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Home , Ashley Montagu, Charles Hamilton Smith, Ethiopid race, Francis Galton, Robert Knox

Notes and References

INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE, RACE AND HISTORY

1. The definition of scientific used here is a modified version of that given by Steven Rose in ' and Ideology: The I. Q. Racket from Galton to Jensen', in Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (eds), The Political Economy of Science (: Macmillan, 1976) p. 113. 2. George W. Stocking, Jr., in Race, Culture, and : Essays in the History of (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1968) p. 14, calls race 'a characteristically nineteenth-century phenomenon'. 3. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (lthaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1966) pp. 48-9. 4. Ibid., pp. 70-2. 5. See especially Frank M. Snowden, JT., Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Expen'ence (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Press, 1970). The magisterial, three volume work, The Image of the Black in Western Art, ed. Ladislaus Bugrer (New York: William Morrow, 1976-9), explores the artistic representation of blacks from ancient to the age of discovery. The range of depictions, from entertainer to Magi-king to cruel warrior, was extraordinarily wide but never uniform and rarely negative. Only in the age of black slavery did the standard image of the black become that of degradation. 6. Hzppocrates, with an English translation by W. H. S. James, 4 vols (London: William Heinemann, 1962) v. I, chs XII-XXIV, pp. 105-37. 7. These themes have been explored by Winthrop D. , White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977) pp. 3-43; by Michael Banton, The Idea of Race (London: Tavistock Publications, 1977) pp. 13-26. For Arabic racial views and their relationship to black slavery in the Islamic world see Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). 8. Jordan, White over Black, p. 7. 9. M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: The Viking Press, 1980), esp. ch. 3. 10. James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1973). Prichard dedicated his second edition of Researches to Blumenbach. For Lawrence, see William Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 111. 11. The relation between scientific theory and political, philosophical and social factors has recently become a topic of considerable interest to historians, sociologists and philosophers of science. See, for instance, Robert

190 Notes and References, xiv-J 191

M. Young, 'Evolutionary and Ideology: Then and Now', Science Studies 1 (1971) 177-206, and his The Historiographic and Ideological Contexts of the Nineteenth-Century Debate on Man's Place in ', in Mikulas Teich and Robert Young (eds.), Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of joseph Needham (Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1973) pp. 344-438; and Michael Mulkay, Science and the of Knowledge (London: Alien & Unwin, 1979). 12. A recent very revealing analysis of this kind of unconscious manipulation of data in race science is that by Stephen J. Gould, in 'Morton's Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity', Science 200 (1978) 503-9. 13. See, for example, Stocking's remarks in a review in]. Hist. Behav. Sci. 1 (1965) 294-6. 14. This distinction was made about phrenology - that it was bad science but not pseudoscience - by William F. Bynum, in his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in the Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Cambridge University, Ph.D. 1974) p. 168. 15. See Chapter 7 of this book. 16. See John G. Burke, The Wild Man's Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology', in Edward Dudley and Maxmillian E. Novak, The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thoughtfrom the Renaissance to Romanticism (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1972) p. 260, where he was referring to the 'ether' of nineteenth century physics. Burke's essay contains a useful discussion of the different kinds of errors into which scientists may fall. 17. Beddoe's formula, D + 2ND + 2N - R - F = Index, is discussed in Alfred C. Haddon's The Study of Man (London: Bliss, Sands, 1898) pp. 22-40, along with other methods used in the nineteenth century for measuring and comparing skin colour in the human species. 18. Lancelot Hogben, The Race Concept', in , The Concept of Race (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1964) p. 93. 19. In recent years, the period 1800 to 1850, once the most neglected period of all, has received the attention of a number of historians. In addition to Bynum's invaluable study cited in n. 14, there is a rich study by Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa. Bn'tish Ideas and Action, 1780-1850,2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) in which the work of travellers, ethnographers, geographers and medical doctors are analysed_ 20. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History ofEuropean Racism (London: J. M. Dent, 1978) p. 234. 21. The second edition of Thomas S. Kuhn's book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1970, 2nd ed.), contains Kuhn's notion of 'symbolic generalisations'.

CHAPTER 1: RACE AND THE RETURN OF THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING, 1800-50

1. Quotations fromJ. S. Slotkin (ed.), Readings in Early Anthropology (New 192 Notes and References

York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1965) pp. 2-g, 16. The debate on the origin of the Indians of the New World is reviewed in detail by Lee Eldridge Huddleston, in On'gins of the American Indians; European Concepts, 1492-1792 (Austin, Texas: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1967) and by Marcel Bataillon in 'L'unite du genre bumain du P. Acosta au P. Clavigero', in Melanges d la memoire deJean Sarrailh (: Centre de Recherches de I'Institut d'Etudes Hispaniques, 1966) v. I, pp. 75-95. 2. The literature on and is now quite extensive. Among other writings, see Theophile Simar, Etude Cn'tique sur laforma• tion de la doctnne des races au X VIII' siecle et son expansion au XIX' siecle, Academie Royale de Belgique, Memoires, Deuxieme Serie, XVI (Bruxelles: Maurice Lamertin, 1922); John C. Greene, The Death of A dam (Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1959); Philip D. Cunin, The Image ofAfn'ca: Bn~ish Ideas and Action, 1780-18;0, 2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) esp. vol. I, ch. 2 and vol. 2, ch. 15; George W. Stocking, Jr.'s Introductory Essay to James Cowles Prichard, Researches Into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1979) pp. ix-ex. and his 'What's in a Name? The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute (18g 7 -1871 )" Man 6 (1971) g69-90; Ronald Rainger, 'Race, Politics and Science: The Anthro• pological Society of London in the 1860s', Victon'an Studies 22 (Autumn 1978) 51-70. American polygenism has been well described by William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race In Amen'ca, 181;-18;9 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960) and George M. Frederickson, The Black Image In the Whl~e Mind: The Debate onAfro-Amen'canDestlny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); and is touched on more briefly by John Hailer in Outcasts from Evolution: Scientific AW'tudes of Racl'allnfen'on~y, 18;9-1900 (Urbana, Illinois: The University of Illinois Press, 1971). g. Prichard, Researches, p. 155, and William Lawrence, Lectures on Physio• logy, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 250. Lawrence, however, equivocated about whether being 'varieties of a single species' necessarily implied common descent. 4. James Hunt, 'On the Negro's Place in Nature', Anth. Soc. Lond., Memoirs 1 (1863-4) 52. 5. The moral fervour of the abolition movement is brilliantly analysed by David Brion Davis in The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-182J (lthaca and London: Comell University Press, 1975). The out• standing example of the genre was Abbe Gregoire's De la litterature des negres ou Recherches sur leurs facultis intellectuelles, leurs qualitis morales, et leur litterature (Paris: Maradan, 1808). The literary genre was continued by blacks themselves. See the penetrating essay by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 'Preface to Blackness: Text and Pretext', in Dexter Fisher and Roben B. Stepto, (eds.), Afro-Amen'can Literature. The Reconstruction of an Instl~ution (New York: Modem Language Association of America, 1979) pp. 44-69. 6. , The Races of Men: A Fragment (London: Henry Renshaw, 1850) p. 6. Notes and References, pp. 6-11 193

7. William F. Bynum, 'The Great Chain of Being After Forty Years: An Appraisal', Hist. Sci. XIII (1975) 1-28, and his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Ph.D., Cambridge University, , 1974). 8. Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936). 9. Examples of the use of the great chain include that by Charles Bonnet, The Contemplation of Natur-l!, 2 vols (London: T. Longman, 1766); Soame Jenyns, 'Disquisition I: The Chain of Universal Being', in Works, 4 vols, 2nd ed. (London: T. Cadell, 1793) v. 3, pp. 179-85; Richard Bradley, A Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (London: C. W. Mears, 1721); William Smellie, The Philosophy of Natural History (: Brown. Taggard and Chase, 1835). 10. Bradley, Philosophical Account, p. 159. 11. Ibid., p. 167. 12. Edward Tyson, Orang-Outang, Sive Homo Sylvestris: or The of a Pygmie Compared Wz~h that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man (London: T. Bennet and D. Brown, 1699). 13. This translation appears in the entry for Anthropology in the New Encyclo· pedia Bn'tannica Macropaedia, I, p. 978. 14. Quoted in Greene, Death of Adam, p. 183. 15. Ibid., p. 180. 16. Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1968). 17. See Richard G. Cole, 'Sixteenth Century Travel Books as a Source of Euro· pean Attitudes Toward Non-White and Non-Western Culture', Proc. A mer. Phz1. Soc. 116 (1972) 59-67. 18. Smellie, Philosophy of Natural History, pp. 308-9. 19. Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables (London: C. Dilly, 1799). 20. See The Works of the Late Professor Camper. A new edition by T. Cogan. MD (London: J. Hearne, 1821) p. 9 for the racial scale derived from the angle. 21. Bynum, Time s Noblest Offspnng, n. 7. It should be pointed out that it was quite possible for a naturalist to repudiate the Linnaean classification of man as a Quadrumana and insist on man's unique status, while yet retaining the chain of being. See, for example, Smellie, The Philosophy of Natural History, p. 27. 22. Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, The Anthropological Treatises ofJohann Fnedrich Blumenbach (London: The Anthropological Society of London, 1863). 23. Ibid., p. 57. 24. Ibid., p. 10lff. 25. Thomas Winterbottom, An Account of the Native Afn'cans in the Neigh· bourhood of Szerra Leone; To Which is Added An Account of the Present State of Medicine Among Them, 2 vols (London: C. Whittingham, 1803) v. I, p. 201; and Prichard, Researches p. 67. 26. Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, p. 117. On the controversy surrounding Lawrence's career, see Kentwood D. Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence 194 Notes and References

(1783-1867); A Study of Pre-Darwinian Ideas on and Variation', I Hist_ Biol. 4 (1971) 319-61; Oswei Temkin, 'Basic Science, Medicine and the Romantic Era', Bull. Hist. Med. 37 (1963) 97-129; and June Goodfield• Toulmin, 'Some Aspects of English Physiology, 1780-1840'.j. Hist. Biol. 2 (1969) 283-320. 27. , The Animal Kingdom Arranged in Conformity with its Organization (New York: G. and C. and H. Carvill, 1831) p. XVII. 28. On Lamarck's relation to the great chain, see Richard W. Burckhardt, Jr., The Spirit of the System: Lamarck and Evolutionary Biology (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1977) pp. 141-2. See also J. Schiller, 'L'Echelle des etres et la serie chez Lamarck', in P. P. Grasse et al., Colloque International 'Lamarck' (Paris: Librairie Scientifique et Technique, 1971) pp. 87-103. 29. For excellent discussions of the idea of a progressive series in the fossil record, see Martin T. S. Rudwick, The Meaning of Fossils. Episodes in the History of Paleontology (London: MacDonald, 1972) and Peter J. Bowler, Fossils and Progress: Paleontology and the Idea of Progressive Evolution in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Science History Publications, 1976). 30. Richard Owen, Memoir on the Gorilla (London: Taylor and Taylor, 1865) p.7. 31. Karl M. Figlio, The Metaphor of Organization: An Historiographical Per• spective on the Biomedical Sciences of the Early Nineteenth Century', Hist. Sci. XIV (1976) 17-53. 32. Ibid., pp. 23-4. 33. Ibid., pp. 24, 28. 34. Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, p. 52. 35. Ibid., pp. 101. 335. 36. Ibid., p. 335. 37. Du Chaillu's sensational career with the gorilla can be glimpsed in Explora• tions and Adventures in Equatonal Afn'ca (New York: Harper, 1861) and Michel Vaucaire, Paul Du Chaillu: Con'lla Hunter (New York and London: Harper, 1930). 38. The debate between Huxley and Owen is reviewed in Charles E. Blinder• man, The Great Bone Case', Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 14 (1971) 370-93. Owen's ideas on Negroes were mixed_ On the one hand, he believed that, as members of a unique species in a unique genera, the dis• tance of Negroes from apes was very great, Yet Owen was ready to admit that in many features Negroes were far more like apes than other races, particularly the European. See, for instance, his Memoir on the Con'lla, n. 29, passim. 39. Frederick Tiedemann, 'On the Brain of the Negro, compared with that of the European and the Orang-outang', Phil. Trans. Ray. Soc. 126 (1836) 497-527. 40. Owen, Memoir on the Con'lla, p. 31. 41. See the discussion of Lyell and Wallace's treatment of man in Chapter 3. 42. Hunt, 'On the Negro's Place in Nature'. Notes and References, pp. 20-3 195

