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(Scale for large land masses) 0 miles 1000 0 km 1600

Map 5 Europe and the Atlantic world by 1830 508

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Map 8 The Balkans in 1913 511

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Map 9 Europe and the Atlantic world by 1914 512 ISLANDS SAMOAN TAHITI FIJI NEW

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Map 13 Europe and the Atlantic world after 1945 516 1600 1000 km miles 0 0 NEW Ocean (Scale for large land masses) (Scale for

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NORTHERN IRELAND NORTHERN r Aberdeen UNITED KINGDOM OF Seine

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Edinburgh Edinburgh

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M N. N. IRELAND IRELAND N. l

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E Dublin IRELAND SPAIN Madrid Europe in 1995

Ocean Atlantic PORTUGAL Lisbon Lisbon Map 16 NOTES

1 ORIGINS: EUROPE BEFORE 1648: MID-CENTURY CRISIS

1 Peter Rietbergen, Europe: A Cultural History (London, 1998) 246–7, 255–6. 2 B. F. Porshnev, Tridtsatiletniaia voina i vstuplenie v nee Shvetsii i moskovskogo gosudarstva (Moscow, 1976) 110. For a translation of pages 168–404 of this work see B. F. Porshnev, The Thirty Years’ War and the Entry of Sweden and Muscovy, trans. Brian Pearce, ed. Paul Dukes (Cambridge, 1995). 3 Quoted by Geoffrey Parker, Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 (London, 1979) 219. 4 John Elliott, ‘War and Peace in Europe, 1618–1648’, in Klaus Bussmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.), 1648: War and Peace in Europe,I,Politics, Religion, Law and Society (Mu¨ nster-Osnabru¨ ck, 1999) 39. The preceding quotations from Heinhard Steiger, ‘Concrete Peace and General Order: The legal meaning of the treaties of 24 October 1648’, are to be found in ibid., 443. According to Margaret Aston, The Fifteenth Century: The Prospect of Europe (London, 1968) 87, Pope Pius II (1458–64) coined the adjective ‘European’. 5 J. J. C. von Grimmelshausen, Simplicius Simplicissimus (Indianapolis, 1965) 41. 6 G. Perjes, ‘Army Provisioning, Logistics and Strategy in the Second Half of the Seventeenth Century’, Acta Historica Academiae Scientarium Hungaricae, 16 (Budapest, 1970) 1–14. 7 Pierre Chaunu, ‘Re´flexions sur le tournant des anne´es 1630–1650’, Cahiers d’histoire moderne et contemporaine, 12 (1967). 8 C. S. Terry, The Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, First Earl of Leven (London, 1899) Chapters 3–8; John Morrill, ‘Introduction’, in John Ken- yon and Jane Ohlmeyer (eds.), The Civil Wars: A Military History of England, Scotland and Ireland, 1638–1660 (Oxford, 1998) xx. And see the database by Steve Murdoch and Alexia Grosjean, Scotland, Scandinavia and north- ern Europe, 1580–1707, http://www.abdn.ac.uk/ssne. 9 S. R. Gardiner (ed.), Letters Relating to the Mission of Sir Thomas Roe to Gustavus Adolphus, 1629–1630 (London, 1875) 2. 519 520 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

10 P. Cluver, Introductionis in universam geographiam . . . (Lugduni Batavorum, 1629) 47. Steven Gunn, ‘War, Religion, and the State’, in Euan Cameron (ed.), Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (Oxford, 1999) 102–3, observes that ‘The first map of Europe to attempt to show state borders was not printed until 1602’. 11 Rietbergen, Europe, 205. 12 Quoted by Moritz Brosch, ‘Papal Policy, 1590–1648’, in A. W. Ward and others (eds.), The Cambridge Modern History, 12 vols. (Cambridge, 1902–10) (hereafter CMH ), vol. 4 (1907) 688. 13 Edward Hyde, Earl of Clarendon, The History of the Rebellion and the Civil Wars in England, ed. W. D. Macray (Oxford, 1888), vol. 6, 2–3.

2 THE FRENCH CHALLENGE: RESPONSES EAST AND WEST, 1648–1721

1 G. Zeller, ‘French Diplomacy and Foreign Policy in their European Setting’, New Cambridge Modern History (hereafter NCMH), 5 (1964) 214. 2 NE, 27. 3 John Stoye, Europe Unfolding, 1648–1688 (London, 1969) 295. 4 Ibid.; ‘Bossuet’, EB, 4.288. 5 Giorgio Spini, ‘Italy after the Thirty Years War’, NCMH, 5 (1964) 461. 6 NE, 31–2. 7 Charles Wilson, quoted by E. N. Williams, The Ancien Regime in Europe (London, 1973) 53. 8 A. N. Kurat, ‘The Ottoman Empire under Mehmed IV’, NCMH, 5 (1964) 513–14. 9 R. R. Betts, ‘The Habsburg Lands’, NCMH, 5 (1964) 497–8. 10 John Carswell, The Descent on England: A Study of the English Revolution of 1688 and Its European Background (London, 1969) 100. See also Paul Dukes, ‘How the Eighteenth Century began for Russia and the West’, in A. G. Cross (ed.), Russia and the West (Newtonville, MA, 1983); Andrew Lossky, ‘The General European Crisis of the 1680s’, European Studies Review, 10 (1980). 11 Quoted by Carswell, The Descent, 81. 12 NE, 21–4. 13 Lindsey Hughes, Russia in the Age of Peter the Great (London, 1998) 248. There are excellent biographies with the title Peter the Great by Lindsey Hughes (London, 2002) and Paul Bushkovitch (New York, 2003). 14 Gilbert Burnet to Revd Dr Fall, Bodleian Library, Oxford MSS, Eng. th. c. 23. 15 NE, 32–3. 16 Antony Lentin, Peter the Great: The Law on the Imperial Succession in Russia, 1722 (Oxford, 1996) 33. 17 Perry Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State (London, 1974) 226–7; Hajo Holborn, A History of Modern Germany, 1648–1840 (London, 1965) 196–7; E. J. Feuchtwanger, Prussia: Myth and Reality (London, 1970) 49. NOTES 521

18 Jonathan J. Israel, ‘The Emerging Empire: The Continental Perspective, 1650–1713’, in Nicholas Canny (ed.), The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century, vol. 1 of The Oxford History of the British Empire (Oxford, 1998) 444.

3 THE GROWTH OF EMPIRE, 1721–1763

1 Bruce Lenman, An Economic History of Modern Scotland (London, 1977) 51. 2 On this point and much else, see Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation, 1707–1837 (London, 1992) 130 and throughout. 3 E. N. Williams, The Eighteenth Century Constitution (Cambridge, 1960) 189. 4 E. P. Thompson, Whigs and Hunters: The Origin of the Black Act (London, 1975) 260. 5 NE, 101–2. 6 F. L. Carsten, Princes and Parliaments in Germany, quoted in Anderson, Lineages of the Absolutist State, 255. This section draws generally on Anderson’s work. 7 H. M. Scott, ‘Europe Turns East: Political Developments’, in Cameron (ed.), Early Modern Europe, 342. 8 Colley, Britons, 101. 9 W. L. Dorn, Competition for Empire, 1740–1763 (New York, 1940) 2–3. 10 Michael Sheehan, The Balance of Power: History and Theory (London, 1996) 16.

4 ENLIGHTENED GOVERNMENTS, THEIR CONFLICTS AND THEIR CRITICS, 1763–1789

1 Alexander Gieysztor and others, History of Poland (Warsaw, 1979) 267. 2 O. A. Omelchenko, ‘The System of State and Law in Eighteenth-Century Russia and the Political Culture of Europe: Some Historical Interactions’, Slavonic and East European Review, 80/2 (2002) 222. See also O. A. Omel- chenko, ‘Enlightened Absolutism in Russia’, in Paul Dukes (ed.), ‘Eastern Approaches to European Culture’, Coexistence, 30/1 (1995) 35–6 for a summary of the reforms of enlightened absolutism in policies social or estate, legal and state-administrative, and the assertion that its ideology ‘had little in common with the ideology of the Enlightenment’. 3 Quotations in the preceding three paragraphs from T. C. W. Blanning, ‘Frederick the Great and Enlightened Absolutism’, in H. M. Scott (ed.), Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth Century Europe (London, 1990) 268, 271, 277–8. 4 Holborn, A History of Modern Germany, 273. 5 Edmund S. Morgan, in John Blum and others, The National Experience: A History of the United States (New York, 1973) 83. 6 J. P. Kenyon, in a talk to the Aberdeen University History Society, 1983. 522 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

7 G. D. H. Cole and Raymond Postgate, The Common People, 1746–1946 (London, 1949) 98–108; Williams, The Ancien Regime in Europe, 497. 8 Edmund Burke, ‘Thoughts on French Affairs, 1791’, Works, 4 (London, 1907) 346–7. 9 NE, 52–4. 10 Alexis de Tocqueville, The Ancien Regime and the French Revolution (Glasgow, 1966) 194. 11 William Doyle, The Old European Order, 1660–1800 (Oxford, 1992) 322. 12 Edmund Burke, ‘Letters on the Proposals for Peace with the Regicide Directory of France’, Works, 6 (London, 1907) 156–7. 13 T. C. W. Blanning, The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe, 1660–1789 (Oxford, 2002) 52. 14 Quoted in Benjamin F. Wright (intro. and ed.), The Federalist (Cambridge, MA, 1966) 141–2. 15 Paul Dukes, World Order in History: Russia and the West (London, 1996) 32.

5 EUROPE BEFORE 1789, AND THE ORIGINS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

1 W. E. Mead, The Grand Tour in the Eighteenth Century (Boston, MA, 1914) 398–9. 2 Jeremy Black, The British and the Grand Tour (London, 1985) 22–3 points out that the number of British tourists going to Spain, Portugal, Italy south of Naples, eastern Europe, the Balkans and the Baltic increased during the century but remained small, nevertheless. 3 R. S. Lambert (ed.), Grand Tour: A Journey in the Tracks of the Age of Aristocracy (London, 1935) 60. 4 Quotations in the two previous paragraphs are from Mead, The Grand Tour, 252, 271, 345, 356–7. 5 Lambert, Grand Tour, 143. 6 N. M. Karamzin, Letters of a Russian Traveler, 1789–1790, ed. and trans. Florence Jonas (London, 1957) 218–21. 7 Lord Macartney, An Account of Russia, 1767 (London, 1768) 49–51. 8 Bernard Lewis, The Muslim Discovery of Europe (London, 1982) 168. Daniel Goffman, The Ottoman Empire and Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, 2002) 224, writes that nearly all eighteenth-century European travellers in the Ottoman Empire ‘shared with many of today’s tourists an absolute disin- terest in contemporary indigenous peoples and societies’. He adds: ‘By the end of the seventeenth century, the Ottoman Empire was as integrated into Europe as it would ever be.’ 9 M. Betham-Edwards (ed.), Travels in France by Arthur Young during the Years 1787, 1788, 1789 (London, 1890) xxv–xxvii, lv–lvi, 18, 22, 27, 28, 33, 41–2, 45–7, 55, 56, 57–8, 60, 66, 67, 69, 71, 77, 82–5, 90, 92, 97–8, 103–5, 107–8, 112, 113, 123, 125, 129, 131–2, 134, 137, 139–40, 142–3, 146. NOTES 523

10 Rene´ Descartes, Discourse on Method and the Meditations, ed. and trans. F. E. Sutcliffe (Harmondsworth, 1985) 30–1. I owe this reference to the late George Molland. 11 Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan, ed. Richard Tuck (Cambridge, 2002) 51, 67–8, 89, 90, 91–2, 120–1, 129, 145, 159, 175–6, 414, 459, 482. 12 John Locke, Two Treatises of Government, ed. Peter Laslett (Cambridge, 1970) 261. 13 Norman Hampson, The Enlightenment (Harmondsworth, 1968) 109. 14 Prospectus, NE, 48–52; other material on encyclopaedias, EB, 9.377. 15 Dorinda Outram, The Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1995) 85–6, 95. 16 Williams, The Ancien Regime in Europe, 204–5. 17 Travels in France by Arthur Young, 153. 18 Ibid., 113. 19 NE, 56–64. 20 Travels in France by Arthur Young, 193, 201, 214–15, 229, 234, 241–3. Quotation from 201. 21 The preceding summary closely follows the first part of Michel Vovelle, The Fall of the French Monarchy, 1787–1792 (Cambridge, 1984).

6 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON, 1789–1815

1 NE, 65–7. 2 NE, 67–77. 3 NE, 78–9. 4 NE, 80. 5 John D. Hargreaves, ‘Assimilation in Eighteenth-Century Senegal’, Journal of African History, 6 (1965) 183. 6 Annual Register, 33 (1791) 102. 7 NE, 105. 8 F. M. H. Markham, Napoleon and the Awakening of Europe (London, 1954) 92. Harold T. Parker identifies six elements mixing in Napoleon’s con- sciousness: ‘his desire to be first and master of all situations; the noble officer ethic of glory (‘‘a dazzling fame’’) and honour; his youthful enthu- siasm for historical characters who (for him) personified masterly qualities; his own brilliant victories and civil achievements which could be related to such characters; the opportunity to match such examples of past renown in the eyes of his own and of future audiences; and his inner, compelling feeling of being a man of destiny and of good fortune’. Parker’s assessment as summarised by Geoffrey Ellis, The Napoleonic Empire (London, 1991) 112. 9 Markham, Napoleon, 171. 10 Ibid., 77. 11 NE, 88. 12 C. von Clausewitz, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia (London, 1843) 142. 524 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

13 Annual Register, 53 (1811) vii. 14 H. W. Wilson, ‘The War of 1812–1815’, CMH, 7 (1905) 336. 15 Michael Broers, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (London, 1996) 5–6, 273. 16 Markham, Napoleon, 60. 17 Ibid., 114. 18 These figures from Ellis, The Napoleonic Empire, 22. Ellis observes that these huge majorities ‘disguised a widespread apathy among the 5 million eligible electors’. 19 Fre´de´ric Bluche, Le Bonapartisme (Paris, 1981) 29. 20 Stuart Woolf, ‘The Construction of a European World-View in the Revolutionary–Napoleonic Years’, Past & Present, 137 (1992) 100–1.

7 FROM REACTION TOWARDS LIBERALISM, 1815–1848

1 W. Alison Phillips, ‘The Congresses, 1815–22’, CMH, 10 (1907) 1. 2 Ibid., 2. 3 NE, 122–6. 4 Alan Palmer, The Penguin Dictionary of Modern History, 1789–1945 (Harmondsworth, 1964) 155. 5 Phillips, ‘The Congresses’, 37. 6 Hansard, 3rd series, vol. 31, 615–16. 7 The slogan was coined by Count S. S. Uvarov, minister of education from 1833 to 1849. 8 Alan Sked, ‘The Metternich System, 1815–48’, in Alan Sked (ed.), Europe’s Balance of Power, 1815–1848 (London, 1979) 112. 9 Ian R. Mitchell, Bismarck and the Development of Germany (Edinburgh, 1980) 7. 10 Christopher Bartlett, ‘Britain and the European Balance, 1815–48’, in Sked (ed.), Europe’s Balance, 150. 11 Ibid., 152. 12 Alfred Cobban, A History of Modern France, vol. 2 (Harmondsworth, 1961) 141. 13 Ibid., 145–6. 14 Ibid., 149. 15 Denis Mack Smith, ‘The Revolutions of 1848–1849 in Italy’, in R. J. W. Evans and Hartmut Pogge von Strandmann (eds.), The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction (Oxford, 2000) 56. 16 Ian R. Mitchell, On the Trail of Queen Victoria in the Highlands (Edinburgh, 2000) 25–6. 17 F. Meinecke, ‘Liberalism and Nationality in Germany and Austria’, CMH, 11 (1909) 57. 18 NE, 136–40. NOTES 525

19 W. Bruce Lincoln, Nicholas I: Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias (London, 1978) 287. 20 David Saunders, ‘A Pyrrhic Victory: The Russian Empire in 1848’, in Evans and Strandmann (eds.), The Revolutions, 141, 153. 21 Quoted in Jacques Droz, Europe between Revolutions, 1815–1848 (Glasgow, 1967) 55. 22 Ibid., 48–53. 23 EB, vol. 18, 453–9.

8 NATIONALISM, SOCIALISM, IMPERIALISM, 1848–1878 1 Karl Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte (London, 1926) 132–3. 2 Basil Dmytryshyn, Imperial Russia: A Source Book (New York, 1967) 225. 3 David Saunders, Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform, 1801–1881 (London, 1992) 263–9. 4 Mitchell, Bismarck, 52. 5 Stephen J. Lee, Aspects of European History, 1789–1980 (London, 1982) 89. 6 Mitchell, Bismarck, 16. 7 Ibid., 29. 8 Helmut Bo¨ hme, The Foundation of the German Empire: Select Documents (Oxford, 1971) 198–9. 9 Mitchell, Bismarck, 39. 10 J. A. S. Grenville, Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878 (London, 1976) 229, 243–5. 11 H. Lefebvre, quoted by Roger Magraw, France 1815–1914: The Bourgeois Century (London, 1983) 202. 12 NE, 142. 13 Sir John Sinclair, An Account of the Highland Society of London (1813), quoted by Colley, Britons, 374. 14 NE, 128–9. 15 Bolton King, The Life of Mazzini (London, 1929) 306, 310. 16 Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, Manifesto of the Communist Party (Moscow, 1969) 39–40, 45, 47–8, 49–50, 56, 71, 72, 75, 89–96. 17 Norman Stone, Europe Transformed, 1878–1919 (London, 1999) 25.

