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Home , Ahmed Timol, Mac Maharaj, Moses Mabhida, Raymond Suttner, Rivonia, Ronnie Kasrils

INTERNATIONAL MK in the Aftermath of Rivonia (1963 – 1976)

How and why MK managed to survive the Rivonia blows is relevant in any overall appraisal of the history of the armed struggle as undertaken by MK (1961-1990).

By

he history and fortune of in the liberation struggle for South dozen and then petered out by 1965. (MK) is Africa in the 20th century, has been There was of course far more to Tthe history of the South African well documented. A more considered this reversal than the incapacity to liberation movement in the period assessment is needed for the aftermath mount operations as, important as 1960-1990 culminating in the triumph years 1965-1975 when MK in an that is in assessing the success or of democracy over in 1994. organised sense had ceased to exist failure of armed struggle. It was only The creation of Umkhonto we Sizwe inside the country.1 after the 1976 uprising that (MK) in 1961, its achievements, Despite some heroic attempts operations would be resumed inside reversal of fortune and recovery, in the wake of Rivonia to keep the the country although there were MK’s culminating in the people’s victory over underground and the nascent armed brave incursions with ZIPRA forces into apartheid in 1994, must be seen in the struggle alive (Wilton Mkwai and Zimbabwe in 1967-1968. international context, the collapse of groups)2 the internal From 1963-1966 the top leadership the colonial system in Africa from the organisational structures of Umkhonto of the liberation movement was late 1950s, and the armed contestation we Sizwe (MK) along with those of imprisoned, along with thousands of for change in Algeria and Southern the ANC and SACP were smashed. the foot soldiers; many were executed Africa where colonial racism refused MK operations which according to the or died in detention; the remaining to budge. indictment amounted to leadership were driven into exile; the The impact of the Rivonia arrests of 193 acts of sabotage between 1961 apartheid regime and security forces July 1963, possibly the biggest setback to 1963 dwindled to less than half a were cock-a-hoop with success. The

14 THE THINKER INTERNATIONAL masses within were the outstanding solidarity of families undoubtedly intimidated and without For a led by Winnie Mandela and Albertina organised leadership. Following the revolutionary Sisulu. People might have learnt to unprecedented defiance campaigns keep their heads down but they bided and mobilisation of the 1950s, the post- movement the act of their time, prepared to organise and Rivonia decade of the 1960s witnessed survival, to recover resist afresh. a lull in mass struggle and organised The arrest of Winnie Mandela and underground activity. This was clearly and have the ability to 20 others in 1969, attempting to revive the nadir of the liberation movement’s fight another day, is in the ANC underground is a case in point. fortunes and applied equally to the The heroic bearing of the Rivonia trialists ANC, SACP, PAC and other factions. itself something furthermore motivated Africa and the Yet the Phoenix of MK was able to of a victory. international community, including arise from the ashes and achieve its the United Nations, to rally behind apogee in the late 1980s. This paper will attempt to discuss the many factors that made this recovery possible by considering the objective and subjective developments during 1965- 1975. It is important to understand how MK had managed to survive as an organised force and from where it was able to obtain assistance, which meant that the ANC was best placed to respond to the 1976 © Pretoria News and National Archives and take advantage of the opportunities provided by the landmark independence of Angola and in 1975. How and why MK managed to survive the Rivonia blows is relevant in any overall appraisal of the history of the armed struggle as undertaken by MK (1961-1990). It is important to make the point that although the period under discussion represented an acute downturn it was by no means a disorganised retreat. For a revolutionary movement the act of survival, to recover and have the ability to fight another day, is in itself something of a victory. The subjective courage and resilience of the Rivonia trialists – and those in other trials throughout the country – acted as a clarion call for resistance and kept that spirit alive. The brave hope for freedom was never extinguished and as long as it existed the struggle was not dead. Mandela and company made it clear they were prepared to die for their beliefs. They had a unique public platform to outline the reasons for the creation of MK and the dramatic sabotage operations unleashed. They seized this opportunity in no uncertain manner to raise the people’s awareness and consciousness. The trial itself motivated street protests and raised awareness of Mama attending the Rivonia Trial.

