An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace in the Field of Contemporary Political Philosophy

Intl. J. Humanities (200 8) Vol. 1 5 ( 2): ( 53 – 70 )

Seyed Ali Mahmoudi 1

Received: 24/5/2006 Accept: 30/8/2007

"A Dutch inn -keeper once put this satirical inscription on his signboard, along with the p icture of a graveyard. We shall not trouble to ask whether it applies to men in general, or particularly to heads of state (who can never have enough of war), or only to the philosophers who blissfully dream of perpetual peace." Immanuel Kant Perpetual pe ace (1795)

Abstract Philosophical sketch of Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804) on the primary conditions for Peace and co -existence between states is reflected in his Perpetual Peace . In Kant's view, three primary conditions of perpetual peace of a republican gove rnment in

Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 every country are based on a civil constitution, establishment of a federation of free states, and cosmopolitan right of individuals as world citizens. The foundations of republican system, i.e. freedom for all members of the society as human bei ngs, belonging of each individual to a public code of law as subject, and equality before law as a citizen, are important in Kant's political philosophy. Two primary responsibilities for Kant's federation of free states, i.e. non -interference in the intern al affairs of member states, and upholding of a unified front against extraterritorial aggression, suffer from ambiguity and inadequacy, and is therefore vulnerab le. Kant's formulation of "a unified world government" is cautionary and conditional; for it c an be ended to despotism and decline.

Keywords: Freedom, Democracy, Peace, War, Republic, State, Citizen.

1. Ph.D. in Politica l Sciences (Political Thought); Lecturer and Researcher of Political Philosophy .

53 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

Introduction on the i dea of a perpetual peace founded on Had the Prussian government declined to justice and international law. assume the leadership of the war against It is quite insig nif icant that Kant was rushed France's revolutionary government, and had the in his decision to publish the work, since in mili tary commander s, in the closing months of political matters the picking of the appropriate 1794, failed to come to the realization that moment of the essence. The first edition of beating the French was not as easy as they had Pe rpetual Peace was sold out in a matter of presumed, and thus had t o signed the Treaty of weeks. The second printing was accompanied Ball in early 1795 [1], Kant's Perpetual Peace ; by two annexes: "About the Conflict between a Philosophical Sketch may have assumed a Ethics and Politics Vis -à-vis Perpetual Peace", different form and he may not have published it and "About the Harmony between Politics and in Konigsberg in the same year as that of the Ethics on the Idea of the Transcendental Public signing of the Treaty of Ball. Of course, in the Right". The German edition of Perpetual Peace 18th century, Europe was the scene of countless was promptly rendered into English and French internal and external conflicts and Kant, as a and its contents were widely discussed philosopher concerned with the political and throughout the 19th century. military developments of the continent, could Kant had previously set forth his views on not remain indifferent to the catastrophic war and peace and international relatio ns in consequences of war for people and their rights such tracts as the "Idea for a Universal History and to the fate of humanity in the larger with a Cosmopolitan Purpose", "Conjectures on historical context. the Beginning of Human History", and "Theory Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 Perpetual Peace bursts with the great, and Practice". In his Critique of Judgment, Kant revolutionary, and epoch making ideas of a makes passing references to the notions of civil philosopher whose teaching have the potential society and cosmopolitan society as well as to of inspiring the crusaders for peace and security war and peace. However, his ideas about the for centuries to come. Kant's choice of the year latter subject go a long way back. Based on of publication (1795) is in itself an indica tion of Werlinder's account, the manuscripts , which the work's political undertones. He opted to came to light after Kant's death point to the take advantage of the social and political milieu German philosopher's musings about the created by the Treaty of Ball and to voice his subject of perpetual peace dating as far back as views - as a loyal citizen of Prussia and yet an 1755-6. Thus, Kant started thinking about war advocateof the ideals of the French revolution and peace some fo urty years prior to the