CHAPTER 2: 'RACE IS EVERYTHING': THE GROWTH OF RACIAL DETERMINISM, 1830-50

1. The connection between phrenology and race science has been noted by several writers, including William F. Bynum, Time's Noblest Offspring: The Problem of Man in British Natural Historical Sciences (Ph.D., Cambridge University, England, 1974) ch. IV; David de Giustino, Conquest of Mind: Phrenology and Victorian Social Thought (London: Crown Helm, 1975); al)d T. M. Parsinnen, ' and Society: The Phrenology Movement in Early Victorian Britain',I Soc. Hist. 8 (1974) 1-20. 2. Recent studies of phrenology include de Giustino, Conquest of Mind; G. N. Cantor, 'The Phrenology Debate, 1803-1828', Annals of Science 32 (May 1975) 195-218; Roger Smith, 'The Background of Physiological in Natural Philosophy', Hist. Sci. 2 (1973) 75-123; Oswei Temkin, 'Gall and the Phrenological Movement', Bull. Hist. Med. 21 (1977) 275-321; G. Jefferson, 'The Contemporary Reaction to Phrenology', in Selected Papers (London: Pitman Medical Pub., 1960) 94-112; R. J. Cooter, 'Phrenology: The Provocation of Progress', Hist. Sci. XIV (1976) 211-34; and Parsinnen, 'Popular Science and Society'. See also David Bakan, 'The Influence of Phrenology on American Psychology', I Hist. Behav. Sci. 12 (1966) 200-20; Anthony A. Walsh, 'Is Phrenology Foolish?: A Rejoinder', I Hist. Behav. Sci. 6 (1970) 358-61, and 'George Combe: A Portrait of a Heretofore Generally Unknown Behaviorist', I Hist. Behatl• Sci. 7 (1971) 269-78; and Stephen Shapin, 'Phrenological Knowledge and the Social Structure of Early Nineteenth Century Edinburgh', Annals of Science 32 (1975) 219-43. 3. Shapin, 'Phrenological Knowledge', interprets the controversy surrounding the introduction of phrenology in Britain in the 1820s in terms of phrenology's 'outsider' status. Cantor, 'Edinburgh Phrenology Debate', on the other hand, stresses the intellectual and scientific issues dividing the phrenologists from the anti-phrenologists in Edinburgh. 4. Robert M. Young, Mind, Brain and in the Nineteenth Century: Cerebral Localization and its Biological Context from Gall to Ferrier (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1970) is particularly good on the scientific origins and programme of phrenology. See esp. ch.!. 5. J. G. Spurzheim, Outlines of Phrenology: Being also a Manual of Reference for the Marked Busts (London, 1827) p. 4. 6. Ibid., p. 9. 7. Ibid., p. 4. 8. See Young, Mind, Brain and Adaption, pp. 46-53,54-100, for an excellent discussion of the differences that existed between the phrenologists and the experimentalists like Flourens. 9. On the naturalism implicit in phrenology, ibid., p. 38, and Temkin, 'Gall and the Phrenological Movement', pp. 283-4. See also Cantor, 'Edinburgh Phrenology Debate', on the charge of materialism. In Britain, in fact, 196 Notes and References

phrenology was effectively integrated with a religious view of man. It was this integration that in part explains phrenology's success. 10. Parsinnen, 'Popular Science and Society', and Shapin, 'Phrenological Knowledge'. 11. See, for instance, Galton's similar, unexplained move from individual differences to group and race difference, as discussed in chapter 5 of this book. 12. J. G. Spurzheim, The Physiognomical Systems of Drs Gall and Spurzheim, Founded on an Anatomical and Physiological Examination of the Nervous System in General and of the Brain in Particular; and Indicating the Dis· positions and Manifestations of the Mind (London: Baldwin, Cranbock, and Joy, 1815) p. 105. 13. Ibid., pp. 287-8. 14. Spurzheim, Outlines of Phrenology, pp. 12-13. 15. Among other general articles on race and phrenology in the Phrenological Journal, see 'On the Coincidence Between the Natural Talents and Dis• positions of Nations, and the Development of Their Brains,' Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 1-19; 'Essay on the Phrenological Causes of the Different Degrees of Liberty Enjoyed by the Different Nations', Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 598-619; 'The Physiological Characters of the Races of Mankind Considered in their Relation to History; Being a Letter to M. Amadee Thierry, Author of the History of the Gauls, by W. F. Edwards', Phren.]. 9 (1834-6) 97-108; and 'Observations on the Phrenological Standard of Civilisation', Phren.]. 9 (1834-6) 360-74. In addition, there were numerous articles in the pages of the Journal on the phrenological characteristics of the specific races; e.g., on the Ceylonese, Phren.]. 20 (1847) 147-56, South Sea Islanders, Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 239-40, North American Indians, Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 533-43 and Phren.]. 15 (1842) 147-54, Sandwich Islanders and South Americans, Phren.]. 3 (1825-6) 421-36, Hindus, Phren.]. 6 (1829-33) 244-54, Hottentots, Phren. ]. 8 (1832-4) 68-9, and Esquimaux, Phren. ]. 8 (1832-4) 289-308 and 424-37. 16. 'Gento Laws', Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 250-64, and 'Observations on the Skulls of the Papuan Islanders', Phren.]. 2 (1824-5) 267. 17. 'Donation of Six Ancient Peruvian Skulls by Dr. Watson of Glasgow', Phren. ]. 4 (1826-7) 429. 18. Ibid., p. 430. 19. Temkin, 'Gall and the Phrenological Movement', p. 302, and 'Observations on the Phrenological Standard of Civilisation', pp. 360-74. 20. On acclimatisation and hybridisation, see Edwards, 'The Physiological Characters of the Races of Mankind', pp. 97-108. On the need to choose marriage partners according to phrenological principles, see 'On the Application of Phrenology in the Formation of Marriages', Phren.]. 8 (1832-4) 464-75. 21. 'Phrenological Note by Dr. Spurzheim', Phren.]. 6 (1829-30) 312. 22. See 'Phrenological View of the Question of Colonial Freedom', Phren. J. 8 (1832-4) 77-92. 23. 'Observations on the Phrenological Standard of Civilisation', pp. 360-74. 24. See Gay Weber, 'Science and Society in Nineteenth Century Anthropology', Hist. Sci. xii (1974) 260-83. Notes and References, pp. 26-31 197

25. Andrew Combe, 'On the Influence of Organic Size on Energy of Function, Particularly as Applied to the Organs of the External Senses and Brain', Phren.]. 4 (1826-7) 181-3. 26. Ibid., p. 185. 27. Review of Morton's 'Crania Americana', in Phren.]. 13 (1840) 351-81. 28. George Combe wrote a phrenological appendix to Morton's book on brain capacities in the different races of the world, but as is clear from my remarks, MOTton himself was never a phrenologist, strictly speaking. See also Henry S. Patterson, 'Memoir of the Life and Scientific Labors of ', in J. C. Nott and George R. Gliddon, Types of Mankind (Philadelphia: Lippincott, Gambo and Co., 1854) pp. xvii-lvii, especially p. xxxii, where Patterson claims that MOTton accepted the general phrenological doctrine that the 'brain is the seat of mind' but did not accept the details of the localities and functions of the phrenological organs. 29. Phren.]. 13 (1840) 351-61. 30. Andrew Combe, 'Remarks on the Fallacy of Professor Tiedemann's Comparison of the Negro Brain and Intellect with those of the European', Phren.]. 11 (1838) 13-22. 31. Lucile Hoyme, 'Physical Anthropology and its Instruments: A Historical Study', Southwestern]. of Anthropology 9 (1953) 412. 32. See John D. Davies, Phrenology, Fad and Science: A Nineteenth Century Amen'can Crusade (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955). 33. Young, Mind, Brain and Adaptation, pp. 42-3, Parsinnen, 'Popular Science and Society'. 34. A. R. Wallace, 'The Neglect of Phrenology', in The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Failures (London: Sonnenschein, 1898) pp. 159-93, and Roger Smith, ': Philosophy of Nature and Man', Bn·/. ]. for the Hist. Sci. 6 (1972) 177-99. 35. Ibid., pp. 183-9. 36. For an analysis of Wall ace's views on race, see chapter 3, pp. 66-77. 37. R. H. Popkin, 'Pre-Adamism and Racism', in Phl'losophia 8 (1978) 207. 38. R. H. Popkin, 'The Pre-Adamite Theory in the Renaissance', in Edward P. Mahoney, ed., Philosophy and Humanism: Renaissance Essays in Honor of Paul Oskar Kristeller (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1976) pp. 50-7. 39. Edward Long, The History ofJamaica , 3 vols (London: T. Lowndes, 1774). For a discussion of Long's career as an anti-abolitionist, see Gordon K. Lewis, Slavery, Impenalism, and Freedom: Studies in English Radical Thought (New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1978) pp. 43-52. See also Philip Curtin, The Image of Afn'ca: British Ideas and Action, 1780-1850, 2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press. 1964) vo!. I, pp. 43-6. 40. Charles White, An Account of the Regular Gradation in Man, and in Different Animals and Vegetables (London: C. Dilly, 1799). 41. See Thomas Winterbottom, An Account of the Native Afn'cans in the Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone, 2 vols(London: C. Whittingham, 1803), v. I, p. 183. 42. Ibid., v. 11, pp. 254-74. 43. See James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man, edited and with an Introductory Essay by George W. Stocking, Jr. (Chicago 198 Notes and References

and London: University of Chicago Press, 1973) pp. 3-6. For William Lawrence, see Lectures on Physiology, Zoology and the Natural History of Man. Delivered at the Royal College of Surgeons (London: James Smith, 1822) pp. 226-7. 44. Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, p. 83. 45. For an excellent analysis of Prichard's sources and approach, see George W. Stocking, Jr. 's Introductory Essay to the reprint of Prichard's Researches, pp. ix-ex. 46. Prichard, Researches, pp. 6-13. 47. Ibid., pp. 13-14, for Prichard's discussion of the analogical method, and pp. 17-85 for his analysis of variation in man and animals. 48. Ibid., pp. 46, 53. 49. Ibid., pp. 63-5. 50. Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, pp. 303-6. 51. English paraphrase of Linnaeus' classification of the races of man as given in T. Bendyshe, The History of Anthropology', Memoirs of the Anthropo• logical Society of London I (1863--64) pp. 424--5. 52. John Greene reviews some of the answers given to the question of racial origins in 'Some Early Speculations on the Origin of Human Races', American 56 (1954) 31-41, and in The Death of Adam (Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1959) pp. 237-43. Prichard, Researches, Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology and Winterbottom, An Account of the Native Afn·cans, all discussed the causes of the Negro's black skin and the relation between blackness and resistance to yellow fever. An interesting eighteenth century analysis of the cause of blackness is described by A. Owen Aldrige, in 'Feijoo and the Problem of Ethiopian Color', in Harold E. Pagliaro, ed., Racism in the Eighteenth Century: Studies in Eighteenth Century Culture, vo\. 3 (Cleveland and London: The Press of Case Western Reserve University, 1973) pp. 263-77. 53. On Buffon, see Greene, The Death of Adam, p. 224; for Blumenbach, see The Anthropological Treatises ofJohann Friedn·ch Blumenbach (London: The Anthropological Society of London, 1863) pp. 100-18. 54. , An Essay on the Causes of the Van·ety of Com• plexion and Figure in the Human Species, edited by Winthrop D. Jordan (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1965). Smith took Lord Kames as his target in 1787 and Charles White as his target in his second edition of 1810. See also Jordan, White Over Black: Amen·can Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (New York: W. W_ Norton, 1968) pp. 486-8, 506-9. 55. See Jordan, White Over Black, pp. 11-20. 56. Prichard, Researches, p. ii of his Preface. 57. Ibid., pp. 233-9. 58. Ibid., pp. 37-46, and Greene, The Death of Adam, pp. 237-43_ My analysis differs somewhat from Greene's. It is clear that the changes en• visaged by Prichard and Lawrence did not go beyond the species limit, and so were not evolutionary. 59. Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, p. 91, and Kentwood D_ Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence (1783-1867), A Study of Pre-Darwinian Ideas on Notes and References, pp. 40-5 199

Heredity and Variation',]. Hist. Bioi. 4 (1971) 319-61. Wells shows that Prichard and Lawrence's theories of spontaneous variation in human races had an important influence on Wall ace and Chambers, among others. 60. Georges Cuvier, The Animal Kingdom Arranged in Conformity with its Organization (New York: G. and C. and H. Carvill, 1831) pp. 10,52. 61. See Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence'. 62. For Stocking's analysis, see Prichard, Researches, pp. xcvi-xcviii. Stocking maintains it was less an acceptance of archeological evidence than religious and racial considerations that led Prichard to make the separation. For , see The Natural History of the Human Species (London: Henry G. Bohn, 1852) esp. pp. 93-112, 168. Another polygenist work from a slightly earlier period is Robert Verity's phrenological Changes Produced in the Nervous System by Ci1.~'/isation (London: S. Highley, 1837). Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa; Bnhsh Ideas and Action, 1780-1850, 2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin University Press, 1964), v. 2, pp. 363-87, describes the growth of racialism in history and literature in Britain, particularly in the writings of Thomas Arnold and Thomas Carlyle. On the significance of time and archeology to polygenism, as well as Morton's importance to polygenism, see William Stamon, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race in America, 1815-1859 (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1960). See also J. Gruber, 'Brixham Cave and the Antiquity of Man', in M. Spiro, ed., Context and Meaning in Cultural Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1965) pp. 373-402. 63. For Knox's career, see Isabel Rae, Knox, the Anatomist (Edinburgh and London: Oliver and Boyd, 1964); Henry Lonsdale, A Sketch of the Life and Wn'tings of Robert Knox, the Anatomist (London: Macmillan, 1870); and Michael D. Biddiss, 'The Politics of Anatomy: Dr. Robert Knox and Victorian Racism', Proc. Roy. Soc. Med. 69 (1976) 245-50. 64. Quotations are from the second edition published with the title, The Races of Men: A Philosophical Enquiry into the Influences of Race over the Destinies of Nations (London: Henry Renshaw, 1862), p. 1. 65. Ibid., pp. 1-3. 66. Ibid., pp. 39-75. 67. Ibid., pp. 100-1. 68. Ibid., pp. 64-75, 106-45. 69. Ibid., pp. 171-7. 70. Ibid., p. 6. 71. George W. Stocking, Jr., 'What's in a Name? The Origins of the Royal An• thropological Institute (1837-1871)" Man 6 (1971) 369-90. 72. Ibid. See also George W. Stocking'S Introductory Essay to Prichard's Researches, pp. ix-cx. 73. See also Ronald Rainger, 'Race, Politics and Science: The Anthropological Society of London in the 1860s', Victorian Studies 22 (Autumn 1978) 51-70. 74. For a discussion of the Governor Eyre case and the way it divided the scientific community, see Douglas A. Lorimer, Colour, Class and the Victonclns: English Attitudes to the Negro in the Mid-Nineteenth Century (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1978) pp. 150-61. 200 Notes and References

75. Ibid., p. 140. 76. Theodore Waitz, Introduction to Anthropology (London: J. Frederick Collingwood, 1863). 77. The racial hierarchy was quite flexible as to the position of other races, e.g. Chinese, Jews, etc.

