in determining class and gender in the nineteenth century, of the size and shape of a person’s hands and gloves. See Munby, ‘Our Mary’ in Poems, Chiefly Lyric and Elegiac (London: Truber and Co. Ltd., 1901). Ann Morgan’s Love: A Pedestrian Poem (London: Reeves and Turner, 1896). ‘Discipline’ in Verses New and Old 172 Notes

(London: Bell and Daldy, 1865). Other references may be found in Derek Hudson, Munby Man of Two Worlds (London: Abacus, 1974). 32. Frances Trollope, Father Eustace, vol. 2, pp. 9–10. 33. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 50. 34. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 83. 35. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 98 and 101. 36. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 220 and 222. 37. ‘But not only are the principles in which the unearthly disciples of Loyola are reared of so stringent a quality as to impede, and finally destroy, every natural movement of the soul, but they are also made to be, habitually, of such ready application, that no emotion can arise without bringing its anti- dote with it.’ Frances Trollope. Father Eustace , vol. 2, pp. 182–3. Even though Eustace is a priest, he is still a man and therefore able to control his emotion and channel it into another use. In contrast, Juliana, a female, is completely swamped by her emotions to the point of physically swooning. 38. Frances Trollope, Father Eustace, vol. 2, pp. 189–90. 39. Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth-Century Literary Imagination (London: Yale University Press, 1984), p. 432. 40. Frances Trollope, Father Eustace, vol. 2, pp. 256 and 330. 41. Ibid., vol. 2, p. 331. 42. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 50. 43. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 316–17. 44. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 135. 45. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 210. 46. Ibid., vol. 3, pp. 295–6. 47. Ibid., p. 189. 48. n.b. Charlotte Brontë, writing Villette, could not allow Madame Walravens to punish M. Paul forever. He had to return, and in his return and ultimate death lay his redemption in the heart and memory of Lucy Snowe. For elaboration of this idea see chapter on Villette. 49. It is interesting that even at his death, Father Eustace employs a ritual of Roman Catholicism, confession and absolution, to make his peace with a Protestant woman. However, as he is asking another person, not God, for forgiveness he is perhaps behaving in a more Protestant manner in accepting responsibility for his own misdemeanours. 50. See Catherine Sinclair, Beatrice or The Unknown Relatives (London: Richard Bentley, 1852), p. 297, which mentions Catholicism exciting girls to insanity, so much so that some are necessarily placed in asylums. ‘When I hear as of late, that the intellects of many young ladies have been excited to actual insanity by the awful view of eternity forced clandestinely upon their thoughts by these Popish Priests; when I know that several are now necessarily placed in asylums …’ 51. Catherine Sinclair, Modern Superstition (London: Simpkin Marshall & Co., 1847), p. 3. 52. Ibid., p. xxv. 53. Helen DHU, Stanhope Burleigh: The Jesuits in our Home, p. x. 54. Eliza Smith, The Progress of Beguilement to Romanism (London: Seeleys, 1850), p. 91. Notes 173

55. See the introduction to Rachel McCrindell, The Schoolgirl in France (London: Seeley and Burnside, 1842). Here the author states that owing to the unhoped for success of her former novel, she has been emboldened to come before the public again. In fact, there were at least seven editions of the novel between 1840 and 1859, printed in both England and America. 56. Rachel McCrindell, The Schoolgirl in France, introduction. 57. Ibid., p. 9. 58. Ibid., p. 11. 59. Ibid., p. 31. 60. This practice of the constant surveillance of pupils in Catholic girls’ schools is dealt with more fully in the chapter on Villette. 61. Rachel McCrindell, The Schoolgirl in France, p. 52. 62. Ibid., p. 54. 63. Ibid., pp. 94–5. 64. Ibid., p. 122. 65. Ibid., p. 206. 66. Ibid., p. 205. 67. See the story of the horrendous and frightening trip to the countryside reported in The Schoolgirl in France, chapter 24. 68. Rachel McCrindell, The Schoolgirl in France, p. 273. 69. Julie Peakman, Mighty Lewd Books: the Development of Pornography in Eighteenth- Century England (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003). 70. Ibid., pp. 126–7.

5 Lifting the Veil: A Nineteenth-century Perception of Nuns and Convents

1. Catherine Sinclair, Modern Superstition (London: Simpkin Marshall & Co., 1847), p. 10. 2. Gloria McAdam, My Dear Sister: An Analysis of Nineteenth-Century Documents Concerning the Founding of a Woman’s Religious Congregation (University of Bradford, PhD Thesis, 1994). 3. The Second Annual report of the Protestant Alliance (London 1853) claimed that the Protestant Alliance (a quasi-religious and patriotic organisation which was founded in 1851 as an offshoot of the Protestant Association to resist the territorial usurpation of the Pope) had collected over 2,500 signa- tures on a petition demanding convent regulation. 4. For example, during the debate on the Convent Bill, Henry Drummond accused Father Faber of going around the country seducing young women. 5. Robert Klaus, The Pope, The Protestants and the Irish (London: Garland Publishing, 1987), chapter iv. 6. Rev. R.P. Blakeney, Popery in its Social Aspect. Being a complete Exposure of the Immorality and Intolerance of Romanism (London: Hamilton Adams & Co., 1856), p. 245. 7. Fraser Harrison, The Dark Angel. Aspects of Victorian Sexuality (London: Sheldon Press, 1977), pp. 31–3. 8. Henry Drummond, A Plea for the Rights and Liberties of Religious Women Imprisoned for Life Under the Power of Priests (London: T. Bosworth, 1851), p. 7. 174 Notes