54 Mahmoudi S. A.

publication of his treatise of Perpetual Peace Kant's " Cosmopolitan Society"; secondly, to [2]. He continued to deal with the subject of compare his idea with the contemporar y perpetual peace in his later tr eatises such as the concept of "Global Civil Society", in particular Metaphysics of Morals and The Contest of John Rawls' notion of "Realistic Utopia", and Faculties . None the less, on the one hand, finally to examine if there are similarities Perpetual Peace is his most comprehensive and betwe en these two conceptions. fundamental treatment of the notions of international law and world order and, on the The Primary Conditions for Perpetual Peace other hand, it is his most systematic work in the In Kant's view, perpetual peace will come about field of political philosophy. after the fulfillment of three primary conditions: The first part of the present paper begins by (1) a republican form of government as the civil an examination of the primary conditions for constitution of every country; (2) th e rights of the realization of a perpetual peace, i.e. the people being based on a federation of free republican system, the federation of free states, states; and (3) the right to cosmopolitanism and th e right to cosmopolitan ism, as reflected in being limited to the conditions of global Kant's word s. In this part, the basis of the hospitality. republican system, along with whether the The first condition for the realization of federation of free states is a thorough and clear perpetual peace is a republican form of plan or suffer , at least in some parts, from government. The e stablishment of a republican ambiguities, will be examined. system founded on the constitution of a state is In part two of this paper, the possibility of an indication of the fact that the citizens of that Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 the establishment of Kant's world government state, based on their natural and a priori rights is evaluated. In this part, the main question is as and according to their popular will, enter into a follows: Is the world government in our age an social contract, of which the establishment of a objective and realistic plan or is it an ideal civil society is an actual manifestation. The universal state, - a desirable global order – for establishment of a republican system is the mankind in the future? crystallization of the will of the populace, every The main argument of part three will be an one of whose members is considered as its assessment of Kant's idea of a " Cosmopolitan citizen. Every republican system is based on Society" and its link to a proliferation of three fundamental principles: freedom for all universalistic tendencies in today's world. The members of the society as human beings, each main purpose in this part is firstly to assess individual's belonging to a single public code of

55 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

law as a subject , and equality before law as a making [3]. In so doing, republican system at citizen . Thus, individuals under a republican the time of peace or war belongs to the people system are in possession of three different and and they accept the consequences of their independent identities: being human and free , political decisions. being a subject of the state and under a legal The first prerequisite for the realization of system, and being a citizen and equal before the perpetual peace is the establishment of law. Therefore, within a republican system , republican system throughout the world. people as human beings, enjoy freedom; at the However, it must be borne in mind that such a sam e time that they are subjects of the state and system of government is the fruit of immense follow its rules, have the right to citizenship and effort and countless sacrifices. A republican are equal before the law. system, like unto a child, enters the world at an Perpetual peace will only be realized within inst ant, however, it takes years of care and the framework of a republican system based on education before it reaches a states of maturity [4] . a representative democracy with three The second condition for the actualization of independent branches of government. It goes perpetual peace is the establishment of a without saying that the establishment of a "Federation of Free States". Similar to the case republican system, with its concomitant of individuals who prio r to the establishment of conditions and principles, is impossible until the civil society , live in a natural state, people come to possess a certain degree of governments - as independent entities - prior to knowledge and social and political maturity. the formation of a Federation of Free States The mere departure from the natural state, exist in a natural state. A group of people who Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 where all are constantly at one another's throat come together within the framework of a and entrance into a civil environment is by itself nati on-state may be deemed as individuals who no guarantee for the realization of a republican exist in a natural state. Just as individuals, who system. The establishment of a civil society is can be the ultimate arbiters of their decisions contingent upon rationality, justice, intellectual and conduct, governments, in a natural and moral maturity, and the rule of law. environment, can decide about their mode of Kant's Republic is b ia sed upon a interaction with other governmen ts. Likewise, constitution, which is formed by individuals similar to individuals whose dealing within a through a democratic representation. Thus, natural state eventually lead to war and conflict, eve ry individual involve herself/ himself as a governments in a natural state end up in state of citizen in the process of political decision confrontation. Thus, governments in a natural

56 Mahmoudi S. A.

state - a state which may as well be dubbed as of constitutionalism itself on peace through th e law of the jungle - upon feeling compelled, international law fulness" [5]. will enter into hostility with other states. The Now, based on Kant's political thought, one sole outcome of such a state of affairs will be may ask: why should countries join the nothing but increasing destruction and federation of free states? Although Kant in his bloodshed, just as its counterpoint among perpetual peace describes states as 'moral individuals, whose relations wil l debilitate into persons' which have, like ordinary persons, criminality and insecurity. obligations towards each others, nonetheless, he Governments in a natural state view realistically builds his doctrine on motives of themselves as being in a constant state of war self – interest. Admittedly, for Kant, this is a with other countries. However, their matter of preference; for according to his moral relationships are much more complex that those philosophy, each state (like each person) should of individuals who live under a natural st ate. treat another in such a way that it would like Therefore, individuals and governments that state treats it. Kant formulated this Golden existing under a natural state have similarities Rule as the Categorica l Imperative [6]. and divergences. Governments, before their Therefore, Roger J. Sullivan is right while accession to the Federation of Free States, deal referring to Kant's preference, writes: "He with three types of relationships with each believed that the same self -interest that could other: (1) the mutual relat ionship between two drive individuals from the state of nature to a states; (2) the relationship between their juridical society will drive nations toward an members; and (3) the relationship between the international federation, a league of nations in Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 people of one state with the government of the form of a worldwide republic of sovereign another. Emergence from a warlike state of affairs powers" [7]. has to occur within a framework of adherence to In his Metaphysics of Morals, Kant inter national law as a safeguard for the rights of enumerates the factors affecting international states in their dealings with one another. rights. First, in the field of foreign relations, What is unique in Kant's system is the governments behave as "l awless savages with combination of law and public at all levels. This no regards for justice and rights" [8]. Second, is what Patrick Riley has explained in his Kant's this state of affairs even if free of actual warfare Political Philosophy as "th e mutual need of is, nonetheless, to the advantage of powerful republican constitutionalism and international states and thus is inherently unjust, for no federalism for each other, and the dependence government is eager to outperform others in