CHAPTER 3: EVOLUTION AND RACE: AN INCOMPLETE REVOLUTION

1. Good general accounts of Darwin's life, work and impact are found in John C. Greene, The Death of A dam: Evolution and its Impact on Western Thought (Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University, 1969); William Irvine, Apes, Angels and Victonllns: Darwin, Huxley and Evolution (Cleveland and New York: The World Publishing Co., 1955); Gertrude Himmelfarb, Darwin and the Darwinian Revolution (Garden City, New York: Anchor, 1962); Loren Eisely, Darwin's Century (Garden City, New York: Anchor, 1961); and Michael Ruse, The Darwinian Revolution: Science Red in Tooth and Claw (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979). 2. See Howard E. Gruber, Darwin on Man: A Psychological Study of Scientific Creatit~'ty (New York: E. P. Dutton, 1974) pp. 65-8, 182-3,430-2,435-6. 3. , On the Ongin of Species. A Fascimile of the First Edition with an Introduction by Emst Mayr (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1964) p. 488. 4. Darwin's early notebooks on man, mind and materialism have been transcribed, annoted and published by Paul H. Barrett in Gruber, Darwin on Man. For some examples of Darwin's thoughts on the mental and moral differences between human races, see pp. 279, 281, 282, 291-2, 330, 336. His remark about the baboon appears on p. 281. 5. John C. Greene, 'Darwin as a Social Evolutionist', J. Hist. Biol. 10 (1977) 1-27. 6. Ibid., pp. 4-7. 7. Alfred Russel Wallace, The Origin of Human Races and the Antiquity of Man Deduced from the Theory of "" ',j. Anth. Soc. 2 (1864) c\vii-c\xxxvii. The J. Anth. Soc. appeared bound with the Anth. Reu·ew. 8. Charles Lyell, Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man (London: Murray. 1863) and . Eu'dence as to Man's Place in Nature (London: Williams and Norgate. 1863). 9. See Malcolm Jay Kottler, 'Darwin. Wallace, and the Origin of Sexual Dimorphism', Proc. Amer. Phil. Soc. 124 (1980) 203-26. 10. Greene, 'Darwin as a Social Evolutionist' pp. 7-16. 11. Charles Darwin, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex. 2 vols (London: Murray. 1871) v. I. pp. 9-33. 12. Ibid .. pp. 10-11. 13. Ibid., p. 34. 14. Ibid., pp. 34-106. 15. John Lubbock, The Ongin of Civilisation and the Primitive Cond#ion of Man (New York: D. Appleton. 1870) esp. chs. IV and v. Notes and References, pp. 54-61 201

16. Gruber, Darwin, p. 279. 17. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, p. 35. 18. Greene, 'Darwin as a Social Evolutionist', pp. 6-7, believes that prior to 1859 Darwin did not believe that the psychological differences between individuals and races were genetically based. My own reading of Darwin's notebooks published by Gruber makes me think that he did. 19. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 65-7. 20. Ibid., p. 64. 2l. Ibid., p. 62. 22. Darwin did not, I think it is clear, have in mind a unilinear, racial model of evolution. Darwin was a monogenist who believed that the human species evolved once from a primate ancestor, before dividing into different races. He did not suggest that the so-called 'lower' races preceded the 'higher' ones chronologically, or that they represented an earlier stage in the evolution of the 'higher' races. Nor were his 'savages' always clearly identical to 'lower' races. 23. See Darwin, The Descent, pp. 1l0-1l for Darwin's references to Galton, and pp. 131-5 for his remarks on infanticide. J. F. McLennan's book was Pn'mitive Marriage (London: Cambridge University Press, 1865). 24. A good account of progressionism in social anthropology is given by J. W. Burrow, Evolution and Society: A Study in Victorian Social Theory (London: Cambridge University Press, 1966). 25. Neal C. GiIIespie, 'The Duke of Argyll, Evolutionary Anthropology, and the Art of Scientific Controversy', Isis, 68 (1977) 40-54. 26. Greene, 'Darwin as a Social Evolutionist', p. 6. 27. Ibid., p. 9. 28. Darwin, The Descent, p. 184. Galton's book was Hereditary , An InqUIry into its Laws and Consequences (London: Macmillan, 1869). 29. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 253-320. See also Bernard Campbe\l, ed., Sexual Selection and the Descent of Man, 1871-1971 (Chicago, Aldine Press, 1972). 30. Darwin, Ongin, pp. 87-90, 156-8, and 468. Greene, The Death of Adam. p. 319, points out that Darwin was familiar with Prichard's theory of sexual selection. See also my chapter 2, pp. 52-3. 3l. Darwin, Ongin, pp. 131-70. 32. , The Life and Letters of Charles Darwin, 2 vols (New York: D. Appleton, 1898) v. 2, p. 272. 33. See Kottler, 'Darwin, Wallace'. 34. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp, 263-7l. 35. Wallace noted his disagreement with Darwin during the 1860s in his auto• biography, My Life, 2 vols (London: Chapman and Hall, 1905) v. 2, pp. 17-20, Wallace's papers on mimicry, colour at ion , female choice and other phenomena associated by Darwin with sexual selection appeared in reprint in Tropical Nature and Other Essays (London: MacmiIIan, 1878) pp. 158-220, and in : An Exposition of the Theory of Natural Selection With Some of its Applications (London: MacmiIIan, 1891). Wall ace also gave a negative opinion of sexual selection in his review of Darwin's The Descent of Man, in The Academy 2 (1870-1) 177-183. See Kottler, 'Darwin, Wallace', for a good discussion of the reasons for Wall ace's disagreements. 202 Notes and References

36. Camp bell , Sexual Selection, p. vii. 37. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 214-36. 38. Ibid., pp. 241-7. 39. Ibid., pp. 248-9. 40. Darwin, The Origin of Species, 6th edn (New York: Modern Library, n.d.) p. 155. 41. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, p. 153. 42. In, among other places, his review of the tenth edition of Charles Lyell's PTinciples of Geology. See Alfred Russel Wallace, 'Geological Climates and the Origin of Species', The QuaTteTly Review CXXVI (1869) 185-205. Also important in the rejection of environmentalism was the idea of 'sporting' proposed by earlier race theorists such as Lawrence. See Kentwood D. Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence (1783-1867), A Study of Pre·Darwinian Ideas on Heredity and Variation'']' Hist. Bioi. 4 (1971) 319-61. 43. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 249-50, and v. 11, pp. 316-84. The similarity of this to Prichard's theory is obvious. 44. Ibid., v. 2, pp. 358-68, 382-84. 45. Ibid., v. 2, pp. 366-371, 382-4. 46. See for example Rosalind Rosenberg, 'In Search of Woman's Nature, 1850-1920,' Feminist Studies 3 (1975-6) 141-54; Flavia Ayala, 'Victorian Science and the "Genius" of Woman', J. Hist. Ideas 38 (1977) 261-80; Elizabeth Fee, 'Science and the Woman Problem; Historical Perspectives', in Michael S. Teitelbaum, ed., Sex DiffeTences: Social and Biological PeT' spectives (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1976) pp. 175-223. 47. Recent studies of Wall ace include those by H. Lewis McKinney, Wallace and Natural Selection (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1972); Barbara Beddall, 'Wallace, Darwin and the Theory of Natural Selection', J. Hist. Biol. 1 (1968) 261-323; Roger Smith, 'Alfred Russel Wallace: Philosophy of Nature and Man', Bn·t. J. Hist. Sci. 6 (1972) 177-99; and John Durant, 'Scientific Naturalism and Social Reform in Wallace', Bni.J. Hist. Sci. 12 (1979) 31-58. 48. See Malcolm J. Kottler, 'Alfred Russel Wallace, the Origin of Man, and Spiritualism', Isis 65 (1974) 145-92; and Frank M. Turner, 'Alfred Russel Wallace: The Wonderful Man of the Wonderful Century', in Between Science and Religion: The Reaction to Scientific Naturalism in Late Victon'an England (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1974) pp. 68-103. 49. Kottler, 'Alfred Russel Wallace', and Smith, 'Alfred Russel Wallace'. 50. See Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence', on Wallace. In a letter to Bates in 1845, Wallace discussed Lawrence's ideas on sporting and race, and said that if human races were not due to external, environmental causes, but to internal sporting, the permanent Negro, Red Indian and European races should be thought of as distinct species of a genus Homo. For the quotation, see Wallace, My Life, n. 115, v. I, p, 1166, 51. Ibid. 52. For anti-evolutionary arguments by a polygenist, see James Hunt, 'On the Application of the Principle of Natural Selection to Anthropology', Anth. Rev. IV (1866) 1120-40, and 'On the Doctrine of Continuity Applied to Anthropology', Anth. Rev. V (1867) 110-20. Notes and References, pp. 68-76 203

53. Wallace, 'The Origin of Human Races', p. clxvi. 54. Wallace, 'Darwinism Applied to Man', in Darwinism, p. 460. 55. Wallace, 'The Development of Human Races Under the Law of Natural Selection', p. 179 of the reprint of his 1864 article which appeared with significant alterations and additions in Natural Selection and Tropical Nature. Essays on DescTlptive and Theoretical Biology (London: Macmillan, 1891) pp. 167-85. 56. Ibid., p. 177. 57. Wallace, 'The Origin of Human Races', p. clxx, n. 7. 58. See the discussion that followed Wallace's presentation of the paper, ibid. 59. See Wells, 'Sir William Lawrence', and Wallace, 'The Development of Human Races'. pp. 179-80. 60. Turner. 'Alfred Russel Wallace', p. 76. Turner also points out, as does Smith, 'Alfred Russel Wallace', that Wall ace's discussion of the special moral and intellectual character of man derived a great deal from phrenology and its conception of the different 'faculties' of mind. 61. For Lyell's views on evolution and man, see Michael Bartholomew, 'Lyell and Evolution: An Account of Lyell's Response to the Prospect of an Evolu• tionary Ancestry for Man', BTli.]. Hist. Sci. 6 (1973) 261-303. 62. Wallace, 'Geological Climates and the Origin of Species', The Quarterly Review cxxn (1869) 185-205. Darwin's remark to Wall ace is found in James Marchant, Alfred Russel Wallace: Letters and Reminzscenses (New York: Cassell, 1916) v. I, p. 240. 63. Turner, 'Alfred Russel Wallace', Kottler, 'Alfred Russel Wallace', Smith. 'Alfred Russel Wallace'. 64. Wallace, 'Geological Climates'. 65. Darwin denied that the intellectual or social demands of savage life were so small; see Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 137-9. So did Huxley, in 'Mr. Darwin's Critics', Contemporary Review 18 (1871) 443-76. 66. Wallace, 'The Limits of Natural Selection as Applied to Man', in Natural Selection, pp. 211-12. 67. Wallace, 'Presidential Address to the Section of Biology'. Bnhsh Assoc. for the Advancement of Science, Trans. (1876) 100-19. 68. Galton, . 69. Darwin, The Descent, v. I, pp. 167-80. 70. Wallace, 'Human Selection', in Studies Scientific and Social, 2 vols (London: Macmillan, 1900) v. I, p. 509. 71. Wall ace , My Life, v. I, p. 343. 72. Wallace, 'The Polynesians and their Migrations', originally published in 1867 and reprinted in enlarged form in Studies Scientific, v. I, pp. 399-415 73. Wallace, 'Affinities and Origin of the Australian and Polynesian Races', ibid., pp. 461-496. 74. Wall ace , The Malay Archtpelago: The Land of the Drang Dutan, and the Bird of Parad,se. A Narrative of Travel, With Studies of Man and Nature (New York: Harper, 1869) pp. 328, 439, and especially the chapter on 'Races of Man in the Malay Archipelago', pp. 584-98. 75. Ibid., pp. 601-2. 76. Wallace, The Wonderful Century: Its Successes and Failures (London: Sonnenschein, 1898) pp. 159-93. 204 Notes and References

77. On the positive side, see eyril Bibby, Scientist Extraordinary: The Life and Scientific Work of Thomas Henry Huxley, 1825-1895 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1972) pp. 141-4. A more critical evaluation is given by Irvine, Apes, Angels and Victonans, pp. 238-9. The question of whether Darwin was a 'social Darwinist' has long divided scientists and historians. John Greene, 'Darwin as a Social Evolutionist', reviews some aspects of the controversy. From my analysis, I find myself in essential agreement with Greene that Darwin's explanations of racial differences, heredity and struggle all made him a 'social evolutionist', of a fairly recognisable sort, but not an extreme 'racist'. 78. Irvine, Apes, Angels and Victorians, p. 104. 79, Among Huxley's most important anthropological and ethnological papers are 'On the Methods and Results of ', Proc. Ray. Inst. Ct. Bn·t. IV (1862-6) 461-3; 'On the Ethnology and Archeology of India',]. Ethn. Soc. Lon. new ser., 1 (1869) 89-93; 'On the Ethnology and Archeology of North America',]. Ethn. Soc. Lon. new ser., 1 (1869) 218-21; 'On the Ethnology of Britain'.j. Ethn. Soc. Lon. new ser., 2 (1870) 382-4; 'The Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind' ,]. Ethn. Soc. Lon. new ser., 2 (1870) 404-12. Many of these essays were reprinted in Man's Place in Nature and Other Anthropological Essays (London: Macmillan, 1894). 80. Leonard Huxley, Life and Letters of Thomas H. Huxley, 2 vols (New York: D. Appleton, 1901), v. I, p. 434. 81. Huxley, 'On the Methods and Results of Ethnology', in Man's Place, p. 248. 82. Huxley, 'Emancipation-Black and White', reprinted in Lay Sennons, Addresses, and Reviews (New York: D. Appleton, 1871) pp. 20-6. 83. Leonard Huxley, Life and Letters, v. I, p. 272, remark in a letter from Thomas Henry Huxley to his sister in the . 84. Huxley, 'On the Methods and Results', p. 232. 85. Ibid., p. 252. 86. Michael S. Helfand, 'T. H. Huxley's "Evolution and Ethics": The Politics of Evolution and the Evolution of Politics', Victorian Studies xx (1977) 159-77. Huxley's essay was reprinted in Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays (London: Macmillan, 1894). 87. Huxley, Prolegomena to 'Evolution and Ethics', written in 1894, in Evolu• tion and Ethics, pp. 73-4. 88. See Bernard Semmel, Imperialism and SOCIal Refonn: English Soclal• Impenal Thought 1895-1914 (Garden City, New York: Anchor Books, 1968) pp. 28-33, for a discussion of 'internal' and 'external' .