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the struggle. The outcry had among greater numbers for training abroad The initial group that had trained in other results an impact on socialist was well underway from early 1962. China were followed by middle level and African countries, demonstrating By the time of the Rivonia Raid and cadres who trained in Egypt, Cyprus how serious the ANC and SACP were in the period to 1965 there were and Algeria once it was freed. By 1963 about the armed struggle. External several hundred cadres completing or thanks to the earlier contacts provided allies were consequently prepared to undergoing military training in a variety by the SACP with Moscow an advance step-up promised material support and of countries in Africa and Eastern group of 30 including Archie Sebeko, training which was indispensable to Europe. The external human resource , Lennox Lagu and Lambert MK’s survival and progress. Moreover, and infrastructure grew to become the Maloi were training in Moscow. I the Rivonia leadership, and sacrifice Movement’s indispensable rear base joined a group of some 200 comrades of others including those who were and major asset without which the headed by as commander executed like MK commander Vuyisile liberation of South Africa would have and as commissar Mini, and those who like Looksmart been far more problematic and taken which trained in Odessa during 1964. Ngudle were murdered in detention, a far longer time. This indispensable Another group of 200 which included steeled the resolve of MK comrades asset was painstakingly developed in Joe Jele and Mosie Moolla followed us who were itching to react and press those difficult years and became a key in 1965. By the time my group returned on. Although we readily accept that the objective factor for survival and revival to Tanzania at the end of 1964 we outcome of The Sabotage Campaign of of the struggle. Without a doubt the joined at least 100 who had completed 1961-1963 ended in setback, a historic assistance given by the in training, including the Moscow group, legacy of confronting the regime had the period under consideration (as well and set up the ANC’s main guerrilla been established. as in future) was a mainstay of MK’s camp at Kongwe, 500 kms to the west. From the time of Sharpeville survival.3 Uniforms and weapons were supplied (March 21, 1960) and the banning This was one of the key objective from the Soviet Union and other of the ANC, the Movement had the socialist countries. A small number had foresight to establish an organised Without a doubt received training in Czechoslovakia. By external presence. , 1966 the camp boasted well over 600 and Moses Mabhida had the assistance given trained cadres. Further training and been sent abroad that year to organise by the Soviet Union preparation were conducted there. international support. From the At this point it is important to inception MK cadres were slipping out in the period under reflect that the establishment of a rear of the country for training. Mandela’s consideration (as base in Africa and training facilities in trip to Addis Ababa and meeting the the continent and socialist countries Algerian NLF leadership in Morocco well as in future) was had been conceived by the Rivonia was the forerunner. Six top leaders a mainstay of MK’s command from the start. Their plans including and Wilton had included the creation of an Mkwai were sent for training in China. survival. underground network to engage in Others were to follow for training in both political and military activity in Africa and particularly in the Soviet factors which saw us through the most various centres of the country as well Union; and this entailed establishing difficult of times. as the reintegration of cadres who had secret routes in and out of the country. I can attest to what it was like as trained abroad. Hand-in-hand with The ANC mission abroad established one of those exfiltrating the country this was the intended smuggling of offices in Africa and London to mobilise towards the end of 1963. weapons, a logistics infrastructure for international support. It was a huge relief after being on the producing basic explosives and capacity The infrastructure in places like run at home and dodging the security to produce and distribute propaganda Tanzania, as well as safe contacts in forces to safely leave the country. Fish material. The draft document operation soon to be free and Zambia, Keitsing, a former treason trialist and “Operation Mayibuye” although never were important contact points along citizen of Botswana, ran a competent adopted, and criticised by some for the long and precarious route to Dar system of picking up our cadres at being impractical and adventuristic, es Salaam. With the apartheid regime rendezvous points at the border, has the merit of indicating the breadth passing extremely repressive legislation utilising safe houses and transport to and audacity of thinking at that time.4 such as the Sabotage Act (later the spirit one north, or arranging with the It was a strategic plan meant to Terrorism Act) the writing was on the ANC in Dar es Salaam for a transport facilitate the transition from sabotage wall, and other key leaders, among to fly or drive one to this or that safe to guerrilla struggle, drafted mainly by them JB Marks, , Duma haven. The ANC office in Tanzania’s and . Ironically Nokwe and Joe Slovo, were ordered to capital was a hive of activity handling many of its recommendations evolved leave the country and strengthen the the movement of cadres for training in the course of the struggle. external mission both for political and abroad. Transit houses received those By 1965, at a crucial point when MK military purposes. from home and those returning from cadres in large numbers abroad were The recruitment of MK cadres in training. primed to return home, the situation