9 THE CLASH OF EMPIRES AND CLASSES, 1878–1914 1 EB, vol. 1, 336. 2 See, for example, Paul Kennedy, The Realities behind Diplomacy: Background Influences on British External Policy, 1865–1980 (London, 1981) 82–101. 3 Michael T. Florinsky, Russia: A History and An Interpretation, vol. 2 (New York, 1955) 985–6. 4 Chamberlain and Hyndman quoted in Cole and Postgate, The Common People, 411, 416. 526 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

5 Ibid., 430. 6 Ibid., 506–7. 7 NE, 174–9. 8 Hugo and Gambetta, quoted by Magraw, France, 234–45. 9 NE, 149. 10 Magraw, France, 351. 11 Mitchell, Bismarck, 111–12, and in a lecture to the Aberdeen University History Department, 1983. 12 NE, 171–4. 13 John D. Hargreaves, The Partition of West Africa, vol. 1, The Loaded Pause (London, 1974) 44. 14 Mitchell, Bismarck, 111. 15 Mitchell, in his lecture of 1983. 16 Bruce Waller, ‘Hans-Ulrich Wehler on Imperial Germany’, British Journal of International Studies, 1 (1975) 65. More generally, see David Blackbourn and Geoff Eley, The Peculiarities of German History (Oxford, 1984). 17 Jonathan Steinberg, Yesterday’s Deterrent: Tirpitz and the Birth of the German Battle Fleet (London, 1965) 209. 18 Hans Rogger, Russia in the Age of Modernisation and Revolution, 1881–1917 (London, 1990) 72. 19 T. H. Von Laue, ‘A Secret Memorandum of Sergei Witte on the Indus- trialization of Imperial Russia’, Journal of Modern History, 26 (1954). 20 Robin Okey, Eastern Europe, 1740–1980: Feudalism to Communism (Lon- don, 1982) 142. 21 Ibid., 147. 22 Alfred Stead, Great Japan: A Study of National Efficiency (London, 1906) 469. 23 See, for example, Paul Kennedy, ‘Mahan versus Mackinder: Two Inter- pretations of British Sea Power’, in idem, Strategy and Diplomacy, 1870–1945 (London, 1983). On the spread of geopolitical ideas, see Holger H. Herwig, ‘Geopolitik: Haushofer, Hitler and Lebensraum’, in Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (eds.), Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy (London, 1999). 24 O. H. Palmer, Statement of the Origin, Organization and Progress of the Russian–American Telegraph Western Union Extension . . . (Rochester, NY, 1866) 33, 165. 25 Edwin A. Pratt, The Rise of Rail-Power in War and Conquest (London, 1915) 356. 26 General F. von Berhardi, Germany and the Next War (London, 1914) Chap- ter V.

10 EUROPE BEFORE 1914: ORIGINS OF WORLD WAR AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION 1 Arnold J. Toynbee, The World after the Peace Conference (London, 1926) 12. 2 Spain and Portugal (Leipzig, 1898) xxi, xxiv–xv, 502, 508. 3 Italy: From the Alps to Naples (Leipzig, 1909) xii, xxii. NOTES 527

4 Northern France (Leipzig, 1899) xx. 5 Norway, Sweden and Denmark (Leipzig, 1912) xxiv–xxvi. 6 The Rhine: From Rotterdam to Constance (Leipzig, 1906) xiv, xviii–xix. 7 Austria, including Hungary, Transylvania, Dalmatia and Bosnia (Leipzig, 1900) xiii. 8 Russia, with Teheran, Port Arthur and Peking (Leipzig, 1914) xvii–xix, xxi, xxiv, xxviii. 9 The United States (Leipzig, 1904) xx–xxi, xxx–xxxiii. 10 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, Russia, vol. 1 (London, 1905) vii–viii, 1–4, 17, 26, 35, 73–5, 80, 102, 109, 115, 118–19, 121, 125, 135, 137, 144–5, 148, 160–1, 169, 178–9, 185, 226–8, 243, 368, 451–6. 11 Ibid., vol. 2, 26–7, 197–201, 235–6, 289–90, 353–4, 374–6, 391–6, 420, 439, 473–4. 12 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, Russia (London, 1912) vii. 13 Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace, Our Russian Ally (London, 1914) 2, 11, 17–18, 22–3. 14 T. C. W. Blanning, ‘Epilogue: The Old Order Transformed, 1789–1815’, in Euan Cameron (ed.), Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (Oxford, 1999) 372. 15 Roy Porter and Mikula´sˇ Teich (eds.) in their Introduction, Romanticism in National Context (Cambridge, 1988) 1–7. 16 Asa Briggs and Patricia Clavin, Modern Europe, 1789–1989 (London, 1997) 186. 17 Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadski, A Concise History of Poland (Cam- bridge, 2002) 137. 18 Eber Jeffery, ‘ ‘‘Nothing Left to Invent’’ ’, Journal of the Patent Office Society, vol. 22, no. 7 ( July 1940) 479–81, quotation from 480. 19 NE, 146. 20 Prince Albert, speech given at a dinner given by the Lord Mayor of London for all the mayors of the United Kingdom, Mansion House, 21 March 1850, quoted in ‘Introduction’, Official Descriptive and Illustrated Catalogue of the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations, vol. 1 (London, 1851) 3. I owe this reference and much else in this chapter to Nicholas Fisher, cultural historian at the University of Aberdeen. 21 Gina Pischel, A World History of Art (Oxford, 1976) 600. 22 Lawrence Badash ‘The Completeness of Nineteenth-Century Science’, Isis, 63 (1972) 50. Badash asks: ‘can we establish any connections between completeness and influences beyond science, such as cultural, intellectual, philosophical, literary, historical, or artistic trends?’(58). 23 CMH, vol. 1, v–viii; vol. 5, 517; vol. 7, v–vii; vol. 12, 1. 24 This paragraph from Patrick Brantlinger, ‘Mass Media in fin-de-sie`cle Europe’, in Mikula´sˇ Teich and Roy Porter (eds.), Fin de sie`cle and its Legacy (Cambridge,1990) 105. 25 Information in this section from EB. See also Geoffrey Barraclough, An Intro- duction to Contemporary History (Harmondsworth, 1967), esp. Chapter 2, 528 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

‘The Impact of Technical and Scientific Advance’. On oral history, see Paul Thompson (ed.), Our Common History: The Transformation of Europe (London, 1982). 26 For a more complete exposition, see for example Richard Langhorne, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890–1914 (London, 1981). 27 NE, 202–8. 28 NE, 200–1. 29 Gordon A. Craig, Germany, 1860–1945 (Oxford, 1978) 334. See also Fritz Fischer, World Power or Decline: The Controversy over Germany’s Aims in the First World War (London, 1974). 30 C. R. M. F. Cruttwell, A History of the Great War, 1914–1918 (Oxford, 1934) 66n. For the wider Russian context, see D. C. B. Lieven, Russia and the Origins of the First World War (London, 1983). 31 Hans Rogger, ‘Russia in 1914’, Journal of Contemporary History, 1/4 (1966) 95–6. 32 Dick Geary, European Labour Protest, 1848–1939 (London, 1981) 125–6.

11 THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1914–1921

1 Hew Strachan, The First World War, vol. 1, To Arms (Oxford, 2001) 164, 180. 2 C. E. Montague, Disenchantment (London, 1922), as in NE, 212. On the Western Front, see more generally Paul Fussell, The Great War and Modern Memory (Oxford, 1975). Fussell makes little or no reference to the Eastern Front or to the Russian Revolution. 3 Balfour Declaration as in NE, 298. 4 Cruttwell, A History, 73n. 5 Ibid., 200–3; John M. Blum and others, The National Experience: A History of the United States (New York, 1973) 549–54. 6 Cruttwell, A History, 336. 7 Ibid., 376, 382. 8 A. J. P. Taylor, The First World War: An Illustrated History (Harmondsworth, 1966) 171. 9 Cruttwell, A History, 415–16. 10 Marx, The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte, 23. 11 P. N. Miliukov, Istoriia vtoroi russkoi revoliutsii, quoted by Arthur E. Adams, The Russian Revolution and Bolshevik Victory: Why and How? (Boston, 1960) 1. 12 M. T. Florinsky, Russia: A History and an Interpretation, vol. 2 (New York, 1953) 1362. 13 Ibid., 1365, 1373. 14 Stephen Graham, Russia in 1916 (London, 1917) 35, 37, 73–4, 90–1, 146–7. NOTES 529

15 Michael T. Florinsky, The End of the Russian Empire (New York, 1961) 133–5. 16 NE, 224–5; Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, The February Revolution: 1917 (Seattle, 1981) 554–67. 17 Ibid., 425. 18 Cruttwell, A History, 337. 19 Commodore G. von Schoultz, With the British Fleet: War Recollections of a Russian Naval Officer (London, 1925) 274. 20 Hasegawa, The February Revolution, 402; L. D. Trotsky, The History of the Russian Revolution (London, 1934) 291. 21 The preceding account from Hasegawa, Trotsky and Arthur Ransome in EB 13, vol. 3, 412–15. 22 Crutwell, A History, 433. 23 Schoultz, With the British Fleet, 306–7. 24 Ransome, EB 13, vol. 3, 412–15; A. Rabinowich, The Bolsheviks come to Power (London, 1976). 25 Ronald G. Suny, ‘Towards a Social History of the October Revolution’, American Historical Review, 88 (1983) 58. Suny goes on to suggest that the fury of the civil war led to authoritarianism. 26 Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction (Harmondsworth, 1944) 112–13. 27 Brian W. Blouet, Sir Halford Mackinder (Oxford, 1975) 38–40. 28 NE, 216–19. 29 NE, 239. 30 G. H. N. Seton-Watson, The Russian Empire, 1801–1917 (Oxford, 1967) x; Richard Pipes in Times Literary Supplement, 20 July 1984. 31 Arno J. Mayer, Political Origins of the New Diplomacy, 1917–1918 (New York, 1970) 393. 32 ‘Paris, Conference of’ by Colonel Edward M. House, EB 13, vol. 3, 55–6. 33 ‘Covenant’, EB 13, vol. 1, 754; NE, 257. 34 ‘Paris’, EB 13, vol. 3, 61. 35 ‘Versailles, Treaty of’ by H. W. V. Temperley, EB 13, vol. 3, 948. 36 John Maynard Keynes, The Economic Consequences of the Peace (London, 1920) argued for reduction of reparations. Etienne Mantoux, The Cartha- ginian Peace, or, The Economic Consequences of Mr. Keynes (London, 1946; repr. North Stratford, NH, 2000) argued 25 years later, towards the end of the Second World War, that the terms of Versailles had been too lenient. 37 NE, 221–3.

12 THROUGH DEPRESSION AND ISOLATION TOWARDS ANOTHER WORLD WAR, 1921–1939

1 NE, 261–4. 2 Jerzy Lukowski and Hubert Zawadski, A Concise History of Poland (Cam- bridge, 2002) 216. 530 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

3 S. Pollard and C. Holmes (eds.), Documents of European Economic History, vol. 3 (London, 1973) 482. 4 J. V. Stalin, ‘The Tasks of Business Executives’, Works, vol. 13 (Moscow, 1955) 33–44. 5 R. W. Davies, The Industrialization of Soviet Russia, vol. 1 (London, 1980) 107, 360. 6 Ross Terrill, R. H. Tawney and His Times, quoted by Anthony P. Adam- thwaite, The Making of the Second World War (London, 1977) 23; Pertinax quoted by Raymond Aron, Le spectateur engage´ (Paris, 1981) 39–40. 7 Quoted by George F. Kennan, Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1941 (New York, 1960) 80. 8 John Richman, The United States and the Soviet Union: The Decision to Recognize (Raleigh, NC, 1980) 246; John M. Blum and others, The National Experience: A History of the United States (New York, 1973) 659. 9 Blum, The National Experience, 655. 10 Ibid., 664. 11 Martin McCauley, Stalin and Stalinism (London, 1983) 97. 12 M. Fainsod, Smolensk under Soviet Rule (Cambridge, MA, 1958) 92. 13 A. Nove, An Economic History of the USSR (Harmondsworth, 1972) 227–8. 14 John P. Mackintosh, The Paths that Led to War: Europe, 1919–1939 (London, 1940) 204. 15 Adolf Hitler, Mein Kampf, intro. D. C. Watt (London, 1974) xxxiv. 16 K. D. Bracher, The German Dictatorship: The Origins, Structure and Conse- quences of National Socialism (Harmondsworth, 1973) 297. 17 Roberts, The House, 101. 18 T. W. Mason, ‘The Legacy of 1918 for National Socialism’, in A. J. Nicholls and E. Matthias (eds.), German Democracy and the Triumph of Hitler (Lon- don, 1971) 225, 231; R. J. Overy, The Nazi Economic Recovery, 1932–1938 (London, 1982) 50. 19 Mackintosh, The Paths, 206. 20 Ibid., 277; Denis Mack Smith, Mussolini’s Roman Empire (London, 1976) 47. 21 Both quotations from Mackintosh, The Paths, 307–8. 22 Adamthwaite, The Making, 72. 23 Ibid., 183. 24 Ibid., 65. 25 K. G. Robbins, Munich, 1938 (London, 1968) 336.

13 THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE DIVISION OF EUROPE, 1939–1945 1 Encyclopaedia Britannica Book of the Year, 1939: Being a Survey of the Principal Persons, Events, and Developments in Various Spheres of Knowledge and Affairs during the Year 1938 (London, 1939) 437. 2 Baedekers Autofu¨hrer, Deutsches Reich (Grossdeutschland) (Leipzig, 1939) iv, xxi. NOTES 531

3 L. B. Namier, Conflicts: Studies in Contemporary History (London, 1942) 54, 56–8. 4 NE, 279. 5 Quoted by Donald Cameron Watt, How War Came: The Immediate Origins of the Second World War, 1938–1939 (London, 1989) 457. 6 Jonathan Haslam, The Soviet Union and the Struggle for Collective Security, 1933–39 (London, 1984) 226. 7 Kennan, Soviet Foreign Policy, 176. 8 Howard K. Smith, Last Train from Berlin (London, 1942) 66. 9 John Mackintosh, The Paths that Led to War: Europe, 1919–1939 (London, 1940) vi. 10 Smith, Last Train, 67–9. 11 Gerhard Hirschfeld, in a lecture to Aberdeen University History Depart- ment, 1983. 12 Quoted by John Terraine, ‘The Spectre of the Bomber’, History Today (April 1982) 5, 8. 13 Gabriel Gorodetsky, Grand Delusion: Stalin and the German Invasion of Russia (London, 1999) 299. 14 National Observer and Hitler quoted in Smith, Last Train, 85, 133, 196. 15 Chihiro Hosoya, ‘Japan’s Decision for War in 1941’, Hitosubashi Journal of Law and Politics, 5 (1967) 15. 16 A. J. P. Taylor, The Second World War: An Illustrated History (London, 1975) 125. 17 John Barber and Mark Harrison, The Soviet Home Front, 1941–1945: A Social and Economic History of the USSR in World War II (London, 1991) 40. 18 John Erickson, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1985) 537; The Road to Berlin (London, 1985) 57. 19 Christian Streit, Keine Kameraden: Die Wehrmacht und die sowjetischen Kriegsgefangen, 1941–1945, as reviewed by Hans Mommsen, Bulletin of the German Historical Institute, London, 1 (1979) 18–19. 20 NE, 285. And see the discussion of works by Jo¨rg Friedrich, Klaus Rainer Ro¨hl and W. G. Sebald in the Times Literary Supplement, 25 April 2003. 21 Gerhard L. Weinberg, A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge, 1994) 852. 22 John Lukacs, 1945: The Year Zero (New York, 1978) 36. 23 Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945 (Washington, 1955) 665–6. Other information from 571, 612–13, 614, 617, 620–1, 622, 664–5, 667, 668, 669, 712, 766, 788, 844, 846, 849, 896, 901–2, 903–4, 905, 921–3. 24 Ibid., 975–84. 25 Daniel Yergin, The Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (Boston, 1978) 119. 26 Taylor, The Second World War, 229–30. John Erickson, ‘Soviet War Losses’, in John Erickson and David Dilks (eds.), Barbarossa: The Axis and the Allies (Edinburgh, 1994) 256–8 notes that ‘direct loss’ estimates have reached 532 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

26–27 million, while ‘global loss’ including ‘birth deficit’ has been accep- ted at about 48 million. Figures on the Holocaust from Lucy S. Dawidowicz, The War against the Jews, 1933–1945 (New York, 1976) 544. See also Michael R. Marrus, The Holocaust in History (London, 1987).