9. For a more detailed discussion see Jane Ussher, Women’s Madness. Misogyny or Mental Illness (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), chapter 4. 10. Ussher, p. 71. In the 1830s it was being recommended that ‘in the case of public asylum, a larger portion of the building should be allotted to females as their numbers always predominate’ (W. Browne, What Asylums Were and Ought to Be (1837) New York, Arno Press, Reprint 1976). 11. Jules Michelet, Priests, Women and Families (London: Charles Edmonds, 1846), p. 53. 12. G. Burrows, Commentaries on Insanity (London: Underwood, 1828). Quoted in Ussher, p. 74. 13. Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilisation: A History of Insanity in the Age of Reason, trans. Richard Howard (London: Routledge, 1997), pp. 255–7. 14. Walter Lancelot Holland, Walled Up Nuns and Nuns Walled in (London: J. Kensit, C. Thynne, W. Wileman, 1895). Although this work is published later than most of the texts in the present study, it is very typical of the earlier anti-Catholic literature and demonstrates how persistent this particular discourse was. 15. Irving Goffman, Asylums: Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates (London: Penguin Books, 1968). 16. Rachel McCrindell, The Convent: A Narrative Founded on Fact (London: Aylott and Jones, 1848), p. 89. 17. Ibid., p. 116. See illustration ‘Articles of Piety’. 18. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady, chapter 1. 19. Jules Michelet, Priests, Women and Families, part 2, p. 51. 20. Ibid., p. 53. It is interesting to note that this description is reproduced in the anti-convent work: Hints to Romanizers. No.1. the Confessional and the Conventual System (London: Seeleys, 1850). 21. For a typical male comment on the unfulfilled sexuality of a nun, see Samuel Day Phillips, Life in a Convent (London: A. Hall and Co., 1848), p. 22. ‘Oh! my hand shudders, my mind recoils, my blood chills, my soul sickens, at the very thought of those convent prisons, wherein are incarcerated the blooming maiden …’ 22. For a fuller explanation see Showalter, The Female Malady, chapter 2. 23. William Acton, The Functions and Disorders of the Reproductive Organs, in Childhood, Youth, Adult Age and Advanced Life, Considered in their Physiological, Social and Moral Relations. Quoted in Steven Marcus, The Other Victorians: A Study of Sexuality and Pornography in Mid-Nineteenth Century England (London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 1966), p. 31. 24. A Protestant, Nunneries (London: Houlson and Storeman, 1852), pp. 6–7. 25. Gavazzi’s Orations: Delivered in the Music Hall Sheffield on the 9th. 10th. 13th. 14th. and 15th. November 1852 (Sheffield: Sheffield Free Press, 1852), pp. 26–7. 26. Gavazzi’s Orations: Delivered at the Town Hall Brighton 1855 (Brighton: Charles E. Verral, 1855), p. 6. 27. David Bogue, Orations of Father Gavazzi (London: A.M. Piggott, 1851), pp. 49–54. 28. Gavazzi’s Orations. April 5th. 1854. The Assembly Rooms, Kennington Park London (London: A.M. Pigott, 1854), pp. 12–13. 29. Rev. John Jessopp, Woman (London: A.M. Pigott, 1851), p. 27. 30. Ibid., pp. 22 and 90. Notes 175

31. Gavazzi’s Orations. The Assembly Rooms Kennington Park, London (5 April 1854), p. 7. 32. Ibid., pp. 9–10. 33. Gavazzi’s Orations. Sheffield 1852, p. 27. 34. A term used by Michelet when talking about the tyranny of ‘female Jesuits’. 35. Maria Monk’s Awful Disclosures (1836). 36. G. Viner, Priests and Their Victims: Scenes in a Convent (London: H. Eliot, 1850), p. 7. 37. Ibid., p. 6. 38. Mary Martha Sherwood, The Nun (London: Seeleys, 1836), p. 326. 39. Ibid., p. 177. 40. There is more than a suggestion of lesbianism in this passage with Annunciata portrayed as the dominant partner who has captivated a suscep- tible Superior by her beauty. 41. The Nun, p. 196. 42. Henry Drummond MP, A Plea for the Rights of Women Imprisoned for Life Under the Power of Priests (London: T. Bosworth, 1851), p. 9. 43. Rachel McCrindell, The Convent. A Narrative Founded on Fact (London: Aylott and Jones, 1848), p. iii. For McCrindell’s earlier anti-Catholic work The Schoolgirl in France (1844) see earlier pp. 114–22. 44. Rachel McCrindell, The Convent, p. iv. 45. Ibid., p. 54. 46. Ibid., pp. 187–8. 47. Ibid., p. 192. 48. Karen McCarthy Brown, ‘Fundamentalism and the Control of Women’, in John Stratton Hawley, ed. Fundamentalism and Gender (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 175. 49. Rev. John Jessopp, Woman, pp. 140–1 and 10. 50. It is interesting to note that Day Phillips’ ideas on solitude concur with those of Foucault in his analysis of discipline and punishment more than a hundred years later. Samuel Day Phillips, Life in a Convent (London: A. Hall, 1848), p. 34. 51. See Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady, pp. 68–70 for a more detailed expla- nation of this method of punishment. 52. Charlotte Brontë, Villette, p. 273. 53. Foucault, Madness and Civilisation, p. 258. 54. Samuel Day Phillips, Life in a Convent, p. 35. 55. Ibid., p. 36. 56. Ibid., pp. 48–9. 57. Ibid., p. 49. 58. L.H. Tonna, Nuns and Nunneries, p. 306.

6 Nineteenth-century Anti-Catholic Discourse in the Brontë’s Local Newspapers

1. This will be discussed more fully in the chapters relating to the individual novels. 2. Lisa Wang, Uses of Theological Discourse in the Novels of the Brontë Sisters (London: Birkbeck College, PhD Thesis, 1998), p. 41. 176 Notes