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was dire. Routes home were extremely opportunity of establishing itself closer fighters stuck in limbo outside their dangerous, and most problematic of to home. This made a tremendous country. This was also the time when all there were no structures ready to difference. Kaunda permitted the ANC the Vietnamese were engaged in the receive them. Comrades at Kongwa in to transfer numbers of its members heroic struggle against the American particular, having expected to be back to Zambia and MK transit residences invasion and the concept of people’s home as soon as they had completed were set up around and in war was becoming extremely popular. training, were beginning to experience Livingston across the Zambesi River The incursions into Zimbabwe by “cabin fever,” growing bored and from Rhodesia. MK’s Luthuli Detachment, some sixty impatient with the leadership. A The challenges for MK and the strong, in alliance with ZAPU’s armed small group were so exasperated that other liberation movements struggling wing ZIPRA, in the Wankie campaign sometime in 1966 they commandeered to make progress in southern Africa of 1967 followed by Sipolili in 1968, a truck and drove from Kongwa to the coincided with the publication of were made possible by the opportunity new ANC headquarters at Morogoro Regis Debrey’s controversial book provided by the emergence of an to lodge a protest. This certainly shook “Revolution in the Revolution”5 on the independent Zambia, as a base from up the leadership and impelled new challenges of guerrilla warfare in Latin which to launch guerrilla actions. The thinking about how to address the America. This had tremendous appeal idea for MK was that it would use problem of infiltrating people back and was hotly debated in many parts of Zimbabwe as a route through to South home. The leadership had a difficult the world including Africa. But it gave Africa and if they were intercepted on problem on their hands. Not only were the misleading impression that the the way they would robustly engage the MK soldiers becoming restless but Cuban revolution had simply depended the enemy. Whilst the objective of so too were our hosts like Tanzania and on the guerrilla band establishing a base reaching South Africa failed, so fierce the OAU. The liberation committee with its own resources and not having was the combat with the Rhodesian of that institution which was put in to also initially depend on links with forces that Pretoria had to rush security charge of supervising and assisting the the rural or urban people. This went personnel to prop up the Smith regime. many guerrilla movements of southern with scathing criticism of traditional Although the objective of reaching Africa were impatient too. The ANC leadership and organisation for home was not achieved what should in particular was pressurised to get on failing to prosecute guerrilla warfare. not be overlooked is that this was MK’s with the fight. Whether or not the theory was fully baptism of fire. In contact with the Fortuitously, Zambia had become discussed at leadership level in Africa it enemy they had seen white soldiers die independent providing the ANC the certainly had great appeal for freedom and retreat in terror. Invaluable lessons © University of Fort Hare Archives

