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Durham E-Theses The olive in Northern Tripolitania: some aspects of agrarian geography Taylor, A. R. How to cite: Taylor, A. R. (1961) The olive in Northern Tripolitania: some aspects of agrarian geography, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9970/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk THE OLIVE m BORTHERK TRIFOLITMIA: SOME ASPECTS OF AGBABlAtf GEQGMFHI. By A> R* Taylor Thesis presented for the degree of M.Litt in the University of Durham. TABLE OF COHTMTS VOLUME I Page Introduction 1 CHAPTER I Geology &a& Structure arid Groundwater 1 CHAPTER II ibrpholtfgy &nd i^vr: ,*w.Vr. 30 CHAPTER III Soils 75 CHAPTER IV Climate, Land Use and Water Resources 102 CHAPTER V Ecology of the Olive 166 CHAPTER VI Evolution of Olive Cultivation 222 CHAPTER VII Systems- and Techniques of Olive Cultivation 301 CHAPTER VIII Olive Oil Industry and Conmie*ce 392 Conclusion **39 Bibliography List of Illustrations H60 Idst of Photographs ^62 List of Tables Photographs •0-0-0-0-0-6- Introduction The United Kingdom of Libya is a constitutional monarchy situated along the North Central coast of Africa. It is bordered to the north by the Mediterranean Sea and to the south by French and West Equatorial Africa. To the east and vest it is bordered by Egypt, Tunisia and Southern Algeria respect• ively. The three territories comprising Libya ~ Tripolitania, Cyrenaica and the Fezzan - cover an area of about 1,750,000 km , they are separated by large desert areas which constitute a part of the Sahara desert; extending eastwards to the Kile valley and west to the Atlas mountains. Economically, Libya is an undeveloped country in the widest sense of the word. Large numbers of the population live outside a modern economy. In fact, according to the 195k census estimate, over 37% of the population were classified as (2) leading nomadic or semi-nomadic modes of existence.v ' Moreover the average annual per capita income is estimated at 035 which is only slightly higher than in India and markedly lower than in the rest of the Middle East countries.^ The low standard of living derives in the first instance from the poverty of natural resources, an undiversifled economy, and an overwhelming dependence on agriculture which is mainly of a subsistence nature and subject to violent and often serious fluctuations in production. Climatically, Libya is a land of extremes. Much of the ii surface area of the country is formed "by the ancient gneissic and granitic plateau of Africa which is slightly deformed on the northern edge. Otherwise the country is monotonously level over large areas and thus it is open to the penetration of air masses of sharply differing origin. In winter European air can bring snow to the northern mountains - the Jebel - of Tripoli- tanla. On the other hand the inflow of Saharan is marked toy rapidly rising temperatures and extremely low humidity* She hot, dry Ghibli ntfnd 'blowing from the southern desert is probably the most devastating feature of Libyan weather as the author often had occasion to remember. Just as serious to agriculture is the low and capricious rainfall distribution which is only mitigated by the existence of underground water supplies. With such natural conditions agricultural development is severely limited. Zt would appear from the writings of classical authors and more recent archaeological research that the agricultural wealth of the country was greater in ths past* Under Roman occupation, it is recorded that Libya was a major exporter of cereals and to a lesser extent of olive oil and wine. But Roman colonisa• tion was superceded by the Invasion of the Vandals and pastoral Arab peoples whose culture was alien to sedentary agriculture and therefore to the conservation of soil and water resources. Not until the present century? during Italian occupation, has any attempt been made to restore and expand the possibilities for static farming which Roman Ingenuity had shown to exist. iii Developments undertaken by Fascist Italy without much regard to rapid financial return, and by the Libyan government since 19^5 have been significant in raising standards and yields. Moreover it is now clear that the discovery of high quality petroleum in commercially workable quantities over several parts of Libya will change radically the financial situation over the next few years. It is significant that these somewhat analogous periods of development (Roman and (20th) were accompanied by immense expenditure of economic and human resources on the part of the external administrations. At the same time the development by the Italians aimed at coordinating the Libyan economy with the Metropolitan economy. Unfortunately the indigenous agrarian economy was neglected. Thus when