3. Christine Alexander, The Early Writings of Charlotte Brontë (Oxford: Blackwell, 1983). 4. This is referred to in Sally Shuttleworth, ‘The Dynamics of Cross Culturalism in Charlotte Brontë’s Fiction’, in Michael Cotsell, ed., English Literature and the Wider World. Vol. 3. Creditable Warriors 1830–76 (London: Ashfield Press, 1990), p. 184. 5. The Shakespeare Head Brontë. Miscellaneous and Unpublished Writings of Charlotte and Patrick Branwell Brontë (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1936), vol. 1, p. 1. Attributed to Charlotte Brontë, The History of the Year. 6. Leeds Intelligencer, 27 May 1848. 7. Ibid., 3 June 1848. 8. Ibid., 30 September 1848. 9. Leeds Mercury, 30 September 1848. 10. Leeds Intelligencer, 20 January 1849. 11. Ibid., 27 January 1849. 12. Ibid., 11 August 1849. 13. See Leeds Mercury, 26 October, 16 and 23 November, 7 and 28 December 1850. Leeds Intelligencer, 26 October, 2 November, 7 and 14 December 1850. 14. Leeds Mercury, 2 February and 9 March 1850. 15. Leeds Intelligencer, 7 December 1850. Sermons at Gisburn, Markington and Northallerton are also reported. 16. Leeds Mercury, 7 December 1850. This sermon was preached at Haworth (home of the Brontë family): ‘On Sunday last, a sermon was preached in the church of Haworth by the Rev. William Cortman, on the late popish aggression. The congregation was unusually large, and seemed deeply impressed by the solemn and important truths adduced on the occasion.’ 17. Leeds Intelligencer, 26 October 1850. 18. Leeds Intelligencer, 18 January 1851. 19. For a fuller explanation of this case see Chapter 2 of this book. 20. Leeds Mercury, 7 April 1852. 21. As mentioned in Chapter 5, Father Gavazzi preached several ‘Orations’ on the various evils of Catholicism in England in the 1850s. 22. See earlier p. 78.

7 The Perceived Anti-Catholicism of Charlotte Brontë’s Novel: The Professor

1. Arthur B. Nicholls, Preface to Charlotte Brontë, The Professor (London: Smith and Elder, 1857). 2. Ibid. 3. For further discussion of Brontë’s use of a male narrator see Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman In The Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth- Century Literary Imagination, pp. 315–17. 4. Charlotte Brontë, The Professor, ed. Margaret Smith and Herbert Rosengarten (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 54. For the rest of the chapter the above edition of the novel will be referenced as Professor followed by the page number. Notes 177

5. Sally Shuttleworth, ‘The Dynamics of Cross Culturalism in Charlotte Brontë’s Fiction’, in Michael Cotsell, ed. English Literature and the Wider World. Vol. 3. 1830–1876 (London: Ashfield Press, 1990), p. 178. 6. cf. Lucy Snowe’s confession in Villette. The priest would ‘poison’ the Catholic M. Paul against the Protestant Lucy. In this case the pupil/teacher motif is reversed. 7. As recorded earlier p. 95, the Leeds Intelligencer (1851) gives a good example of nineteenth-century Protestant thinking about nuns and convents. In a report on the Talbot Case, convent life is referred to as ‘Egyptian Bondage’ and comments on how living in the ‘torpifying atmosphere’ of a nunnery would effect the life of a young, impressionable girl. 8. The Professor p. 207. Crimsworth, having kissed Frances, realises that his passion for her is physical as well as spiritual. 9. Letter from Charlotte Brontë to Miss Wooler, November 1846, in Juliet Barker, The Brontës: A Life in Letters, pp. 156–7. 10. Symptoms of hypochondria, in Dr Thomas John Graham, Modern Domestic Medicine (1826). Quoted in the notes to The Professor, ed. Heather Glen (London: Penguin Books, 1989), pp. 311–12. 11. Charlotte Brontë, ‘Reason’, an undated poem in Stevie Davies, ed., The Brontë Sisters: Selected Poems (Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1988), p. 52. 12. Like Rochester in Jane Eyre, Hunsden is heir to a Northern estate, Hunsden- Wood, and comes from a local, old family. Where Rochester was expected to make an advantageous marriage with Bertha to enhance his family’s prosperity, Hunsden has become a mill owner and manufacturer in order to restore the partially decayed fortunes of his house.

8 Jane Eyre: Anti-Catholic or Anti-Christian? Shirley: A ‘Social’ Novel

1. Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre, ed. Margaret Smith (Oxford University Press, 2000), pp. 3–4. For the rest of the chapter the above edition of the novel will be referenced as Jane Eyre followed by the page number. 2. Ibid., introduction, p. vii. 3. Ellen Nussey’s, ‘Charlotte as a Schoolgirl’, Scribner’s Magazine, May 1871, cited in E.M Delafield, The Brontës: Their Lives Recorded by their Contemporaries (London: The Hogarth Press, 1935), p. 37. 4. Professor M. Christian and Miss A. Forster have prepared a card index file of these books. It is kept at the Haworth Parsonage Museum. 5. Tom Winnifrith, The Brontës and Their Background. Romance and Reality (Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Press, 1988), pp. 28 and 31. 6. Marianne Thormalen, The Brontës and Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), p. 37. 7. Mrs Gaskell, The Life of Charlotte Brontë (London: Penguin Books, 1997), p. 58. 8. H. Shepheard, A Vindication of the Clergy Daughter’s School, and of the Rev. Carus Wilson (Kirkby Lonsdale: Robert Morphet and London: Seeley, Jackson and Halliday, 1857). 9. In particular the Sunday school periodical edited by Rev. Carus Wilson, The Children’s Friend (Kirkby Lonsdale: 1800–50), and The Teacher’s Visitor. 178 Notes