57 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

terms of seizing the moral high ground. universally accepted principle that the invasion Therefore, states have to emerge from the of a member state of an international union is natural state. Third, the establishment of a tantamount to the invasion of all its members. Federation of Free States is a necessary Of course, Kant is silent about the measure so that, within an environment of non- possibility of the breach of the principle of non- interference, governments would be able to interference by one member of the federation provide mutual security against foreign against another. Neither does he clarify whether invasion. Fourth, the Federation of Free States invasion against the federation members is must have no leader. It should be drawn up limited to those from the outside, or whether it along the lines of a union, where countries may happen through a transgression of the non- would be free to join as members or withdraw interference principle by a member state which when they see fit [9]. chooses to enter into war against its fellow Countries j oin the Federation of Free States federation member. It is not clear what should in order to leave behind their erstwhile natural be t he reaction of other members toward the state of lawlessness and aggression, and to aggressor? Should they merely suffice by attain to security and stability. Kant defines two repelling the belligerent? Or should they enter primary responsibilities for the federation, if it into action against it? Should they opt for the is to succeed in its task of providing security for latter option, what are the mechanisms and its member states. The first has to do with non- executive instruments? And if they c hoose to interference in the internal affairs of member remain idle in the face of such aggression what stats and the second is the upholding of a are the guarantees that such violations would Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 unified front against extraterritorial aggression. not occur again, something which would It is quite evident that the fulfillment o f the eventually undermine the federation and lead to latter duty is only attainable through an a crisis of legitimacy. Kant offers no acceptance of the former within the field of clarifications to such poss ibilities in his political international relations. In other words, until philosophy and remain s silent about the governments subscribe to the notion of non- possibility of an unstable federation, which is to interference in one another's internal affairs , the be the upholder of perpetual peace. idea of a mutual defe nsive pact is a non-issue, A world federation differs from a "peace regardless of the aggressor being a member of agreement". A peace agreement may serve as a the federation or an outsider. At the heart of means of cessat ion of hostilities, but it will not Kan t's idea of a world federation lies the change the conditions, which may be used as a

58 Mahmoudi S. A.

pretext for starting a new war. Kant calls on all The requisite for the creation of such conditions people and governments to embrace the notion is the establishment of a cosmopolis as a of rights a nd ethical responsibility as a means of safeguard against countries posing threats to eliminating war and conflict . Reason, as the each other. Should the ambition and lust for ultimate source of ethical legislation, on the one wealth and position prompt gove rnment leaders hand, levels an absolute condemnation against to throw obstacles in the way of establishment war and, on the other hand, establishes peace as of such a cosmopolis , war and destruction will a pressing obligation. To establish peace , there inevitably dominate the course of events [11]. has to be a common agreement among nations, In his A Theory of Justice, Rawls, taking which Kant referred as a Pacific Federation. A inspiration from Kant's views about peace agreement may eventuate in war, while a governments in the natural state, expands his Pacific Federation will seek to end all wars and theory of the " Original Position" of individuals bring about the transcendental good. In Kant's to that of the "representatives of various view, this federation, which assumes an air of nations". Based on Rawls' view these justice and morality , aspires not to power like a representatives must formulate the fundamental typical government, but solely intends to principles , which are to serve as the basis for maintain the freedom of all countries, including the res olution of disputes among governments. those of the member states [10]. Just as in a law Just as Rawls placed free and rational based civil society in which individual freedoms individuals in the primal state in a position of come into harmony, in the world fede ration having no access to presuppositions so that they governments abandon the idea of infringing upon could come up with fundamental principles for Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 one another's sphere of freedom and contribute to the establishment of a just politi cal system, he an atmosphere of peaceful coexistence. goes on to place these representatives in the In Kant's Critique of Judgment the notion of same hypothetical situation [12]. He Notes: a world federation is reflected in the idea of "I assume that these representatives "cosmopolitan whole ". Based on Kant's views are deprived of various kinds of in that work, nature reaches its ultimate goal information. While they know that only when mutual relations are brought into the they represent different nations each living u nder the normal circumstances framework of a civil society in a way that of their own society, its power and human freedoms are not in a position of strength in comparison with other conflict. Under such circumstances , natural nations, nor do they know their place abilities will attain to their highest potentials. in their own society. Once again the