14 THE COLD WAR AND DECOLONISATION, 1945–1968

1 Anthony Adamthwaite, ‘Britain and the World, 1945–1949: The View from the Foreign Office’, in Josef Becker and Franz Knipping (eds.), Power in Europe? Great Britain, France, Italy and Germany in a Postwar World, 1945–1950 (Berlin, 1986) 12–13. 2 Rene´ Girault, ‘The French Decision-Makers and their Perception of French Power in 1948’, in ibid., 47–51. A British–French treaty of 1947 led nowhere. 3 Brunello Vigezzi, ‘Italy: The End of a ‘‘Great Power’’ and the Birth of a ‘‘Democratic Power’’ ’, in ibid., 67–8. 4 Manfred Overesch, ‘Senior West German Politicians and their Perception of the German Situation in Europe, 1945–1949’, in ibid., 118–21. 5 R. A. C. Parker, ‘British Perceptions of Power: Europe between the Super- powers’, in ibid., 449. 6 Fred Halliday, The Making of the Second Cold War (London, 1983) 5. After the Second World War, the first uses of the term were in 1947, by the American financier Bernard Baruch and journalist Walter Lippmann. 7 Thomas G. Paterson, Soviet–American Confrontation: Postwar Reconstruction and the Origins of the Cold War (London, 1973) 8–9. 8 Ibid., 153. 9 Howard K. Smith, The State of Europe (London, 1950) 86. For a historian’s corroboration, see Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins of the Cold War and the National Security State (Boston, MA, 1978) 301: ‘The Moscow Coun- cil marked for the Americans the final rejection of Franklin Roosevelt’s tentatively optimistic approach to postwar Soviet–American relations.’ 10 Smith, The State, 196–7. 11 Ibid., 251–6. 12 On France since 1945, see for example John Ardagh, The New France, 1945–1977 (Harmondsworth, 1977). 13 Smith, The State, 21. 14 Ibid., 179–83. 15 Sheila Grant Duff, ‘Czechoslovakia in World Affairs’, in James Callag- han and others, Czechoslovakia: Six Studies in Reconstruction (London, [1946]) 14. 16 Stanisaw Mikoajczyk, The Pattern of Soviet Domination (London, 1948) 23. 17 Martin McCauley, Stalin and Stalinism (London, 1983) 100. NOTES 533

18 Ibid., 102; Yoram Gorlizki, ‘Stalin’s Cabinet: The Politburo and Decision Making in the Postwar Years’, in Christopher Read (ed.), The Stalin Years (Basingstoke, 2003) 200. 19 Smith, The State, 66–7. 20 J. D. Hargreaves, Decolonization in Africa (London, 1988) 88–9. 21 Yergin, Shattered Peace, 123–4, 435 n. 34. 22 Jawaharlal Nehru, The Discovery of India (New York, 1960) 360. 23 NE, 310–12. 24 Ibid., 401–3; Walter LaFeber, America, Russia, and the Cold War, 1945–1996 (New York, 1997) 96–7. 25 Yergin, Shattered Peace, 404–5. 26 NE, 323. 27 Ilya Erenburg, Dorogi Evropy (Moscow, 1946) 142. 28 LaFeber, America, Russia, 210. 29 Immanuel Wallerstein, Geopolitics and Geoculture: Essays on the Changing World-System (Cambridge, 1991) 13–14, 65–83.

15 GLOBALISATION: COLLAPSE IN THE EAST, READJUSTMENT IN THE WEST, 1968–1991 AND AFTER

1 Anthony Giddens, quoted by Roland Axtmann in his editorial introduc- tion to Globalization and Europe: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations (London, 1998) 2. 2 Walter LaFeber, The American Age: United States Foreign Policy at Home and Abroad since 1750 (New York, 1989) 616. 3 Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (New York, 1988) 515, 521, 525–6. 4 Bush quoted by Walter LaFeber, America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945– 1990, 6th edn (New York, 1991) 340. 5 Paul Dukes, A History of Russia, c.882–1996 (London, 1998) 315–16. 6 Valentin Kudrov, Soviet Economic Performance in Retrospect: A Critical Re- examination (Moscow, 1998) 52, 71–2, 92, 123–4. On telephones, see V. S. Smirnov, ‘Ekonomicheskaia predrevoliutsionnoi Rossii v tsifrakh i faktakh’, Otechestvennaia istoriia, 2 (1999) 10. 7 Jose´ Amodia, ‘Democracy, Nationalism and Autonomy in Spain: An Over- all View’, in Jose´ Amodia (ed.), The Resurgence of Nationalist Movements in Europe (Bradford, 1991) 137–50. 8 Timothy Garton Ash, The Uses of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central Europe (Harmondsworth, 1989) 167–8. 9 http://europa.eu.int/abc/obj/treaties/en/entoc.htm 10 Congressional Record, S1216–S1219, 29 January 1991. 534 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

11 Miroslav Hroch and Blanka Rı´chova´, ‘How much does state formation depend on nationalism?’, in Andre´ Gerrits and Nanci Adler (eds.), Vampires Unstaked: National Images, Stereotypes and Myths in East Central Europe (Amsterdam, 1995) 119. 12 Attila A´gh, ‘Hungary: After the Five Years’ Excursion to the ‘‘Glorious Past’’ ’, in Bogdan Go´ralczyk, Wojciech Kostecki and Katarzyna Z_ukrowska (eds.), In Pursuit of Europe: Transformations of Post-Communist States, 1989– 1994 (Warsaw, 1995) 66. 13 See, for example, Jeno¨ Szu¨ cs, ‘The Three Historical Regions of Europe’, Acta Historica Academiae Hungaricae, 29 (2–4) (1983). Hans-Heinrich Nolte, ‘The Alleged Influence of Cultural Boundaries on Political Thinking: Images of Central Europe’, in Gerrits and Adler, Vampires Unstaked, pp. 41–2, is sceptical about the arguments put forward by Milan Kundera concerning east-central Europe as ‘part of the West kidnapped by the East’. 14 Arnold and Veronica Toynbee (eds.), The Realignment of Europe: Survey of International Affairs, 1939–1946 (London, 1955) 2–3, 7, 12–13, 15, 20. 15 Arnold J. Toynbee, The German Terror in Belgium (London, 1917) 1; The German Terror in France (London, 1917) 1; The World after the Peace Con- ference (London, 1926) 45. 16 The first use of the word in a political sense was by W. T. R. Fox, The Super- Powers (New York, 1944). And see Paul Dukes, The Superpowers: A Short History (London, 2000). 17 John Lewis Gaddis, Russia, the Soviet Union and the United States: An Interpretative History (New York, 1978) 279. 18 Toynbee, Realignment, 32–3. 19 Fernand Braudel, L’identite´ de la France: Espace et Histoire (Paris, 1986) 48; John Berger, ‘Historical Afterword’, Pig Earth (London, 1979), 195–7. 20 Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (New York, 1997) 43, 61, 86. 21 Paul Kennedy, Preparing for the Twenty-First Century (London, 1993) 288. SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

WEBSITES http://europa.eu.int/futurum/forum The repository for all contributions from European and national organisations to the work of the Convention. http://european-convention.eu.int The website of the Convention, with all the official Convention documents. http://www.europarl.euint/europe2004/ The Parliament’s dedicated site on the future of the EU.

REFERENCE

Belchem, John and Price, Richard, A Dictionary of Nineteenth-Century History (London, 1996). Black, Jeremy and Porter, Roy (eds.), A Dictionary of Eighteenth-Century History (London, 2001). Cook, Chris and Bewes, Dickon, What Happened Where? A Guide to Places and Events in Twentieth-Century History (London, 1997). Palmer, Alan, The Penguin Dictionary of Twentieth-Century History (London, 2002). Townley, Edward, A Dictionary of Twentieth-Century History (London, 1999). Townson, Duncan, The New Penguin Dictionary of Modern History, 1789–1945 (London, 2001). Townson, Duncan, A Dictionary of Contemporary History (Oxford, 1999). Webb, Adrian, Central and Eastern Europe since 1919 (London, 2002). Williams, E. N., The Penguin Dictionary of English and European History, 1485–1789 (London, 1980).

MAPS

Barnes, Ian, The History Atlas of Europe (New York, 1998). Black, Jeremy, Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past (London, 2000).

535 536 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Hupchik, Dennis P. and Cox, Harold E., The Palgrave Concise Atlas of Eastern Europe (London, 2001). Magocsi, Paul R., Historical Atlas of Central Europe (Seattle, Wash., 2002). The Economist Atlas of the New Europe (New York, 1992). The Hamlyn Historical Atlas, ed. Moore, R. I. (London, 1981). The Penguin Atlas of World History, ed. Kinder, Herman (London, 1995). The Times Atlas of World History, ed. Barraclough, G. (London, 1993).

GENERAL

Alcock, Antony, A Short History of Europe (London, 2002). Barraclough, Geoffrey, An Introduction to Contemporary History (Harmondsworth, 1967). Blanning, T. C. W. (ed.), The Oxford History of Modern Europe (Oxford, 2000). Bridge, F. R. and Bullen, Roger, The Great Powers and the European States System, 1815–1914 (London, 1980). Briggs, Asa and Clavin, Patricia, Modern Europe, 1789–1989 (London, 1997). Cameron, Euan (ed.), Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (Oxford, 1999). Davies, Norman, Europe: A History (London, 1997). Doyle, William, The Old European Order, 1660–1800 (Oxford, 1978). Ferguson, Niall, The Cash Nexus: Money and Power in the Modern World, 1700– 2000 (London, 2002). Hobsbawm, E. J., The Age of Revolution, 1789–1848 (London, 1962). Hobsbawm, E. J., The Age of Capital, 1848–1875 (London, 1975). Hobsbawm, E. J., The Age of Empire, 1870–1914 (London, 1987). Hobsbawm, E. J., The Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century (London, 2000). Joll, James, Europe since 1870: An International History (London, 1990). McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M., The Rise of the Great Powers, 1648–1815 (London, 1983). Marks, Sally, The Ebbing of European Ascendancy: An International History of the World, 1914–1945 (London, 2002). Merriman, John, A History of Modern Europe, 2 vols. (New York, 1998). Roberts, J. M., The Penguin History of Europe (London, 1997). Thomson, David, Europe since Napoleon (London, 1990).

REGIONAL

Anderson, M. S., The Eastern Question, 1774–1923 (London, 1966). Bideleux, Robert and Jeffries, Ian, A History of Eastern Europe (London, 1998). Jelavich, Barbara, History of the Balkans, 2 vols. (Cambridge, 1983). Longworth, Philip, The Making of Eastern Europe (London, 1997). Mazower, Mark, The Balkans (London, 2001). Okey, Robin, Eastern Europe: Feudalism to Communism, 1740–1980 (London, 1982). FURTHER READING 537

Pearson, Raymond, National Minorities in Eastern Europe, 1848–1945 (London, 1983). Silberschmidt, Max, The United States and Europe: Rivals and Partners (London, 1972). Stone, Daniel, A History of East Central Europe (Seattle, Wash., 2001). Todorova, Miranda, Imagining the Balkans (Oxford, 1997). Urwin, Derek, A Political History of Western Europe since 1945 (London, 1997).

ECONOMIC

Aldcroft, Derek, Europe in the International Economy, 1500 to 2000 (London, 1999). The Cambridge Economic History of Europe, 7 vols. (Cambridge, 1963–7). Henderson, W. O., The Industrialization of Europe, 1780–1914 (London, 1969). Kemp, T., Historical Patterns of Industrialisation (London, 1978). Kenwood, A. G. and Lougheed, A. L., The Growth of the International Economy, 1820–2000: An Introductory Text (London, 1999). Tipton, Frank B. and Aldrich, Robert, An Economic and Social History of Europe, 2 vols., 1890–1939, 1939– (London, 1987). Wallerstein, Immanuel, The Modern World-System (London, 1974–). Woodruff, William, Impact of Western Man: A Study of Europe’s Role in the World Economy, 1750–1960 (London, 1966).

SOCIAL

Arie` s, Philippe, Centuries of Childhood (London, 1979). Arie` s, Philippe, Western Attitudes towards Death from the Middle Ages to the Present (Baltimore, MD, 1974). Branca, Patricia, Women in Europe since 1750 (London, 1978). Briggs, Asa and Burke, Peter, A Social History of the Media (Oxford, 2001). Foucault, Michel, The History of Sexuality (London, 1981). Geary, Dick, European Labour Protest, 1848–1939 (London, 1981). Gillis, John R., Youth and History: Tradition and Change in European Age Relations, 1770 to the Present (London, 1974). Kamen, Henry, European Society, 1500–1700 (London, 1984). Stearns, Peter N., European Society in Upheaval: Social History since 1750 (London, 1975). Weber, Eugen, A Modern History of Europe: Men, Cultures and Societies from the Renaissance to the Present (London, 1973). Wolf, Eric R., Europe and the People without History (London, 1982).

CULTURAL

Blanning, T. C. W., The Culture of Power and the Power of Culture: Old Regime Europe, 1660–1789 (Oxford, 2002). 538 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Cipolla, Carlo, Literacy and Development in the West (London, 1969). Dukes, Paul and Dunkley, John (eds.), Culture and Revolution (London, 1990). Lowenthal, David, The Past is a Foreign Country (Cambridge, 1985). Mosse, G. L., The Culture of Western Europe: The Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Chicago, 1974). Rietbergen, Peter, Europe: A Cultural History (London, 1998). What is Europe?, 4 vols. (London, 1993): Boer, Pinden and others, The History of the Idea of Europe (London, 1993); Schro¨ der, Konrad and others, Aspects of European Cultural Diversity (London, 1993); Rieu, Alain-Marc and others, European Democratic Culture (London, 1993); Waites, Bernard and others, Europe and the Wider World (London, 1993).

MILITARY AND STRATEGIC

Best, Geoffrey, War and Society in Revolutionary Europe, 1770–1870 (London, 1982). Black, Jeremy, European Warfare, 1660–1815 (London, 1994). Bond, Brian, War and Society in Europe, 1870–1970 (London, 1984). Childs, John, Armies and Warfare in Europe, 1648–1789 (Manchester, 1982). Corvisier, Andre´, Armies and Societies in Europe, 1494–1789 (London, 1979). Dehio, Ludwig, The Precarious Balance: The Politics of Power in Europe, 1494–1945 (London, 1963). Gooch, John, Armies in Europe (London, 1980). Howard, Michael, War in Modern European History (Oxford, 1976). Kennedy, Paul, Grand Strategies in War and Peace (London, 1991). Kennedy, Paul, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000 (London, 1989). Kiernan, V. G., European Armies: From Conquest to Collapse, 1815–1960 (London, 1982). McNeill, W. H., The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Forces and Society since AD 1000 (Oxford, 1982). Strachan, Hew, European Armies and the Conduct of War (London, 1983).

DISCUSSIONS OF HISTORY

Bloch, Marc, The Historian’s Craft (Manchester, 1954). Carr, E. H., What is History? (London, 1990). Elton, G. R., The Practice of History (London, 1969). Gardiner, Juliet (ed.), What is History Today? (London, 1988). Ferro, Marc, The Use and Abuse of History (London, 1984). Marwick, Arthur, The New Nature of History (London, 2001). Plumb, J. H., The Death of the Past (London, 1969). FURTHER READING 539

NATIONAL Albania

Pollo, Stefanaq, The History of Albania (London, 1981). Sully, Melanie A., A Contemporary History of Albania (London, 1990). Vickers, Miranda, The Albanians: A Modern History (London, 1999).

Austria

Evans, R. J. W., The Making of the Habsburg Monarchy, 1550–1700 (Oxford, 1979). Jelavich, B., Modern Austria: Empire and Republic (Cambridge, 1987). Macartney, C. A., The House of Austria: The Later Phase, 1790–1918 (Edinburgh, 1978). Taylor, A. J. P., The Habsburg Monarchy, 1815–1918 (London, 1948). Wangermann, Ernst, The Austrian Achievement, 1700–1800 (London, 1973).

Baltic states (see also Russia)

Allworth, Edward (ed.), Nationality Group Survival in Multi-Ethnic States: Shifting Support Patterns in the Soviet Baltic Region (New York, 1977). Misiunas, Romuald and Taagepera, Rein, The Baltic States: The Years of Depen- dence, 1940–1990 (London, 1993). Rauch, Georg von, The Baltic States: Years of Independence, 1917–1940 (Berkeley, CA, 1974). Vardys, V. Stanley and Misiunas, Romuald, The Baltic States in Peace and War (University Park, PA, 1978).

Belarus (see also Russia)

Zaprudnik, A., Belarus: At a Crossroads in History (London, 1993).

Belgium (see also Netherlands)

Cook, Bernard A., Belgium: A History (New York, 2002).

Bosnia-Hercegovina (see also Yugoslavia)

Malcolm, N., Bosnia: A Short History (London, 1996). Lovrenovic, Ivan, Bosnia: A Cultural History (New York, 2001). 540 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Britain

Black, Jeremy, Convergence or Divergence? Britain and the Continent (London, 1994). Hill, Christopher, Reformation to Industrial Revolution (London, 1969). Jones, Harriet and Butler, Larry, Britain in the Twentieth Century (London, 1994). Kishlansky, Mark, Cannadine, David and Clarke, Peter, Penguin History of Britain (London, 1997). Marwick, Arthur, British Society since 1945 (London, 2003). Morgan, Kenneth O., The Oxford History of Britain (Oxford, 2001). Schama, Simon, A History of Britain (London, 2002). Speck, W. A., A Concise History of Britain (Cambridge, 1993).

Bulgaria

Crampton, R. J., A Concise History of Bulgaria (Cambridge, 1997). Evans, Stanley G., A Short History of Bulgaria (London, 1960). McIntyre, Robert J., Bulgaria: Politics, Economics and Society (London, 1988).

Croatia (see also Yugoslavia)

Goldstein, Ivo, Croatia: A History (Montreal, 1999). Tanner, M. C., A Nation Forged in War (London, 1997).

Czechoslovakia (including Czech Republic and Slovakia)

Henderson, Karen, Slovakia (London, 2002). Kirschbaum, Stanislav J., A History of Slovakia (London, 1996). Krejc˘´ı, Jaroslav and Machonin, Pavel, Czechoslovakia, 1918–92: A Laboratory for Social Change (London, 1996). Skilling, H. Gordon, Czechoslovakia, 1918–1988 (London, 1991). Stone, Norman and Strouhal, Eduard (eds.), Czechoslovakia: Crossroads and Crises (London, 1989).

Denmark (see also Scandinavia)

Jones, W. Glyn, Denmark: A Modern History (London, 1986). Lauring, Palle, A History of the Kingdom of Denmark (Copenhagen, 1960).

Estonia (see also Baltic states)

Parming, Tonu and Elmar, Jarvesoo, A Case Study of a Soviet Republic: The Estonian SSR (Boulder, CO, 1978). Raun, Toivo, Estonia and the Estonians (Stanford, CA, 1987). Uustalu, Evald, The History of the Estonian People (London, 1952). FURTHER READING 541

Finland (see also Scandinavia)

Jussila, Osmo, From Grand Duchy to Nation State: A Political History of Finland since 1909 (London, 1999). Jutikkala, A. H., History of Finland (London, 1962). Singleton, Fred, A Short History of Finland (Cambridge, 1998). Wuorinen, John H., A History of Finland (New York, 1965).