CHAPTER 4: RACE AFTER DARWIN: THE WORLD OF THE PHYSICAL

1. Stephen Gould has traced the use of the idea 'ontogeny recapitu• lates phylogeny' in evolutionism and racism in his brilliant book, Ontogeny and Phylogeny (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1977) pp. 126-35. According to this 'theory', adults of lower races had evolved only to the point reached by the children of higher Notes and References, pp. 83-6 205

races. To Vogt, it was in his adult brain that the Negro resembled the white child, to others it was in psychological or mental traits. The phrase, 'outcasts from evolution', is taken from the title of John Hailer's book, Out· castsfrom Evolution: Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana, Illinois: The University of Illinois Press, 1971). 2. William Z. Ripley, The Races of Europe: A Sociological Study (New York: D. Appleton, 1899) pp. 58-77. 3. Michael D. Biddiss, The Age of the Masses: Ideas and Society in Europe Since 1870 (London: Penguin, 1977) p. 111. 4. Actually, Herbert H. Odom, in 'Generalizations on Race in Nineteenth· Century Physical Anthropology', Isis 58 (1975) 5-18, first pointed out the persistence of the idea of fixed 'types' in the Darwinian era. For George W. Stocking, Jr., see 'The Persistence of Polygenist Thought in Post·Darwinian Anthropology', in Race, Culture and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: The Free Press, 1968) ch. 3; Paul A. Erickson, in his dissertation, The Ongins of Physical Anthropology (PhD, University of Connecticut, 1974) also comments on 'evolutionary polygenism', pp. 76-8, as does George M. Frederickson in The Bwck Image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro·American Character and Destiny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971) chapter 8, especially pp. 232-5. 5. Emst Mayr, 'Darwin and Evolutionary Theory in Biology', in Betty J. Meggers, ed., Evolution and Anthropology: A Centennial Appraisal (Washington, D.C: The Anthropological Society of Washington, 1959) pp. 1-10. 6. Most social anthropologists, despite their differences as to methodology and conceptual framework, shared Keane's belief that the history of human society was on the whole a progressive one. Man had not fallen from a civilised Eden, but had risen slowly from simple barbarism to a social state. A progressivist view of human society was not new to social science, but had been buttressed by discoveries in geology, prehistory, archeology and paleontology between 1800 and 1860, discoveries which suggested the immensity of time separating man's primitive forebears from the present. From the vantage point of industrial Europe from which they wrote, it appeared to the social scientists that the bewildering variety of beliefs and social structures in human societies could be ordered into a set of cultural and social stages. To what extent the systems of stages they arrived at were influenced by the theory of biological evolution or race is still debatable. Edward Tylor, for one, originally wrote in conscious opposition to evolu· tionism and racism. Indeed, the reconstruction of the various stages through which human society had passed in its journey from barbarism to civilisation, or simplicity to complexity, depended on the assumption of the fundamental psychological unity of mankind. Only if men were everywhere alike in their basic mental and social needs and responses could valid conclusions be drawn from the study of contemporary savages about the prehistory of European beliefs and practices. The psychic monogenism of the social anthropologists was, however, constantly being undermined by biological evolutionism and the belief in racial inequality. Darwin, after all, had himself used the supposed racial gradations in mental and moral traits to prove the evolutionary continuity 206 Notes and References

between the human and animal worlds. Social evolutionists who grounded their progressivist views of human society in evolutionary biology. as did Spencer and Lubbock. could not avoid a degree of racial determinism or fail to rely on the traditional racial hierarchy in explaining why some people had risen further in the scale of civilisation than others. On the development of an evolutionary social science, seeJ. W. Burrow, Emlution and Societ)': A Study in Victorian Social Theory (Cambridge: University Press, 1970): George Stocking, 'Some Problems in the Understanding of Nineteenth Century Cultural Evolutionism', in Regna Darnell, ed., Readings in the History of Anthropology (New York: Harper and Row, 1974) pp. 407-25. On race and social evolutionism, see Fred W. Voget, A History of Ethnology (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1975) pp. 174-9l. 7. Frank B. Livingstone, 'Human Populations', in C. Loring Brace and James Metress, Man in Et'olutionary Perspectit'e (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1973) pp. 3-9, and C. Loring Brace, 'A Nonracial Approach towards the Understanding of Human Diversity', ibid., pp. 341-63. 8. See George J. Romanes, Darwin and After Darwin: An Exposition of the Darwinian Theory and a Discussion of Post-Darwinian Questions, 2 vols (Chicago: The Open Court Publishing Co., 1892-1897), for a review of the arguments against a wholly utilitarian interpretation of Darwinism. For the remark about the 'death' of Darwinism, see Vernon L. Kellogg, Darwinism Today (New York: H. Holt, 1907) pp. 1-7. 9. Garland Alien, Life Science in the Twentieth Century (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1975) pp. 134-45. 10. See, for example, A. H. Keane, Ethnology (Cambridge: University Press, 1901) p. 37. 11. Carl Vogt, Lectures on Man: His Place in Creation, and in the History of the Earth (London: Anthropological Society, 1864), pp. 402-22, 423-42. 12. , Anthropology. With a preface by Professor (London: Chapman & Hall, 1894) p. 377. . 13. See 's autobiography, Memories of Eighty Years (Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1910) pp. 44-5. 14. Ibid., p. 2, and The Races of Bn'tain: A Contn'bution to the Anthropology of Western Europe (Bristol: J. W. Arrowsmith, 1885). 15. John Beddoe, 'Colour and Race', The Journal of the Anthropological In• stitute of Great Bn'tain and Ireland, vol. 35 (1905) 226_ 16. Ibid. See also Stocking, Race, Culture and Evolution, p. 63. 17. Alfred C_ Haddon, The Study ofMan (London: Bliss, Sands, 1898) pp_ xxii, 18-19, 48-50. Haddon denied that the Negro was closer, structuraJly, to the ape than whites. If anything the hairiness of the white brought whites closer, and the long legs and short body of the Negro brought Negroes further, from the evolutionary source. But, 'there can be no doubt that, on the whole, the white race has progressed beyond the black race.' 18. Alfred C. Haddon, The Races of Man and their Distn'bution (London: Milner, n.d. [probably published 1909]) see Introduction. 19. A. H. Keane, Man Past and Present (Cambridge: University Press, 1899) pp. 1-2. 20. A. H. Keane, The Worlds People: A Popular Account of their Bodily Form and Mental Character, Beliefs, Traditions, Political and Social Institutions (London: Hutchinson, 1908) p. 6. Notes and References, pp. 92-9 207

21. J. T. Cunningham, The Evolution of Man: An Address Delivered to the Mendel Society', Sciellce Progress (October 1908) 1-44. 22. See . 'Presidential Address: On Certain Factors in the Evolu· tion of the Human Races'.]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst. 64 (1916) 10-33; 'The Differentiation of Mankind into Racial Types', Nature, 104 (1919) 301-5; The Present Problems Relating to the Origin of Modern Races' (London: John Bale and Danielsson, 1913); 'Nationality and Race from an Anthro· pologist's Point of View', Robert Boyle Lecture, Oxford University Junior Scientific Club (Oxford: Milford, 1919); 'The Evolution of Human Races in the Light of the Hormone Theory: Racial Status and Form of the Body', Bull. of the JohllS Hopkills Hospital 33 (1922) 155. 195; Ethos or the Problem of Race Considered from a New Point of View (London: Kegan Paul. 1931) and many others. Keith drew on the 'instinct' theory of William McDougall to explain 'herding' in human races. 23. See. for example, Keane, Mmi Past and Present, pp. 31-2. and his Ethnology. p. 5; Haddon. The Races of Man. p. 5. 24. Ripley, The Races of Europe, p. Ill. 25. Ibid., pp. 1l1-12. 26. Stocking, Race, Culture and Emlution. pp. 42-68. 27. Mayr, 'Darwin and Evolutionary Theory'. 28. Stocking, Race, Culture and Evolution, pp. 57, 59. 29. Haddon, The Races of Man, pp. I, 2. 30. Vogt, Lectures on Man, p. 441. 31. Paul Broca, On the Phenomena of Hybridity in the Genus Homo. Edited by C. Carter Blake (London: The Anthropological Society of London. 1864) pp. 45-60. 32. Keane, Ethnology, p. 35, and The World's People, p. 12. 33. Beddoe, The Races of Bn'tain, p. 5. 34. Ibid., p. 2. 35. For the persistence of belief in the correlation between skull size and intelli· gence, despite many problems with the data, see Stephen Jay Could, 'Wide Hats and Narrow Minds', New Scientist (8 March 1979) 775-7. 36. See Anders Retzius, 'The Present State of Ethnology in Relation to the Form of the Human Skull', Smithsonian Institution Reports, VII (1859) 251-70, and B. Larsen, 'Anders Adolf Retzius', Annals of Medical History, 6 (1924) 16-24. 37. Daphne Herzstein, 'Anthropology and Racism in Nineteenth Century Europe', Dusquesne Review 14 (1969) 121-2; Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 103-30, and Haddon, The Races of Man, pp. 40-7. 38. Leon Poliakov, The Aryan Myth: A History of Racist and Nationalist Ideas in Europe (New York: Basic Books, 1971). 39. Ibid., p. 198. 40. Erickson, Ongins of Physical Anthropology, pp. 93-114 describes some of the European debates on an eastern versus a European origin for the Aryans. 41. Poliakov, The Aryan Myth, p. 211. 42. Ibid., pp. 211-12. 43. Huxley's criticism of the confusion between linguistic and racial identities appeared in his address of 1865, 'Methods and Results of Ethnology', and his thoughts on Aryans in a paper in 1890, 'On the Aryan Question'. Both 208 Notes and References

papers were reprinted in Man's Place in Nature and Other Anthropological Essays (London: Macmillan, 1894) pp. 209--252, and 271-328 respectively. Huxley's analysis of the Aryan question was in fact based on a very careful review of the available archeological and paleontological evidence on Euro• pean prehistory. 44. Michael Banton, in The Idea of Race (Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1977) pp. 13-26, analyses the literary and historical writers in Britain who romanticised the role of the Anglo-Saxon race in British history. 45. David Mackintosh, The Comparative Anthropology of England and Wales', Anth. Rev, and Journal 4 (1865) 15-16; Haddon, in The Study of Man, n. 17 also discussed at considerable length the Anglo-Saxon and Celtic types in Britain, On Irish caricatures and , see L. Perry Curtis, Jr., Apes and Angels: The In'shman in Victon'an Can'cature (Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1971). 46. See Ripley, The Races of Europe, pp. 180-204, esp. p. 191. 47. Lucille Hoyme, 'Physical Anthropology and its Instruments: An Historical Study', Southwestern]. of Anthr, 9 (1953) 418. 48. Beddoe, Races of Bn'tain, p, 270. 49. Herzstein, 'Anthropology and Racism in Nineteenth Century Europe', p. 120. 50. , 'Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants', reprinted in Boas, Race, Language and Culture (New York: The Free Press, 1940) pp, 60-75, and 'New Evidence in Regard to the Instability of Human Types', pp. 76-81. 51. H. J. Fleure and T. C. James, 'Geographical Distribution of Anthro• pological Types in Wales'']' of the Roy. Anth, Inst, XLVI (1916) 37. 52. A. C. Haddon, The History of Anthropology (London: Watts, 1934) p. 29. 53. W. J. Sollas, Paleolithic Races and Their Modem Representatives (London: Reprinted from Science Progress, 1908-9) p. 505. 54. J. B. S. Haldane, PrehIstory in the Light of . of Great Britain. Weekly Meeting Friday 20 February 1931, 16 pp., p. 5. See also Stanley M. Gam, 'Race and Evolution', in Gam, ed., Readings on Race (Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas, 1968) p. 30. The use of blood groups in racial science is discussed further in chapter 7 of this book. 55. Keane, Ethnology, p. 35. 56. Beddoe, The Races of Britain, pp. 9-12. See also Sir Gavin de Beer, 'Genetics and Prehistory', The Reete Lecture 1965 (Cambridge: University Press) p. 2. 57. Sollas, Paleolithic Races, pp. 44-5. 58. Edmund R. Leach, 'Cultural Components in the Concept of Race', in F. J. Ebling, Racial Van'ation in Man, Proceedings of a Symposium held at the Royal Geographical Society, London, on 19 and 20 September 1974 (London: The Institute of Biology, 1975) p. 28. 59. See T. D. Stewart, The Effect of Darwin's Theory of Evolution on Physical Anthropology', in Meggers, Evolution and Anthropology, pp. 11-25. 60. For M. A. de Quatrefages, see his Rapport sur le progres de l'anthropologie (Paris: A L'Imprimerie Imperiale, 1867) pp. 115-16. On Spencer, see J. D. Y. Peel, ed., on Social Evolution: Selected Wn'tings (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972) pp. 162-5, 253-7. Indeed, Notes and References, pp. 105-10 209

British anthropologists seem to have rarely been very anti-Semitic. If any• thing, they valued the Jew from an intellectual, moral and anthropological point of view. 61. , English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture. Second edition with a new introduction by Ruth Schwartz Cowan (London: Frank Cass, 1970) p. 18. 62. Arthur Keith, 'The Physical Characteristics of Two Pitcaim Islanders', Man 88 (August 1917) 121-3l. 63. See William E. Castle, 'Biological and Social Consequences of Race Crossing', A mer. J. of Physical Anth. 9 (1926) 9. 64. Topinard, Anthropology, p. 397. 65. Keane, Man, Past and Present, p. 13. 66. VOgi, Lectures on Man, p. 42. 67. Keane, Man Past and Present, footnote p. 1. 68. VOgi, Lectures on Man, p. 177. 69. Topinard, Anthropology, p. 532. 70. See the selection from Haeckel in Theodore D. McCown and Kenneth A. R. Kennedy, eds., Climbing Man's Family Tree: A Collection of Writings on Human Phylogeny, 1699 to 1971 (Englewood Cliffs, : Prentice• Hall, 1972) pp. 133-48. Hacckel also suggested a monophyletic lineage for man, of enormous antiquity, with the common root of modern man lying in some ape-like creature which he placed in the Tertiary period and named 'Pithecanthropus'. Eugene Dubois' reconstruction in 1896 of an extinct manlike ape in Java, which he called Pithecanthropus, was motivated to a large degree by this other model of human descent. 7l. See Arthur Keith's letters to Nature, 15 Dec. (1910) and 16 Feb. (1911) 509-10. As late as the 1940s, the American anthropologist, Carleton S. Coon, still spoke of the evolution of man from an ape-like ancestor as having occurred at least three times in human history, thus insuring a separate ape• origin for each major race. See Coon, 'The Races of Europe', in Earl Count, This is Race (New York: Henry Schuman, 1950) pp. 576-92. 72. It is estimated that the human fossils discovered in the thirty-five year period from 1856 to 1890 increased the number of fossils known five hundred per cent over the number in the century and a half before 1856. See McCown and Kennedy, Climbing Man's Family Tree, p. 93. 73. Keane, The World's People, p. 3. 74. G. Elliot Smith, The Evolution of Man (London: Oxford University Press, 1927) 2nd ed., p. 2. 75. Sir Arthur Keith, A New Theory of Human Evolution (London: Watts, 1946) and R. Ruggles Gates, 'Genetics and Race', Man 32 (1937) 1-4. 76. Armand de Quatrefages, 'Rapport sur le progres', n. 60, and Alexander von Humboldt, Cosmos: A Sketch of a Physical Descnption of the Universe. Translated by E. C. Otte (London: George Bell, 1888) vol. I, pp. 360-9. 77. Theodore Waitz. Introduction to Anthropology (London: Anthropological Society, 1863) p. 101. 78. Even de Quatrefages believed that in general the capacity of the white race for civilisation was greater than that of other races. See de Quatrefages, 'Rapport sur le progres·. pp. 378-81. 210 Notes and References