59 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

contracting parties in this case lies i n the ancient affinity between the notions representatives of states, are allowed of peace and justice. He holds that Kan t's idea only enou gh knowledge to make a of perpetual peace is founded upon the three rational choice to protect their interests notions of right, justice, and peace: but not so much that the more fortunate among them can take advantage of their "Kant's concept of peace is a secularized special situation" [13]. version of the traditional connection of pax and iustitia , peace and justice , which Rawls considers this original position among characterizes classical as well as nations to be a fair one, and one that neutralizes medieval political thought. It asserts a the effects of accidental events and any connection between justice within the tendencies toward a historical fate - which has a state and peacefulness between states, unilateral aspect. Rawls considers the and organizes peace as a system for the foundations of establishment of justice among regulation of con flicts according to the nations to be the principles that are adopted in standard of requirements of justice that are acknowledged on all sides" [15]. the original positio n. These principles partake of a political nature, since they govern the Peace and security will remain a distant general policies among nations [14]. dream unless there come into existence a In Kant's political philosophy, the idea of republic that would be the result of a confluence federation - which develops in steps so as to between rationality, rule of law, and high moral embrace all nations and to lead them toward a values; a confluence that would be the perpetual peace - is one that is capable of manifestation of the maturity and greatnes s of a Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 external actualization. To Kant, any powerful nation. There first has to be a transformation in and enlightened nation that establishes a the natural state of individuals (nations) to a republican system of government - a civil government before the natural state of government with an inherent tendency to peace governments can be transformed into a civil - is one that contributes to the building of a status, which will culminate in the worl d federation. Upon closer scrutiny, it establishment of the world federation. becomes clear that Kant's search for peace In his "Idea for a Universal History with a begins at home before reaching beyond the Cosmopolitan Purpose ", Kant examines the borders of one's homeland. To Wolfgang issue of governments' departure from the Kersting, the link between the republican natural state and adherence to a universal government and the Federation of Free States mechanism from a different perspective and

60 Mahmoudi S. A.

considers it as a necessity. Just as man's He even goes as f ar as terming the "world proclivity for a societal framework, in spite of republic" as a "positive idea". Elaborating his his unsociability and even averseness to society, idea, Kant notes that based on the current notions pushed him to put behind him the natural state of international right the "positive idea of a world with all its violence, insecurity and uncertainty republic is unrealizable" since it is not desired by and to embrace the civil society, the fear of war, nations [19] . Thus, when hu manity reaches to such insecurity and destruction prompts governments level of enlightenment, rationality, thoughtfulness to come into terms with the necessity of the and maturity as to become capable of establishing establishment of a world federation and to obey a unified world government , Kant's "positive the rules laid down by it. To Kant the founding idea" will have become a reality. of a world federation is the inevitable step Not only in 18th century, i.e. during the Age toward the achievement of perpetual peace , of En lightenment while Kant raised the idea of though he points out that the project is multi - world government, but also in the first decade staged and is to be carried out over time [16]. of 21st century, in our age, international relations give no positive sign of embracing a World Government world government. Analy zing of Kant's Kant considers the establishment of a unified argument on world government, Hans Reis s world government to be a perilous project, tries to formulate the main fundamental incongruous with existing realities. The vast reach problems of Kant's doctrine. In Reiss' view : of such government would call for stringent order "Kant himself argued that the central so that the affairs would be managed smoothly and power of a world state would find it Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 efficiently. Thus, such a government has the more and more difficult to exercise potential of easily degenerating into the most control and protect its citizens the "fearful despotism" [17] . On the other hand, the vast further away its te rritories were from the dominion of such a government would render centre. The remoter territories would actual enforcement impracticable. Therefore, seek to become involved in war with their neighbo urs. Thus, a world state attempts at safeguarding the security of indiv iduals, would not lead to perpetual peace at all groups and various associations would push the but to further strife. Moreover, the very government toward a war -like state [18] . attempt to set up a world state would be Of course, in his Perpetual Peace Kant stops unlawful, because it would interfere short of considering the realization of a unified with the constitutional arrangements of world government as an impossible undertaking. existing states. No one has right to

61 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

surrender its own sovereignty and In his The Law of People s, with a view to abandon its constitution " [20]. the impossibil ity of the establishment of unified