France

Cobban, Alfred, A History of Modern France, 3 vols. (London, 1965). Doyle, William, Old Regime France, 1648–1788 (Oxford, 2001). Goubert, Pierre, The Course of French History (London, 1991). Johnson, Douglas, A Concise History of France (London, 1971). Magraw, Roger, France 1815–1914: The Bourgeois Century (London, 1983). Price, Roger, A Concise History of France (Cambridge, 1993).

Germany (including Prussia and the Federal and Democratic Republics)

Berghahn, V., Modern Germany (Cambridge, 1987). Carr, W., A History of Germany, 1815–1985 (London, 1987). Childs, David, The GDR, Moscow’s German Ally (London, 1983). Craig, Gordon, German History, 1866–1945 (Oxford, 1981). Fulbrook, Mary, A Concise History of Germany (Cambridge, 1990). Holborn, Hajo, A History of Modern Germany (London, 1992). McCauley, Martin, The German Democratic Republic since 1945 (Basingstoke, 1983). Sheehan, James J., German History, 1770–1866 (Oxford, 1990).

Greece

Bury, J. B. and Meiggs, Russell, A History of Greece (London, 1977). Clogg, Richard, A Concise History of Greece (Cambridge, 1992). Dakin, Douglas, The Unification of Greece (London, 1972). Kourvetaris, Yorgos A. and Dobratz, Betty A., A Profile of Modern Greece in Search of Identity (Oxford, 1987). Woodhouse, C. M., Modern Greece: A Short History (London, 1999).

Hungary

Barta´, Istva´n and others, A History of Hungary (London, 1976). Ho¨ nsch, Jorg K., A History of Modern Hungary, 1867–1994 (London, 1996). 542 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Kantler, Laszlo, A History of Hungary (London, 2002). Molna´r, Miklo´s, A Concise History of Hungary (Cambridge, 2001). Sugar, P. F. and Hanak, Peter, A History of Hungary (London, 1990).

Iceland

Karlsson, Gunnar, The History of Iceland (Minneapolis, MN, 2000). Lacy, Terry G., Ring of Seasons: Iceland – Its Culture and History (Ann Arbor, MI, 2000).

Ireland

Cronin, Mike, A History of Ireland (London, 2001). Curtis, Edmund, A History of Ireland (London, 2002). Foster, R. F., The Oxford History of Ireland (Oxford, 2001). Killeen, Richard, A Short History of Ireland (Dublin, 1994). Moody, T. W., Martin, F. X. and Byrne, F. J., A New History of Ireland (Oxford, 1991). Ranelagh, John O’Beirne, A Short History of Ireland (Cambridge, 1995).

Italy

Clark, M., Modern Italy, 1871–1982 (London, 1984). Duggan, Christopher, A Concise History of Italy (Cambridge, 2002). Hearder, H., A Short History of Italy (Cambridge, 1963). Mack Smith, Denis, Italy: A Modern History (London, 1969). Seton-Watson, C., Italy from Liberalism to Fascism (London, 1972). Woolf, S. J., A History of Italy, 1700–1860: The Social Constraints of Political Change (London, 1979).

Latvia (see also Baltic states)

Bilmanis, Alfred, A History of Latvia (Princeton, NJ, 1951). Spekke, Arnolds, A History of Latvia: An Outline (Stockholm, 1951). Watson, H. A. G., The Latvian Republic (London, 1965).

Lithuania (see also Baltic states)

Chase, Thomas G., The Story of Lithuania (New York, 1946). Jurgela, Constantine R., History of the Lithuanian Nation (New York, 1948). Senn, Alfred E., The Emergence of Modern Lithuania (New York, 1959). FURTHER READING 543

Macedonia (see also Yugoslavia)

Danforth, L. M., The Macedonian Conflict: Ethnic Nationalism in a Transnational World (Princeton, NJ, 1996). Errington, R. Malcolm, The History of Macedonia (New York, 1994). Hammond, N. G. L., A History of Macedonia (Oxford, 1988). Pettifer, James (ed.), The New Macedonian Question (Basingstoke, 1999).

Moldova (see also Russia)

Hegarty, Thomas, Moldova (London, 2003).

Montenegro (see also Yugoslavia)

Stevenson, F. S., A History of Montenegro (New York, 1970).

The Netherlands

Boxer, C. R., The Dutch Seaborne Empire, 1600–1800 (London, 1965). Geyl, Pieter, A History of the Dutch-Speaking Peoples (London, 2001). Israel, Jonathan I., The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477–1806 (London, 1995). Kossmann, E. H., The Low Countries, 1780–1940 (Oxford, 1978). Schoffer, Ivo, A Short History of the Netherlands (Amsterdam, 1973). Wintle, Michael, An Economic and Social History of the Netherlands, 1800–1920 (Cambridge, 2000).

Norway (see also Scandinavia) Danielson, Rolf, Norway: A History from the Vikings to Our Own Times (Oslo, 1995). Derry, T. K., A History of Modern Norway (Oxford, 1973). Midgaard, John, A Brief History of Norway (Oslo, 1963).

Poland Davies, Norman, God’s Playground: A History of Poland, 2 vols.: –1795, –1980 (Oxford, 1981). Halecki, O., A History of Poland (New York, 1988). Leslie, R. F. (ed.), History of Poland since 1863 (London, 1980). Lukowski, Jerzy and Zawadski, Hubert, A Concise History of Poland (Cambridge, 2001). Reddaway, W. F. (ed.), The Cambridge History of Poland, 2 vols.: –1696, –1935 (Cambridge, 1971). 544 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Portugal Birmingham, David, A Concise History of Portugal (Cambridge, 1999). Boxer, C. R., The Portuguese Seaborne Empire (London, 1969). Livermore, H., A New History of Portugal (Cambridge, 1976). Paine, Stanley, A History of Spain and Portugal, 2 vols. (Madison, WI, 1973).

Romania Deletant, Dennis, Romania under Communist Rule (Oxford, 1999). Otetea, Andrei (ed.), A Concise History of Romania (London, 1985).

Russia

Dawisha, Karen and Parrott, Bruce, Russia and the New States of Eurasia: The Politics of Upheaval (Cambridge, 1994). Dukes, Paul, A History of Russia, c.882–1996 (London, 1998). Hosking, Geoffrey, Russia and the Russians: A History (London, 2001). Keep, John, A History of the Soviet Union, 1945–1991 (Oxford, 2002). Riasanovsky, N. V., A History of Russia (Oxford, 1999). Service, Robert, The History of Twentieth-Century Russia (London, 1998). Seton-Watson, G. H. N., The Russian Empire, 1801–1917 (Oxford, 1967). Westwood, J. N., Endurance and Endeavour: Russian History, 1812–1992 (Oxford, 1993).

Scandinavia

Derry, T. K., A History of Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1995). Donner, Joakim, The Quaternary History of Scandinavia (Cambridge, 1995). Griffiths, Tony, Scandinavia: A Modern History (London, 2000). Hovde, B. J., The Scandinavian Countries, 1720–1865, 2 vols. (Boston, MA, 1943).

Serbia (see also Yugoslavia)

Cox, John K., The History of Serbia (London, 2002). Judah, Tim, The Serbs (London, 2000). Pavlowich, Stevan K., Serbia: The History behind the Name (London, 2002).

Slovenia (see also Yugoslavia)

Benderly, J. and Kraft, E. (eds.), Independent Slovenia: Origins, Movements, Pros- pects (London, 1995). Gow, James and Carmichael, Cathie, Slovenia and the Slovenes (London, 2000). FURTHER READING 545

Spain

Carr, R., Spain, 1808–1939 (Oxford, 1966). Kamen, H., A Concise History of Spain (London, 1973). Paine, Stanley, see Portugal. Parry, J. H., The Spanish Seaborne Empire (London, 1966). Romero Salvado´, Francisco J., Twentieth-Century Spain: Politics and Society in Spain, 1898–1998 (Basingstoke, 1999). Shubert, Adrian, A Social History of Modern Spain (London, 1990).

Sweden (see also Scandinavia)

Andersson, Ingvar, A History of Sweden (London, 1956). Scott, Franklin, Sweden, The Nation’s History (Minneapolis, MN, 1977).

Switzerland

Bonjour, Edgar and others, A Short History of Switzerland (Oxford, 1952). Dame, Frederick W., History of Switzerland (Lampeter, 2001).

Ukraine (see also Russia)

Hrushevsky, Michael, A History of Ukraine (Hamden, CN, 1970). Magocsi, Paul R., A History of Ukraine (Seattle, Wash., 1996). Subtelny, Orest, Ukraine: A History (Toronto, 2000). Wilson, Andrew, The Ukrainians: Unexpected Nation (London, 2002).

Yugoslavia

Benson, Leslie, Yugoslavia: A Concise History (London, 2001). Clissold, Stephen, A Short History of Yugoslavia (Cambridge, 1966). Dedijer, V., History of Yugoslavia (New York, 1974). Lampe, John R., Yugoslavia as History (Cambridge, 1996). Singleton, F., Twentieth Century Yugoslavia (London, 1976).

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: EUROPE BEFORE 1648

Bartlett, Robert, The Making of Europe: Conquest, Colonization and Cultural Change, 950–1350 (London, 1994). Cameron, Euan (ed.), Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History (Oxford, 1999). Frost, Robert, The Northern Wars, 1558–1721: War, State and Society in Northeastern Europe, 1558–1721 (London, 2000). 546 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Parker, Geoffrey, Europe in Crisis, 1598–1648 (London, 1979). Parker, Geoffrey (ed.), The Thirty Years War (London, 1984).

CHAPTER 2 THE FRENCH CHALLENGE: RESPONSES EAST AND WEST, 1648–1721

Cameron, Euan, as in Chapter 1. Doyle, William, The Old European Order, 1660–1800 (Oxford, 1992). Dukes, Paul, The Making of Russian Absolutism, 1613–1801 (London, 1982). Frost, Robert, as in Chapter 1. McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M., The Rise of the Great Powers, 1648–1815 (Harlow, 1983). Mettam, Roger, Government and Society in Louis XIV’s France (London, 1977). Parker, David, The Making of French Absolutism (London, 1983). Rabb, T. K., The Struggle for Stability in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1975). Stoye, John, Europe Unfolding, 1648–1688 (London, 1969).

CHAPTER 3 THE GROWTH OF EMPIRE, 1721–1756

Behrens, C. B. A., The Ancien Regime (London, 1967). Black, Jeremy, Eighteenth-Century Europe (London, 1999). Cameron, Euan (ed.), as in Chapter 1. Canny, Nicholas (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 1, The Origins of Empire (Oxford, 1998). McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M., as in Chapter 2. Marshall, P. J. (ed.), The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 2, The Eighteenth Century (Oxford, 2001). Rude´, George, Europe in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1964). Williams, Glyndwr, The Expansion of Europe in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1966).

CHAPTER 4 ENLIGHTENED GOVERNMENTS, THEIR CONFLICTS AND THEIR CRITICS, 1763–1789

Amann, Peter (ed.), The Eighteenth-Century Revolution: French or Western? (Boston, MA, 1963). Black, Jeremy, as in Chapter 3. Cameron, Euan (ed.), as in Chapter 1. Hufton, Olwen, Europe: Privilege and Protest, 1730–1789 (London, 1980). McKay, Derek and Scott, H. M., as in Chapter 2. Rude´, George, Revolutionary Europe, 1783–1815 (London, 1964). FURTHER READING 547

Scott, H. M. (ed.), Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth- Century Europe (London, 1980).

CHAPTER 5 EUROPE BEFORE 1789, AND THE ORIGINS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Black, Jeremy, as in Chapter 3. Cameron, Euan (ed.), as in Chapter 1. Doyle, W., Origins of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1999). Hampson, Norman, The Enlightenment (Harmondsworth, 1968). Outram, Dorinda, The Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1995). Porter, Roy and Teich, Mikula´sˇ (eds.), The Enlightenment in National Context (Cambridge, 1981).

CHAPTER 6 THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND NAPOLEON, 1789–1815

Broers, Michael, Europe under Napoleon, 1799–1815 (Oxford, 2002). Doyle, William, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (London, 2002). Ellis, Geoffrey, The Napoleonic Empire (London, 1991). Hampson, Norman, A Social History of the French Revolution (London, 1963). Hampson, Norman, The Life and Opinions of Maximilien Robespierre (London, 1974). Markham, F. M. H., Napoleon and the Awakening of Europe (London, 1954). Roberts, J. M., The French Revolution (Oxford, 1978). Rude´, George, as in Chapter 4. Rude´, George, The Crowd in the French Revolution (London, 1959). Simms, Brendan, The Impact of Napoleon (Cambridge, 2002). Woolf, Stuart, Napoleon’s Integration of Europe (London, 1991).

CHAPTER 7 FROM REACTION TOWARDS LIBERALISM, 1815–1848

Anderson, Benedict, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London, 1983). Bridge, F. R. and Bullen, Roger, The Great Powers and the European States System, 1815–1914 (London, 1980). Broers, Michael, Europe after Napoleon: Revolution, Reaction and Romanticism, 1814–1851 (Manchester, 1996). Jacques Droz, Europe between Revolutions, 1815–1848 (London, 1967). Evans, R. J. W. and Strandmann, Hartmut Pogge von, The Revolutions in Europe, 1848–1849: From Reform to Reaction (Oxford, 2000). 548 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Laven, David and Riall, Lucy (eds.), Napoleon’s Legacy (London, 2001). Sked, Alan (ed.), Europe’s Balance of Power (London, 1979). Sperber, Jonathan, The European Revolutions, 1848–1851 (Cambridge, 1994). Stearns, Peter N., 1848: The Revolutionary Tide in Europe (New York, 1974). Walker, Mack (ed.), Metternich’s Europe, 1813–1848 (New York, 1968).

CHAPTER 8 NATIONALISM, SOCIALISM, IMPERIALISM, 1848–1882

Bridge, F. R. and Bullen, Roger, as in Chapter 7. Cole, G. D. H., A History of Socialist Thought, 4 vols. (London, 1953–60). Grenville, J. A. S., Europe Reshaped, 1848–1878 (London, 1976). Hearder, H., Europe in the Nineteenth Century, 1830–1880 (London, 1966). McClelland, David, Karl Marx: His Life and Thought (New York, 1973). Smith, Anthony D., Nationalism: Theory, Ideology, History (Oxford, 2001). Taylor, A. J. P., The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 (Oxford, 1971). Woolf, Stuart, Nationalism in Europe (London, 1995).

CHAPTER 9 THE CLASH OF EMPIRES AND CLASSES, 1882–1914 Bridge, F. R. and Bullen, Roger, as in Chapter 7. Gollwitzer, Heinz, Europe in the Age of Imperialism, 1880–1914 (London, 1969). Langhorne, Richard, The Collapse of the Concert of Europe: International Politics, 1890–1914 (London, 1981). Porter, Andrew, The Oxford History of the British Empire, vol. 3, The Nineteenth Century (Oxford, 2001). Smith, Woodruff D., European Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Chicago, IL, 1982). Stone, Norman, Europe Transformed, 1878–1919 (London, 1999). Taylor, A. J. P., as in Chapter 8.

CHAPTER 10 EUROPE BEFORE 1914: ORIGINS OF WORLD WAR AND REVOLUTION Barraclough, Geoffrey, An Introduction to Contemporary History (Harmondsworth, 1967). Bridge, F. R. and Bullen, Roger, as in Chapter 7. Geiss, I. (ed.), July 1914: Selected Documents (London, 1967). Hughes, H. S., Consciousness and Society (Brighton, 1979). Joll, James, The Origins of the First World War (London, 1990). Koch, H. W. (ed.), The Origins of the First World War: Great Power Rivalry and German War Aims (London, 1972). FURTHER READING 549

Kochan, Lionel, Russia in Revolution, 1890–1918 (London, 1970). Strachan, Hew, The First World War, vol. 1, To Arms (Oxford, 2001).

CHAPTER 11 THE FIRST WORLD WAR AND THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION, 1914–1921

Carr, E. H., The Russian Revolution from Lenin to Stalin (London, 1980). Figes, Orlando, A People’s Tragedy: A History of the Russian Revolution (London, 1998). Fitzpatrick, Sheila, The Russian Revolution, 1917–1932 (Oxford, 1984). Joll, James, as in Chapter 10. Kochan, Lionel, as in Chapter 10. Read, Christopher, From Tsar to Soviets: The Russian People and their Revolution (London, 1996). Robbins, Keith, The First World War (Oxford, 1984). Strachan, Hew, as in Chapter 10. Taylor, A. J. P., The First World War: An Illustrated History (London, 1966). White, James D., The Russian Revolution, 1917–1921: A Short History (London, 2002).

CHAPTER 12 THROUGH DEPRESSION AND ISOLATION TOWARDS ANOTHER WORLD WAR, 1921–1939

Adamthwaite, Anthony P. (ed.), The Making of the Second World War (London, 1977). Hiden, John W., Republican and Fascist Germany (London, 1996). Kershaw, Ian, Hitler (London, 2001). Mack Smith, Denis, Mussolini (London, 1983). Mawdsley, Evan, The Stalin Years (Manchester, 2003). Preston, Paul, Franco: A Biography (London, 1990). Robertson, Esmond M. (ed.), The Origins of the Second World War (London, 1971). Taylor, A. J. P., The Origins of the Second World War (London, 1963). Ward, Chris, Stalin’s Russia (London, 1993). Watt, D. C., How War Came (London, 2001).