CHAPTER 5: AND RACE, 1900-25

1. The term appeared in 1883 in Francis Galton's Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development (London: J. M. Dent, 1973 reprint edn) p. 17. 2. Francis Galton, 'Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope and Aims', Nature 70 (1904) 82. 3. See G. R. Searle, Eugenics and Politics in Bntain, 1900-1914 (Leyden: Woordhoff International Publishing, 1976); D. McKenzie, 'Eugenics in Britain', Social Studies of Science 6 (1976) 499-532; and the unpublished theses by Lindsay Andrew Farrall, The Ongins and Growth of the English Eugenics Movement, 1865-1926 (Ph.D., Indiana University, 1969) and Bernard]. NoTton, and the Galtonian Tradition: Studies in the Rise of Quantitative Social Biology (Ph.D., University College, 1978). Nicholas Pastore's The Nature-Nurture Controversy (New York: King's Crown Press, 1949) contains much useful information, as does the work by the eugenist, C. P. Blacker, Eugenics: Galton and After (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1952). See also the reader by Carl]. Bajema, ed., Eugenics, Then and Now (Stroudsberg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 1976). 4. Biographical details are found in D. W. Forrest, Francis Galton: The Life and Work of a Victorian Genius (New York: Taplinger Publishing Co., 1974). See also Karl Pearson's monumental biographical study, The Life, Letters and Labours of Francis Galton, 3 vols (Cambridge: University Press, 1914-1930) and Galton's autobiographical Memon'es of My Life (London: Methuen, 1908). 5. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, 'Francis Galton's Contributions to Genetics' ,f. Hist. Bioi. 5 (1972) 389-412, esp. pp. 390-403 on the confusions concerning the terms such as 'heredity', 'inheritance', and 'variation' in the 1850s. For Galton's commitment to a non· Lamarckian theory of inheritance see Cowan's 'Nature and Nurture: The Interplay of Biology and Politics in the Work of Francis Galton', Studies in the I (1977) 133-208. 6. Galton's Hereditary Genius (London: Macmillan, 1869) was preceded by an article in two parts, 'Hereditary Talent and Character', Macmillan's Maga• zine 12 (1865) 157-66,318-27. 7. Karl Pearson, 'The Problem of Alien Immigration into Great Britain, Illustrated by an Examination of Russian and Polish Jewish Children', Annals of Eugenics I (1925-6) 5-127. On intelligence tests and eugenics, see pp. 131-4 of this chapter. 8. Cowan, 'Nature and Nurture'. 9. See Norton, Karl Pearson, pp. 246-9 for this and other assumptions of the eugenists. 10. On the religious elements of eugenics, see Blacker, Eugenics, pp. 96-7. 11. Darwin, as is well-known, was deeply impressed with Galton's arguments concerning the inheritance of mental qualities_ See Blacker, Eugenics, p. 92. Nevertheless, he was on the whole optimistic that natural selection did eliminate the unfit. Huxley for rather different reasons, also rejected eugenics. See T. H. Huxley, Prolegomena to 'Evolution and Ethics', (1894) in Evolution and Ethics and other Essays (London: Macmillan, 1894) pp. 39. Wallace rejected eugenics as a distasteful infringement of marital Notes and References, pp. 116-20 211

choice, though in later papers he saw eugenical choice as emerging naturally in a socialist society. See A. R. Wallace, 'Human Selection', Fort· nightly Ret,iew XLVIII (1890) 325-37; 'Human Progress, Past and Future', The Arena Oanuary 1892) 493-509; and Social Environment and Moral Progress (New York: CasselI. 1913) pp. 146-7. 12. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 6. Norton notes correctly, however, that a Lamarckian strain remained a part of the eugenics movement in Britain in, for example, A. F. Tredgold's work. See Norton, Karl Pearson, p. 236. See also 's remark in 1918 that the role of Lamarckianism in biology was not settled: 'Environment as a Factor in Evolution', Eugenics Review X (1918) 63-70. 13. Ruth Schwartz Cowan, 'Francis Galton's Statistical Ideas: The Influence of Eugenics', Isis 63 (1972) 509-28. 14. For developments in genetics, see L. C. Dunn, ed., Genetics in the 20th Century: Essays on the Progress of Genetics During its First 50 Years (New York: The MacmiIIan Co., 1951); Robert OIby, Ongins of Mendelism (New York: Schocken, 1966); William Province, The Ongins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1971) and Garland E. Alien, Life Science in the Twentieth Century (New York: John Wiley, .1975) chs. III and v. 15. See Searle, Eugenics and Politics, p. 9, and Bernard Semmel, Impenalism and Social Reform: English SOClal·lmperzal Thought 1895-1914 (Garden City, New York: Anchor, 1968). There were many signs of governmental and official Concern about the intellectual and physical condition of the British population in the period prior to and contemporary with the institutional developments of eugenics. Between 1904 and 1906, an inter· departmental committee on Physical Deterioration examined the state of health of the urban poor. In 1904 a Royal Commission was appointed to look into the care of mentally defective people; the Commission's report of 1908 resulted eventually in the Mental Deficiency Act of 1913 which arranged for the care of young defectives by the education authorities. Schooling and school meals were other issues. 16. Nature 64 (1901) 659-65. 17. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, pp 10-11. 18. The papers of the Congress were published as Problems in Eugenics. Papers Communicated to the First International Eugenics Congress held at the University of London 24-30 July 1912 (London: The Eugenics Education Society, 1912). A second international congress was held in 1921 in New York. 19. Farrall, The On'gins and Growth, analyses the composition of the Eugenics Education Society in detail in ch. VI of his dissertation. See also McKenzie, 'Eugenics in Britain', for his discussion of the middle class, professional character of the eugenics society. 20. I (1901-2) p. 3. 21. On the Mendelian·biometric controversy, see the following: Robert de Marais, 'The Double-Edged Effect of Sir Francis Galton: A Search for the Motives in the Biometrician-Mendelian Debate', J. Hist. Bioi. 7 (1974) 142-74; A. G. Cock, ', Mendelism and Biometry'.j. Hist. Bioi. 6 (1973) 1-36; Norton, Karl Pearson, and his 'Biology and Philosophy: 212 Notes and References

The Methodological Foundations of Biometry', J. Hist. Bioi. 8 (1975) 85-93, 'The Biometric Defense of Darwinism', J. Hist. Bioi. 6 (1973) 283-316; 'Karl Pearson and : The Social Origins of Scientific Innovation', Social Studies of Science 8 (1978) 2-34; and Cowan, 'Nature and Nurture'. 22. Karl Pearson, 'On the Fundamental Conceptions of Biology', Biometn'k,a 1 (1901-2) 320-44. 23. See B. Norton, 'Metaphysics and Populational Genetics: Karl Pearson and the Background to Fisher's Multi-Factorial Theory of Inheritance', Annals of Science 32 (1975) 537-53. Norton notes that G. U. Yule had begun to develop biometric Mendelism as early as 1902. Fisher's paper was regarded as the first to unite convincingly the two different traditions in the science of heredity. 24. Bateson was, however, a hereditarian, even though he believed that biological evidence was not certain enough for such a eugenic movement. See Pastore, Nature-Nurture Controversy, p. 43, where Pastore quotes Bateson in a lecture: 'Three times I have come out as an Eugenist, yielding to a cheap temptation'. See also Bateson's Galton lecture to the Eugenics Education Society, 'Common Sense in Racial Problems', Eugenics Review 13 (1921) 325-38. 25. See chapter 6. 26. David Heron, Mendelism and the Problem of Mental Defect: I. A Cn'ticism of Recent American Work, Question of the Day and of the Fray, no. 7 (1913). 27. Searle, Eugenics and Politics, pp. 216-19. 28. McKenzie explores the differential appeal of eugenics to various social classes and occupational groups. He concludes that eugenics was an ideology of the professional middle class, in particular of professionals from the 'modem' rather than the 'traditional' sectors. In his opinion, eugenics was used to give legitimacy to their own social position, and as a general tool of social control. See 'Eugenics in Britain'. 29. McKenzie, 'Eugenics in Britain'. 30. Norton calls this the 'eugenic fallacy'. See Karl Pearson, p. 249. 31. Eugenics Review XXIII (1931) 70. 32. J. Arthur Thomson, Heredl~y (London: John Murray, 1908) ch. XIV, 'Social Aspects of Biological Results', pp. 506-38. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., p. viii. 35. R. C. Punnett. Mendelism (New York: Macmillan, 1911) p. 183. 36. Karl Pearson, The Problem of Practical Eugenics. Eugenics Laboratory Lecture Series V (1912) p. 8. 37. Loren Graham, 'Science and Values: The Eugenics Movement in Germany and Russia in the 1920s', Amencan Histoncal Review 83 (1978) 1135-64. 38. For eugenics in Brazil, see the article by Renato Kehl, 'Eugenics Abroad• Brazil', Eugenics Review 23 (1931) 234-7. The eugenics movement dated from 1917. 39. See Mark Haller, Eugenics: Hereditarian AttI~udes in Amen'can Thought (New Brunswick, N.J: Press, 1963); Kenneth Ludmerer, Genetics and Amencan Society: A Histoncal Appraisal (Baltimore: The Notes and References, pp. 129--30 213

Johns Hopkins Press. 1972); and D. K. Pickens. Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville. Tenn: Vanderbilt University Press. 1968). 40. Cr. esp. McKenzie. 'Eugenics in Britain'. 41. Sir Francis Galton. Essays in Eugenics (London: The Eugenics Education Society. 1909) pp. 6-11. 42. His incentives included family allowance and educational scholarships. and giving certificates for eugenical candidates. In an unpublished Utopian essay. called Kantsay. Galton described an ideal eugenical society which was TUn like an authoritarian university town. See Blacker. Eugenics. pp. 109-23. 43. Jose Harris. Unemployment and Politics: A Study in English Social Policy. 1886-1914 (Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1972) pp. 29-30. One hundred and twenty thousand Jewish immigrants settled in England in London. Leeds. Manchester and other commercial centres. between 1870 and 1914. See also L10yd P. Gartner. The Jewish Immigrant in England. 1870-1914 (Detroit: Wayne State University Press. 1960). 44. V. G. Kiernan. The Lords of Human Kind: Black Man. Yellow Man. and White Man in an Age of Empire (Boston: Little. Brown. 1969) p. 230. comments that 'mystique of race was Democracy's vulgarisation of an older mystique of class'. 45. Francis Galton. English Men of Science: Their Nature and Nurture. 2nd ed .. with a new introduction by Ruth Schwartz Cow an (London: Frank Can. 1970) first published in 1874; National Inheritance (London: Macmillan. 1889); for Norton's remark. see B. J. Norton. Theories of Evolution of the Biometric School (M. Phi!.. University of London. 1971) p. 35. 46. Blacker. Eugenics. pp. 29-35. 47. Sir Arthur Keith. 'Galton's Place Among Anthropologists'. Eugenics Review XII (1920) 14-28. 48. Galton. Hereditary Genius. pp. 392-404. 49. Ibid. 50. The expression 'external' social Darwinism to refer to a struggle between groups and races rather than individuals has been used by Bernard Semmel. in 'KarI Pearson: Socialist and Darwinist'. Bntish Journal of Sociology 9 (1958) 111-25 and in his Impenalism and Social Reform. pp. 24-42. 51. KarI PeaTSOn. National Life From the Standpoint of Science (1900). Reprinted as Eugenic Laboratory Lecture series no. Xl (1919). 52. Karl Pearson. 'Darwinism, Medical Progress, and Eugenics'. The Cavendish Lecture, 1912. English Laboratory Lecture series 9 (London, 1912) pp. 28-9. 53. See FanaIl, Ongins and Growth, pp. 298-303 for his discussion of eugenics and race. 54. See. for instance, R. Ruggles Gates, 'Heredity and Eugenics', ER 12 (1920) 1-13 and Jon Alfred Mjoen. 'Harmonic and Unharmonic Crossings'. ER 14 (1922) 35-40. As late as 1939, Haldane in Heredity and Politics urged a study of race crossing, saying that it might not be desirable to forbid it, but there was no reason to encourage it between widely different races. See ER 32 (1940) 114-20. Galton believed the admixture to British stock of certain 'selected' immigrant stocks, such as Huguenots, had been advantageous. See 214 Notes and References

Blacker, Eugenics, pp. 116 -17. G. Elliot Smith also believed civilisation was a product of racial mixture; the civilising element in Egypt, home of all civilisation according to his diffusionist views, was a northern, white race. The backwardness of contemporary Egypt was, in his view, due to the inferior Negro race. See his 'The Influence of Racial Admixture in Egypt', Eugenics Review 7 (1915) 163-83. 55. See C. P. Mudge, 'The Menace to the English Race and to its Traditions of Present-Day Immigration and Emigration', Eugenics Review 11 (1920) 202~12; Leonard Darwin, 'The Eugenics Policy of the Society', Eugenics Ret~'ew 18 (1926) 91 ~4, and his remarks in The Need for Eugenic Reform (New York: D. Appleton, 1926) pp. 489~94; and Karl Pearson and Margaret Moul, 'The Problem of Alien Immigration into Great Britain, Illustrated by an Examination of Russian and Polish Jewish Children', Annals of Eugenics I (1925~6) 5-127. Searle has remarked that in the matter of immigration, the anti-Jewish and class biases of the eugenists clearly revealed themselves. See Searle, Eugenics and Politics, 39~41. 56. For example, Lt. Balzarotti and C. S. Stock, 'Niceforo on the Highly Superior German', Eugenics Retriew 10 (1918) 30-43. 57. Radcliffe N. Salaman, 'Heredity and the Jew', Eugenics Review 3 (1911) 187~200. 58. Punnett, Mendelism, pp. 170~80. 59. For the history of intelligence testing, eugenics and immigration legislation in the United States, see n. 39. 60. L. S. Hearnshaw, Cyril BUTt, (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979). I have relied on Hearnshaw for the historical background to Burt's work and for the details of Burt's life and career. See also , 'Inheritance of General Intelligence', American Psychologist (March 1972) v. XXVII, 175-6. 61. See Forrest, Francis Galton, pp. 171 ~86. 62. See Hearnshaw, Cyn"l Burt, pp. 46~7. 63. Norton, Karl Pearson, pp. 265-94, also discusses Burt's work. Norton suggests that Spearman's 'g', which Burt adopted, solved eugenical problems for Burt because it was innate and stable and therefore could be used to measure the eugenical worth of individuals and social classes. 64. Cyril Burt, 'The Inheritance of Mental Characteristics', Eugenics Review IV (1912) 168~200. 65. William McDougall, 'Psychology in the Service of Eugenics', Eugenics Review V (1914) 295-308. 66. Leonard Darwin, The Need for Eugenic Reform, p. 262. But C. C. Brigham's racialist book, A Study of American Intelligence (1923) based on intelligence tests given during the First World War received a cautiously favourable review in Eugenics Review XIX (1927). 67. Editorial in Biometn'ka I (1901-2) p. 1. See E. S. Pearson, Kart Pearson: An Appreciation of Some Aspects of his Life and Work (Cambridge; University Press, 1938) pp. 104-6. 68. Cicely D. Fawcett, assisted by Alice Lee and others, 'A Second Study of the Variation and Correlation of the Human Skull, with Special Reference to the Naqada Skull', Biometrika 1(1901-2) p. 409. 69. M. A. Lewenz and Karl Pearson, 'On the Measurement of Internal Capacity from Cranial Circumferences', Biometn"ka III (1904) 336-97. Notes and References, pp. 137-44 215

70. Fawcett, 'A Second Study', p. 455. 71. Karl Pearson, 'On Our Present Knowledge of the Relationship of Mind and Body', Annals of Eugenics I (1925-6) 382-406. 72. G. M. Morant, The Races of Central Europe: A Footnote to History. With a preface by J. B. S. Haldane (London: Alien & Unwin, 1939). 73. Victor V. Bunak, 'Race as a Historical Concept', in Earl W. Count, ed., This is Race (New York: Henry Schurman, 1950) pp. 558-75. 74. Th. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolt~'ng: The Evolution of the Human Species (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1976) pp. 256-7. 75. Joseph B. Birdsell, 'On Methods of Evolutionary Biology and Anthropology. Part 11 Anthropology', American Scientist 45 (1957) 394.