MK in Training

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were drawn; and the event made experienced leaders from the minority revealed that those on trial had been considerable impact back home. So groups, such as Dadoo, Slovo, Reg receiving more sophisticated levels of popular were MK’s actions as broadcast September and others, had added training and methods of work. by the ANC’s Radio Freedom that taxi to the problems they had endured. In what many referred to as a drivers and commuters alike A Revolutionary Council at ANC doldrum period following the Morogoro in South African cities were calling out Headquarters in Zambia with these Conference the trial of James April along with their normal destinations comrades included was established. in 1971 reflected serious work that “Next stop Rhodesia and Wankie!” Preparation of comrades chosen to had been taking place. Veteran of the Slovo referred to the Wankie campaign return home was fine-tuned and smaller Wankie Campaign, he had undergone as a “heroic failure”.6 And that heroism groups sent to both the Soviet Union further training in the GDR and had had another positive side. Lessons and the GDR (East Germany) to receive managed to reach and survive for some were learnt and would be applied. refresher courses with an emphasis on time in his operational I had been transferred to London how to establish underground work area – the furthest possible distance where a special secret unit under and link the political and the military from Lusaka. Observers at his trial Dadoo and Slovo was created to functions. concluded that he “showed both the establish links with South Africa, recruit The infiltration of the first number dedication and professional potential travellers and students for underground of individuals began by 1970. MK of the ANC’s military personnel.”10 work at home, and organise the managed to smuggle a couple of In October 1971 the security police smuggling in and distribution of both cadres on board a ship from Dar uncovered an underground network of ANC and SACP leaflets and literature. the SACP headed by .11 By 1967 this was well underway. Our By 1965, at a The scope and intent of the work that first few units had been established he had undertaken so alarmed them and the initial smuggling of literature crucial point when that when they could not get him to talk soon became something of a sustained MK cadres in large they killed him and threw his body from blitz as we recruited so-called “London an upper floor of police headquarters. Recruits” – young internationalists numbers abroad were Timol, a schoolteacher aged 29, had who could journey into the country primed to return been trained for his underground work as tourists.7 They engaged in direct in the Soviet Union. He established a propaganda actions utilising leaflet home, the situation network with more than 25 contacts, bombs and street broadcasts to get the was dire. Routes some of whom were put on trial and message to the masses.8 So successful imprisoned. His cell produced and were these actions that on numerous home were extremely distributed SACP and ANC leaflets on occasions the audacity of the leaflet dangerous, and a considerable scale whilst maintaining distribution in all the main cities of secret communication with London. South Africa saw front-page headlines most problematic “Operation J”12 was one of the and greatly inspired the people. of all there were no most ambitious operations undertaken Among the first large leaflet structures ready to by MK in its entire history. It was distributions to hit the headlines was a considered of such strategic importance pamphlet about the MK incursions into receive them. that it was under the direct command Zimbabwe proclaiming that the “End of Tambo, Slovo and Mabhida. An Was Near for Vorster and his gang”9. es Salaam destined to call at South ocean-going vessel, The Aventura, was Many of the 1976 student activists who African ports. Comrades like Chris purchased with the object of carrying joined MK later told me how they had Hani and Lambert Maloi underwent 30 heavily armed MK combatants first come to know of the ANC and MK special preparation and with coded from Somalia in 1971 and landing through the leaflet bomb distributions. communication methods were them on the Transkei coast. The Following the failure of the infiltrated through South Africa to their landing point had been reconnoitred Zimbabwe incursions and criticism destination in where they for over a year by London Recruits. from MK ranks concerning what established a strategic underground The ship’s crew were internationalists they saw as leadership failures, the centre. By the early 1970s the ANC from Greece and Britain. The Aventura Morogoro Conference was convened from Zambia was strengthening MK’s unfortunately broke down at sea and in April 1969. presence in neighbouring Botswana, its mission was aborted. Not to be Central to all discussion was how to and reconnecting with contacts from undone, the cadres flew by regular re-establish the movement back home the Rivonia period. commercial airline to destinations in and the strategy and tactics required in Arrests and trials at the time whilst Botswana and Swaziland. There they the new phase. Arising out of lessons attesting to the dangerous nature of were met by one of the key London learned the emphasis was placed on a the work, and the high rate of attrition, Recruits, Alex Moumbaris and his wife balanced interaction between political illustrated that cadres were prepared Marie-Jo, who assisted them to cross and military work. to take the risks whatever the cost. the borders into South Africa. In the Many cadres had felt the absence of Evidence emerging at such trials process the Moumbaris couple were