(London: Seeley, Burnside and Seeley, 1844–49). He also wrote and edited other cautionary tales for children. 10. For a fuller explanation of this see Diana Peschier, The Way to Heaven: Contrasting Responses to Early Nineteenth-Century Sunday School Literature, Thesis for MA Women’s History: Gender and Society in Britain and Europe 1500–1980 (London University: Royal Holloway College, 1994). 11. There are many examples of such moral tales. Titles include: Hints to Girls on Dress Especially Intended for Scholars in Daily and Sunday School (London: Religious Tract Society, 1836); Mary. The Fruits of Instruction (London: Ogle, Dawson and Co., 1820). There are also many similar stories in the children’s magazine edited by Rev.W.Carus Wilson, The Children’s Friend, in particular the editions for 1825 and 1826. 12. 2 Kings 9: 30. 13. Elizabeth Imlay, Charlotte Brontë and the Mysteries of Love: Myth and Allegory in Jane Eyre (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1989), p. 93. 14. Ibid., pp. 96–7. 15. Ibid., p. 100. 16. Ibid., p. 97. 17. For a more detailed example of Charlotte Brontë’s ideas on women’s need for occupation, that just like their brothers they have the need to exercise their faculties, see Jane Eyre, p. 109. 18. See The Professor, pp. 88–92 and Jane Eyre, p. 294. 19. Rochester’s character can also be seen as being like that of the secret Catholic aristocrat, a figure such as Frances Trollope’s De Morley in Father Eustace. This figure called to mind eighteenth-century Catholic power in England, and was associated with secrecy, private hidden chapels, priest holes and also often with great wealth and influence. 20. Like Father Eustace in Frances Trollope’s novel, Father Eustace. 21. Of interest to this subject of the connection between Catholicism and effeminacy is David Hilliard’s article: ‘Un-English and Unmanly: Anglo Catholicism and Homosexuality’, Victorian Studies, 25 (1982). 22. Clement Shorter, ‘The Brontës. One Aspect of Brussels 1842. Letter from Mary Taylor in New Zealand to Mrs Gaskell’, in Delafield, The Brontës: Their Lives Recorded by their Contemporaries (Stroud: Ian Hodgkins, 1979), p. 145. 23. Elizabeth Imlay, Charlotte Brontë and the Mysteries of Love: Myth and Allegory in Jane Eyre, p. 99. 24. Elaine Showalter, A Literature of Their Own (London: Virago, 1991), p. 117. 25. This was a very common usage in nineteenth-century anti-convent litera- ture, tending to stress the ‘foreignness’ of Roman Catholicism. 26. During the nineteenth century, convents were alleged to have sold the hair cut from the heads of postulants as hair pieces and wigs for more fashionable females. 27. Romanism versus Protestantism. London 1851. Chart the Abuses of Romanism. 28. These point are made in Romanism Versus Protestantism. 29. Rev. T.R. Birks, Rector of Kelsall, Herts, Popery in the Bud and in the Flower. A Lecture Delivered before the Protestant Alliance. May 25 (London: Partridge and Oakey, 1853), p. 6. 30. Valerie Grosvenor Myer, Charlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit (London: Vision and Barnes and Noble), p. 89. Notes 179

31. Charlotte Brontë, ‘Letter to Ellen Nussey Ambleside December 18. 1850’, in Margaret Smith, ed. The Letters of Charlotte Brontë (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), vol. 2. 32. Letter 3 Fitzwilliam Museum. Attributed to 1852. Quoted in Valerie Grosvenor Myer, Charlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit, p. 84. 33. Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p. 238. 34. Abbé Petigny, Allocution adressée aux prisionners, à l’occasion de l’inauguration des bâtiments cellulaires de la prison de Versailles quoted in ibid., p. 239. 35. Exodus 20: 4; Leviticus 26:1; Deuteronomy 5: 8. 36. Isaiah 42:17. 37. One fairly extreme example, which is at the the same time typical of this, can be found in Rev. Birks’ lecture against Popery: Popery in the Bud and in the Flower. A Lecture. 38. In anti-Catholic literature nuns and Jesuits are described as gliding rather than walking to emphasise their stealth. 39. For a fuller explanation of this image and its origin, see the explanatory notes, Jane Eyre, p. 484. 40. See, Valerie Grosvenor Myer, Charlotte Brontë: Truculent Spirit, p. 66. 41. See Beth Newman ed., Jane Eyre, Charlotte Brontë (Boston, New York: Bedford Books, 1996). ‘Two related but separable aspects of Jane Eyre, have shaped the way later critics have approached its political implications. One is the novel’s embrace of individualism, which it endorses through Jane’s self-assertive rise from social obscurity, her insistence on her rights to self creation and self ful- filment, and her desire for personal and economic independence. The other is its exploration of Jane’s plight particularly as a woman’ p. 454. 42. Charlotte Brontë, Shirley, ed. Herbert Rosengarten and Margaret Smith (Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 174. For the rest of the chapter the above edition of the novel will be referenced as Shirley followed by the page number.

9 The Priestcraft of the Book: Representations of Catholicism in Villette

1. Charlotte Brontë, Letter to Ellen Nussey, Haworth: 14 July 1849. The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, vol. 2, ed. Margaret Smith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), p. 230. 2. Rosemary Clarke-Beattie, ‘Fables of Rebellion: Anti-Catholicism and The Structure of Villette’, ELH 53 (1986): p. 823. 3. Letter to Miss Wooler on the publication of Villette 13 April 1853. 4. For a fuller explanation see Juliet Barker, The Brontës (London: Weidenfield and Nicolson, 1997), pp. 718–19. 5. Letter to Ellen Nussey, Brussels April 1843. The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, vol. 1, p. 315. 6. Charlotte Brontë to W.S. Williams, 6 November 1852. Quoted in The Shakespeare Head Brontë, vol. 4. 1852–1928, p. 18. 7. Letter to Rev. P. Brontë from Charlotte in London, 17 June 1851. The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, vol. 2. ed. Margaret Smith, p. 236. 8. Ibid. 180 Notes