CHAPTER 6: A PERIOD OF DOUBT: RACE SCIENCE BEFORE THE SECOND WORLD WAR

1. The quotation is from George L. Mosse, Towards the Final Solution: A History of European Racism (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1978) p. xi. The reasons for the persecution of the Jews were, of course, very complex, and werlt way beyond any supposed 'scientific' explanations. The social place of Jews in Germany, economic factors, and Germany's defeat in World War I all played a part. 2. 'Men and Mice, at Edinburgh: Reports from the Genetics Conference',}. of Heredity 30 (1939) 371-4. 3. George W. Stocking, Jr., Race, Culture and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: The Free Press, 1968), chs. 7-9, and his edited book, The Shaping of American Anthropology, 1883-1911: A Franz Boas Reader (New York: Basic Books, 1974). 4. Andrew D. Lyons, The Question of Race in Anthropologyfrom the Time of Johann Friedrich Blumenbach to that of Franz Boas with Particular Reference to the Period 1830 to 1890 (approx.) (Oxford, D. Phil, 1974) esp. 520-34. He notes that among the social anthropologists, the diffusionists like G. Elliot Smith, Perry and Rivers were the last to consider race a factor of even secondary importance. 5. See also G. M. Morant, The Races of Central Europe; A Footnote to History With a preface by J. B. S. Haldane (London: George Alien and Unwin, 1939). Other books in this genre by American and other scientists include G. Dahlberg, Race, Reason and Rubbish (New York: Press, 1942); , Race, Science and Politics (New York: Modern Age Books, 1940); and Ashley Montagu, Man's Most Dangerous Myth: The Fallacy of Race (New York: Columbia University Press, 1942). 6. Loren R. Graham, 'Science and Values: The Eugenics Movement in Germany and Russia in the 1920s', American Historical Ret~'ew 83 (1978) 1133-64. 7. The preliminary notes for the book by the Catholic convert, literary figure and social satirist, G. K. Chesterton, called Eugenics and Other Eu'ls (London: Cassell, 1922) had, according to the author, been written before the war, when eugenics was the 'topic of the hour; when eugenic babies (not visibly very distinguishable from other babies) sprawled all over the illustrated papers ... '. After the war, he realised eugenics was not, as he 216 Notes and References

had believed, about to disappear; that in fact Englishmen would return to 'the stinks of that low laboratory'. So the book was written and published. 8. John Mackinnon Robertson, The Saxon and the Celt: A Study in Sociology (London: University Press, 1897). 9. On these developments, see Philip Abrams, The On'gins of British Sociology, 1834-1914 (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1968). Sociologists seeking to make their field an autonomous discipline originally turned for advice to both Galton and Dutkheim. Galton was led to institute a eugenics laboratory because of the success of his lectures to the new Sociological Society, founded in 1905. But Michael Freeden, in his The New Liberalism: An. Ideology of Social Reform (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978) argues that the social thinkers, even Hobhouse, regarded biology as a necessary part of sociology; the main issue among social thinkers like Hobson and Hobhouse was the degree to which society was autonomous. See esp. pp. 76-;-116. 10. Abrams, On'gins of Bn"tish Sociology, p. 91. On Hobhouse, see also John E. Owen, L. T. Hobhouse, Sociologist (London: Nelson, 1974). 11. Gary Werskey, The Visible College (London: Alien Lane, 1978). 12. Hogben authored the bestseller, Mathematics for the Million (1937). 13. Werskey, The Visible College, pp. 105-7. 14. Lancelot Hogben, Dangerous Thoughts (London: Allen & Unwin, 1939), p. 51. 15. Werskey, The Visible College, p. 103. Together with Haldane, Huxley and F. A. E. Crew, he founded in 1932 a Society for Experimental Biology. 16. Lancelot Hogben, Nature and Nurture (London: Alien & Unw'in, 1939) revised edition, p. 29. J. Arthur Thomson had already pointed out in 1916 that traits were a result of nature and nurture. See his 'The Biological Theory of Nurture', Eugenics Review VIII (1916) 50-61. 17. Hogben, ibid., pp. 11-12. 18. Ibid., p. 25. 19. See Nicholas Pastore, The Nature-Nurture Controversy (New York: King's Crown Press, 1949) p. 163. 20. R. A. Fisher, 'The Correlation Between Relations on the Supposition of ', Trans. Royal Soc. Edinburgh 52 (1918) 339-433. 21. Bernard John Norton, Karl Pearson and the Galtonian Tradition: Studies in the Rise of Quantitative Social Biology (PhD, University College, London, 1978) pp. 251-8. Norton concludes that Fisher's contribution should not be seen, as it traditionally has been, as a contribution to 'pure' genetics, but as a 'stunning contribution to eugenics'. 22. Hogben, Nature and Nurture, p. 14. 23. Ibid., pp. 27-8. 24. Ibid., pp. 21-2. 25. R. C. Punnett, 'Eliminating Feeblemindedness', Journal of Heredity 8 (1917) 464-5. 26. R. A. Fisher, 'The Elimination of Mental Defect', Eugenics Review XVI (1924) 114-16. 27. Hogben, Nature and Nurture, pp. 21-23, 32, and 92. Hogben was not against sterilisation per se in human recessive conditions like amaurotic family idiocy and juvenile amaurotic idiocy. If two parents produced an Notes and References, pp. 151-6 217

amaurotic child, the odds were that one half of their offspring would carry the gene and one quarter would exhibit it. Hogben said it was difficult to justify the English law which did not permit such parents to undergo a simple operation to prevent the further spread of genes which caused two formidable and at present incurable diseases. He also noted that effective sterilisation of individuals directly affected by amaurotic idiocy occurred naturally since amaurotics produced no children. 28. Hogben, Genetic Pn'nctples in Medicine and Social Science (London: Williams and Norgate, 1931) p. 120. 29. Ibid., pp. 9, 33. 30. See Rosalind Mitchell, Bn'tish Population Change Since 1860 (London: Macmillan, 1977) pp. 80-4. 31. Hogben, Genetic Pn'nclples, pp. 122-44. 32. For Haldane's life and work, see K. R. Dronamajin, ed., Haldane and Modem Biology (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press, 1968) and William Provine, The Ongins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1971). 33. See Werskey, The Visible College, esp. pp. 96'-7, 208-9. 34. J. B. S. Haldane, 'Human Biology and Politics', The Norman Lockyer Lecture, 1934 (London: The British Science Guild, nd). 35. J. B. S. Haldane, 'Karl Pearson, 1857-1957', Biometrika 44 (1957) 303-13. 36. Haldane, Human Biology and Politics, p. 18. 37. For Muller's views, see Carl Bajema, ed., Eugenics Then and Now (Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania: Dowden, Hutchinson and Ross, 1976) pp. 170-209, 237-43, 265-6, and H. J. Muller, 'The Dominance of Economics over Eugenics', in A Decade of Progress in Eugenics: Scientific Papers of the Third International Congress of Eugenics (Baltimore: The Williams and Williams Co., 1934) pp.138-44. 38. Werskey, The Visible College, p. 241. 39. , 'Eugenics and Society', Eugenics Review, XXVII (1936) 11-31. 40. LioneJ S. Penrose, Mental Defect (New York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1934). 41. In none of the standard works on eugenics, such as G. R. Searle's Eugenics and Politics in Bntain, 1900-1914 (Leyden: Noordhoff International Publishing, 1976), Lyndsay Andrew Farrall's The Ongins and Growth of the English Eugenics Movement, 1865-1925 (Indiana University. PhD, 1969) or Donald McKenzie's 'Eugenics in Britain', Social Studies of Science 6 (1976) 499-532 is the fate of eugenics in the late 1920s and in the 1930s discussed at any length. Nor is it clear that British eugenics followed the same path as that described by Kenneth M. Ludmerer in Genetics and American Society: A Histon'cal Appraisal (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins' Press, 1972). Lawrence S. Waterman, in The Eugenic Movement in Britain in the Nineteen Thirties (University of Sussex, MSc, 1975) attributes the decline of the eugenics movement to the fact of unemployment, the reduction of socialism as a real threat in politics, and because of the link between fascism, anti-Semitism and eugenics. 42. Details from Harry H. Laughlin, 'Historical Background of the Third Inter· national Congress of Eugenics', in A Decade of Progress in Eugenics, pp. 1-14. 218 Notes and References

43. Leonard Darwin acknowledged in his address to the Second International Eugenics Congress in New York in 1921 that human beings were products of environment and heredity and that eugenists had often aroused opposition by unnecessarily running down reform dependent on changes in environ• ment. See Leonard Darwin, 'The Aims and Methods of Eugenical Societies', in Eugenics, Genetics and the Family (Baltimore: William and Williams Co., 1923) pp. 5-]9. 44. See, for example, the remarks of the American, Dr E. Blanche Sterling, from the US Public Health Service, in 'Child Hygiene in Human Ecology', in A Decade of Progress in Eugenics, p. 343, or the apparently eugenic yet in fact environmentalistic book by Sir James Merchant, The Cwims of the Coming Generation (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1923). In fact environmentalism and Lamarckianism had always formed a strand of eugenical thought in Britain. 45. Eugenics Review, XXII (January 1931) 249-50, and Huxley, 'Eugenics and Society' . 46. See Eugenics Review, XXVI (1943), XXVI (1935), XXVII (1935). In 1932 the Eugenics Society set up a Committee to look into family allowances. 47. R. B. Cattell, The Fight for our National Intelligence (London: P. S. King, 1937). 48. For Haldane, see Werskey, The Visible College, p. 209. On Fisher, see Joan Fisher Box, R. A. Fisher, and for BuTt, see L. S. Hearnshaw, Cyril Burt, Psychologist (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1979) pp. 61-70. On the change in Scottish children's test scores, see Lionel S. Penrose, Outline of Human Genetics (London: Heinemann Educational Books, 1973)3rd edn, p. 118. 49. A. F. Tredgold, 'Educability and Inheritance', pp. 361-72, and C. E. A. Bedwell, 'Eugenics in International Affairs', pp. 427-29 of Eugenics, Genetics and the Family, n. 43; Ruggles Gates reponed on the IFEO meeting in his address to the Third International Eugenics Congress in New York in 1932, 'Plan for Obtaining an International Standard Technique for Physical Anthropology', p. 47 of A Decade of Progress in Eugenics. 50. For details of this and other aspects of his life and work, see the biography by Fisher's daughter, Joan Fisher Box, R. A. Fisher: The Life of a Scientist (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1978) esp. pp. 24-31 and 189-93. 51. Ronald A. Fisher, The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection (New York: Dover Publications, 1958) esp. pp. 189-284. The book was dedicated to Major Leonard Darwin. 52. Box, R. A. Fisher, pp. 195-6. 53. Eugem'cs Review, xxv (1933), 157-9, XXVI (1934),15'-18,137-40,183-91, XXVII (1936) 285- 93. 54. George W. Stocking, Jr., Race, Culture, and Evolution (New York: The Free Press, 1968) pp. 62-3. 55. Charles Myers, 'The Future of ',]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst. 33 (1903) 36-40. 56. Ibid. 57. Stocking, Race, Culture and Evolution, pp. 161-94. 58. Franz Boas, 'Changes in the Bodily Form of Descendants of Immigrants'. in Notes and References, pp. 164-70 219

Franz Boas, Race, Language and Culture (New York: The Free Press, 1966) pp. 60 - 75. Not until 1939 did Shapiro establish Boas' conclusions beyond doubt by his careful. statistical studies of the changes in the body type of Japanese who had moved from Japan to Hawaii. See H. L. Shapiro, Migration and Emq'ronment: A Study of the Physical Characteristics of the Japanese Immigrants to Hawaii' ana the Effects of Emq'ronment on Their Descendants (London: Oxford University Press, 1939). 59. Arthur Thomson, 'A Consideration of Some of the More Important Factors Concerned in the Production of Man's Cranial Form',]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst. 33 (1903) 135'-66. 60. Arthur Thomson and L. H. Dudley Buxton, 'Man's Nasal Index in Relation to Certain Climatic Conditions',]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst., 53 (1923) 92-122. 61. William Ridgeway, 'Presidential Address: The Influence of Environment on Man'.]. of Roy. Anth. Inst. 40 (1910) 10-22. 62. W. M. , 'Migrations. The Huxley Lecture for 1906'.]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst. 26 (1906) 189-220. 63. Alfred C. Haddon, The Races of Man and Their Distribution (Cambridge: University Press, 1924) p. 8. 64. H. J. Fleure and T. C. James, 'Geographical Distribution of Anthropologi• cal Types in Wales'.]. of the Roy. Anth. Inst., XLVI (1916) 37. 65. William C. Boyd, 'Critique of the Methods of Classifying Mankind', Ameri• can]. of Phys. Anth., 27 (1940) 333-64. 66. William C. Boyd, Genetics and the Races of Man: An Introduction to Modem Physical Anthropology (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1950) pp. 18-19. 67. Alfred C. Haddon and Julian Huxley, We Europeans: A Survey of Racial Problems (London: Jonathan Cape, 1935). 68. H. J. Fleure, 'The Nordic Myth: A Critique of Current Racial Theories', Eugenics Review XXII (1930) 117-21, and 'Race and Politics', Eugenics Review, XXVII (1936) 319-26. 69. Race and Culture. Printed for the Royal Anthropological Institute and the Institute of Sociology (London, nd). 70. R. Ruggles Gates' Mendelian and polygenist views were spelled out in 'Mendelian Heredity and Racial Differences'']' of the Roy. Anth. Inst., xv (1925) 468-82, and 'Genetics and Race', Man 32 (1937) 1-4.