CHAPTER 13 THE SECOND WORLD WAR AND THE DIVISION OF EUROPE, 1939–1945

Calvocoressi, Peter, Wint, Guy and Pritchard, John, The Penguin History of the Second World War (London, 1999). Erickson, John, The Road to Stalingrad (London, 1975). Erickson, John, The Road to Berlin (London, 1984). 550 PATHS TO A NEW EUROPE

Gilbert, Martin, The Second World War (London, 2000). Taylor, A. J. P., The Second World War: An Illustrated History (Harmondsworth, 1976). Weinberg, Gerhard L., A World at Arms: A Global History of World War II (Cambridge, 1994).

CHAPTER 14 THE FALL OF EUROPE: ORIGINS OF THE COLD WAR AND DECOLONISATION, 1945–1968

Calvocoressi, Peter, World Politics, 1945–2000 (London, 2000). Crouzet, Maurice, The European Renaissance since 1945 (London, 1970). Grimal, Henri, Decolonization: The British, French, Dutch and Belgian Empires, 1919– 1963 (London, 1978). Hargreaves, J. D., Decolonization in Africa (London, 1988). Holland, R. F., European Decolonization, 1918–1981 (London, 1985). LaFeber, Walter, America, Russia and the Cold War, 1945–1996 (New York, 1997). Swain, Geoffrey and Nigel, Eastern Europe since 1945 (London, 1993). Vaughan, Richard, Post-War Integration in Europe (London, 1976).

CHAPTER 15 GLOBALISATION: COLLAPSE IN THE EAST, READJUSTMENT IN THE WEST, 1968–1991 AND AFTER

Ash, Timothy Garton, History of the Present: Dispatches from Europe (London, 2000). Axtmann, Roland (ed.), Globalization and Europe: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations (London, 1998). Bremmer, Ian and Taras, Ray, Nations and Politics in the Soviet Successor States (Cambridge, 1993). Calvocoressi, Peter, as in Chapter 14. Fawn, Rick and White, Stephen, Russia after Communism (London, 2002). Glenny, Misha, The Rebirth of History: Eastern Europe in the Age of Democracy (Harmondsworth, 1990). LaFeber, Walter, as in Chapter 14. Swain, Geoffrey and Nigel, as in Chapter 14. INDEX

Page numbers in italics refer to maps

Aberdeen Journal, 293–4 Alexander III, Tsar, 245, 283 absolutism Alexander of Bulgaria, 286 philosophical analysis, 129 Alexander of Yugoslavia, 379 practical applications, 89, 93–4, 97, Alexandra, Tsarina, 176–7, 179–80, 189, 102–3, 114–15 192, 193, 194, 196, 197, 226, 337–8 rejection/opposition, 110–11, 145, 164, Alexis, Tsar, 27, 41 188 Algeria, 461, 462, 480 Abyssinia, Italian invasion of, 390, 393 Allende, Salvador, President, 477 Acton, Lord, 310 Alsace(/Lorraine), political affiliation, 17, Adams, John, President, 104–5, 107 236, 273, 353, 361 Adenauer, Konrad, 460, 465 American War of Independence, 92, 107–8 Adrianople, Treaty of, 198 antecedents, 104–7 advertising, 293 European impact, 108–9, 112, 149, 150, Afghanistan, 245, 258–9, 260, 264, 351, 153, 168–9 470, 474, 476 Amery, L.S., 391, 407 Africa Amiens, Peace of, 174 decolonisation, 452, 462–3, 476–7 Amsterdam, 39, 69 European ambitions/possessions in, Andropov, Iurii, 473 65–6, 82, 205–6, 254–5, 256–7, Anna, Empress of Russia, 87 260, 261–2, 264, 267–9, 274, 275–6 Anne, Queen of England, 57, 132 impact of European events, 164 Annual Register (UK), 165–6, 181 political geography, 508, 512, 516 Anschluß see Austria: Nazi occupation role in Second World War, 418, 422 appeasement, policy of, 396, 398–9, 402, see also South Africa 434–5 agriculture, 2–3, 122–4, 125, 148, 315–16, Ardennes offensive, 424 376, 459 Argentina, 481 see also peasantry Armenia, 494, 496 aircraft, development of, 313 Armstrong, Neil, 472 see also nuclear armaments; warfare; art, 308–9 Second World War Artois, Count of see Charles X Aix-la-Chappelle Asia Congress of, 193 decolonisation, 452–5 Treaty of, 34, 68 European ambitions/possessions in, Alaska, 228 254, 267–9, 283 Albania, 402, 447, 460, 486, 488 European views of, 132–3 Albert, Prince Consort, 213–14, 305–6 impact of European events, 164 Alexander II, Tsar, 226–7, 232, 235, 245, impact on European events/culture, 21, 283, 318 126 551 552 INDEX

Asia (continued ) Battle of Britain, 411 political geography, 508, 512, 516 Bavaria, 74–5, 91, 483 Soviet influence in (perceived), 455 Bay of Pigs, 462 see also names of individual countries Beaconsfield, Lord see Disraeli Ataturk, Mustafa Kemal, 364 The Beatles, 464–5 Atlantic Charter, 416, 427, 430 Beccaria, Cesare, 95 atomic bomb(s), use of, 421, 425, 499 Becquerel, Antoine, 307 Attlee, Clement, 430 Beethoven, Ludwig van, 304 Augsburg Belarus, 489, 494, 496, 518 League of, 44, 45 Belgium, 172 Peace of, 11 domestic politics/conflicts, 214, 380, Augustus II of Saxony, 74 441–2, 481 Augustus III of Poland, 90 economy, 441 Austerlitz, Battle of, 175–6, 178 as focus of conflict, 241 Australia, 166, 293, 455 formation, 205 Austria guarantees of independence/neutrality, domestic politics, 199–202, 215–16 234, 366 Dual Monarchy (with Hungary), 230, overseas possessions, 287 245, 285–6, 291, 317–18 revolutionary activity, 166 international alliances/agreements, territorial extent/adjustments, 353, 361 90–1, 170, 188–9, 193–5, 318–19, Belgrade, Treaty of, 72 485 Bell, Alexander Graham, 314 international conflicts, 71–3, 76–7, Benelux Union, 442, 459, 460 78–9, 232–3, 238, 328 Bentham, Jeremy, 220 international role/standing, 79, 86, 201, Berg, Alban, 309 229, 253, 291 Beria, L.P., 384 Nazi occupation, 380, 397–8, 401 Bering, Vitus, 71–2 postwar situation, 445 Berlin territorial gains/losses, 47–8, 84, 91, 115, Congress/Treaty of, 226, 245–6, 258, 177, 179, 190, 245, 359–60, 363–4 268, 275, 282, 285, 318–19 see also Habsburg dynasty; Holy Roman (crises after) partition, 444–5, 456, 461–2 Empire destruction of Wall, 488 Austrian Succession, War of, 68, 78 Bernard, Francis, Governor, 104 Bernhardi, F. von, General, 289, 317, 324 Babeuf, Gracchus, 163, 247 Bernstein, Edouard, 312 Bacon, Francis, 6, 126, 132, 136 Besant, Annie, 262 Baedeker, Karl, 295–8, 314, 400–1 Bessarabia, 197, 245, 356 Bakunin, Mikhail, 251 Bethmann-Hollweg, Theobald von, 278, ‘balance of power’, 83–5, 317, 401–2 325 Baldwin, Stanley, 390–1, 396 Bevin, Ernest, 430, 442 Balfour, A.J., 331–2 Bismarck, Otto von, 230–6, 245, 261–2, Balkans 270, 274–8, 280, 318–19, 361 political geography, 244–5, 286, 364, Blackstone, Sir William, 96 510 Blanc, Louis, 210 role in world wars, 318, 320 Blanning, T.C.W., 98 Soviet control/influence, 446–8 Ble´riot, Louis, 313 ‘spheres of influence’, 424 Blitz see London territorial claims/conflicts, 198, 217, Blitzkrieg (lightning war), 408–9, 413–14, 262, 278, 283, 286–7, 485–7 415, 416, 417 see also names of individual countries Bluche, Fre´de´ric, 185 Bandung (Indonesia) conference, 458 Blum, Le´on, 391, 396 Bangladesh, 476 Boer War, 263, 264–5, 313 Barto´k, Be´la, 309 Bohemia, 14, 15, 17, 230 Basque region, 478–9 Bonaparte, Jerome, 178 Bastille, storming of, 146, 151, 155, 157 Bonaparte, Joseph, 178 INDEX 553

Bonaparte, Louis, 178 Byrnes, James F., 430 Bonaparte, Napoleon see Napoleon I Byzantine Empire/culture, 3, 4 Boris of Bulgaria, 379 Borodino, Battle of, 180 cahiers de dole´ance, 142–5, 151 Bose, Subas Chandra, 453 Calonne, Charles-Alexandre de, 113 Bosnia, 244, 245 Calvin, Jean, 6, 11–12 Bossuet, Jacques Be´nigne, Bishop, 37, 55 Cambridge Modern History, 310–11 ‘Boston Massacre’, 105, 106 Cameralism, 94, 95, 99 Bougainville, Louis de, 121 Campo Formio, Peace of, 170 Boulanger, Georges, General, 271 Canada Bracher, K.D., 388–9 conflicts for possession of, 68, 80, 81, 82 Brandenburg–Prussia geographical extent, 106–7 competition with other German states, tactical/economic significance, 182 74–7 Canning, George, 194, 206 international role/standing, 11, 35, 42–3, capitalism, spread of, 253–4 55–6, 252 Capodistrias, Count, 189 see also Prussia Caprivi, Georg, 261, 278 Brandt, Willi, 482–3 Carlowitz, Treaty of, 45 Braudel, Fernand, 500 Carlsbad Decrees, 199 Brazza, Count de, 256 Carlyle, Thomas, 213 Brazzaville conference, 441 Carmona, Antonio, General, 369, 380 Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 354–5, 383, 405 Carol (Charles) of Romania, 286, 379 Bretton Woods conference, 436, 490 Carter, Jimmy, 470 Brezhnev, Leonid, 464, 470, 472–3 Casablanca conference, 419 Briand, Aristide, 367 Castlereagh, Robert Stewart, Viscount, Brienne, Lome´nie de, 113, 114 182–3, 189, 193, 194, 206 Bristol, 66 Castro, Fidel, 462, 477 British Empire see under United Kingdom Catalonia, 22, 31, 35, 38, 395, 478–9 Broers, Michael, 183 Catherine II ‘The Great’, Empress of Broglie, duc de, 270–1 Russia, 82–3, 89, 90, 98, 117, 171, 405 Brusilov, Alexei, General, 331, 339, 340 domestic policies, 99, 101, 166 Brussels foreign diplomacy, 91–2, 166–7, 168 as administrative centre, 465, 481 Catholic Church, role in national politics, talks on African colonisation, 254–5 440–1, 445, 480 Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 501 Cavaignac, Louis-Euge`ne, General, 211, Bucharest 222–3 Peace of, 179–80 Cavour, Camillo, Count, 236–9 Treaty of, 320 Ceaus escu, Nicolae, 460, 464, 487, 488 Buchner, Eduard, 307–8 Cervantes, Miguel de, 8, 116 Budapest, 230 Chamberlain, Joseph, 253, 260–1, 264, 265 Bukharin, N.I., 354 Chamberlain, Neville, 396, 398, 399, 406, Bulgaria, 319, 320, 331, 493, 495 407 creation/geographical extent, 244–5, Chambers, Ephraim, 135, 136 286, 364 Chambord, comte de, 270 domestic politics, 379, 486–7, 488 Charlemagne, 3, 9, 11, 74, 373 foreign influence in, 424, 447 Charles Adolphus of Sweden, 27 involvement in Second World War, Charles Albert of Bavaria see Charles VII 411–12, 423 Charles Albert of Piedmont, 212, 236 Turkish ‘atrocities’ in, 244, 258 Charles I of England, 21, 24–6 Bull, John, 61 Charles II of England, 31, 35, 39, 150 Burke, Edmund, 110, 115–16, 165 Charles X of France (Comte d’Artois), 150, Burma, 422, 462 203 Burnet, Gilbert, Bishop, 50, 104 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, 8, 9, 10 Burns, John, 262–3 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor, 46, Bush, George (Snr), 471, 492 47–8, 72–3 554 INDEX

Charles VII, Holy Roman Emperor, 76–7 protests against, 466–7 Charles II of Spain, 38, 46 superpower relations, 465–6, 469–74, Charles III of Spain, 81 476, 498–500 Charles XI of Sweden, 48 termination, 477, 480, 492, 499 Charles XII of Sweden, 48–9, 134 Comecon (Communist economic union), Charter 77, 484 456, 463 Chartism, 213, 220, 222 Cominform (Communist Information Chatham, Earl of see Pitt the Elder Bureau), 438, 449 Cheka, 354–5 Comintern (Third Communist Chernenko, Konstantin, 473 International), 357, 381, 438 Chernobyl, 473–4 international opposition, 386, 394, 396, Chiang Kai-Shek, 424, 455 411 Chile, 477 Committee of Public Safety (French China Revolution), 158, 159–60, 161 internal politics, 424, 454–5 communications, means of/advances in, relations/conflicts with neighbours, 228, 293–4, 314, 400, 468, 499–500 332, 386–7, 391–2 Communism relations with West, 44, 70–1, 208, as basis of state, 369–70, 473, 486 240–1, 365 enforcement in Iron Curtain states, 443, on UN Security Council, 429, 430 445–6, 466 see also People’s Republic of China national parties/electoral results (outside Choiseul, E´tienne Franc¸ois, duc de, 80–1, USSR), 372–3, 374, 423, 440–1, 83, 92, 112 455, 462 Chopin, Fre´de´ric, 304 (perceived) threats of, 394–5, 423–4, Christian IV of Denmark, 26 443, 447, 452, 455, 456–7, 462 Christian IX of Denmark, 232 see also International Workingmen’s Christianity, 303 Association; Marx, Karl; socialism and geography, 5–6, 115 Comte, Auguste, 305 internal conflicts, 4, 6, 9, 11, 15–17 ‘Concert of Europe’, 193–5, 208, 317 spread of, 3 Congo (Belgian/French), 441–2, 463 Christina of Sweden, Queen, 26–7 Constant, Benjamin, 219 Churchill, Winston, 437 Constantinople, 244, 258 electoral failure, 428, 430 Treaty of, 48 role in postwar reorganisation, 426–30, Cook, James, Captain, 121 434, 446, 451 Cook, Thomas, 294 wartime activity/policies, 408–9, 411, Copenhagen 416–17, 418, 419, 422–3, 424 Battle of, 173 cities Council, 493, 495 bombing of, 411, 420–1, 425 Coral Sea, Battle of, 418 role in national economies/culture, 39, Cossacks, 85–6, 96 66, 69, 139–40, 315–16 see also Ukraine Civil War (English), 19, 21, 24–6, 39 Council of Europe, 459, 493 Clarendon, Lord, 24 Courbet, Gustave, 306 Clausewitz, Karl von, 180, 416 Courland, Duchy of, 90 Clemenceau, Georges, 272–3, 358, 359, see also Anna, Empress of Russia 428 Cowper, William, 118, 121 Clive, Robert, 67, 80, 81 Crimea, 91 Clotilde, Princess of Italy, 238 see also Crimean War; Tatar people Cluver, Philip, 19–20 Crimean War, 204, 225–6, 237, 239–40, Colbert, Jean-Baptiste, 31–4, 35, 68, 88, 290 122 after-effects, 226, 228 Cold War causes, 218 effects, 468 Croatia, 230, 494 origins, 432, 434–5, 437, 439, 445, 446 Croce, Benedetto, 311 prefigurings, 435 Cromwell, Oliver, 25, 30, 39 INDEX 555

Crowe, Eyre, 323 Depression (1930s), 370–3, 376–8 Cruttwell, C.R.M.F., 343–4, 346–7 impact on political ideology, 378–80 Cuba, 462, 465, 477 Descartes, Rene´, 20, 126–7, 132 Cumberland, Duke of, 80 Devolution, War of, 34 Curie, Marie, 307 Dickens, Charles, 309 Curie, Pierre, 307, 314 Diderot, Denis, 135–7, 139 Curzon, Lord, 352, 355, 427, 428 Directory (French Revolution), 161–3 Cyprus, 493, 495 Disarmament Conference, 392 Czech Republic, 493, 494, 495, 502 displaced persons (DPs), 432, 496 Czechoslovakia, 438 Disraeli, Benjamin, 258–60, 261 domestic politics/conflicts, 379–80, 445, Djilas, Milovan, 448 483–4 Dominican Republic, 466 international agreements, 367–8, 398, Donne, John, 5 399 Dorn, W.L., 83–4 Nazi occupation, 398, 402 Dostoevsky, Fedor, 309 partition, 494 Drax, Reginald, Admiral, 402 Soviet takeover/control, 443, 445–6, Dresden, bombing of, 420, 425 466 Dreyfus, Alfred, Captain, 271–2 see also Bohemia Dubcˇek, Alexander, 466, 484 Duff, Sheila Grant, 445 D-Day landings, 423–4 Dulles, John Foster, 457 Daladier, E´douard, 398, 399, 407 Dunkirk, 408, 409 Darwin, Charles, 289, 306 Dvora´k, Antonin, 309 Davies, Joseph E., 382 Dawes, Charles G., 366 East Germany (GDR), 464, 482–3, 488 de Gaulle, Charles East India Company, 62, 66, 107, 240 foreign/colonial policy, 461, 462, 465 East Prussia, 75, 328, 361 resignation, 466, 480 ‘Eastern Question,’ 168, 207, 218, 264, 364 role in French politics, 424, 434, 440–1, Ebert, Friedrich, 355 480 Economic and Monetary Union (EMU), wartime activities, 409, 419 490 de Sica, Vittorio, 434 Edison, Thomas, 314 de Tocqueville, Alexis, 112–13, 210, 211, education, 184, 210, 241, 291–2, 311–12, 219–20 312 de Witt, Johan, 40 political, 246–7 Debussy, Claude, 309 Edward VII of England, 265, 325–6 Declaration of Independence (US), 104, Edward VIII of England, 390 107, 108, 135, 453 Egypt, 173–4, 198, 260, 451 Declaration of the Rights of Man (France, international conflicts/alliances, 458 1789), 152–3, 453 Einstein, Albert, 307, 311, 499 decolonisation, processes of, 435, 450–5, Eisenhower, Dwight D., President, 423–4, 458–9, 462–3, 476–7 425, 458, 461–2, 469 Delacroix, Euge`ne, 304 Eliot, George (Mary Ann Evans), 309 Denikin, Anton, General, 344, 352, Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 79, 81, 87, 95 355 Elizabeth I of England, 10, 60 Denmark Elizabeth II of England, 464 domestic politics, 380, 482 Elliott, John, 17 and European union, 490, 491 Ellsworth, Henry L., 305 international conflicts, 12, 15–16, 26, Emanuel of Portugal, 7 35–6, 173, 218, 232 ‘Ems Telegram’, 235 international standing, 190 Encyclopaedia Britannica, 137–8, 311, 312, Nazi occupation, 407, 443 313 overseas possessions, 443 l’Encyclope´die, 135–7, 139–40 revolutionary activity, 166 Engels, Frederick, 248–51 territorial gains/losses, 190, 361 Enghien, duc d’, 185 556 INDEX