In addition to Reiss' remarks on the world government within the framework of the obstacles of achieving world gove rnment, present conditions of the world and bearing in which are related to the matters of security and mind Kant's politico -philosophical heritage, the construction of states, there are other Rawls calls for the formation of a "realistic barriers in this direction. In contemporary utopia". He considers political injustice as the world, despite of realistic phenomena such as root cause of evils that plague human societies, global issues, international org aniz ations, and such as unfair war, oppression, religious globalization, people in different part of the persecution, slavery and the like. On the world live with different cultures, traditions, contrary, the implementation of fair and noble religions, etc. , and would like to keep their policies checks political injustice. Such evils national, regional and continental identities are evenly roote d out through the establishment alive . Therefore, Kant's world government of just fundamental institutions. Rawls is remains as an ideal for peoples in nation – hopeful that free nations through their respect states around the glob. for the law of peoples would contribute to the Kant was well aware on these complex realization of this realistic utopia [22]. barriers towards a world government in his Rawls' realistic utopia bears a close affi nity time. What he describes in the "conclusion" of to Kant's federation of states. The realization of The metaphysics of Morals is fundamental for this utopia is an inevitable necessity for the understanding the main purpose of theorizing nations of the world, for otherwise the true Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 the world government. Kant writes: meaning of human existence on earth would "moral -practical reason within us become hollow. By underscoring Kant's remark pronounces the following irresistible that "If justice peri shes, then it is no longer veto: there shall be no war . […..] thus, it worthwhile for men to live upon the earth" [23], is no longer a question of whether we are Rawls tries to drive the point home that not perhaps mistaken in our theoretical whenever it becomes impossible to establish a judgment if we assume that it is. On the just society encompassing all nations "whose contrary, we must simply act as if it could members subordinate their powers to really come about [……] even if the reasonable ai ms" and whenever men in an fulfillment of this pacific intention were amoral, self -centered and irrevocable manner forever to remain a pious hope […] for it become pessimistic about the righteousness of is our duty to do so" [21].

62 Mahmoudi S. A.

humankind, then "one might ask, with Kant, institutions each of which ca n embrace a whether it is worthwhile for human beings to particular set of nations. For instance, he refers live on the earth?" [24]. to the State General at The Hague, set up in the In any event, Kant and R awls are of one first half of 18th century, which was a tribunal voice regarding the impossibility of the for adjudicating cases of tran sgression establishment of a unified world government committed by one European country against under the current circumstances and they both another. The member states tended to view consider the realization of solidarity, Europe as a unified federal government and the cooperation and peace among nations as only States General as the arbiter of their differences achievable within a ratio nal and equitable [26]. In his Metaphysics of Morals , Kant framework and based on a realistic and considers the world federation as a "permanent pragmatic model. congress of governments" and as the only Now that the realization of an ideal unified vehicle for the realization of the "idea of world government is proven as impossible, one general international right" which empowers should abandon its implementation - while nations to settle their differences within a civil keeping it in view as an idea - for the adoption framework, instead of resorting to barbarous of a "negative substitute", i.e. the establishment methods and military conflict [27]. of a world federation; one to which countries can voluntarily accede or from which they can From Cosmopolitan Society to Globa l Civil freely break away. In other words, membership Society in this international institution is not mandatory. Subsequent to the establishment of the Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 In his writings, Kant refers to such a federation "republican system" and the "federation of free as a "union of several states", which is tasked states", the third condition for achieving perpetual with the maintenance of peace, or as a peace is providing citizens with "cosmopolitan "permanent congress of states", in which all right". Human relations on earth are founded on neighboring countries can freely participate right . People can mingle and transact and [25]. To show his flexibility and openness in consolidate such interactions without being the designing of a real mechanism for the treated as enemies. The right -based unity and preservation of peace , Kant goes as far as solidarity among men can lead to the creation of underlining the necessity for the establishment specific laws , which can frame ind ividuals' of a "universal union of states". Thus, he relations and transactions. Such a r ight is recognizes the diversity of international civil dubbed by Kant as "cosmopolitan right".