CHAPTER 7: AFTER THE WAR: A NEW SCIENCE AND OLD CONTROVERSIES

1. George W. Stocking, Jr., Race, Culture and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: The Free Press, 1968) p. vii. The question had first been asked, according to Stocking, by Oscar Handlin more than a decade before. 2. The word comes from Thomas Kuhn's now classic book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962). 3. See, for example, J. B. Birdsell, Human Evolution: An Introduction to the 220 Notes and References

New Physical Anthropology (Chicago: Rand McNally, 1972); and L. L. Cavalli-Sforza and W_ F. Bodmer, The Genetics of Human Populations (San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1971). 4. See G. Ainsworth Harrison, 'The Galton Lecture 1968: The Race Concept in Human Biology', Journal of Biosocial Science, suppl. no. 1 Quly 1969) 129-42. 5. The leader of the movement to rid science of the term 'race' and to replace it with a more neutral term, '', is the British-born an· thropologist, Ashley Montagu, whose career has taken place primarily in the United States. See Ashley Montagu, 'The Concept of Race', American Anthropologist, 64 (1962) 917-28. , in a review in Annals of Eugenics, 17 (1952) 252, called the word 'race' obsolete; Hans Kalmus, one of Britain's leading geneticists, also repudiated the word in his Genetics (London: Penguin, 1948) p. 48. 6. Stanley M. Gam, ed., Readings on Race (Springfield, Ill: Charles C. Thomas, 1968) p. 4. In many third world countries, racial anthropology is still practised. After writing this chapter, I read an unpublished paper by John Rhoads, 'Human Biology as Anthropology', paper prepared for the Fall Colloquium Series, Yale University Anthropology Department, Tuesday, 15 November 1977. Its account of the recent history of anthropology is very similar to mine. 7. See chapter 6, p. 168. 8. See Ashley Montagu. ed., Statement on Race, 3rd edn (Oxford University Press, 1972) for a reprint of all four UNESCO statements on race. 9. William C. Boyd, Genetics and the Races of Man: An Introduction to Modern Physical Anthropology (Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1950) pp. ix-xvi. 10. Joseph B. Birdsell, 'On Methods of Evolutionary Biology and Anthropology. Part 11. Anthropology', American Scientist, 45 (1957) 395. 11. Gam, Readings on Race, p. 5. 12. S. L. Washbum, 'The Strategy of Physical Anthropology', in A. L. Kroeber, ed., Anthropology Today: An Encyclopedic Inventory (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953) pp. 714-27; J. S. Weiner, 'Physical Anthropology ... An Appraisal', Amen'can Scientist, 45 (1957) 79-87. 13. Washbum referred to the 'new' physical anthropology in 1953 (see 'The Strategy of Physical Anthropology'). See also Montagu's use of the phrase 'the new physical anthropology' in his Frontiers of Anthropology (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1974) p. 566, andJ. B. Birdsell's in Human Evolution, 2nd ed. (1975) p. xiii. See also the Symposium, 'Physical Anthropology is Dead' , Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 19 (1975) 132-53; S. Wash bum, 'The New Physical Anthropology, Ann. New York A cad. Sci., 85 (1951) 298-304; G. W. Lasker, 'The "New" Physical Anthropology Seen in Retrospect and Prospect', The Centennial Review, 9 (1965) 348-86; and W. W. Howells, 'Recent Physical Anthropology', Ann. Amer. A cad. Pol. and Soc. Science, 389 (1970) 111-26. 14. William B. Provine, The Origins of Theoretical Population Genetics (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971) pp. 108-29. 15. Julian Huxley, Evolution: The Modem Synthesis (London: Allen & Unwin, 1942). Notes and References, pp. 176-83 221

16. , Mankind Evolving: The Evolution of the Humall Species (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1962); Rene Dubos, Man Adapting (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1975). 17. For these definitions, see Stephen Molmar, Races, Types, and Ethnic Groups: the Problem of Human Van'ation (Englewood Cliffs. N.J: Prentice· Hall, 1975) p. 13. 18. Boyd. Genetics, p. 27. In fact, these groups give precise-looking indices which can be calculated for any aggregate, but they do not help one define a population in any potent, biological sense. 19. See C. Loring Brace, 'A Nonracial Approach Towards the Understanding of Human Diversity', in C. Loring Brace and James Met ress , ed., Man ill Evolutionary Perspective (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1973) pp. 314 -63, and F. B. Livingstone, 'On the Non-Existence of Human Races', Current Anthropology, 3 (1962) 279-381. These articles are somewhat controversial. Many biologists still consider the term 'race' useful and necessary. 20. See Frank Livingstone, 'Human Populations', in Brace and Metress, p. 5. 21. William C. Boyd, 'Critique of the Methods of Classifying Mankind', A mer. jour. of Phys. Anthr., 27 (1940) 333-64, and Boyd, Genetics. For Boyd's classification, see S. Molmar, Races, Types and Ethnic Groups. 22. A. C. Allison, 'Protection Afforded by Sickle Cell Trait Against Subtertian Malarial Infection', Bn'tish Medicaljournal, 1(1954) 290-4, and 'Notes on Sickle Cell Polymorphism', Annals ofHuman Genetics, 19 (1954) 39--57. See also Frank S. Livingstone, Abnormal Hemoglobins in Human Populations: A Summary and Interpretation (Chicago: The Aldine Press, 1967). 23. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving, pp. 153-5. Against an adaptationist inter• pretation, see Marshall T. Newman, 'Nutritional Adaptation in Man', in Albert Damon, ed., Physiological Anthropology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1975) pp. 210-59. In recent years, the adaptationist programme of neo-Darwinism in general has been questioned. See S. J Gould and R. C. Lewontin, 'The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Critique of the Adaptationist Programme', Proc. R. Soc. Lond., B 205 (1975) 581-98. 24. Dobzhansky, Mankind Evolving, pp. 269-83. See also Frederick S. Hulse, 'Race as an Evolutionary Episode', Amen'can Anthropologist, 64 (1962) 929-45. 25. Edward E. Hunt, Jr., 'Anthropometry, Genetics and Racial History', Amen'can Anthropologist. 61 (1959) 64-87, and Marshall T. Newman, 'The Application of Ecological Rules to the Racial Anthropology of the Aboriginal New World', Amen'can Anthropologist, 55, n.s. (1953) 311-27. 26. Stanley M. Gam, 'Culture and the Direction of Human Evolution', in Brace and MetreS5, Man in Evolutionary Perspective, pp. 47-56. 27. Hans Kalmus, 'Progress in Human Genetics', in George S. Avery, Jr., Survey of Biological Progress, vol. II (New York: Academic Press, 1952) pp. 53-77. 28. For the fortunes of mental tests in America between 1900 and 1941, see the chapter, 'Mental Testing' by Hamilton Cravens, The Tn'umph of Evolution: Amen'can Scientists and the Heredity-Environment Controversy, 1900-1941 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1978) pp.224-65. See also the first chapter in Leon J. Kamin's The Science and Politics of I.Q. (Potomac, Md: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1974). 222 Notes and References

29. A. R. Jensen, 'How Much Can we Boost I.Q. and Scholastic Achievement?', Han

Abolition, x, xii-xiii, 26, 50, 79 Blake, Charles Carter, 45 anti-abolitionism, 29 Blood groups, 102-3, 166 Abrams, Philip, 145 and racial classification, 178-9 Acclimatisation, 106 Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich, xiv, Aliens Act of 1905, 126 12, 15, 16, 17, 18, 31, 32, 38, 42, Allison, A. C., 179 90 Analogical reasoning, 33, 35 and monogenism, 2 Anthropological Society of London, 3, and naturalism, 10 44-45, 83, 88 classification of man as a Bimana, 9 merged with the Ethnological environmental origin of races, 36-7 Society of London, 83 on facial angle, 34 Argyll, Duke of, 56 on Negro, 30-1 Aristotle, 12, 47 rejection of Great Chain of Being, and the Great Chain of Being, 6 9-10, 12 Aryan thesis, 75, 98-100, 167 Boas, Franz, 102, 145, 165, 166 Australian aborigines, 75-6 critique of scientific racism, 141-2 on stability of headform, 162-3 Bagehot, Waiter, 51 Boyd, William C., 166, 173, 177 Baker, John R., 189 blood groups and racial classifica- Balfour, Arthur, 119 tion, 178-9 Bateson, William, ll2, 122 Brace, C. Loring, 177-8 and Mendelism, 120 Bradley, Richard, 6, 7 Beddoe, John, xviii, xix, 89, 96, lOO, Brain 101, 103 and phrenology, 23-8 index of nigrescence, xviii, 96 and physical anthropology after persistence of racial type, 89, 96 Darwin, 93-103 Bellamy, George, 74 differences in human races, 14-15, Biddiss, Michael D., 84 18; 33-5, 83-4 Binet, Alfred, 133 Tiedemann on, 17, 27 Biometry, 116-17, 162 see also Cephalic index, Facial and race, 135-9 angle, Skull measurement biometric critique of , 135- Brigham, Carl C., 183 9 Broca, Paul, 45, 83, 95, 100 biometry-Mendelism dispute In on race mixture, 95, 105 eugenics, 119-22 Brock Committee, 157 reconciled with Mendelism, 120, Buffon, George Louis Leclerc de, 2, 148-9 35,38 Birdsell, Joseph B., 173 and monogenism, 2

223 224 Index

environmental origin of races, 36 and sexual selection, 51-2, 59-65, on similarity between man and 85, 91 apes, 7 impact of Galton, 51, 52-9 on species, 33 monogenism, 48-9, 59, 62, 68, 84 Bunak, Victor V., 139 104-5 Burt, Sir Cyril, 119, 132, 133, 158 natural selection and race, 59-60 and IQ tests, 131-2, 184-8 polygenism, 48-9, 62-3, 84, 104-5, fraud, 186-7 107 racial differences in intelligence, progression ism in history, 58-9, 74 133-4 racial hierarchy, 53-5, 57 Burton, Sir Richard, 45, 127 racial struggle, 57-9, 80-1, 82 Bynum, William F., 6 see also Evolution Buxton, L. H. Dudley, 164 Darwin, Leonard, 121, 122, 130, 134, 156, 159 Camper, Peter, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15 Davenport, C. B., 121, 122 and facial angle, 26, 30, 34, 96 Davis, David Brion, xi Carr-Saunders, A. M., 147, 160 Davis, John Barnard, 45, 100 Cattell, Raymond B., 158, 159 Deniker, Joseph, 102, 161 Cephalic index, 97, 137 Dobzhansky, Theodosius, 139, 173, criticised, 162 174, 175, 180 Chambers, Robert, 20, 51. 77 definition of race, 177 Charles, Enid, 152 Du Chaillu, Paul, 16 Combe, George, 21 Conway, Jill, 187 Ellis, Haveiock, 119 Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 113, 115 Environmentalism Crew, F.A.E., 156 and monogenism, 35-7,43-4,62-3 Crick, Francis, 175 and polygenism, 40 Crowther, Bishop Samuel Ajayi, 18 and racial type, 162-7 Cunningham, J., 91-2 rejected in race science, 37-40, 42, Curtin, Philip D., 41 63-4 Cuvier, Georges, xiii, 15, 19, 23, 34, Ethnological Society of London, 3,44, 42,94 83 and extinction, 12-13 Eugenics and racial gradation, 13-14 and biometry, 116-17, 119-22, doubts about environmentalism, 135-9, 148-9, 159 39-40 and class, 125-6, 147 measures of animality and intelli• and IQ testing, 131-4 gence, 14, 17, 21-2 and politics, 122, 143 rejection of the Great Chain of and race, 114, 124-34 Being, 11, 12 critique of eugenics, 142-56 Fisher, 144, 149, 150, 157, 158-9 Galton, 74, 111, 113-16, 118-25, Darwin, Charles, xix, 6, 36, 39, 44, 126-9 66, 67, 70, 71, 73, 77, 79, 86, 91, Haldane, 153-5 92, 104, 110, 113, 116, 127, 174, hereditarianism, 112-13, 114-16, 175, 176 122-4 and evolution, ix, xix, 47-8, 50-9 Hobhouse, 145-6 and race, 51, 52-9, 86-7 Hogben, 122, 146-52 and racism, 49-50, 55 Huxley, Julian, 155 Index 225

immigration. 130. 154-5 eugenics. 75. 111. 113--16. 118-25. impact of World War 11. 159-60 126-9 mental behaviour. 114-15 impact on Darwin. 51. 52-9 nature vs. nurture. 115 race mixture. 105 sterilization. 157 Garn. Stanley M .. 171. 173. 177. 187 Eugenics Education Society. 118. 121. Gates. Reginald Ruggles. 156. 168-9 134. 153. 158. 159. 160 Geddes. Patrick. 119. 145 membership. 112. 119 Geikie. Sir Archibald. 119 Evolution. ix. xixx George. Henry. 74 and monogenism. 48-9. 59. 62. 84. Gliddon. George R .. 51 104-5 Gobineau. Count Arthur de. 41 and polygenism. 48-9. 58-70. 78- Goddard. Henry. 131 9. 84. 104-5. 107 Gould. Stephen J.. 187 and race. 47-82. 84-93 Graham. Loren. 124. 144 and scale of races. 55. 67 Great Chain of Being. 6-7. 9. 10-12. Darwin and the evolution of man. 13. 17 50-9 and naturalism. 7. 17-18 evolution in post-Darwin period. and polygenism. 8-10 83-110 and racism. 8-9. 17 natural selection. 48. 52-3. 55. racial hierarchy. 8-9 ·86-8 rejection. 6. 9-12 Wallace and the evolution of man. return. 12-19 68-77 Greene.JohnC .. 51. 57 Eysenck. Hans J.. 184. 187 Haddon. Alfred C .. 89. 90. 95. 134. Facial angle. 8-10. 14. 26. 30. 34. 96 165 critique by phrenologists. 26-7 persistence of racial type. 89--90 Fawcett. Cice\y. 136 We Europeans: A Survey of 'Racial' Farrall. Lindsay A .. 112 Problems. 143. 145. 160. 167-8 Ferrier. David. 28 Haecke\. Ernst. 61. 107 Figlio. Karl. 13-14 Haldane. J.B.S .. 102. 119. 120. 122. Firth. Raymond. 168 138. 146. 155. 158. 159. 160. Fisher. Ronald A .. 119. 120. 122. 138. 168. 173. 174. 175 146. 156. 157. 173. 174 and immigration. 154-5 and eugenics. 144. 149. 150. 157. on eugenics. 153-5 158-9 Hamilton-Smith. Charles, 32. 40-1. reconciles biometry and Mendelism. 51 120. 148-9 Hardy. G. H .. 150 Fleure. J. H .• 102. 106. 166. 167. 168 Hearnshaw. L. S .. 133. 185 Flinders Petrie. W. M .. 136. 165 Heron. David. 121 Flourens. M.J. P .. 22 Hobhouse. Leonard T .. 157 and eugenics. 145-6 Gall. Johann Franz. 21. 22. 25. 28 Hobson. J. A .. 145 Galton. Francis. xix. 49.55.117.119. Hogben. Lance\ot. XVIll. xix. 121. 127. 129. 149 122. 146. 153. 154. 155. 157. and racial differences. 51. 125-9. 160. 173. 181 132. 133 critique of eugenics. 146-52 argument of Hereditary Genius. Homo sapiens 114-16. 127-8 classified as a Bimana. 9 226 Index

