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Notes and References INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE, RACE AND HISTORY 1. The definition of scientific racism used here is a modified version of that given by Steven Rose in 'Scientific Racism and Ideology: The I. Q. Racket from Galton to Jensen', in Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (eds), The Political Economy of Science (London: Macmillan, 1976) p. 113. 2. George W. Stocking, Jr., in Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1968) p. 14, calls race 'a characteristically nineteenth-century phenomenon'. 3. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (lthaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1966) pp. 48-9. 4. Ibid., pp. 70-2. 5. See especially Frank M. Snowden, JT., Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Expen'ence (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1970). The magisterial, three volume work, The Image of the Black in Western Art, ed. Ladislaus Bugrer (New York: William Morrow, 1976-9), explores the artistic representation of blacks from ancient Egypt to the age of discovery. The range of depictions, from entertainer to Magi-king to cruel warrior, was extraordinarily wide but never uniform and rarely negative. Only in the age of black slavery did the standard image of the black become that of degradation. 6. Hzppocrates, with an English translation by W. H. S. James, 4 vols (London: William Heinemann, 1962) v. I, chs XII-XXIV, pp. 105-37. 7. These themes have been explored by Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977) pp. 3-43; by Michael Banton, The Idea of Race (London: Tavistock Publications, 1977) pp. 13-26. For Arabic racial views and their relationship to black slavery in the Islamic world see Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). 8. Jordan, White over Black, p. 7. 9. M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: The Viking Press, 1980), esp. ch. 3. 10. James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1973). Prichard dedicated his second edition of Researches to Blumenbach. For Lawrence, see William Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 111. 11. The relation between scientific theory and political, philosophical and social factors has recently become a topic of considerable interest to historians, sociologists and philosophers of science. See, for instance, Robert 190 Notes and References, xiv-J 191 M. Young, 'Evolutionary Biology and Ideology: Then and Now', Science Studies 1 (1971) 177-206, and his The Historiographic and Ideological Contexts of the Nineteenth-Century Debate on Man's Place in Nature', in Mikulas Teich and Robert Young (eds.), Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of joseph Needham (Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1973) pp. 344-438; and Michael Mulkay, Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Alien & Unwin, 1979). 12. A recent very revealing analysis of this kind of unconscious manipulation of data in race science is that by Stephen J. Gould, in 'Morton's Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity', Science 200 (1978) 503-9. 13. See, for example, Stocking's remarks in a review in]. Hist. Behav. Sci. 1 (1965) 294-6. 14. This distinction was made about phrenology - that it was bad science but not pseudoscience - by William F. Bynum, in his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in the Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Cambridge University, Ph.D. 1974) p. 168. 15. See Chapter 7 of this book. 16. See John G. Burke, The Wild Man's Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology', in Edward Dudley and Maxmillian E. Novak, The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thoughtfrom the Renaissance to Romanticism (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1972) p. 260, where he was referring to the 'ether' of nineteenth century physics. Burke's essay contains a useful discussion of the different kinds of errors into which scientists may fall. 17. Beddoe's formula, D + 2ND + 2N - R - F = Index, is discussed in Alfred C. Haddon's The Study of Man (London: Bliss, Sands, 1898) pp. 22-40, along with other methods used in the nineteenth century for measuring and comparing skin colour in the human species. 18. Lancelot Hogben, The Race Concept', in Ashley Montagu, The Concept of Race (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1964) p. 93. 19. In recent years, the period 1800 to 1850, once the most neglected period of all, has received the attention of a number of historians. In addition to Bynum's invaluable study cited in n. 14, there is a rich study by Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa. Bn'tish Ideas and Action, 1780-1850,2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) in which the work of travellers, ethnographers, geographers and medical doctors are analysed_ 20. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History ofEuropean Racism (London: J. M. Dent, 1978) p. 234. 21. The second edition of Thomas S. Kuhn's book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1970, 2nd ed.), contains Kuhn's notion of 'symbolic generalisations'. CHAPTER 1: RACE AND THE RETURN OF THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING, 1800-50 1. Quotations fromJ. S. Slotkin (ed.), Readings in Early Anthropology (New 192 Notes and References York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1965) pp. 2-g, 16. The debate on the origin of the Indians of the New World is reviewed in detail by Lee Eldridge Huddleston, in On'gins of the American Indians; European Concepts, 1492-1792 (Austin, Texas: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1967) and by Marcel Bataillon in 'L'unite du genre bumain du P. Acosta au P. Clavigero', in Melanges d la memoire deJean Sarrailh (Paris: Centre de Recherches de I'Institut d'Etudes Hispaniques, 1966) v. I, pp. 75-95. 2. The literature on monogenism and polygenism is now quite extensive. Among other writings, see Theophile Simar, Etude Cn'tique sur laforma­ tion de la doctnne des races au X VIII' siecle et son expansion au XIX' siecle, Academie Royale de Belgique, Memoires, Deuxieme Serie, XVI (Bruxelles: Maurice Lamertin, 1922); John C. Greene, The Death of A dam (Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1959); Philip D. Cunin, The Image ofAfn'ca: Bn~ish Ideas and Action, 1780-18;0, 2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) esp. vol. I, ch. 2 and vol. 2, ch. 15; George W. Stocking, Jr.'s Introductory Essay to James Cowles Prichard, Researches Into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1979) pp. ix-ex. and his 'What's in a Name? The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute (18g 7 -1871 )" Man 6 (1971) g69-90; Ronald Rainger, 'Race, Politics and Science: The Anthro­ pological Society of London in the 1860s', Victon'an Studies 22 (Autumn 1978) 51-70. American polygenism has been well described by William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race In Amen'ca, 181;-18;9 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960) and George M. Frederickson, The Black Image In the Whl~e Mind: The Debate onAfro-Amen'canDestlny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); and is touched on more briefly by John Hailer in Outcasts from Evolution: Scientific AW'tudes of Racl'allnfen'on~y, 18;9-1900 (Urbana, Illinois: The University of Illinois Press, 1971). g. Prichard, Researches, p. 155, and William Lawrence, Lectures on Physio­ logy, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 250. Lawrence, however, equivocated about whether being 'varieties of a single species' necessarily implied common descent. 