England Fascism, 368–9, 373, 378–80, 438–9 internal administration, 57–8 destruction, 429–30 international standing/relations, 39–40, political legacy, 459 59 rebellions against, 422 parliamentary system, 58 see also Italy; Nazism political/military history, 39, 45 (see also February Revolution, 341–5 Civil War) Fe´nelon, Franc¸ois de, Archbishop, 47 see also United Kingdom Ferdinand of Aragon, 8 Enlightenment, 130–1, 134–5, 166, 303 Ferdinand I of Austria, 200–1, 215, 216 political influence, 89–90, 93, 98, 163–4 Ferdinand of Bulgaria, 286 Entente Cordiale, 319, 409 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor, 14, Erenburg, Ilya, 459 15–16 Erhard, Ludwig, 460 Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor, 16, Erickson, John, 418 17 Erlander, Tage, 443 Ferdinand VII of Spain, 204 Estates-General, role in French Revolution, Ferry, Jules, 267–9 142–9 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 202–3, 231 Estonia, 355, 405, 423, 443, 487, 489, 493, fiction, 309–10 494 Fiji, 274 political history, 495 Finland, 190, 197, 355, 380, 482 ‘Eternal Peace, Treaty of’, 44 involvement in Second World War, 405, Europe 407, 423, 443–4 climate, 2 First International see International cultural unity, 116, 500, 502 Workingmen’s Association ethnicity, 28–9, 496 First World War, 86 etymology, 1 after-effects, 310, 326–7, 351–5, 370–1, global status, 116–17, 289–90, 310–11, 389 356, 380–1, 433, 461, 489 antecedents/causes, 279, 282, 286–7, languages, 1, 115–16, 500 313, 319, 320–6 physical geography, 1–3, 503 casualties, 335 political/economic integration, moves impact on national politics/economy, towards, 174, 458–60, 463, 491, 266–7, 285, 303, 336–7, 339–40, 493–4, 501 343–4, 356–7, 388 political geography, 6–7, 28–9, 195–6, progress of hostilities, 328–35 489, 494–6, 497–9, 504, 505, 517, public opinion, 326 518 Five Year Plan(s) (Soviet Union), 377–8, population, 37–8, 141, 174, 291 383–5, 459 territorial extent, 115, 489, 502 Flaubert, Gustave, 309 European Coal and Steel Community Foch, Ferdinand, Marshal, 329 (ECSC), 459 Fontane, Theodor, 309 European Economic Community (EEC), Ford, Gerald, 470 463, 493 Foreign Ministers’ Conference, 437, 452 Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), 490 collapse of (Moscow 1947), 445 membership, 479, 482, 490 Fourier, F.M. Charles, 248, 251 European Free Trade Association (EFTA), ‘Fourteen Points’, 352–3, 358, 360, 363 463, 481–2 France European Union (EU), 493 debates on governmental system, 270 absences, 496 domestic politics/conflicts, 22–4, 142, applications to join, 493–4 147–9, 208–12, 242–3, 269–73, ‘Eurosclerosis’, 489–90 323–4, 359, 380, 390–1, 423–4, Ezhov, Nikolai, 384 440–1, 460, 466, 480–1 economic policy, 31–3, 36 Fabian Society, 262 educational system/policy, 184, 210 Falklands War, 481 electoral system/developments, 209–10, Farouk, King of Egypt, 451, 458 220, 223 INDEX 557

international alliances/agreements, Frederick William III of Prussia, 176, 192, 30–1, 78–9, 141–2, 176–7, 198, 193–4 204, 207, 232–3, 237–8, 263–4, Frederick William IV of Prussia, 214–15, 265, 319–20, 367, 393, 465 218 international conflicts, 9, 16–17, 22, 30, free trade, 265, 276 33–6, 67–8, 79–81, 92–3, 169–72, ‘freedom’, acquisition/nature of, 466–7 174–6, 177–81, 225–6, 229, 238, French Revolution 324, 458 antecedents, 103, 111–14, 142–9 international role/standing, 86, 115, counter-revolutionary activities, 158–9, 195, 203, 252, 289, 291, 433, 434 161, 162 national identity/culture, 36–7 development of events, 151–63 Nazi occupation, 408–10 (see also Vichy electoral system, 154 government) foreign attitudes to, 122 overseas possessions/ambitions, 68, 82, international impact, 108, 110, 150, 92, 142, 252, 254, 267–9, 441 188, 208, 246, 290, 303–4 policies towards Fascism/Nazism, philosophical/ethical basis, 89–90, 393–4, 395–7, 398, 399, 400, 163–4 402–4, 407, 418 religious ethos/legislation, 154–5, 159, population, 37–8, 69, 141, 148–9, 174 160 presidency, 211, 222–3, 270–1 Freud, Sigmund, 311 religious ethos, 36–7 Fuller, J.F.C., Maj.-Gen., 410–11 role in wider Europe, 37–8, 41, 203–4, 491 Gagarin, Iurii, 461 social conditions/policy, 32–3, 47, Galicia, 328, 345 111–12, 121–6 Gallipoli, Battle of, 330–1 territorial extent/adjustments, 9, 31, Gambetta, Le´on, 269, 271 190, 236, 273–4, 361, 506, 513 Gandhi, Mahatma, 453 on UN Security Council, 429, 430 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 212, 236–7, 238–9 see also French Revolution Garton Ash, Timothy, 489 Francis Ferdinand, Archhduke, 320 Gasperi, Alcide de, 440 Francis I of France, 9 Geary, Dick, 326 Francis of Lorraine (Emperor Francis I), 77 Gentz, Friedrich von, 189, 191 Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor/I of George I of England, 46–7, 64, 132 Austria, 167, 169, 172, 192, 193, 200 George II of England, 64, 81 Francis Joseph of Austria, 215, 228, 229, George III of England, 81, 106, 109 245, 326 George IV of England, 193 Franco, Francisco, General, 394–5, George V of England, 266, 326 439–40, 478 George VI of England, 390 Franco-Prussian War, 235–6, 242, 268, Georgia, 489, 494, 496 318, 323 Germany Frankfurt Parliament, 215 air power, 410, 424 Franklin, Benjamin, 104–5, 109 Confederation, 190, 199–202, 215, Frederick I ’Barbarossa’, Holy Roman 229 Emperor, 387 domestic politics, 191–2, 273–4, Frederick II ’The Great’ of Prussia, 78–9, 276–82, 283–5, 372–6 81, 82, 89, 90, 91, 97–9, 101, 387 economy, 375–6, 389 cultural interests/influence, 116 expansionism/imperialism, 278–9, 281, Frederick III, Elector of Brandenburg, 75 316–17, 323, 324–5, 387–9, 391, Frederick III, Kaiser, 277 396, 397–8, 401, 413 Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg, international alliances/agreements, 35, 42–3, 45, 74–5 263–4, 318–19, 366–7, 383, 394 Frederick William I of Prussia, 55–6, 75, international conflicts, 328–9, 330–1, 97–8 332–3, 389 Frederick William II of Prussia, 93, 166–7, international standing/role, 291, 377, 169 433, 434 558 INDEX

Germany (continued ) Grand Tour, institution of, 118–21, 295 moves towards unification, 11, 202–3, Great Britain see United Kingdom 216, 230–6, 246, 290 Great Depression (1873–96), 315 national culture/traditions, 130, 306, Great Exhibition (1851), 213, 305 373–4 Great Northern War, 48–9, 132 overseas possessions/ambitions, 274–6 Greece, 320, 331, 364, 424, 447, 491 partition, 426–7, 444–5, 456 domestic politics, 486 population, 174, 279–80, 361 fight for independence, 188, 206 postwar reparations, 358–64, 371, 428, involvement in Second World War, 429, 432, 444 411–12 rearmament, 389, 392, 396, 397 Grenville, George, 105–6 reunification, 488 Gre´vy, Jules, 211 revolutionary activity, 355, 357, 363 Grey, Sir Edward, 323 role in wider Europe, 491 Grimm, Jakob/Wilhelm, 231 social conditions/policy, 277–8 Grimm, Melchior von, Baron, 117 Southern Federation, 229–30, 233–4, Grimmelshausen, Jakob von, 17–18 235–6 Grotius, Hugo, 20, 88 territorial extent/divisions, 11, 74–7, Guchkov, A.I., 344–5 360–1, 362, 498, 509, 513 Guernica, 411 wartime invasions/conquests, 408–10, Guizot, Franc¸ois, 209, 220 411–12, 413–15, 417–18, 419–20 Gulf War, 469, 491 Weimar Republic, 362–3, 366, 368, Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 16, 18, 26, 373–5 126 see also Bavaria; Brandenburg–Prussia; East Germany; Nazi Party/Nazism; Habsburg dynasty, 38 Saxony; West Germany military activities, 14–17, 35–6, 43–5, Ghana, 463 47–8 Ghent, Treaty of, 182 see also Holy Roman Empire; names of Gierek, Edward, 484 individual rulers Gillmore, Parker, 275 Haig, Sir Douglas, 329 Ginzburg, Evgenia, 385 Haiti, 142, 170, 175, 207 Gladstone, William Ewart, 259–61, 263, Haldane, Lord, 266 276 Halifax, Marquis of, 45 Glasgow, 66 Hamburg, 69 Glinka, Mikhail, 309 bombing of, 420–1 globalisation, 468, 489, 501 Chamber of Commerce, 275 economic, 377, 489–90 Hamilton, Alexander, 108, 116–17 ‘Glorious Revolution’ (UK, 1688), 150, Hanover, 79, 80–1 153, 168–9 Elector of see George I Goering, Hermann, 410 Hanseatic League, 12 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von, 116, 169, Hardenburg, Prince von, 189 231 Hardie, Keir, 263, 266–7 Gomuka, Wadysaw, 446, 457, 460, Harding, Warren G., President, 365, 370 484 Haslam, Jonathan, 403 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 469, 473, 486, 487–8, Haugwitz, Friedrich Wilhelm, Count, 73 489 Havel, Vaclav, 484 Gordon, Alexander, 50–1 Haynau, Julius von ’Butcher’, General, 217 Gordon, Charles, General, 260 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 203 Gordon, George, Lord, 109 Helsinki Conference, 472 Gordon, Patrick, 51 Henderson, Arthur, 266 government, forms of/debates on, 97–9, Henry IV of France, 9, 37 129–30, 139–40, 191–3, 270 Henry ’The Navigator’, Prince of Portugal, see also absolutism; Communism; 7 Fascism; Nazism; republicanism; Henry VIII of England, 10 socialism Hertz, Heinrich, 308 INDEX 559

Herzegovina, 244, 245 Soviet takeover/control (postwar), 445, Heuss, Theodor, 434 457–8, 460, 485 Hindenburg, Paul von, Marshal, 330, 362, see also Austria: Dual Monarchy 374 Hussein, Saddam, 469, 476, 492 Hiroshima/Nagasaki, 421, 425 Hyndman, Henry, 260–1 history, approaches to, 310–12, 492–3 Hitler, Adolf, 362 Ibn Saud, King of Saudi Arabia, 451 expansionist policies, 392, 393–4, 401 Iceland, 482, 496 foreign policy, 387–9, 396 Imperialism/‘New Imperialism’, 251–5, personal characteristics, 387 264, 267, 273, 288–9 personal pronouncements, 415, 417, global impact, 257 426, 431 India, 71, 80, 240, 259, 476 (planned) alliances, 388, 394, 396, independence, 443, 452–3 402–3, 405–6 international agreements, 458 rise to power, 373–6, 380, 387 Mutiny, 240, 262–3 suicide, 425, 426 Indo-China, 441, 453–4 transport policy, 400–1 Indonesia, 441–2, 454, 462 wartime policies, 411, 413, 415 industrial action see trades unions Ho Chi Minh, 453–4, 457, 466 industrial revolution(s), 138, 140–2, 253, Hobbes, Thomas, 127–31, 138 314–16, 499 Hobson, J.A., 313 Innocent X, Pope, 22 Hohenlohe, Chlodwig, 278 Innocent XI, Pope, 43 Hohenzollern dynasty, 73–6 International Bank for Reconstruction and Holland see Netherlands Development (IBRD) see World Bank Holy Roman Empire International Monetary Fund (IMF), 436 abolition, 177, 190 International Workingmen’s Association administration, 56–7, 73, 100, 101–3, (First/Second International), 251, 169 257–8, 263, 279, 357 international conflicts/relations, 14–17, Iran, 451 43–5, 91–2, 169 Revolution (1979), 469, 470, 476 origins, 3 Iraq, 471, 476, 491 rebellions under, 166 (see also peasantry) Ireland, 490 religious legislation, 100–1, 102 living conditions, 220 territorial extent/changes, 11, 26, 35–6, nationalism, 261 72–3 partition, 368 see also Austria; Habsburg dynasty relations with England, 24, 58, 62, 166, Honecker, Erich, 483 213, 259–60, 266 Hong Kong, 208, 475 role in Second World War, 413 Hoover, Herbert C., President, 371–2 Iron Curtain Horthy, Miklos, Admiral, 369, 379 coining of phrase, 428, 437 House, Edwin Mandell ’Colonel’, 360 Isabella, Queen of Spain, 235, 239 Howard, Roy, 384 Isabella of Castile, 8 Hoxha, Enver, 423, 486 isolationism, as US policy, 372, 381–3 Hubertusberg, Treaty of, 82, 90 Israel Hudson’s Bay Company, 62, 70 (plans for) creation, 331–2, 364, Hugenburg, Alfred, 373, 374 451–2 Hugo, Victor, 211, 269 international conflicts/disputes, 458, Hull, Cordell, 381 462, 476, 490 Hume, David, 135, 138, 502 Italy Hungary, 200, 369, 379, 423, 424, 438, city-states, 4, 8–9, 39 493, 495, 502 cultural importance, 119 nationalist movements, 216–17, domestic politics, 440, 460, 479–80 457–8 economy, 465 as Soviet republic (inter-war), 357, Fascist policies, 368–9, 389–90, 392–3, 359–60, 364 396 560 INDEX

Italy (continued ) Kara Mustafa, 43 international alliances/agreements, Karamzin, Nikolai, 120 237–8, 319, 396, 411 Kaunitz(-Rietberg), Wenzel von, Count, international conflicts, 238, 330, 78–9, 82, 100 411–12, 422 Kellogg, Frank B., 367 international standing, 38–9, 291, 433, Kennedy, John F., President, 462, 465–6, 434 469 (moves towards) unification, 165, Kennedy, Paul, 502 212–13, 236–9, 246–7, 290 Kenya, 463 overseas possessions, 287 Kerensky, A.F., 343, 345–9, 350 political history, 8–9 Keynes, Lord, 231, 436 popular culture, 465 Khabalov, Sergei, General, 341–2 population, 174 Khmelnitsky, Bogdan, 27 territorial extent, 353 Khomeini, Ruhollah, Ayatollah, 469, 470, Ivan III, Tsar, 13 476 Ivan IV ‘The Terrible’, Tsar, 13, 60 Khrushchev, Nikita, 457, 458, 461–2, 464 Kiel Canal, 281 James I of England/VI of Scotland, 10 Kim Il Sung, 474 James II of England, 40, 44, 45, 150 Koda´ly, Zolta´n, 309 Jameson, Leander, Dr, 264 Kolchak, Alexander, Admiral, 354–5 Jansenism, 94 Kolowrat-Liebstinsky, Anton von, Count, Japan 201 economy, 474–5 Korea, 454, 455, 457, 474 European relations with, 70–1, 282, 284, Kornilov, L.G., General, 345–6, 348 360 Kosciuszko, Tadeusz, General, 167 international agreements, 365–6, 394, Kossuth, Louis, 216–17 411, 453 Kotzebue, August von, 199 international standing, 290, 291, 380 Kruger, Paul, 264 involvement in world wars, 321–2, 332, Kuchuk Kainardzhi,Treaty of, 91 402, 404, 415–16, 418, 421, 424, Kun, Be´la, 357, 359, 364 425, 454 Kursk, Battle of, 421–2 regional conflicts/ambitions, 228, 264, Kutuzov, Mikhail, 180 287–8, 372, 384, 386–7, 391–2, 396 Kuwait, 471, 491 Jaruzelski, Wojciech, General, 484 Jassy, Peace of, 168 Labour Party (UK), 266–7, 368, 442 Jaure`s, Jean, 324 formation, 263, 265 Jefferson, Thomas, 104, 108, 135 Laibach, Congress of, 193 Jena, Battle of, 498 laissez-faire, principle of, 140 Jenkins, Robert, Captain, 67–8 Lamartine, Alphonse de, 209, 210, 223 Jews, persecution of, 378–9, 414–15, 431 Laos, 466 John Casimir of Poland, 27, 41 Latvia, 355, 405, 423, 443, 487, 489, 493, John IV of Portugal, 22 494 John Paul II, Pope, 484 political history, 495 John Sobieski of Poland, 41, 43–4 Lausanne Conference, 371–2 Johnson, Lyndon B., President, 466, 469 Law, John, 68 Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor, 46 League of Nations, 360, 363, 365, 367, Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor, 82, 89, 390, 391–2, 428 91–2, 167 comment/action on international social policy, 100, 101–3, 199–200 issues, 386, 391–2, 393, 407 Juan Carlos of Spain, 478 Lebensraum see Nazism: foreign policy Juan of Austria, Don, 22 Ledru-Rollin, Alexandre, 210 Jutland, Battle of, 333, 343–4 Lefort, Franz, 51 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 131 Ka´da´r, Ja´nos, 458, 460, 485 Leipzig, Battle of, 181, 182 Kant, Immanuel, 98, 138 Lend-Lease, 412, 437 INDEX 561

Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov), 336, 340, Lusitania, 332–3 344–6, 348–50, 369–70 Luther, Martin, 6, 11 Leningrad, siege of, 417 Luxembourg, 234, 235, 361, 442 Leo XIII, Pope, 312 Luxembourg, Rosa, 355 Leopold I of Belgium, 205 Maastricht Treaty, 491 Leopold II of Belgium, 254–5, 275 MacArthur, Douglas, General, 424 Leopold III of Belgium, 441 Macartney, George, 120–1 Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor, 30–1, MacDonald, Ramsay, 266–7, 390, 392 35–6, 43–4, 46, 56–7 Macedonia, 486 Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, 167, 169 Mack Smith, Dennis, 212–13 Lepanto, Battle of, 43 Mackenzie Wallace, Sir Donald, 298–303 Leyden, 120 Mackinder, Halford John, 288, 351–2, 366, liberalism, 218–21, 260–1, 265, 277 499 Liebknecht, Karl, 280, 355 Macmahon, Patrice, 270–1 List, Friedrich, 219, 284 Macmillan, Harold, 434, 461, 464 Lister, Joseph, 306 Madagascar, 267, 268, 269 Lithuania, 355, 361, 405, 423, 443, 487, Madison, James, 108 489, 493, 494 Madison, James, President, 108 political history, 495 Maginot, Andre´/Maginot Line, 367, 391, Liverpool, 66 394, 396, 406 Livingstone, David, Dr, 256 Mahan, Alfred T., 288, 351, 366, 499 Lloyd George, David, 266, 359, 363 Mahler, Gustav, 309 Locarno Pact, 366–7, 394 Maintenon, Madame de, 37 Locke, John, 104, 108, 131, 132–3, 134 Makoko (African chief), 256 Lombardy–Venetia, 189, 190, 200, 212 Malaysia, 462, 475 London, 39, 326 Malta, 171, 173, 175, 493, 495 Conference of, 205 Malthus, Thomas, 141 Nazi attacks on, 411 Manchuria, 372, 384, 386, 391–2 population, 315 Mandela, Nelson, 477 role in British economy, 63, 66 Mandelstam, Nadezhda, 385 Treaties of, 194, 198, 205, 207, 218 ‘Manifesto of Equals’ (French Revolution), Lorraine see Alsace 162–3 Louis Napoleon see Napoleon III Mann, Thomas, 309 Louis-Philippe of France, 203, 205, 209, Mao Zedong, 424, 455, 456, 458, 462, 470, 210, 269–70 475 Louis XIII of France, 203 mapmaking, development of, 5–6 Louis XIV of France, 47, 55, 84, 123, 125 Marconi, Guglielmo, 314 foreign policy/expansionism, 33–4, 39, Marengo, Battle of, 172–3 45, 46, 115, 169 Maria Theresa, Empress, 72, 73, 76–7, minority, 22, 23–4, 25–6, 30 78–9, 82, 91–2, 100–1 political legacy, 87–8, 169, 441 Maria Theresa (consort of Louis XIV), 31, 34 Louis XV of France, 78–9, 83, 84, 87–8, 92, Marie-Antoinette, Queen, 112, 158, 169 112, 132 Marinetti, Filippo, 309 Louis XVI of France, 92, 203 Marlborough, John Churchill, Duke of, 67 activities before/during Revolution, 112, ‘La Marseillaise’, 167–8, 203 113–14, 145–6, 151, 153–4, 155, Marshall, George C./Marshall Plan, 437–8, 169 440, 441, 442, 443, 444–5 debates on execution of, 156–8 Martinet, Jean, Col., 34 personal characteristics, 112, 147 Marx, Karl, 241, 283, 302, 312 personality/rule, 36–7, 49 commentary on international events, public attitudes to, 144–5 223–4, 335–6 Louis XVIII of France, 150, 203 Capital, 251 Louisiana Purchase, 181–2 Manifesto of the Communist Party, 248–51 Louvois, marquis de, 33–4 Mary II of England (Queen of William III), Ludendorff, Erich von, Marshal, 330 40, 57 562 INDEX

Mary Queen of Scots, 10 Muhammad Reza Pahlavi, Shah of Iran, 469 Masaryk, Thomas, 285, 379 Munch, Edvard, 308 Maximilian I, Duke of Bavaria, 74 Munich Agreement, 398, 399, 403 Maxwell, James Clerk, 306–7 Mu¨nster, Treaty of, 25 Mazarin, Jules, Cardinal, 23–4, 25, 30–1 music, 309 Mazepa, Ivan, Hetman, 49 Muslim religion/culture, 3 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 212, 236–7, 239 conflicts with Christianity, 4, 6, 260, Mehmed IV, Sultan, 43 435, 485 Meinecke, Friedrich, 410 see also Ottoman Empire Mendel, Gregor, 308 Mussolini, Benito, 368–9, 373, 380 Mendeleev, Dmitrii, 307 activities during Second World War, mercantilism, 85, 99 404, 411 Mercator, Gerardus, 5 fall, 422, 424 Metternich, Klemens Wenzel Nepomuk foreign policy, 389–90, 392–3, 396, 402 Lothar von, Prince, 188–9, 190–3, 194, 199–202, 215 Nagy, Imre, 457–8 political ideology, 191, 192 Namier, L.B., 401–2 Mexico, 164–5 Nantes, Edict of, 37 Michael, Grand Duke (brother of Naples, 170, 171, 173, 178, 189, 237, 238–9 Nicholas II), 342 Napoleon I, Emperor, 150, 151, 163, 170, Middle Ages, 4–6, 303 172–86, 196, 498 Middle East domestic policy, 183–6 decolonisation, 451–2 exile, 181, 187, 212 role in world wars, 331–2, 364, 411 influence on later eras, 183, 185–6, 219, see also names of individual countries 246, 303–4, 413, 441 Midway, Battle of, 418 personality/temperament, 173–4, migrations, 253–4, 267, 280, 291, 316 176–7, 178 Mikoajczyk, Stanisaw, 446 political principles, 174, 185–6, 187, 212 Miliukov, Paul, 336, 338, 342, 343, 344–5 territorial gains, 177 Mill, James, 220 Napoleon III, Emperor, 206, 222–4 Mill, John Stuart, 220, 267 foreign policy, 225–6, 229, 234–5, Milosˇevic¸, Slobodan, 486 241–2 Mindszenty, Jo´zsef, Cardinal, 445 history prior to accession, 211–12, 213, minorities, persecution of, 378–9 222 Mitterrand, Franc¸ois, 480 military activities/ambitions, 226–7, Moldova, 489, 494, 496 235–6, 237–8 Molotov, Vyacheslav, 424, 428, 430, 437, observers’ assessments, 211, 232–3, 452 335–6 Monet, Claude, 308 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 458 Monnet, Jean/Monnet Plan, 441, 459, 460 nation states, development/creation of, Monod, Gabriel, 312–13 4–5, 28–9, 247, 494–5 Monroe Doctrine, 198, 207–8, 322, 360, National Assembly, role in French 367, 382, 457 Revolution, 145–9, 151–5 Montague, C.E., 329 nationalisation, spread of, 459–60 Montenegro, 244, 245, 320 nationalism, 222, 226, 241, 247, 290, 491–2 Montesquieu, Charles-Louis de Secondat, Arab, 462 baron de, 95, 97, 99, 108, 120, 148 German, 202–3 The Spirit of the Laws, 133–4 Hungarian, 216–17, 457–8 Montgomery, Bernard, Field-Marshal, 418, Irish, 261 425 under Russian/Soviet rule, 339, 347 Morgenthau, Henry, 397, 444 Spanish regions, 478–9 Morocco, 320, 462 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Morrill, John, 19 Organisation), 457, 465, 494, 501 motor transport, 313–14, 400–1 membership, 456, 502 Mstislavsky, S.D., 343 nature, man’s relationship with, 292 INDEX 563

Nazi Party/Nazism, 372–6, 429–30 Russian involvement in, 197–8 economic policy, 389 see also Canada; United States electoral base, 373 Northall, John, Captain, 119 foreign policy, 387–9 Norway, 190, 287, 380, 481–2, 496 moves against Jews (and other Nazi occupation, 407, 443 minorities), 414–15 nuclear armaments nature of appeal, 373–4 moves on limitation, 470 war/extermination policy, 419–20, 431 opposition to, 460–1 Necker, Jacques, 112–13, 114, 151 role in Cold War politics, 461, 465, 470, Nehru, Jawarhalal, 453, 458 499 Nelson, Horatio, 171, 172, 175 Nugent, Thomas, 120 neo-Nazism, 483 Nuremberg trials, 432 Nesselrode, Count, 189 Nystad, Treaty of, 49 Netherlands, 361–2 domestic politics/culture, 39–40, 214, 380, 481 October Revolution, 345–50, 353 economy, 441–2 oil, role in global economy, 451, 469, 490 international agreements/alliances, Omelchenko, O.A., 97 25–6, 168, 170 ‘Open Door’ policy, 382, 387, 427, 435 international conflicts, 15, 16–17, 34–5, ‘Opium War’, 208 115, 169–70 Organisation for Economic Cooperation international standing, 10–11, 40, 84, and Development (OECD), 463 252 Organisation for European Economic overseas possessions, 69–70, 252, 287 Cooperation (OEEC), 438, 444 planned/attempted takeover, 234, 241 Organisation of Petroleum Exporting redrawing of boundaries, 190 Countries (OPEC), 490 revolutionary activity, 102, 111, 166, Orle´ans, Duke of see Louis-Philippe 205 Orsini, Felice, 237 Neuilly, Treaty of, 364 Ossian, 304 New World Ottoman Empire colonisation, 8, 60–1, 71 conflicts with Western nations, 4, 13–14, political geography, 507, 511, 515 17, 28, 41, 43–5, 90–1, 96, 115, 168, see also North America; South America; 179, 194, 225–6, 244–5, 262, 320 names of individual countries decline in influence, 84–5, 86, 90, 167, New Zealand, 455 188, 218, 222, 253, 318, 364 newspapers, 312–13 internal unrest, 243–4, 263–4 Newton, Sir Isaac, 131–2, 134, 307 Outram, Dorinda, 139 Nice Treaty, 493 Owen, Robert, 248, 251 Nicholas I, Tsar, 193, 194, 197, 198, 201, Owen, Wilfred, 329 217–18, 226, 232 Nicholas II, Tsar, 284–5, 303, 326 Paine, Tom, 110 activities before/during Revolution, Pakistan, 452–3, 476 336–8, 341–2 Palach, Jan, 484 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 311 Palacky´, Frantisˇek, 216 Nigeria, 463 Palmerston, Henry John Temple, ‘Night of the Long Knives’, 375 Viscount, 198, 206–7, 240, 241 Nightingale, Florence, 225 Pan-Slavic movement, 243 Nijmegen, Treaties of, 35–6 Paris Nine Years War, 45–6 Commune (1871), 226, 242–3, 251 Nixon, Richard M., President, 458, Congress of, 237 469–70, 475, 490 living conditions, 124 North, Lord, 106, 107 peace conference, 358–64 North America role in French politics, 23–4, 146–7, 242 British colonies, 65, 71, 82 Treaties of, 61, 82, 90, 92, 105, 107, French colonies, 68–9 225–6 564 INDEX

Paris, comte de, 209 Pius VI, Pope, 102 Parnell, Charles Stewart, 261 Planck, Max, 307 Pasteur, Louis, 306 plebiscites, 183, 185, 242, 361 Paul, Emperor of Russia, 171, 172, 173 Poincare´, Raymond, 320, 324 Paul, Regent of Yugoslavia, 379 Poland, 493, 502 Paulus, Friedrich, Field-Marshal, 418 domestic politics, 438, 460, 484 Pearl Harbor, 415, 416–17 internal unrest/rebellion, 228, 251, 457, peasantry 488 exploitation/repression, 11, 15, 47, 369 international agreements, 355, 361, 367, intellectual/political awareness, 115–16, 383, 482–3, 491 123, 247, 291–2 international standing, 40–1, 86, 90 legislation relating to, 32–3, 95, 100, invasions/partitions/boundary changes, 101–2, 227, 301–2, 369–70 75, 84, 90–1, 115, 166–7, 170, 179, migration to towns, 253, 291, 316 189–90, 253, 402, 403–4, 405, 487 rebellions by, 151–2, 166–7, 196–7, political history, 12, 14, 27–8, 369, 379, 228, 347 446, 495 role in political system/economy, 93–4, Polo, Marco, 60 99, 224, 247, 299–300, 315 Polynesia, 254 social conditions, 18–19, 32, 47, 50–1, Pomerania, 42, 75 85–6, 111–12, 301, 373, 377–8 Pompidou, Georges, 480 Peel, Sir Robert, 220 popes, 100 Peninsular War, 178–9, 181 international/political role, 17, 39, 237, People’s Republic of China 440 domestic unrest, 475 relations with secular rulers, 44, 154–5, formation, 455, 456–7 184 global standing, 475 see also names of individual popes international relations, 458, 470, 475, Portugal 486 domestic politics, 213, 369, 380, 438–9, Western attitudes to, 462 479 Pepys, Samuel, 39 international alliances/agreements, 170, Pertinax (journalist), 381 198, 204, 207 Pe´tain, Henri-Philippe, Marshal, 335, 408 international conflicts, 239 Peter I ’the Great’, Emperor of Russia, 41, international standing, 38, 69–70, 252 48–55, 72, 134, 382, 495 overseas possessions, 165, 252, 438–9, domestic policies, 50–4, 95 479 personality/ruling style, 49–50, 51, 55, political/military history, 7–8, 21–2 87, 97 Potsdam conference, 430–1, 436, 446, Peter II, Emperor of Russia, 87 451, 452 Peter III, Emperor of Russia, 81, 82–3, 94 poverty see cities; peasantry Peterloo massacre, 208 Prague Philip II of Spain, 8, 10 defenestration of, 14 Philip IV of Spain, 31 Spring (1968), 466, 472, 483 Philip V of Spain (Philip of Anjou), 46 Treaty of, 229–30 Philippines, 455 Pratt, Edwin A., 289 Phoenix Park murders, 259–60 Profumo, John, 464 Physiocracy, 140–1 Prokopovich, Feofan, Bishop, 55 Picasso, Pablo, 308 Prus, Boleslaw, 310 Piedmont, 22, 38–9, 169, 189, 212, 226, Prussia 229, 236, 237 domestic politics/unrest, 214–15 Pietism, 94 governmental system, 97–9 Pilsudski, Josef, Marshal, 369, 379 international alliances/agreements, Pipes, Richard, 356 90–1, 93, 115, 166–7, 170, 188–9, Pitt, William, the Elder, 80, 81, 106, 108 193–5, 198 Pitt, William, the Younger, 166, 168, 171, international conflicts, 80–2, 168, 176, 173, 175–6 180–1, 232 INDEX 565