63 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

In the days of Kant, advancements in him , hospitality has a pejorat ive connotation, navigation technology brought closer together since it normally implies "the right of a stranger countries which had hitherto been separated by not to be treated with hostility when he arrives vast oceans. This gave rise to a booming on someone else's territory […], if this can be international trade, which, nonethel ess, led to done without causing his death, but he must not occasional conflicts arising from certain be treated with hostility" [29]. An alien ca nnot countries' attempts to annex foreign territories. expect to be given the treatment of a guest, but However, such acts of abuse did not pose an he may expect the "right to a shelter", i.e. the obstacle in the way of people entering other right to enter and dwell in another land. Thus, societies and interacting with their fellow the people of one continent can visit other humans. Of course, even if they were herd smen continents and establish peaceful mutual or hunters, they could not resort to force as a relations that can e ventually he framed within means of establishing themselves in a particular universal laws. land. By giving prominence to the notion of In his Metaphysics of Morals, Kant compact as the legitimizing instrument for elaborates citizens' relations with their fellow utilization of others' lands, Kant undercuts the countrymen as well as with other countries idea of exploitation and colonization of less based on right, the right of people to migrate civilized people and their deception into giving and the right of governments to exile. First, up their rights to their motherlands. He every citizen has the right to migrate and no enumerates the pretexts used by colonizers in their government can take away this right, since attempt at dominating the world , e.g. to bestow citizens are not the properties of governments. Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 culture on unciv ilized nations, or to refine the The citizen can also carry with him his movable personalities of the deprived with a view to property. Second, governments have the right to reforming their children and notes that neither of encourage immig ration and establish foreigners such humanitarian motives is sufficient to "wash as immigrants in their countries, even if the away the stain of injustice from the means which natives look on the new arrivals in a less than are used to implement them" [2 8]. honorable light. Third, should a citizen commit In Perpetual Peace, Kant speaks of a crime in a manner that other citizens would "universal hospitality" within the framework of become his accomplices against the cosmopolitan right. It should be borne in mind government, the government has the right to that here he is not concerned with a type of exile him to a foreign land. Kant does not humanitarianism but is worried about right. To consider such an individual - who along with

64 Mahmoudi S. A.

others is guilty of collective resistance against progress, Kant chooses to undersco re man's the government - as being entitled to the right of ethical conduct. He envisions a world in which citizenship. Fourth, the head of government has those who hold the reins of power exhibit less the right to expel this criminal individual from the violence and where obedience to law becomes country and to relinquish the responsibility of more prevalent. In such a world , cooperation providing him with security [30] . spreads, conflicts subside, and trust and loyalty Such a process will bring the people of this assume a promi nent place. Love of dignity and planet closer and will culminate in to a virtue, on the one hand, and self -awareness cosmopolitan institution. Nations emergence regarding advantage and benefit, on the other, into a global society must go through several contribute to the expansion of individual stages. However, in Kant's political philosophy: relations until they culminate in a "cosmopolitan society". To Kant, the "The idea of a cosmopolitan right is therefore development of human relations and expansion not fantastic and overstrained; it is a necessary of man's abilities are not tantamount to a rise in complement to the unwritten cod e of political the ethical capacities of individual human and international right, transforming it into a beings, since that would call for a new type of universal right of humanity. Only under this creation or be effected through a supernatural condition can we flatter ourselves that we are continually advancing towards a perpetual influence. We ought not have high expect ations peace" [31]. from men, otherwise we will be faced with politicians who would view human progress as Kant is of the contention that after many a whimsical dream [33]. Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 revo lutions and their consequences, finally, In her Lectures on Kant's Political cosmopolitan life, as the ultimate destiny of Philosophy, Hannah Arendt in the course of nature, will meet with universal consent. The elaborating the notion of "citizen of the world ", cosmopolis is the country and the dwelling which sh e thinks is an idealist concept, defines place where the innate potentials of humanity citizenship as having responsibilities, come to fruition [32]. obligations, and rights. Arendt considers these In The Contest of Faculties, Kant sets forth notions to be only meaningful when confined to his final thoughts on the cosmopolitan society a particular geographical area. She does not with a view to the future of humanity. In subscribe to Kan t's notion of a cosmopolitan response to the question that seeks to determine citizen and views it as a "spectator of the the benefits that come to man as a result of his world"[34]. It is unclear why in her view one