9. Charles Kingsley, The Saint’s Tragedy; or, The True Story of Elizabeth of Hungary, Landgravine of Thuringia, Saint of the Romish Calendar (London: John W. Parker, 1848). 10. Ibid., p. 194. 11. During the time that Charlotte Brontë was writing Villette, her letters to Ellen Nussey show that she was very depressed and suffering a great deal from bad headaches. In August 1852 she tells Ellen how unhappy she is, not because she is a single woman and likely to remain so but because she is a lonely woman and likely to be lonely. In September 1852, when writing to Ellen about Villette she says; ‘I feel fettered, incapable, sometimes very low. However at present the subject must not be dwelt upon; it presses me too hardly, wearily, painfully.’ Charlotte Brontë, Letters to Ellen Nussey (Bradford: Horsefall Turner, 1885). 12. For further explanation of this idea see Sally Shuttleworth, ‘The Surveillance of the Sleepless Eye: The Constitution of Neurosis in Villette’, in Charlotte Brontë and Victorian Psychology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 142–7. 13. In January 1853, Charlotte Brontë visited Bethlehem Hospital with Dr Forbes. She was particularly interested in patients kept in solitary confinement. 14. Quoted in Robert Heilman, ‘Charlotte Brontë’s new Gothic’, in The Brontës. A Collection of Critical Essays, ed. Ian Gregor (London: Prentice Hall, 1970), p. 108. 15. Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady; Women, Madness and English Culture, 1830–1980 (London: Virago, 1991), p. 69. 16. A Constant Observer, Sketches in Bedlam: or Characteristic Traits of Insanity as Displayed in the Cases of One Hundred and Forty Patients of both Sexes Now or Recently Confined in New Bethlehem (London: Sherwood Jones & Co., 1823). 17. Ibid., p. 288. 18. See Sketches in Bedlam for a more comprehensive description and to note the illustrious visitors who visited the hospital and afterwards made very positive comments about it in the visitor’s book. 19. George Burrows, Commentaries on the Causes, Forms, Symptoms and Treatment, Moral and Medical of Insanity (London: Thos. & George Underwood, 1828). 20. Ibid., p. 256. 21. Thomas Laycock, A Treatise on the Nervous Diseases of Women (London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, 1840), p. 143. 22. Jean Etienne Esquirol, Mental Maladies: A Treatise on Insanity, trans. E.J. Hunt (Philadelphia: Lea and Blanchard, 1845), pp. 19–20. Quoted in Embodied Selves, an Anthology of Psychological Texts 1830–1890, ed. Jenny Bourne Taylor and Sally Shuttleworth (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998). 23. Caleb Crowther MD (formerly senior physician to the West Riding Pauper Lunatic Asylum), Observations on the Management of Madhouses. Part 2 (London: Simpkin, Marshall and Co., 1841). 24. Villette, p. 72. Ignacia is the feminised form of Ignatius. Here Brontë is referring to Ignatius Loyola, the founder of the Jesuits. 25. Mrs Gaskell was married to the Rev. William Gaskell a Unitarian minister. In general, Dissenters and Anglicans presented a united front against the papal aggression of the 1850s. 26. Ibid., p. 163. Notes 181

27. Unitarians believe that God is one person and reject the doctrine of the Trinity and the divinity of Christ. They take reason, conscience and character as the criteria of belief and practice. Repressed sexuality would, therefore be a logical explanation for Lucy’s behaviour from a Unitarian perspective. 28. Ibid., p. 164. 29. A reference to imprisonment: ‘Put this fellow in the prison and feed him with bread of affliction and the water of affliction’ (1 Kings 22:27 and 2 Chronicles 18:26). 30. Lucy Snowe’s encounter with the paintings of the Cleopatra and La Vie d’une Femme, her insight into the emotion of Vashti’s performance and her absorption of the myth of the buried nun show this understanding. The dreamlike scene in which Lucy is drugged by Madame Beck and moves through the nocturnal festivities of Villette, illustrates the fairy tale motifs of nuns, goblins and scheming priests under the symbolically significant cloak of Catholicism. 31. See John Maynard, Charlotte Brontë and Sexuality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 32. For a detailed explanation of Brontë’s use of exegesis see the chapter on Villette in Christina Crosby, The Ends of History (London: Routledge, 1991). 33. Judith Williams, Perception and Expression in the Novels of Charlotte Brontë (London: U.M.I. Research Press, Ann Arbor, 1988). 34. Gilbert and Gubar, The Madwoman in the Attic: The Woman Writer and the Nineteenth Century Literary Imagination, p. 415. 35. Ibid., p. 415. Gilbert and Gubar allude to Wordsworth’s 1807 poem ‘Nuns Fret not at their Convent’s Narrow Room’. 36. Charlotte Brontë, Letter to Ellen Nussey Brussels, 13 October 1843, The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, p. 334. 37. Ibid., Brussels. n.d. (next letter January, from England). 38. J.C. Bucknill and D.H. Tuke, A Manual of Psychological Medicine, 3rd edn (London: J.A. Churchill, 1874), pp. 671–2 (1st edn 1858). Cited in Sally Shuttleworth, Charlotte Brontë and Victorian Psychology, pp. 44–5. 39. See also Villette, p. 143, where M. Paul is said to be the soul of honour who could be trusted with a regiment of the fairest and purest in perfect security that under his leadership they would come to no harm. 40. Sally Shuttleworth, Charlotte Brontë and Victorian Psychology, pp. 226–7. 41. OED ref. (1) ‘Congregation or college of the Propaganda – A committee of cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church, having the care and over-sight of foreign missions, founded in 1622 by Pope Gregory xv.’ (2) ‘By association, systematic scheme or concerted movement for the propagation of a particu- lar doctrine or practice.’ 42. See Villette, p. 69 for an example of this. 43. See Villette, p. 105 where Lucy praises Madame Beck’s good sense. 44. In the anti-Catholic literature of this time stories of young nuns being sedated and carried off to the Continent, where they are incarcerated in an attempt to keep them quiet when they became difficult, were fairly wide- spread. 45. See Villette, pp. 391–5 for a fuller explanation. 46. Kate Lawson, ‘Reading Desire: Villette as Heretic Narrative’, in English Studies in Canada 17 March 1991. 182 Notes

