Notes and References INTRODUCTION: SCIENCE, RACE AND HISTORY 1. The definition of scientific racism used here is a modified version of that given by Steven Rose in 'Scientific Racism and Ideology: The I. Q. Racket from Galton to Jensen', in Hilary Rose and Steven Rose (eds), The Political Economy of Science (London: Macmillan, 1976) p. 113. 2. George W. Stocking, Jr., in Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1968) p. 14, calls race 'a characteristically nineteenth-century phenomenon'. 3. David Brion Davis, The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture (lthaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1966) pp. 48-9. 4. Ibid., pp. 70-2. 5. See especially Frank M. Snowden, JT., Blacks in Antiquity: Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Expen'ence (Cambridge, Mass: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1970). The magisterial, three volume work, The Image of the Black in Western Art, ed. Ladislaus Bugrer (New York: William Morrow, 1976-9), explores the artistic representation of blacks from ancient Egypt to the age of discovery. The range of depictions, from entertainer to Magi-king to cruel warrior, was extraordinarily wide but never uniform and rarely negative. Only in the age of black slavery did the standard image of the black become that of degradation. 6. Hzppocrates, with an English translation by W. H. S. James, 4 vols (London: William Heinemann, 1962) v. I, chs XII-XXIV, pp. 105-37. 7. These themes have been explored by Winthrop D. Jordan, White over Black: American Attitudes Toward the Negro, 1550-1812 (New York: W. W. Norton, 1977) pp. 3-43; by Michael Banton, The Idea of Race (London: Tavistock Publications, 1977) pp. 13-26. For Arabic racial views and their relationship to black slavery in the Islamic world see Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam (New York: Harper & Row, 1971). 8. Jordan, White over Black, p. 7. 9. M. I. Finley, Ancient Slavery and Modern Ideology (New York: The Viking Press, 1980), esp. ch. 3. 10. James Cowles Prichard, Researches into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1973). Prichard dedicated his second edition of Researches to Blumenbach. For Lawrence, see William Lawrence, Lectures on Physiology, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 111. 11. The relation between scientific theory and political, philosophical and social factors has recently become a topic of considerable interest to historians, sociologists and philosophers of science. See, for instance, Robert 190 Notes and References, xiv-J 191 M. Young, 'Evolutionary Biology and Ideology: Then and Now', Science Studies 1 (1971) 177-206, and his The Historiographic and Ideological Contexts of the Nineteenth-Century Debate on Man's Place in Nature', in Mikulas Teich and Robert Young (eds.), Changing Perspectives in the History of Science: Essays in Honour of joseph Needham (Dordrecht, Holland: D. Reidel, 1973) pp. 344-438; and Michael Mulkay, Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (London: Alien & Unwin, 1979). 12. A recent very revealing analysis of this kind of unconscious manipulation of data in race science is that by Stephen J. Gould, in 'Morton's Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity', Science 200 (1978) 503-9. 13. See, for example, Stocking's remarks in a review in]. Hist. Behav. Sci. 1 (1965) 294-6. 14. This distinction was made about phrenology - that it was bad science but not pseudoscience - by William F. Bynum, in his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in the Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Cambridge University, Ph.D. 1974) p. 168. 15. See Chapter 7 of this book. 16. See John G. Burke, The Wild Man's Pedigree: Scientific Method and Racial Anthropology', in Edward Dudley and Maxmillian E. Novak, The Wild Man Within: An Image in Western Thoughtfrom the Renaissance to Romanticism (Pittsburgh: Pittsburgh University Press, 1972) p. 260, where he was referring to the 'ether' of nineteenth century physics. Burke's essay contains a useful discussion of the different kinds of errors into which scientists may fall. 17. Beddoe's formula, D + 2ND + 2N - R - F = Index, is discussed in Alfred C. Haddon's The Study of Man (London: Bliss, Sands, 1898) pp. 22-40, along with other methods used in the nineteenth century for measuring and comparing skin colour in the human species. 18. Lancelot Hogben, The Race Concept', in Ashley Montagu, The Concept of Race (London: Collier-Macmillan, 1964) p. 93. 19. In recent years, the period 1800 to 1850, once the most neglected period of all, has received the attention of a number of historians. In addition to Bynum's invaluable study cited in n. 14, there is a rich study by Philip D. Curtin, The Image of Africa. Bn'tish Ideas and Action, 1780-1850,2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) in which the work of travellers, ethnographers, geographers and medical doctors are analysed_ 20. George L. Mosse, Toward the Final Solution: A History ofEuropean Racism (London: J. M. Dent, 1978) p. 234. 