Libya achieved independence in 1952 the government was faced with the problem of maintaining Italian capital developments and expanding the productive capacity of Libyan agriculture. In terms of population and agricultural resources Tripoli- tanla is the foremost territory in Libya. It contains about 69% of the total population of Libya and in normal years contributes approximately two thirds of the total national income. Agriculture and grazing are the chief features of the economy; these employ at least 27$ of the total working population. Other occupations are confined to commerce, services, consumer industries, military forces and handicrafts. The main crops produced are barley, olives, citrus, almonds, iv grapes, groundnuts and vegetables; livestock products constitute the most valuable asset. Tripolitania is administratively divided into four provinces (fig*33 )5 Tripoli, Western, Central and Northern. Each province is governed by a provincial commissioner. The provinces are further divided into districts run respectively by a District Commissioner (Ar. Mutasarree) and Kudiria under a Mudir. Sheiks or chiefs of tribes are Under direct supervision of the Mudirs in the discharge of their duties in the cabila or tribal area* The economic and social ties of Tripolitania in contrast to those of the Fezzan and Cyrenaiea have been closely related to North West Africa and the northern Mediterranean lands. Commercially, Cyrenaica has traditional ties with Egypt. Topographically Tripolitania consists of narrow littoral which forms part of a vast sedimentary plain, the Jefara. This triangular lowland is replaced inland by a line of hills, the Jebel, whose northern boundary coincides with a scarp that runs from Horns westwards to the Tunisian border. South of the Jebel is a stony plateau, the Hamada, partly of red sandstone and. : frequently overran by basaltic overflows, some of which form imposing highland ridges. The southern boundary of the region, Northern Tripolitania, is defined by the morphological limits of the Jebel. Where the Jebel hills descend into the large south east and west flowing wadis Mediterranean climate and vegetatlonal features are re• placed by those which are definitely Saharan. This boundary, V which is transitional, also coincides with the junction between the young sedimentary rocks and the much older rocks forming the Saharan platform. Essentially it is the geographical position of Tripolitahia and its low latitude relative to the 'MsghretJ ^hich lends interest to the geographical study of the potentialities for the olive and the attendant problems of expanding and improving its production in this region. Because of the border situation of the country and its relative morphological uniformity Tripolitania has formed a region open to both environmental and cultural forces of diverse origin| it is a zone of transition. Mediterranean Influences, climate and European colonisation, have been dominant im the northern part of the country. From the east came the peculiar socio-economic phenomenon of the 'tribe', the Moslem religion and a pastoral economy. The southern regions have contributed an arid clima&ic regime and certain ethnic minority groups. The olive, a classical plant of the Mediterranean and of the characteristic climatic regime, has played a fundamental part in the sedenterisetion and economic development schemes of the European colonists in Tripolitania. Opposing this develop• ment have been the constant forces of the desert climatic elements and the more temporary alien pastoral economy of the nomad. It is significant that the extension of olive cultiva• tion and sedentary agriculture has been achieved by external powers who transferred their technical and human resources from vi north Mediterranean lands. But these historical circumstances which favoured the spread of the olive have been altered by the fact that Libya was granted political independence in 1952; the indigenous population was given the right to determine their future for perhaps the first time in the history of their country* Although the greater part of olive oil production at present comes from Italian plantations and oil factories the political climate does not appear to be favourable to their continued expansion. Therefore the main problem facing the government is one of expanding and improving indigenous olive production. The problem of expanding and improving olive oil production presupposes a need for such developments in the light of the present economic and social conditions. Although the territory derives benefits from its historical associations and Bore amenable climate, it is an undeveloped region in the sense that capital equipment is scanty, standards of living are low, and a the techniques of production are backward.