47. For a good example of this, see Fanny Trollope, Father Eustace. 48. Jan Jedrzejewski, ‘Charlotte Brontë and Roman Catholicism’, Brontë Society Transactions. The Journal of Brontë Studies (October 2000), p. 127. 49. Ibid., p. 131. 50. It was also thought, for reasons discussed earlier, to be sexually dangerous. 51. Charlotte Brontë, Letter to Ellen Nussey, 15 May 1840, The Letters of Charlotte Brontë, p. 217. 52. Jan Jedrzejewski, ‘Charlotte Brontë and Roman Catholicism’, p. 133. 53. For further explanation about Fenelon see Terry Lovell, ‘Gender and Englishness in Villette’, in Sally Ledger, Josephine McDonagh and Jane Spencer, eds, Political Gender: Texts and Contexts (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994). 54. Judith Walkowitz, City of Dreadful Delight, p. 17. 55. Victorian views on women are almost parodied here. 56. Jedrzejewski makes this point in ‘Charlotte Brontë and Roman Catholicism’, p. 122, but he reduces Frances Trollope’s Father Eustace to an example of ‘less than subtle religious propaganda’ which ignores the sympathetic attitude the author portrays towards the Jesuit anti-hero. 57. Brontë likens Père Silas to the Devil tempting Jesus in the wilderness when he was fasting and vulnerable. Lucy is starving for love, and by embracing Catholicism would clearly have a much better chance of marrying M. Paul. 58. For a further explanation of this theory, see Irene Taylor, Holy Ghosts. The Male Muses and Charlotte Brontë (New York, Oxford: Columbia University Press, 1990). 59. Printed in The Shakespeare Head Brontë. The Brontës, Their Lives, Friendships and Correspondence, vol. 4, 1852–1928, p. 18. 60. Charlotte Brontë, ‘Letter to Ellen Nussey October 1852’ in Letters to Ellen Nussey (Bradford: Horsefall, Turner, 1885). 61. Gayla McGlamery, ‘This Unlicked Wolf Cub’: Anti-Catholicism in Charlotte Brontë’s Villette’, in Cahiers Victoriens et Edourdiens, vol. 37, 1993, p. 67.

10 Conclusion: A Discourse of Fear Engendered by the Rise of Roman Catholicism in Mid-nineteenth-century England

1. Catherine Sinclair, The Priest and the Curate (London: Richard Bentley, 1853), p. 41. 2. Ibid., p. 172. 3. Robert B. Carter, On The Pathology and Treatment of Hysteria (London: John Churchill, 1853). 4. Ibid., p. 73. 5. George Burrows MD, Commentaries in the Causes, Forms Symptoms and Treatment, Moral and Medical, of Insanity (London: Thos. & George Underwood, 1828), Commentary 11. 6. Roy Porter, ‘The Body and the Mind, the Doctor and the Patient, Negotiating Hysteria’, in eds Gilman, Sander, King, Porter, Rousseau, Showalter, Hysteria Before Freud (London: University of California Press, 1993). Bibliography and Sources

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Abbott, S.J. 43 criticism and interpretation 7, 9, Achilli, Giacinto 93, 95–6, 165 131, 147, 164, 166 Adam (Bible)80 depression 123, 148–9, 180 Agatha, Sister (Father Eustace) 59–61 gender-coding 105, 108 Agnes, Sister (Priests and Their loneliness 117–18, 148 Victims)82 on Cardinal Wiseman 140 Ainley, Miss Mary Ann (Shirley) 133 on Catholic girls 99–101 Alexander, Christine 91 on control of girls and women Ambrose, Father (Father Eustace) 111–12 52–3, 54 on female celibacy 106–7 Annunciata (The Nun) 83, 84, 175 on nuns 118–19, 121, 122–3 anti-Catholic fiction 7, 45 on Protestant women 139–40 anti-Catholicism 1–2, 5, 23–4 on women’s mental health 133–4 causes for rise of 2–3, 162 portrayal of Catholicism 1, 7–8, anti-Catholic literature 4, 5–6, 10, 91, 105–6, 113, 126, 138–9, 14–15, 42, 45, 162–3, 164 157, 166 Armstrong, Rev. John 30 Brown, Karen McCarthy 86, 87 Awful Disclosures 10 Bryce, David 35–6, 37 Bucknill, J.C. 150 Bainbridge, Mr. (The Jesuit in the Burdett, Sir Francis 169 Family) 46–7 Burns, Helen (Jane Eyre) 112, 113, Beatrice or, the Unknown Relatives 126, 151 39–40, 62–3 Burrows, George 143, 164 Beattie, Rosemary Clark 7, 138 Becket, Rev. 94 Cahill, Dr. 95 Beck, Madame (Villette) 49, 104, 114, Carter, Robert Brudenell 163, 164 144, 150, 153–6 Catholic Association 2, 169 Bedford, Rev. William Riland Catholic clergy 26–7, 31 abduction of women 11–13, Bedford, W.A. 93 39–40, 167 Bible 5, 84, 110, 111, 112 effeminacy 15, 55, 101, 117 reinterpretation 80 power over women 31–2, 33–4 Blakeny, Rev. R.P. 92 reptilian imagery 25, 34, 39, 47–8 Brigham, Rev. Charles 29–30 Catholic Emancipation 2, 91, 169 Brocklehurst, Mr. (Jane Eyre) 110, Catholic hierarchy restoration 111, 112, 114, 117, 150 2–3, 4 attitude of Jane Eyre towards Catholicism 2, 47 118–19 abuses 120 Brocklehurst, Mrs. (Jane Eyre) 114–15 foreignness 23, 27, 67, 94, 100, Brontë, Charlotte 105, 116, 141 as a schoolgirl 109–10 gender-coding 105, 108 characters 98–9, 163–4: see also in newspapers 92 specific names cautionary tales 39–42