65 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

can be a citizen when placed within a particular But for us at the threshold of the 21st century, geographical context, and bereft of citizenship with the great revolutions in communications when seen against the backdrop of the entire and technology and the collapse of many planet? Arendt holds that "Kant knew quite well barriers leading to an ever shrinking world, to that a world government would be the worst the point of creating a global village, the idea of tyranny imaginable" [35]. Arendt's mistake is in a cosmopolis is not as farfetched when viewed blurring the distinction between the two within the context of a "world civil society". Kantian notions of "cosmopolitan citizenship" Trans-industrial developments, vast information and that of "unified world government", whic h highway s, and variegated, complex and prompts her to consider the legitimacy of the intertwined communication networks between former to hinge on the establishment of the nations and governments throughout the world latter. In fact, Kant bases his idea of have given t he mankind a new identity. In cosmopolitanism on the "federation of free addition to being citizens of their own countries states", which is a separate concept from that of and having their religious, national, and a unified world government. regional identities , people all over the globe As regards meeting the three necessary have come to view themselves as members of a conditions for the realization of perpetual world civil society. Membership in a peace, i.e. the republican system, the world cosmo polis has brought about a new identity for federation, and the cosmopolitan society, Kant the people of our age, one that is accompanied offers a single method: a steady, gradual by new responsibilities distinct from those of movement in several stages. Precipitate a ction, the citizen of a country or even a particular Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 revolutionary moves, and stepping up the pace of region of the world. developments would inevitably give rise to Through the adoption and implementation of disruption and chaos. The pace of movement which principles and criteria does a "citizen of toward perpetual peace has to be commensurate the world" acquire the identity accorded by with the extent of a people's or government's cosmopolitanism? A number of political proclivity to culture, respect for law, and philosophers have set forth views with regard to rationality, otherwise it will be doomed to failure. these principles. In his new book, The Law of The idea of "cosmopolitan right" or that of Peoples, John Rawls examines several of these the establishment of a cosmopolitan society ideas and comes up with the following eight could not be seen as anything more than a principles, which he terms the "principles of utopian dream by the people of the 18th century. justice among free and democratic peoples:

66 Mahmoudi S. A.

"1. Peoples are free and independent, and empathy for and assistance to other fellow human their freedom and independence are to be beings deprived of equitable political and social respected by other peoples. systems. All of the above principles - excluding 2. Peoples are to observe treaties and the fourth and the second part of the fifth, which undertakings. imply negative notions - are positive in their 3. Peoples are equal and are parties to the content. Needless to say, the implementation of agreements that bind them. these eight -fold principles, as Cosmopolis 4. Peoples are to observe a duty of non- teachings, would be possible when nations, as intervention. citizens, will have achieved freedom and 5. Peoples have the right of self -defense but democracy. According to Kant's political no right to instigate war for re asons other than philosophy, it is only after going through this self -defense. stage that men are presented with the opportunity 6. Peoples are to honor human rights. of attaining the status of "citizen of the world". 7. Peoples are to observe certain specified The citizen of the world, or in Kant's restrictions in the conduct of war. terminology, the member of the cosmopolitan 8. People s have a duty to assist other peoples society, believes that more than any other time in living under unfavorable conditions that prevent human history he belongs to a global family and their having a just or decent political and social that his fate is irrevocably tied to those of other regime" [36]. denizens of the planet. As if bill ions of people These principles, which encompass the most living in today's world are all passengers in a ship, fundamental human obligations, can readily with a common fate, playing the tumultuous Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 serve as a compact that would facilitate waves of a vast ocean. coexistence and dynamic and constructive cooperation among the citizens o f the world. Conclusion These principles, in addition to being informed by Kant's three conditions of achieving perpetual humanitarianism and rationality, are characterized peace i.e. the republican system, the federation by objectivity, comprehensiveness, and of f ree sta tes, and the cosmopolitan society are universality: freedom, equality, independence, ultimately b ased upon a democratic foundation. adherence to treaties, non -interference in others' Individuals form a republic through a inte rnal affairs, the right to self -defense , respect democratic process on the basis of a for human rights, consideration of rights, law constitution. States make decision whether or and ethics in the conduct of war and finally not to join the federation of free states.

67 An Evaluation of Kant's Theory of Perpetual Peace …

Individ uals are free to hold membership of the After a breief encounter at Valmy he gave up cosmopolitan society. his design for France and at the h ead of a vast As it is evaluated, Kant's federation of free army headed for Poland, while leaving a small states is vulnerable, because of some ambiguities in contingent with the alliance fighting the its structure and rules; although he takes advantage French. In the early 1795, when Fredrick of morality and motives of self -interest for its received the news that Austria and Russia justification. Since there are serious obstacles to were about to divide Poland without counting establish a unified word government, which partly him in, he rushed to mend fences with France emerge s from pluralistic nature of societies in the through signing the Treaty of Ball. See Albert world, and partly come s from its complex Maley and Issac Jules, History of the 18 th structure, the world government still is an ideal Century: The French Revolution and the amo ng the unattainable desires of mankind. Empire of Napoleon , PP.492 -3. The concept of global civil society and Rawls' [2] Armstrong, A.C. (1931), 'Kant's Philosophy notion of "Realistic Utopia" in this direct ion, of Peace and War', The Journa l of Philosophy , remind us Kant's idea of "C osmopolitan Society" vol. XXVIII, no. 80, April, P.197. in which , individuals identify themselves as world [3] Williams, Howard (1983) , Kant's Political citizens. Of course, this characteristic is not in Philosophy, New York, St. Martin's press, P.16. contradiction with individuals' national, regional [4] Kant, Immanuel (1991), Perpetual Peace , and continental identities on the one hand, and trans. by H.B. Nisbet, in Kant; Political cultural, social and political differences on the other. Writings, ed. by H.S. Reiss, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, PP.99-102. Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 References [5] Riley Patrick (1983), Kant's Political [1] In 1790 -1795 the government of Russia, Philosophy, New Jersey, Rowman & Prussia, and Austria twice divided the Polish Littefield, P.134. territory among themselves. During the same [6] "Categorical Imperative" as a key concept period, Katherine, the Queen of Russia, made of Kant's moral philosophy is explained in several attempts at sparking conflict between two main so urces of Kant: Critique of the latter two and France. But since the leaders Practical Reason, and Groungwork of the of Prussia and Austria were suspicious of Metaphysics of Morals. Katherine's motives, France was spared their [7] Sullivan, J.Roger (1997), An Introduction unified attack. In 1792 the Prussian king to Kant's Ethics, Cambridge, Cambridge Fredrick II fearing his rivals diverted his University Press, P.21. march toward Paris and set out for Warsaw.