18 THE THINKER Best leagues and cup competitions. Every game that matters.

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arrested as were half a dozen of the MK assistance. They were led by Linus the SACTU leader Stephen Dlamini, cadres including veterans Theophilus Dlamini, a Wankie veteran. The police and Terence Tryon among others, Cholo and Sandile Sijake. They were were soon on their tracks and all ended joining the ANC underground inside the all sentenced to lengthy periods of up behind bars. A group in country and in the neighbouring states. imprisonment. They were joined in the who were recruiting for MK were Structures within Lesotho, Swaziland trial by another MK member Justice arrested by the security police. The and Botswana were expanding. Mpanza, and a London Recruit, John leader of the cell, Joseph Nduli was Returning to the training in this Hosey, an Irishman who had travelled arrested and died under interrogation. period it is necessary to refer to Soviet to South Africa to pass on documents , with and assistance once more. As Vladimir and funds to Mpanza. Albert Dlomo, operated in Swaziland Shubin recalls “the need for a special Moumbaris managed to escape from from 1975 and developed many links training establishment available for prison in 1979 with MK’s assistance, with comrades back home, beginning large contingents of trainees became along with leaflet bombers Jenkin and a process of reviving underground cells acute, particularly as more and more Lee, after serving seven years of his and receiving recruits. requests were being by the liberation 15 year term. Comrades of all backgrounds movements… such a centre was According to experienced were recruited and became part of created in the Crimea, in Perevalnoye, researchers and commentators “The the underground network which was near the city of Simferopo… in terrain capture, trial and imprisonment of painstakingly developed between not very different from Southern underground activists in these years 1965 and ’75. Those studying abroad Africa.”14 was evidence of failure, but also who were recruited were given training This extraordinary training facility evidence that the liberation movement and tasks. They were trained in the served the needs of the foremost existed.”13 Of course there is no such art of living double lives, working liberation movements of the region. I thing as a risk-free strategy. was told by Mzwai Piliso, who played Internal efforts to revive the ANC Not only were the such an important role in keeping paralleled external efforts. The trial the ANC camps in Africa functioning of Winnie Mandela and 21 others in MK soldiers becoming through the 1970s, just how fortunate 1969 was among the most sensational restless but so too the ANC was to have Perevalnoye as a to take place at the end of the 1960s. base in reserve. “It literally saved our They were accused of engaging in were our hosts like bacon” he told me. discussion and correspondence with Tanzania and In 1969 the ANC fell out of favour the ANC; possessing ANC publications in Tanzania, owing to rumours and distributing literature; listening the OAU. circulated by elements within the to radio freedom broadcasts from PAC that we were involved in an Tanzania; organising pro-ANC normally by day and carrying out intrigue to overthrow President Nyere. groups and meetings; engaging in the subversive activities at night, mainly Unfortunately this was believed for a reconnaissance of targets for sabotage in the propaganda field. Among time and the ANC had to redeploy all operations; and devising means for other underground operatives who of its MK members outside Tanzania. obtaining explosives. The prosecution were apprehended in this period Piliso was among the 500 cadres made a mess of the evidence and the and sentenced to long terms of temporarily sojourning in the Crimea case collapsed. imprisonment were , until they could return to Tanzania. The trial of and , David and Sue Rabkin, And they made good their enforced others in 1974 reflected internal Anthony Holiday, Tim Jenkin and “holiday” by upgrading the skills at the attempts to move beyond the military Steve Lee. They were mainly journalists Perevalnoye training facility. preoccupation to take advantage of and university lecturers. The latter two Whilst the tide was beginning to the resurgence of political and labour were extremely active in exploding turn inside the country, a dramatic activity in where this veteran leaflet bombs in Cape Town. and major turning point occurred on communist was based. Gwala had been During the first half of the 1970s April 25, 1974 when an uprising of contacted by the SACTU leadership the ANC strove to connect with Portugal’s conscript army overthrew in Lusaka who looked to him to send the emerging black consciousness the fascist government. War weariness Labour activists out of the country to movement and labour activists with and disaffection had set in as a result receive training in clandestine skills. limited success. The development of of Portugal’s unjust colonial wars in He received a life imprisonment and independent organisations within the Africa and the resistance of the guerrilla joined the Mandela leadership on country pointed to changing conditions movements in Angola, Mozambique . which the ANC strove to influence. and Guinea-Bissau. A new era in the Dotothy Nyembe, a banned ANC Some positive connections were taking politics of southern Africa opened up Women’s League leader in Natal, was place with the South African student as those former colonies moved rapidly contacted by a group of MK cadres organisation (SASO) and key office towards independence. Of momentous who had managed to successfully bearers such as Nkosazana Dlamini significance was the independence of cross the border and were seeking (later Dlamini-Zuma), whose uncle was Mozambique and Angola which were