21. The second edition of Thomas S. Kuhn's book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1970, 2nd ed.), contains Kuhn's notion of 'symbolic generalisations'. CHAPTER 1: RACE AND THE RETURN OF THE GREAT CHAIN OF BEING, 1800-50 1. Quotations fromJ. S. Slotkin (ed.), Readings in Early Anthropology (New 192 Notes and References York: Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, 1965) pp. 2-g, 16. The debate on the origin of the Indians of the New World is reviewed in detail by Lee Eldridge Huddleston, in On'gins of the American Indians; European Concepts, 1492-1792 (Austin, Texas: Institute of Latin American Studies, 1967) and by Marcel Bataillon in 'L'unite du genre bumain du P. Acosta au P. Clavigero', in Melanges d la memoire deJean Sarrailh (Paris: Centre de Recherches de I'Institut d'Etudes Hispaniques, 1966) v. I, pp. 75-95. 2. The literature on monogenism and polygenism is now quite extensive. Among other writings, see Theophile Simar, Etude Cn'tique sur laforma­ tion de la doctnne des races au X VIII' siecle et son expansion au XIX' siecle, Academie Royale de Belgique, Memoires, Deuxieme Serie, XVI (Bruxelles: Maurice Lamertin, 1922); John C. Greene, The Death of A dam (Iowa: Iowa University Press, 1959); Philip D. Cunin, The Image ofAfn'ca: Bn~ish Ideas and Action, 1780-18;0, 2 vols (Madison, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1964) esp. vol. I, ch. 2 and vol. 2, ch. 15; George W. Stocking, Jr.'s Introductory Essay to James Cowles Prichard, Researches Into the Physical History of Man (Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press, 1979) pp. ix-ex. and his 'What's in a Name? The Origins of the Royal Anthropological Institute (18g 7 -1871 )" Man 6 (1971) g69-90; Ronald Rainger, 'Race, Politics and Science: The Anthro­ pological Society of London in the 1860s', Victon'an Studies 22 (Autumn 1978) 51-70. American polygenism has been well described by William Stanton, The Leopard's Spots: Scientific Attitudes Toward Race In Amen'ca, 181;-18;9 (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1960) and George M. Frederickson, The Black Image In the Whl~e Mind: The Debate onAfro-Amen'canDestlny, 1817-1914 (New York: Harper & Row, 1971); and is touched on more briefly by John Hailer in Outcasts from Evolution: Scientific AW'tudes of Racl'allnfen'on~y, 18;9-1900 (Urbana, Illinois: The University of Illinois Press, 1971). g. Prichard, Researches, p. 155, and William Lawrence, Lectures on Physio­ logy, Zoology, and the Natural History of Man (London: James Smith, 1822) p. 250. Lawrence, however, equivocated about whether being 'varieties of a single species' necessarily implied common descent. 4. James Hunt, 'On the Negro's Place in Nature', Anth. Soc. Lond., Memoirs 1 (1863-4) 52. 5. The moral fervour of the abolition movement is brilliantly analysed by David Brion Davis in The Problem of Slavery in the Age of Revolution, 1770-182J (lthaca and London: Comell University Press, 1975). The out­ standing example of the genre was Abbe Gregoire's De la litterature des negres ou Recherches sur leurs facultis intellectuelles, leurs qualitis morales, et leur litterature (Paris: Maradan, 1808). The literary genre was continued by blacks themselves. See the penetrating essay by Henry Louis Gates, Jr., 'Preface to Blackness: Text and Pretext', in Dexter Fisher and Roben B. Stepto, (eds.), Afro-Amen'can Literature. The Reconstruction of an Instl~ution (New York: Modem Language Association of America, 1979) pp. 44-69. 6. Robert Knox, The Races of Men: A Fragment (London: Henry Renshaw, 1850) p. 6. Notes and References, pp. 6-11 193 7. William F. Bynum, 'The Great Chain of Being After Forty Years: An Appraisal', Hist. Sci. XIII (1975) 1-28, and his unpublished dissertation, Time's Noblest Offspn'ng: The Problem of Man in Bn'tish Natural Histon'cal Sciences (Ph.D., Cambridge University, England, 1974). 8. Arthur O. Lovejoy, The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1936). 9. Examples of the use of the great chain include that by Charles Bonnet, The Contemplation of Natur-l!, 2 vols (London: T. Longman, 1766); Soame Jenyns, 'Disquisition I: The Chain of Universal Being', in Works, 4 vols, 2nd ed. (London: T. Cadell, 1793) v. 3, pp. 179-85; Richard Bradley, A Philosophical Account of the Works of Nature (London: C. W. Mears, 1721); William Smellie, The Philosophy of Natural History (Boston: Brown. Taggard and Chase, 1835). 10. Bradley, Philosophical Account, p. 159. 11. Ibid., p. 167. 12. Edward Tyson, Orang-Outang, Sive Homo Sylvestris: or The Anatomy of a Pygmie Compared Wz~h that of a Monkey, an Ape, and a Man (London: T.