68 Mahmoudi S. A.

[8] Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of [20] Reiss, Hans, 'Postscript', Kant; political Morals , Reiss, P. 165. writings, P.271. [9] Ibid . [21] Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of [10] Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual Peaces , Reiss, Morals , Reiss, P.174. P.104. [22] Rawls, John (1999), The Law of Peoples , [11] Kant, Immanuel (1986), Critique of U.S.A., Harvard University Press , P.141. Judgment, trans. by James Creed Meredith, [23] Ibid ., P.128. Oxford, Oxford University press, P.96. [24] Ibid . [12] Mahmoudi, Seyed Ali (1997) , "An [25] Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of Evaluation of Aspects of Freedom in John Mora ls , Reiss, P.171. Rawls' A Theory of Justice , in Justice and [26] Ibid ., P.170. Freedom; Discourses on the philosophy of [27] Ibid., P.171. Politics , Tehran, Andish -e Mo'aser, [Persian [28] Ibid . P.172. text], pp. 105-136. [29] Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual peace , Reiss, [13] Rawls , John (1986), A Theory of Justice , P.105. Oxford, Oxford University press, P.378. [30] Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of [14] Ibid . Morals , Reiss, pp.160-1. [15] Kerstin, Wolfgang (1992), 'Politics, [31] Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual Peace , Reiss, Freedom, and Order: Kant's Political pp. 107-8. Philosophy', The Cambridge Companion to [3 2] Kant, Immanuel, 'Idea for a Universal Kant, ed. by Paul Guyer, Cambridge, History with a Cosmopolitan Purpose', Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 Cambridge University press, P.363. Reiss, P.49. [16] Kant, Immanuel, 'Idea for a Universal Histor y [33] Kant, Immanuel, The contest of Faculties , with a Cosmopolitan Purpose' Reiss, P.46. Reiss, P.188. [17] Kant, Immanuel, 'Theory and Practice' [34] Arendt, Hannah (1995) , Lecture on Kant's Reiss, P.90. Political Philosophy , ed. by Ronald Beiner, [18] Kant, Immanuel, The Metaphysics of Chicago, T he University of Chicago Press, P.44. Morals , Reiss, P.171. [35] Ibid. [19] Kant, Immanuel, Perpetual Peace , Reiss, [36] Rawls, John, The Law of Peoples, P.37. P.105.

1 !"# $

1386 /7/8 : 1385 /3/22 :

7"8 9,+1 56 $4 2 3 *+,-. /, 01 (1724-1804) !" #$ CDE *F *? 56$4 > . ? *: "A @ 7"8 *;? > 6:;2 <,- =3 2 <,?@ L,?M > ?? <G * 1 H 3 56I JK @ 7"8 JK 56,+1 .@ - <6I <@264 *1N- *1 O56H6I CP 2 .Q 56:;2 <G *1 C"S >56I ?,? * !" >@264 <+R *1 3 51 G 511 2 VA <+R *1 -R ;U J@R » +S > .Q 56:;2 <,?@ "8 W ,X2 2 . ,3 ^ >« IU .2] 11 TR 56:;2 . V » 2 « Z@[ "U - 6:;2 1 J _ > « 6I *Z -[P » 5@+A 8 . ? D: 2 9 . 2 :? 2 J61 Downloaded from eijh.modares.ac.ir at 0:19 IRST on Monday September 27th 2021 . 4 ]+- 42 2 Z-U *1 @ - * ^ `? a2H- 5- 2 a,:P 2 JbP

. '02 +1' + !0"/ +-./ + + , + * : ( & '

. ?,? W !" ZH32c 2 d@- ` ( ?,? WH@ /F ) ?,? J"R 5: . 1