20 THE THINKER INTERNATIONAL to provide incalculable assistance to turnaround so that some of the recruits incidence of operations in 1988 when MK. The former contiguous to South would not be missed at home and in that single year almost 250 armed Africa; the latter’s readiness to provide were able to immediately be utilised actions were recorded of increasing excellent training facilities for MK as for operations. Utilising foreign sophistication.17 The 1980s saw the a most reliable rear base. Hundreds recruits from the earlier period MK heightening of mass organisation in of MK recruits were to receive their could bank on assistance in smuggling the country, with the emergence of training in Angola from the time of the weapons into the country and setting both the UDF and COSATU, and the June 16th Detachment on. The balance up safe houses throughout the region virtual unbanning of the ANC through of power between colonialism and by internationalists posing as tourists street protests, with an insurrectionary racism on the one hand and liberation who would not be suspected of any mood gathering. The balance of forces movements on the other was changing connection. And MK had no problem was changing in favour of South Africa’s dramatically. Prospects for change in in recruiting contacts from among the liberation. Zimbabwe, Namibia and South Africa citizens of the neighbouring states or What the leadership that launched were greatly enhanced. According to students studying in those universities.16 Umkhonto we Sizwe in 1961 had Karis and Gerhart “…new prospects The period of retreat and revival hoped for was indeed taking place. for guerrilla warfare opened and hopes post the Rivonia arrests, from 1965- The launching of the sabotage revived that armed struggle, coupled 1975, which saw many creative campaign had grown from amateurish with internal political renewal, might developments, provided the platform but brave beginnings into a phase that soon tip the balance of power against from which the armed struggle could be was approaching the people’s war Pretoria.”15 revived and relaunched. The dedicated envisaged by the external leadership By 1975, with the collapse from at least the time of the Morogoro of Portuguese colonialism in Conference. Who then can claim that Mozambique, the neighbouring state Those studying the decade 1965-1975 were barren of Swaziland became invaluable as a abroad who were years or that those who sacrificed did forward base for the ANC. Certainly by so in vain? ■ 1974-75, with the ferment of protest recruited were given Footnotes and dissent in the country, the first training and tasks. 1 For a cursory assessment see Karis and Gerhardt, From trickle of recruits since 1965 was again Protest to Challenge: Volume 5: Nadir and resurgence, They were trained 1964-1979 Karis and Gerhardt, UNISA press Pretoria, being resumed and among these were 1997; see also: Rocky Williams “ ‘The Other Armies: a future MK commanders such as Tokyo in the art of living brief historical overview of Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK) 1961-94’” Military History Journal Vol 11 No 5 - June Sexwale, Snukie Zikalala, Siphiwe 2000 double lives, working 2 Nyanda and Solly Shoke. This trickle Ibid; and see also Padraig O’Malley ”Shades of Difference – and the struggle for South became a flood with the 1976 student normally by day Africa”, Viking, 2007, chapter 7 3 uprising which began in Soweto For a full appreciation of Soviet assistance Vladamir and carrying out Shubin’s “ANC – A View From Moscow” (Mayibuye that June and spread like wildfire Books), makes for indispensable reading. See also R. Kasrils “Armed and Dangerous“ (Jacana,) 2013 throughout South Africa. subversive activities 4 Operation Mayibuye 1963 South African History Young people emerged from Online https://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/operation- at night. mayibuye-1963 South Africa in their hundreds in 5 Regis Debrey, “‘Revolution In the Revolution?’" search of training and weapons. Monthly Review Press, 1967 6 Karis and Gerhardt, op cit, p 36 Whilst many sought the ANC owing work and sacrifices of that period paid 7 Ronnie Kasrils ”Armed and Dangerous” op cit, (Jacana 2013) Chapter 8 to the prestige its activities had built off as objective and subjective factors 8 Ken Keable (editor) “London Recruits. – The secret war up, many were simply attracted to its referred to coalesced and crystallised against apartheid”, (Merlin Press, 2011) 9 ‘"Leaflet Bombs Warn: End Is Near’"Port Elizabeth ranks because it had the infrastructure in the mid-1970s. The current of Evening News, August 14, 1970 - for the fascimilie see and the personnel in place to receive historic change was running firmly with Ken Keeble opposite contents page. 10 Karis and Gerhardt, op cit, page 53 them. This was not the case with the the liberation forces throughout the 11 Ahmed Timol, was a member of the SACP, and a PAC; and the black consciousness southern African region. schoolteacher in the area where he lived. 12 Operation J which involved the purchasing of a movement which had attracted many Zimbabwe’s liberation in 1980 was seagoing vessel, the Aventura, manned by a foreign crew of internationalists, with the objective of young people had no infrastructure further proof that settler colonialism picking up 30 heavily armed MK combatants from abroad at all. Thanks to its record and was coming to an end in Africa. The Somalia and landing them on the Transkei coast, at a prearranged point, where they would be received by its activities the ANC was able to make SADF met its nemesis at the hands of London Recruits who would assist them to get to their the best of the opportunity provided by the Cuban internationalists following operational area, where the objective was to set up MK structures. history. Its ranks were swelled with the the Battle of Cuito Cuanavale in Angola 13 Karis and Gerhardt, op cit Volume 52 new recruits who in their training were (March 1988) and were finally driven out 14 Vladimir Shubin, “ANC– A View From Moscow” op cit, (Mayibuye Books) p82 educated in the movement’s policy that country. Namibia’s independence 15 Karis and Gerhardt, op cit p55 16 Siphiwe Nyanda, ‘“Weapons infiltration by the and principles. was to follow on the heels of that defeat. Transvaal Urban Machinery”’; Stuart Round ‘“Safari The major training took place in the With the dramatic change in the balance of a Special Type”’ Stuart Round; Damien de Lange, ‘“The Role of African Internationalists”’; The Thinker, ANC’s Angolan camps. Special crash of power from 1975 MK’s operations December 2013, Vol 58 courses were provided in , increased massively, especially from 17 R. Kasrils ‘“Role, Function and Achievements of MK”’, The Thinker, June 2013, Vol 52 Botswana and Swaziland for a quick 1980 onwards, to reach its highest

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