Prussia (continued ) Rogger, Hans, 283 international standing, 86, 202–3, 317 Romania, 244, 245, 286, 320, 356, 364, role in unified Germany, 231–2, 290, 423, 438, 493, 495 429 domestic politics, 379, 460, 487 territorial gains/losses, 84, 91, 177, foreign influence in, 424, 447 189–90, 252–3 international agreements, 367–8 see also Brandenburg–Prussia moves towards independence, 464 Puccini, Giacomo, 309 territorial disputes/encroachments, 402 Pugachev, Emelian, 96, 110, 166 Romanticism, 304–6 Purchas, Samuel, 5 Rome, Treaty of, 463 Pyrenees, Treaty of the, 31, 34 Rome (ancient), Empire/culture, 1, 3, 468 Quadruple Alliance see ’Concert of Europe’ influence on legal systems, 183–4 Quesnay, Franc¸ois, Dr, 140 see also Holy Roman Empire Rommel, Erwin von, Field-Marshal, 418 Racine, Jean, 36 Ro¨ntgen, Wilhelm, 307 Radetzky, Joseph, Marshal, 212 Roosevelt, Franklin D., President, 372, railways, 224, 227, 289–90, 294–5, 296, 299 381–3, 402 military use/significance, 329–30 death, 428, 430 Ramadier, Paul, 441 role in postwar reorganisation, 426–30, Rapacki Plan, 460–1 446, 451 Rapallo, Treaty of, 366, 367, 376, 383 wartime activity/policies, 412, 416–17, Rasputin, Grigory, 338 419, 422–3 Ravel, Maurice, 309 Roosevelt, Theodore, President, 283 Raynal, Guillaume-Thomas-Franc¸ois, Rossbach, Battle of, 80 Abbe´,65 Rothschild, Lord, 331–2 Reagan, Ronald, 469, 470–1 Rouen, 142–5 Reformation, 6, 11 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 138–9 Reid, Thomas, 135, 138 Russell, Bertrand, 313 religion Russia national policies/practices, 98, 116 (see ethnicity/languages, 300, 338–9 also Christianity; names of individual identity (European vs. Asian), 13, 95–6, nations) 120–1, 496 philosophical approaches to, 129–32 internal administration, 41–2, 51–2, wars of see Christianity: internal conflicts 53–4, 87, 94–7, 166, 196, 197, 227, repressive regimes, proliferation of, 300–1 378–80 international alliances/agreements, 44, republicanism, moves towards, 108–14 90–1, 166–7, 170, 176–7, 188–9, revisionism, 257–8 193–5, 198, 265, 319–20 Reynaud, Paul, 407, 408 international conflicts, 27–8, 41, 48–9, Rhine, Confederation of the, 177 96, 168, 179–81, 217–18, 225–6, Rhineland, as demilitarised zone, 366–7, 244–5, 258–9, 282–3, 321–2, 390–1 330–1, 333, 338–9, 345–6, 348 Nazi violation of, 393–4 international standing/role, 86, 282, Rhodes, Cecil, 264 289–90, 291, 383 Rhodesia, 463 observers’ impressions of, 120–1, Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, 296–7, 298–303, 339 Cardinal, 15, 16 physical geography, 13 Riga, Treaty of, 355 population, 300 Rivera, Primo de, General, 369 relations with Eastern countries, 71 Robbins, Keith, 398–9 religious ethos, 42, 50, 97, 301 Roberts, Stephen, 389 revolutionary activity (pre-1917), 196–7, Robespierre, Maximilien, 156, 159–61, 164 302, 320 Rodzianko, M.V., 341, 342 social conditions/policy, 50–1, 523, Roe, Sir Thomas, 19 301–2, 339–40 566 INDEX

Russia (continued ) neutral powers, role of, 413, 443, 444 territorial extent/divisions, 13, 28, 42, opening (‘phoney’) phase, 404–7 71–2, 84, 91, 189–90, 197, 225–6, progress of hostilities, 407–18 228, 252–3, 514 public opinion, 404–5, 406, 409–10, see also Russian Revolution; Soviet Union 414, 419, 421 Russian Revolution Selassie, Haile, Emperor, 393, 451 antecedents/influences, 282, 335–40, Serbia, 244, 245, 286, 320 343–4 role in world wars, 328, 331 development of events, 341–53 serfdom see peasantry domestic aftermath, 353–5, 472–3 Seton-Watson, G.H.N., 356 international impact, 290, 310, 333 Seven Weeks War (1866), 229 international responses, 357–8 Seven Years War, 61, 78–83, 93, 115 Russo-Japanese War, 284 impact/aftermath, 90, 92, 103, 112, 116, Ryswick, Treaty of, 45 138 Sforza, Carlos, 434 Saint-Germain, Treaty of, 363–4 Shakespeare, William, 10, 116, 246, 298 Saint-Pierre, Abbe´ de, 47, 88 Sheehan, Michael, 84 Saint-Simon, comte de, 248, 251 Sherlock, Martin, 120 Salazar, Antonio de Oliveira, Dr, 380, Shimonoseki, Treaty of, 282 438–9, 479 Siberia, 252, 253, 283 Salisbury, Lord, 253, 261–2, 264–5 Sienkiewicz, Heinrich, 309–10 Sammlungspolitik (collective politics), Sigismund II of Poland, 12 280–2 Sigmaringen, Leopold von, 235 San Domingo see Haiti Silesia, 78, 82, 167, 253, 361 San Stefano, Treaty of, 244, 318 Sinclair, Sir John, 246 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 434 Singapore, 475 Saudi Arabia, 364 slaves/slave trade, 65–6, 154 Saunders, David, 218, 227–8 abolition, 190, 209 Saxony, 74–5, 79 rebellions, 170, 175 Scandinavian integration, 481–2 Slovakia, 493, 494, 495 Schleswig–Holstein, 218, 233, 241 Slovenia, 493, 494, 495 Schlieffen, Alfred von, Count, 279, 328 Smetana, Bedrich, 309 Schmidt, Helmut, 483 Smith, Adam, 140–1, 219 Scho¨nberg, Arnold, 309 Smith, Howard K., 406, 409–10, 414, 437, Schuman, Robert (statesman)/Schuman 449–50 Plan, 459 Smuts, Jan, General, 363, 452 science, 306–8 Sobieski, John see John Sobieski Scotland socialism philosophical/intellectual prefigurings, 162–3, 247–8 achievements, 135, 137–8 rise of, 246, 248–51 relations with England, 24, 58, 62 role in national politics, 209–10, 258, Scott, Sir Walter, 304, 309 260–1, 262–3, 272–3, 277–8, 279, Second Empire (France), 222–4, 241–3 302, 374, 380, 391, 441, 443, 478 Second International see International Solidarnos´c´ (Solidarity), 484, 488 Workingmen’s Association Sorel, Georges, 272 Second World War South Africa, 259–60, 293, 477 air combat, 410–11, 412–13, 424 independence, 462–3 antecedents/causes, 391–9, 400–4 see also Boer War casualties, 431–2 South America economic/political consequences, 433, conflicts over colonial possessions, 181 459, 460, 468, 497, 498 movements towards independence, media commentary, 400 207 military ethos, 419–21 political developments post-1945, 455, moves to conclude, 421–6 466 naval combat, 418, 421 see also names of individual countries INDEX 567

South-East Asia Treaty Organisation role in postwar reorganisation, 426–30, (SEATO), 457 452 South Sea Bubble, 62–3, 68–9 wartime activity/policies, 414, 415–16, Soviet Union 418, 419, 422–3, 424, 425 collapse, 473–4, 487–9, 494, 501 Stalingrad, Battle of, 417–18, 419, 421 construction programmes, 378 Stanislaw (Poniatowski) of Poland, 90 departure from Eastern Bloc countries, Stanley, Henry Morton, 256 488–9 ‘Star Wars’ (Strategic Defence Initiative), domestic politics/policy, 376–8, 385–6, 471 464, 472–4 Stavisky, Serge-Alexandre, 391 economy, 378, 449, 474 Steiger, Heinhard, 17 foreign policy, 398–9, 451–2 Stein, Baron von, 189 formation, 349–50, 356 Stewart, Charles Edward (‘Bonnie Prince global standing/role, 357, 402, 433, 436 Charlie’), 87 influence/interference in eastern Stolypin, Peter, 284–5, 302–3 Europe (post-1945), 443, 445–6, Strachan, Hew, 328 447, 483–5 Straits Convention, 198, 205–6, 207 internal conflicts, 354 Streit, Christian, 419–20 international alliances/agreements, 366, Stresa meeting/‘Front’, 393 367, 395, 403, 438, 482–3 strikes see trades unions living conditions, 431–2 Stuart, Lord Dudley, 195, 198 Nazi invasion, 413–14, 417–18, 419–20, submarines, role in warfare, 330, 332–3, 421–2 334, 421 other activities in Second World War, Sudan, 260, 319 404–5, 407, 422–3, 425–6 Sudetenland, 379, 398, 401 penal code, 386, 432, 448–9, 472–3 Suez Canal, 242, 244, 260, 262, 281, 411 relations with West, 365–6, 370, 381–2, crisis (1956), 458, 461 386, 449 Sukarno, President, 454 role in postwar reorganisation, 426–30, Suleiman I ‘The Magnificent’, Sultan, 444–5 13–14 Spaak, Henri, 441 superpowers see Cold War ‘space race’, 461, 472 Suvorov, Alexander, 171, 172 Spain Sweden Civil War, 394–6, 402, 411 domestic politics, 26–7, 380, 481–2 domestic politics/culture, 8, 21–2, international conflicts, 12, 14, 16–17, 178–9, 369, 380, 439–40, 478–9 35–6, 41, 48–9, 75, 80, 81, 168 domestic unrest, 213 international standing, 12, 40, 84, 86, international alliances/agreements, 170, 90 198, 204, 207, 491 revolutionary activity, 166 international conflicts, 8, 30–1, 34, stance in Second World War, 407, 413, 67–8, 169–70, 239 443 international standing, 21–2, 38, 69–70, territorial gains/losses, 190 84, 86, 252 Switzerland, 11–12, 170–1, 213 New World possessions, 8, 38, 69–70, stance in Second World War, 413, 444 82, 92, 165, 252 Sykes–Picot agreement, 331 territorial gains/losses, 10–11, 22, 34, Syngman Rhee, 474 35, 38 Syria, 476 throne, disputes over, 189, 204, 235 Spanish Succession, War of, 132 Tahiti, 206 ‘spheres of influence’, 424, 452 Taiwan, 475 Stalin, Joseph, 370, 376–8 Tannenburg, Battle of, 330 death, 457, 486 Tatar people, 28, 41, 48, 72, 432 foreign policy/activities, 402–3, 438, Tati, Jacques, 434 446, 457 Taubman, Goldie, 256 popular support for, 384–5, 448 Tawney, R.H., 381 568 INDEX

taxation, 33, 100, 101–2, 105–6 U-boats see submarines Taylor, A.J.P., 334 Ukraine, 21, 27–8, 41, 42, 49, 218, 247, Tchaikovsky, Peter, 309 252, 489, 494, 496 Temple, Sir William, 39–40 nationalism, 339, 347 Tennis Court, Oath of the, 146 United Kingdom Terry, Charles Sanford, 316–17, 324 domestic politics, 108–14, 208, 220, Thailand, 462 359, 380, 390, 442, 460, 463–4, 481 Thatcher, Margaret, 469, 481, 491 economy, 62–5, 442–3, 463, 464 Thiers, Adolphe, 269–70 electoral system/reforms, 63–4, 208, Third Estate, definition/role of, 142–5 220, 241, 368 Third International see Comintern and European union, 463, 464, 481, ‘Third World’, 477 490, 491 political alliances/splits, 458 foreign policy, 258–60, 322–3, 404, Thirty Years War, 14–17, 74 433–4 after-effects, 17–20, 115, 126–7, 130, 169 international alliances/agreements, 79, Thompson, E.P., 64 87, 141–2, 168, 170, 193–5, 198, Thomson, J.J., 307 204, 207, 261–2, 265, 319–20, 393 Three Emperors, League of, 228, 244, 245, international conflicts, 67–8, 78—83, 285, 318–19 92–3, 115, 168, 169–71, 174–6, Tiananmen Square riots, 475 177–9, 181, 182, 225–6, 239–41, ‘tiger economies’, 474, 477 458 Tirpitz, Alfred von, 279, 281 international standing, 61, 86, 103–4, Tito, Josip Broz, Marshal, 423, 438, 447–8, 252, 289–90, 291 458, 464 involvement in world wars, 330–1, Tolstoy, Lev, 309 332–4, 411–13, 420–1, 422–3 Toynbee, Arnold, 496–8, 500 loss of empire, 428–9, 442–3, 462–3 trades unions, 260–1, 280 maritime activity/superiority, 86–7, industrial action, 262–3, 338, 368, 168, 175–6, 177, 182, 328–9, 466 332–3, 351, 365, 412 involvement in (inter)national politics, overseas possessions, 62, 65–8, 78, 82, 272, 484, 488 103–4, 173, 182–3, 190, 241, 252, legislation, 265–6 254, 261–2, 263 Trafalgar, Battle of, 175 policies towards Fascism/Nazism, 393–4, Transylvania, 230, 487 395–7, 398–9, 400, 402–4 travel, means of/improvements in, 294–8, popular culture, 464–5 313–14, 400–1 population, 141 see also railways relations with USA (post-1945), 456, Treitschke, Heinrich von, 316–17, 324 481 Trevelyan, G.M., 313 response to international events, Trianon, Treaty of, 364 165–6 Troppau, Congress of, 193 social policy, 265–6 Trotsky, Leon, 336, 344, 345, 346, 347, welfare state, 442, 460 348–9, 354, 385 United Nations Truman, Harry S./Truman Doctrine, 430, appeals/submissions to, 458, 460–1, 436–7, 445, 450 494 Tukhachevsky, Mikhail, Marshal, 384 constitution, 429, 430 Tunisia, 462 creation, 427, 428, 429–30 Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques, 112, 113 exclusions, 439 Turkey failures, 435 EU membership application, 493, 495–6 General Assembly, 429 political/military history, 489, 364 meetings, 430 strategic importance, 447–8 Relief and Rehabilitation Agency see also Ottoman Empire (UNRRA), 432, 436 Turner, Joseph M.W., 305, 308–9 Security Council, 429, 430 United Provinces see Netherlands INDEX 569

United States of America, 92 Viking voyages, 468 Civil War, 241, 252 Villafranca, Treaty of, 238 conflicts with European nations, 182, Vlasov, Andrei, General, 432 264 (see also American War of Voltaire (Franc¸ois-Marie Arouet), 49, 88, Independence) 98, 119, 120, 134 domestic politics, 358–9, 469–71 Voroshilov, Kliment, Marshal, 402–3 financial assistance/investment worldwide, 371, 397, 433–4, 436, Wagner, Richard, 306, 309 450 Walesa, Lech, 484, 488 global standing/role, 252, 254, 290, 291, Wall Street Crash, 371, 380 310, 326, 356–7, 370–2, 380, 402, Wallenstein, Albrecht von, 15–16 433, 449–50, 455, 476, 501 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 467 international agreements, 365–6 Walpole, Sir Robert, 63–5, 67–8, 87 involvement in world wars, 321, 332, warfare, methods of/approaches to, 86–7, 334–5, 382, 404–5, 415, 416–17, 329–30 418, 422–3 wars see names of individual migrations to, 253, 280 nations/conflicts military presence in Europe (post-1945), Warsaw Pact, 457, 472 456 defections/objections, 457–8, 460, 464 National Security Council, 450, 456 Washington, George, 105, 107, 108, 322 policies towards Fascism/Nazism, 397, Washington Conference, 365–6 398 Waterloo, Battle of, 181 presence/influence in Asia (post-1945), Watt, D.C., 388 457 Wavell, Archibald, General, 411 territorial extent/claims, 197–8, 207–8, weather, relationship with political 228, 287–8 developments, 21, 437, 445 trade with European nations, 164, 181–2 Weber, Max, 311 vocabulary, 297–8 Weismann, August, 308 Unkiar Skelessi, Treaty of, 198 Wellington, Arthur Wellesley, Duke of, Utrecht, Treaty of, 46–7, 62, 72, 84 179, 189, 206, 213 Wells, H.G., 410 Valmy, Battle of, 169 West Germany (FRG) van der Capellen tot den Pol, J.D., 111 economy, 460, 463 van Gogh, Vincent, 308 international alliances/agreements, 464, Vauban, Se´bastian, 33, 35 465, 482–3 Venice, 38 West Indies Verdi, Giuseppe, 309 British colonies, 65–6 Vereeniging, Treaty of, 265 conflict for control of, 71 Verona, Congress of, 193 role in European economies, 69 Versailles, Treaties of, 79, 352, 360–1, Westminster, Treaties of, 79, 80 362–3, 366, 375, 383, 501 Westphalia violations, 393–4, 401 Kingdom of, 177, 178, 190 Vichy government, 408–10, 418, 419 Peace of, 16–17, 22, 26 Vico, Giovanni Battista, 133 Whewell, William, 305 Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont/I of Italy, Wilkes, John, 109 236, 238–9 William I, Kaiser, 228, 229, 232–3, 235–6, Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, 393 245, 318 Victoria, Queen, 205, 208, 213–14, 241, William I ‘‘The Silent’ of Holland, 10 244, 259, 265 William II, Kaiser, 264, 277–9, 279, 320, Vienna 325–6, 361–2 Congress of, 187–90 William II of Holland, 25–6, 40 siege/liberation of, 41, 43–4, 115 William III of England/Holland, 40, 45, University, 100–1 57, 87 Vietnam, 457, 462 William IV of England, 208 War, 454, 465–6, 468, 469–70, 475 Wilson, Harold, 464 570 INDEX

Wilson, H.W., 182 Yagoda, Genrikh, 384 Wilson, Woodrow, President, 322, 333, Yalta conference, 426–30, 446, 451, 452, 352–3, 357, 358–9, 360, 363, 365, 501 382 Yeltsin, Boris, 489 Windischgra¨tz, Albert von, General, Yermak Timofeyevich, 60 216–17 Yom Kippur War, 476, 490 Witte, Sergei, 284 Young, Arthur, 121–6, 141–2, 146–7, 148, Wojtya, Karol see John Paul II 168 Wolfe, James, General, 67, 81 Young, Owen D., 367 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 139 Yugoslavia women domestic politics, 379, 486 emancipation, 266, 291–2, 368 internal conflicts/partition, 486, 488, intellectual/political role, 139, 220 494 social/industrial role, 316 international agreements, 367–8, 458 Woolf, Stuart, 185–6 involvement in Second World War, Wordsworth, William, 304 411–12, 423, 424 working class (urban) partition, 494 living conditions, 262 resistance to Soviet control, 438, 447–8 unrest among, 347 World Bank, 436 Zhdanov, Andrei, 438, 448 World Trade Center, attacks on, 493, Zhivkov, Todor, 486–7, 488 501–2 Zimmermann, Arthur, 334 Wright, Orville/Wilbur, 313 Zola, E´mile, 271–2, 309