4. James Hunt, 'On the Negro's Place in Nature', Anth. Soc. Lond., Memoirs 1 (1863-4) 52. 5. The moral fervour of the abolition movement is brilliantly analysed by David Brion Davis in The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-182J (lthaca and London: Comell University Press, 1975). The out­ standing example of the genre was Abbe Gregoire's De la litterature des negres ou Recherches sur leurs facultis intellectuelles, leurs qualitis morales, et leur litterature (Paris: Maradan, 1808). The literary genre was continued by blacks themselves. See the penetrating essay by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 'Preface to Blackness: Text and Pretext', in Dexter Fisher and Roben B. Stepto, (eds.), Afro-Amen'can Literature. The Reconstruction of an Instl~ution (New York: Modem Language Association of America, 1979) pp. 44-69. 6. Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Fragment (London: Henry Renshaw, 1850) p. 6. Notes and References, pp. 6-11 193 7. William F. Bynum, 'The Great Chain of Being After Forty Years: An Appraisal', Hist. Sci. XIII (1975) 1-28, and his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Ph.D., Cambridge University, England, 1974). 8. Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936). 9. Examples of the use of the great chain include that by Charles Bonnet, The Contemplation of Natur-l!, 2 vols (London: T. Longman, 1766); Soame Jenyns, 'Disquisition I: The Chain of Universal Being', in Works, 4 vols, 2nd ed. (London: T. Cadell, 1793) v. 3, pp. 179-85; Richard Bradley, A Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (London: C. W. Mears, 1721); William Smellie, The Philosophy of Natural History (Boston: Brown. Taggard and Chase, 1835). 10. Bradley, Philosophical Account, p. 159. 11. Ibid., p. 167. 12. Edward Tyson, Orang-Outang, Sive Homo Sylvestris: or The Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared Wz~h that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man (London: T.
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    Furman University Furman University Scholar Exchange Anthropology Publications Anthropology 6-1996 Anthropology and the Science of "Race" Brian Siegel Originally published in Furman Studies, Volume 38 (1996): 1-21. Recommended Citation Siegel, Brian, "Anthropology and the Science of "Race"" (1996). Anthropology Publications. Paper 6. http://scholarexchange.furman.edu/ant-publications/6 This Article (Journal or Newsletter) is made available online by Anthropology, part of the Furman University Scholar Exchange (FUSE). It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology Publications by an authorized FUSE administrator. For terms of use, please refer to the FUSE Institutional Repository Guidelines. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE SCIENCE OF "RACE" Brian Siegel The fixity of a habit is generally in direct proportion to its absurdity (Marcel Proust, Remembrance of Things Past). "Race" is not a black or white issue in. anthropology, certainly not for the last sixty years. Most anthropologists deny the existence of "biological races," but they all acknowledge the reality of "social races," and the tendency for people to deal with one another in terms of socially and culturally constructed racial categories. Forensic anthropologists, for example, measure bones to identify the race of unidentified skeletons, but their racial attributions are statistical inferences drawn from comparative skeletons of known social races. Such classifications vary across time and space, so American forensic anthropologists are best at identifying the social races recognized in America. And since social races are as often distinguished on the basis of their cultural as physical features, anthropologist Ashley Montagu (1942) has long insisted that races should properly be called "ethnic groups." The racial categories used by the federal Census Bureau are examples of "social races." While often based upon perceived physical differences, such perceptions have changed over time.
  • Valuing Race? Stretched Marxism and the Logic of Imperialism

    Valuing Race? Stretched Marxism and the Logic of Imperialism

    Valuing race? Stretched Marxism and the logic of imperialism Robert Knox* This article attempts to demonstrate the intimate interconnection between Downloaded from value and race in international law. It begins with an exploration of Marxist understandings of imperialism, arguing that they falsely counterpose race and value. It then attempts to reconstruct an account in which the two are under- stood as mutually constitutive. http://lril.oxfordjournals.org/ THE HAITIAN INTERVENTION—VALUE, LAW AND RACE? In his 2008 article ‘Multilateralism as Terror: International Law, Haiti and Imperialism’,1 China Mie´ville dissects the 2004 UN intervention in Haiti. In February 2004, President Jean-Bertrand Aristide, leader of the leftwing Fanmi Lavalas movement, was overthrown. Boniface Alexandre, Supreme Court Chief at University of Liverpool on March 22, 2016 Justice, was appointed interim-President, and requested international support. In response, the Security Council passed Resolution 1529, which expressed deep concern for ‘the deterioration of the political, security and humanitarian situ- ation’. Acting under Chapter VII of the UN Charter, the Security Council authorised a multinational ‘peacekeeping force’ which could ‘take all necessary measures’ to ‘support the constitutional process under way in Haiti’ and ‘maintain public safety and law and order and to protect human rights’. Pursuant to the Resolution, the United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH) was created. * Lecturer, School of Law and Social Justice, University of Liverpool. Email: [email protected]. I would like to thank Tor Krever and Anne Neylon for their incisive comments on drafts of this article, as well as the anonymous reviewers for their very extensive feedback.