193 194 Index celibacy 5, 52, 72, 141 Dark Angel, The 72 female 96 Dark Deeds of the Papacy Contrasted in literature 106–7 with Bright Lights of the Gospel, Chiniquy, Father Charles 33–4 Also the Jesuits Unmasked and Church of England 2, 3 Popery Unchangeable 4 Clarice (The Nun) 83, 84 DeMorley, Juliana (Father Eustace) Clark-Beattie, Rosemary 138 52, 55–6, 58, 61–2, 67 Clement XIII, Pope 4 Dens, Peter 36, 37, 169 Combe, Andrew 88 DHU, Helen 46, 63 confessional 25–6, 92–3 Doyle v. Wright case 18–20 and sexual morality 29–30, 33–5 Drummond, Henry 5, 71, 84, 85 cautionary tales 40–2 Duncker, Patricia 8 impact on Italy 27–8 in literature 157–8, 160 Edgar, Father (Father Eustace) 58, objectives 38–9 59–61 questions 35, 36–8 Edward, Frederick 40 Confessional Unmasked, The Elizabeth (The Saint’s Tragedy) 141 35–6, 38 Emmanuel, Paul (Villette) 99, 116, Connelly v. Connelly case 10 137, 149–50, 150–1, 152–3, 155, Convent: A Narrative Founded on Fact 160, 172 74–5, 85–6 Esquirol, Jean Etienne 143 Convent Bill (1851) 71 Eustace, Father (Father Eustace) 55–7, convent education 62–3 58, 61, 116, 171, 172 in literature 63–9, 95 Eve (Bible) 80, 112 Lowood School (Jane Eyre) 112, Examination of Conscience 37–8 114, 115, 118 Eyre, Jane (Jane Eyre) 111, 128–9, 136 Pensionnat Beck (Villette) 100, attitude towards Brocklehurst 114, 144, 145, 154 118–19 Pensionnat de Demoiselles (The characterization 116, 179 Professor) 104, 107 loneliness 115–16, 119, 124, 125, convent life 43, 75–6, 83, 86, 95, 127–8 145, 177 nun-like qualities 115–16, 118–19, convents and nunneries 6–7, 125–6 10, 178 school life 114, 115 as lunatic asylums 73–4, 164 dangers of 43–4 Father Eustace: A Tale of the Jesuits fortifications 20–1 52–62, 67, 171, 182 in literature 75–8, 81–6, 154 Female Jesuit Abroad, The 48 rise of 71 female Jesuits 49 sexual morality 22, 71–2, 73 in literature 6, 48–51, 59, 105, threat to English society 78–9 153–4, 157 Courrier, Paul Louis 32 Female Jesuits and Jesuit Agents 48 Crimsworth, William (The Professor) Female Jesuit, The 48, 50–1 98, 99, 100–1 Fenelon (Villette) 158 characterization 101–2 Foucault, Michel 28, 74, 88, 124, 175 hypochondriac 102–3 relationship with Hunsden Garden of The Soul, The 26–7 107–8 Gaskell, Elizabeth 110, 117, 140, Cunningham, Rev. John 52 145, 146, 180 Index 195

Gavazzi, Father Alessandro 78–9, 80, Jesuit in the Family, The 46–8, 46 81, 96 Jesuits 4, 6, 46, 80, 170, 179 Gilbert, Sandra 59, 99, 148 in literature 46–8, 52–61, 149, 151, Giovanna, Sister (The Convent) 152–3, 156–7, 157–60 74–5, 85 see also female Jesuits Goffman, Irving 74 Jezebel 112 Gordon, Lyndall 8 John, Dr. (Villette) 143, 146, 154, Gothic fiction 5–6, 45 155, 159–60 Gubar, Susan 59, 99, 148 Keble, John 3 Hall, Catherine 44 Keeldar, Shirley (Shirley) 134 Harrison, Fraser 72 Kingsley, Charles 140, 141 Heldivier family 12, 13–15 Klaus, Robert 71 Helstone, Caroline (Shirley) 132–3, 135–6 laudanum 57 loneliness 133 Laycock, Thomas 143 Henri, Frances (The Professor) 98, Leeds Intelligencer (newspaper) 100, 103–4, 106, 107, 116 91–2, 177 History of Sexuality, The 28 Cardinal Newman’s visit Hogan, William 31–3 to Leeds 95 Howard, Caroline (The Schoolgirl in Catholicism 92–3 France) 64, 65–7, 69 confessional 94 Hunsden (The Professor) 99, Dr. Cahill 95 107–8, 177 papal aggression 93 hypochondria in literature 102–3, Talbot case 94–5 123–4, 127 Leeds Mercury (newspaper) 91–2, 176 hysteria 31, 44–5, 143, 163–4 Catholicism 92–3, 95 Hystories 45 Dr. Achilli 93 Father Gavazzi’s comments on nuns ‘id’ 147 96–7 idol worship 126, 134 Newman v. Achilli case 95–6 Ignatius of Loyola, St. 4, 49 ‘lifting the veil’ 89–90 Imlay, Elizabeth 113–14, 118 Liguori, Saint Alphonso 69 Inez: A Spanish Story Founded on Facts, Lucy (The Poor Clare) 145–7 Illustrating One of the Many Evils of Luke, Jemima 48, 49, 50, 51 Auricular Confession 40–1 lunatic asylums 7, 73–4, 144 insanity 73–4 surveillance 145 and solitary confinement 87–9, 124, 145 McAdam, Gloria 70 in literature 141–3, 163–4 McCrindell, Rachel 63, 64, 74, 85 treatment 75 McDermott, Eliza 167 Irish in England 2 McGlamery, Gayla 9, 161 Isabel (The Convent) 85–6 Madwoman in the Attic, The 59, 148 Malcolm, Mrs. (The Jesuit in the Jane Eyre 9, 109, 131, 136–7, 148, Family) 46–7 150, 179 Manual of Modern Medicine 150 Jedrzejewski, Jan 157, 171 Maria Nun (Priests and their Victims) Jerningham, Miss. 19 82–3 Jessopp, Rev. John 79, 87 Marie (The Female Jesuit) 48, 50 196 Index