classified by Owen, 16, 78 Kamin, Leon J., 186 Darwin on, 50-9 Keane, Alfred H., xix, 90-1, 95, 103, Huxleyon, 16-17,78-80 106, 108 similarity to apes, 7, 16-19 and polygenism, 106 Wallace on, 57, 68-77 Keith, Sir Arthur, 92, 93, 105-6, 107, see also Monogenism, Polygenism, 138, 158, 169 Race race ancestry, 107, 108-9 Hooten, Emest A. 139 race formation, 92-3 Hulse, Frederick S., 177 Keynes, John Maynard, 119 Human diversity Knox, Robert, xix, 46, lOO, 127 new science of, 171-81 and polygenism, 4, 41-2 Hunt, James, 5, 127 anticolonialism, 42-3 and the Anthropological Society of influence on race science, 43-4 London, 44-5 rejection of environmentalism, 42 on species, 3-4, 33 Saxon race, 42-3 on the Negro, 3, 18 zoological method, 32, 42 on zoological method, 32 Kottler, Malcolm J., 71 Hunter, John, 33 Humboldt, Alexander von, 110 Lamarck, Chevalier de, 70 Huxley, Julian S., 62, 119, 138, 146, and the Great Chain of Being 157, 174, 175 11-12 and eugenics, 155 gradation in nervous organisation. We Europeans: A Survey of 'Racial' 13 Problems, 143, 145, 160, 167-8 Lanctantius, 1 Huxley, Thomas Henry, xix, 32, 44, Latham, Robert Gordon, 51, 99 45, 49, 52, 96, 99, 105, 127 Lawrence, William, xiv, xix, 29, 32, and monogenism, 44, 79 35, 42, 51, 67 and social Darwinism, 80-2 and monogenism, 2-3 dispute with Owen, 16-17 and skull shape, 34 on Aryans, 99 defence of monogenism, 31-5 on race, 78-9 explanation of racial difference, 39 racism, 77, 79-80 method in race science, 31-3 Hybridisation, 15, 25, 29, 45, 79, 88, rejection of the Great Chain of 93-6, 105-6, 130 Being, 10-11, 12 use of racial chain, 14-15, 17 Intelligence tests and race, 131-4, Leach, Edmund L., 104 171, 183-8 Leakey, L.S.B., 168 Lee, Alice, 136 Jefferson, Thomas, 30 Lewis, Gordon K., 186 Jensen, Anhur R., 131, 183, 184 Linnaeus, Carl, 35 and race differences in IQ, 183-4, and monogenism, 2 187-8 classification of man as a Quadru• Jews, x, 41, 42, 90, 98, 105, 115, 125, mana, 9 130, 131, 147, 167 on similarity between man and Jones, Sir William, 44, 98 apes, 7 Jordan, Winthrop D., xii, 8 Livingston, F. B., 178, 179 Locke, John, 51 Kalmus, Hans, 181 Long, Edward, 29 Kames, Lord, 29 Lovejoy, Arthur 0., 6 Index 227

Lubbock. John. 51. 54. 56. 127 147, 160, 161, 167 Lyell. Charles. 49. 70-1. 76 Negro, xviii, 3, 4. 10, 11, 24. 26. 27, Lyons. Andrew D .. 142 29,30,32,33,34,37,38,39,40. 44, 45, 55. 72, 79. 80, 103, 108, McDougall. William. 119. 132. 134 125, 127-9, 154 racial differences in intelligence. and the Great Chain of Being. 6- 134 12, 14-19 McKenzie. Donald. 112 and polygenism, 3, 7-12, 10-14 McLennan. J. F .. 56 compared to apes, 8. 14, 15-18, 30 Mayr. Emst, 173 immunity to yellow fever, 35-6, 62- Mackintosh, David, 100 3, 68. 78-80 Mendel, Gregor. ix. 115, 174 predjudices against, xi-xii, 7-8 Mendelism Norton. Bernard J., 112, 149 and the eugenics movement, 116- Nott, Josiah C .. 51 17, 119-22 Mental Deficiency Act of 1913, 121 Osier, Sir William, 119 Monogenism Owen, Richard, 78 and Christianity, 1-2. 7, 9 and the scale of nature. 13 and definition of species, 33 dispute with Huxley, 16-17 and evolution, 48-9, 59, 62, 84, on Negroes and apes. 17-18 104-5 and origin of races, 35-44, 62-3 Pearson, Karl, xix, 115. 122, 126. and physical anthropology after 130. 146. 162-3 Darwin, 48-9, 62-3 and eugenics, 116, 118. 124 and polygenism, 1-5, 29-33, 40-3, and immigration, 130 48-9, 62-3. 84, 104-5, 107 and the biometry-Mendelian con• and time, 40 troversy, 119-21. 159 challenged, 1-5, 29-30, 40-6. as a social Darwinist. 129 48-9 critique of physical anthropology, defended by Prichard and Law• 135-9 rence, 31-5 Penrose, Lionel, 148, 151. 154. 157. in science, 1-3, 9-11, 30-7, 40, 177, 182 43-4, 48, 62-3, 68-70, 79, 84, and eugenics, 155-6 106 rejects word 'race', 177 problem of environmentalism, 37- Persistence of type, 40. 42, 66, 68-70, 40, 62-3 84-110, 161-2 Montagu, Ashley, 172 challenged. 162-6, 175-9 Morant, G. M., 138, 139, 168 Peyrere. Isaac de la. 29 Morgan, Thomas Hunt, 117, 159, 165 Phrenology, 45-6.67,71,76 Morton, Samuel G., 17, 27, 40, 72, and race. 21, 23-8 187 as a reform movement, 20-1, 23 Mosse, George L., xix decline of, 27-8 Mott, Sir Frederick, 119 influence on science, 20, 26-8 Mudge, C. P., 130 principles of, 21-2 Muller, Hermann J., 155 Physical anthropology Muller, Max, 99 and race after Darwin, 83-109 Myers, Charles S., 134, 162, 168 Boas' critique. 135-9 head measurement, xviii, 96-102. Nazi racism, x, 111, 124, 140, 143, 161-7 228 Index

impact of phrenology, 26-8 Pseudoscience, xvi, 20 institutional development, 83 Punnett, R. C., 123, 131, 150, 151 Pearson's critique, 135--9 and eugenics, 123-4 problems in, 160-7, 178 see also Cephalic index, Facial Quatrefages, Armand de, 101, 105 angle, Skull measurement 110 Piu· Rivers, G. H., 168 Poliakov, Leon, 98, 99 Race Polygenism, and biometry, 135-9 and acclimatisation, 106 and eugenics, 114, 124-34 and Aryan thesis, 99 and evolution, 48-9. 50, 52-82 and evolution, 48-9, 58-70, 78-9, and intelligence tests, 131-4, 183- 84, 104-5, 107 8 and monogenism, 1--5, 29-30, 40- and modern controversies, 182-9 6, 148-9 and phrenology, 20-8 and the Great Chain of Being, 8-10 cephalic index, 96-7 and time, 40 disappearance in science, 170-81 challenged, 30-5 facial angle, 8-9, 14, 26-7, 30, 34 Christian unorthodoxy, 2 idea of pure races, 93-4, 137 growth of, 1-5,29-31.40-6 in science today, 176-81 in the eighteenth century, 29-31 many meanings in science, xvi·xvii, persistence in science, 48-9, 65-6, 128-30 84, 94, 104-10 origin of, 35-40, 43-4, 59-66, 68- see also Monogenism, Evolution, 70, 73, 85-93 Physical anthropology persistence of idea in science, ix, Population genetics, 169 xx· xxi, 189 and adaptation, 174 persistence of type, 85-93 impact on anthropology, 173-181 race history, 103-9, 89 Poulton, Edward, 119 race mixture, 42-3, 95, 105-6, 130 Prichard, James Cowles, xiii, xiv, xix, see also Hybridisation, Racial 5, 10,29,32,34,35,44,51,67, hierarchy, Racism, Typology 98,99,109-110 Race mixture, 95, 105-6, 130 and analogical reasoning, 33 antipathy to, 42-3 and monogenism, xiii, 2, 31-40, Racial hierarchy, 20, 46, 140 43-4 and evolution, 52-9, 66, 68-70, and 'new' biology, xiii·xiv, 5, 31-3 79-80, 83, 86 and sexual selection, 39 and eugenics, 127-8 challenge to polygenism, 31-5 and the Great Chain of Being, 7 -19 environmentalistic explanation of Racism origin of races, 38-9, 43-4 and black slavery, xii-xiii initial rejection of environmental· and Christianity, xi-xii ism, 38-9 and Darwin, 48-9, 55 method in race science, 31-5 and eugenics, 111-12, 124-34, 152 on skull shape and race, 33-5 and Huxley, 77 rejection of the Great Chain of and science, xiv-xvi Being, 10-11, 12 and Wallace, 67, 70, 76 see also Environmentalism, Mono· in Arabic world, xii genism, Polygenism, Race in European thought, x, xi-xii, xv• Provine, William B., 174 xvi,8 Index 229

in twentieth century science. 183-4. and phrenology. 26 187-8 and racism. x. xi-xiii see also Nazi racism in ancient Greece. x-xi Retzius. Anders Adolf. 97 see also Racism Ridgeway. William Smellie. WilIiam. 8 influence of environment on race. Smith. Grafton ElIiot. 108. 168 164-5 Smith. Roger. 71 Ripley. William Z .. 83. 106. 164 Smith. Samuel Stanhope. 37 and racial typology. 94 Social Darwinism. 49. 55. 66. 82. 83 three races of Europe. 161 and Darwin. 49. 56-8. 74 Rivers. W.H.R .. 134 and Fisher. 159 Robertson. John MacKinnon. 144-5 and Huxley. 80-2 Romanes. George J.. 87 and Keith. 93 and Pearson. 129 St Augustine. 1 and Wallace. 69-70 St Hilaire. Geoffroy. 42. 43 decline. 146 Salaman. Radcliffe N .. 131 Sociobiology. x. 188-9 Saxon race. 41. 42-3. 100. 144 Sollas. W. J.. 102. 103-4 Scientific racism. ix. 140-2. 189 Spearman. Charles E .. 119. 132. 133. Searle. G. R .. 112. 116. 118 185 Second World War Species impact of physical anthropology. created. 48 161 defined by Buffon. Hunter. 33 impact on race science. 140-1. Hunt on. 3-4. 33 159-60 in evolution. 47-8 Seligman. C. G .. 119 stability of. 36 Sergi. Giuseppe. 102. 162 see also Monogenism. Polygenism Seward. A. C .. 119 Spencer. Herbert. 20. 82 Sexual selection. 91 race mixture. 105 and origin of races. 39. 60. 62-5 Spurzheim. J. G .. 21. 23-24. 25 Darwin on. 51-2. 59-65. 85. 91 on race. 24 Wallace'e rejection of. 51. 60-1. 65. Stability of head form 66. 71 challenged. 162-67 Sherrington. Sir Charles. 119 Stocking. George W .. Jr .. xv. 40. 41. Simpson. G. Gaylord. 173 43-4. 45. 84. 106. 170-1 Skull measurement. xviii-xix. 23-5. evolution and polygenesis. 104 27. 158 idea of type in physical anthro• and phrenology. 26-7 pology. 94-5 and race. 14-15. 17. 30-1. 33-4. on Franz Boas. 141-2 96-102 and the physical anthropologists. Temkin. Oswei. 25 89-9. 96-104. 160-2 Terman. Lewis. 131 Boas' critique. 102-3. 162-3 Thomson. J. Arthur. 123. 146 cephalic index. 96-7 and eugenics. 123 Pearson's critique. 135-9 on instability of head shape. 163-4 see also Cephalic index. Facial Thurnham. Joseph B .. 100 angle. Physical anthropology Tiedemann. Frederick. 17. 27 Slavery. x-xi. 26. 44. 79 Topinard. Paul. 27. 83. 88. 93. 95. and New World Indians. xii 105. 106. 107 230 Index

definition of race, 94 on evolution of man, 68-77 persistence of type, 88 on human races, 68-70, 71-7 Tredgold, A. F., 130, 158 progressionism, 73, 75 Turner, Frank M., 67, 70, 71 racism, 67, 70, 76 Typology, xviii, 138, 180 reconciles monogenism and poly• and biometry, 135-9 genism, 68-70 and evolution, 84 rejects natural selection in man, and phrenology, 24-5 67,71-3 and polygenism, 4, 84 rejects sexual selection, 51, 60-1, and Wallace, 75-6 65, 66, 71 idea of type in post· Darwin period, socialism, 67, 73-4 93-103 spiritualism, 67, 71-3 Tyson, Edward, 7 Struggle between races, 57

UNESCO Statement on Race, 172 Washbum, S. L., 173 Watson, James D., 175 Weiner, J. S., 173 Van Amringe, William Frederick, 40 Weismann, August, 116 Virchow, Rudolf, 101 Werskey, Gary, 146, 147, 155 Vogt, Carl, 88, 95, 106, 107 Wheatley, Phyllis, 30 White, Charles, 8, 10, 11, 29, 30, 37 Waitz, Theodore, 45, 110 Wilson, Edward 0., 188, 189 Wallace, Alfred Russel, xix, 48, 49, Winterbottom, Thomas, 10, 34 57, 79, 104-105 rejection of polygenism, 10, 30-1 and phrenology, 20, 28, 71, 76 Wright, Sewall, 120, 173, 174 and racial typology, 75-6, 85, 86-7 Wyman, Jeffries, 16 eugenics, 74 Illoral selection, 74-5 Yerkes, Robert M., 131 on Australian aborigines, 75-6 Young, Robert M., 22, 23, 28