Martineau, Harriet 7, 139 patriarchal culture 15–16, 22–3, 27, Martin, Robert Bernard 7–8 28, 42 Massy, Rev. Dawson 4, 5 Peakman, Julie 69 Maynard, John 147 Philip II, King of Spain 13–14 Maynooth College (Ireland) 29 Phillips, Samuel Day 87, 88, 175 Michelet, Jules 25–6, 75, 76, 81 Pinel, Philippe 88 Mighty Lewd Books 69 Pius VII, Pope 4 Millingen, J.G. 31 Poor Clare, The 145–7 monasticism 121 Porter, Roy 164 Monk, Maria 10, 82 Practical Christianity 44 Monthly Record of the Protestant Priests and Their Victims 81 Evangelical Mission 38 Professor, The 8, 98–9 Moore, Louis (Shirley) 135 Progress of Beguilement to Romanism, Moore, Robert (Shirley) 132, 135, 137 The 41–2 Mortimer, Emily (The Schoolgirl in Protestant Alliance 121, 173 France) 64, 65–6, 68–9 Protestantism 6, 94 Mother Superiors in literature 81, gender-coding 105 121, 144, 155–6 Protestant Magazine, The 46 Munby, Arthur 171 Pryor, Mrs. (Shirley) 133–4 Murphy, William 35 psychic allegory 9 Myers, Valerie Grosvenor 123 Pusey, Edwards Bouverie 3 Puseyites 3, 96 Newman, Cardinal John Henry 3, 23, 95, 165, 167 Quarterly Review, The 131 Newman v. Achilli case 95–6 Nicholls, Arthur Bell 98 Radcliffe, Ann 45 No Popery movement (1850–51) 3, Reed, Eliza ( Jane Eyre) 120–1, 122–3 4, 46, 71 Reed, Georgiana ( Jane Eyre) 120–1, novel 5–6, 9 122, 123 nunneries see convents and nunneries religious allegory 9 nuns 44, 63, 179, 181 Reuter, Zoraïde (The Professor) 99, dual personality 84–5, 89 104–5 Father Gavazzi’s comments 96–7 Rivers, St. John (Jane Eyre) 128, gendered interpretation 70–1, 129–30 79–80 Rochester, Bertha (Jane Eyre) 116 in literature 74–5, 80–7, 89, Rochester, Edward (Jane Eyre) 107, 117–19, 121, 122–3, 135 127, 129, 130, 136–7, 177, 178 movement to Continent 21 characterization 116–17 surveillance 104, 144–5 Rogison, Susannah 144 Nun, The 83–4 Roman Catholic Relief Act 2 Nussey, Ellen 109–10, 123, 139, 148, Romanism Versus Protestantism, Or, the 161, 180 Inevitable Result of the Present Crisis in the World’s History 117 O’Beirne, Eugene F. 29, 30 Rosina (The Convent) 85–6 O’Connell, Daniel 2, 34, 169 Oxford Movement 3, 7 St Saviour’s Church (Leeds) 94 Saint’s Tragedy, The 140–1 papal aggression 2, 7, 91, 93 Sarah, Lady (Father Eustace) 52–3, 54 Pastoral Letter 2 satanic cults 45–6 Index 197

Schaff, Philip 47 Thomson, Rev. Andrew 27 Schoolgirl in France, The 63 Times 11, 18 Schreiber, Annette 9 abduction of girls 11–13, 39–40 Seager, Charles 48 conversion of boys 15–18 Secret Instructions of the Jesuits, The 83 total institutions 74 Seeleys 44 Tractarians 3 sexual morality Tracts for the Times 3 and confessional 29–30, 33–5; Traité médico-philosophique sur questions 35, 36–8 l’aliénation mentale 88 convents 22, 71–2, 73 Trollope, Frances 51–2, 53, 54, 55, 61 Victorian 71, 72–3 Tuke, D.H. 150 Seymour, Rev. M. Hobart 6, 18, Tuke, Samuel 75 20–2, 44 Tuke, William 75 Sherwood, Mary Martha 83, 84 Shirley 131–2 Unitarians 181 Showalter, Elaine 45, 118, 142 Shuttleworth, Sally 100, 142, 151 Vicar of Wrexhill, The 51, 52 Silas, Père (Villette) 144, 147, 157, Victoria, Queen 2–3 158–60, 166, 182 Villette 7–8, 8, 9, 59, 138–9, 160–1 Sinclair, Catherine 7, 10, 39–40, 62 solitary confinement 87–8 Sketches in Bedlam 142 Smart, Mary 142 Walled Up Nuns 74 Smith, Eliza 41–2, 63 Wallis, Frank 48 Smith, Margaret 109 Walravens, Madame (Villette) 59, Snowe, Lucy (Villette) 98, 99, 100, 155, 156 102, 103, 105, 116, 126, 136, 141, Wang, Lisa 7, 91 146, 158–9, 160–1, 181 West Riding Pauper Lunatic confessional 157–8, 160, 166 Asylum 144 loneliness 145, 154 Wheeler, Thomas 95 surveillance 149–50, 150–1, 154, Wilberforce, William 44 155, 156 Williams, W.S. 160 Society of Jesus 45, 46, 53–4 Wilson, Edmund 141 solitary confinement 87–9, Wilson, Rev. William Carus 110–11 124–5, 145 Winnifrith, Tom 8, 110 in literature 154 Wiseman, Cardinal Nicholas Patrick Spencer, George 26 2–3, 10, 20, 92, 140, 169 Stanhope Burleigh: The Jesuits in Our Woman 87 Home 63 women/girls Steele, Robert 35 abduction by Catholic clergy surveillance in literature 104–5, 11–13, 39–40, 167 114–15, 129, 144–5, 149–51, confession 25–7, 31–2, 33–4, 39; 153–4, 155, 156 questions 35, 36–7 Sylvie (The Professor) 100–1, 104 control, religiously sanctioned 73–4, 86–7, 111–12, Talbot, Augusta 18–20, 94–5 129–30, 163 Talbot case 18–20, 94–5 convent life 43–4 Tales of the Islanders, The 91 cruelty 81 Taylor, Irene 8 cultural construction 28–9 Taylor, Mary 117–18 ideal Evangelical woman 44 198 Index women/girls – continued vocation, religious 20–1, 113 incarceration 6–7, 144 vocation, true 93–4 infantilisation 79 Wooler, Miss 102, 139 in Gothic fiction 6 insanity 73–4, 76–7, 141–3, 163–4 Yorke, Rose (Villette) 136 single 70, 72–3, 88, 104, 107, 126, youth 131, 143, 149; Protestant and religious entrapment Catholic view 140 16, 20