Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020, 24 – 42

Hot Water Springs (Thermal Springs) in Nepal: A Review on Their Location, Origin, and Importance

Santa M. Rai1, Tara N. Bhattarai2, and Durga Khatiwada3

1KarmaQuest International, 941 Goose River Avenue, Gloucester, ON, K1V 1T7, Canada 2Professor, Department of Geology, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal (E-mail:[email protected]) 3Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal (E-mail:[email protected])

Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Santa Man Rai, KarmaQuest International, 941 Goose River Avenue, Gloucester, ON, K1V 1T7, Canada. E-mail: [email protected].

Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020

Abstract Hot spring is a natural source of hot water that gets heated by the geothermal gradient beneath the earth and ultimately rises up to the earth’s surface through the fissures or fractures of the rocks. In Nepal, hot springs are mostly originated in the area of geologically active tectonic belts (major faults): the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Ramgarh Thrust (RT) and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). Spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation) and health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, and hydrotherapy) are likely to play an important role to boost the local economy leading to sustainable development of the communities. Mostly domestic and international tourists have been using the hot spring water for the treatment of different diseases/physical problems besides the relaxation, recreation and leisure. It can also be considered as an optional renewable energy for the production of the hydroelectricity in some places. Based on literature reviews, this paper highlights the ongoing researches on the origin and geochemistry of the hot spring and pinpoints the research gap to be conducted. It also discusses how the hot springs could be used effectively in the favour of local communities maintaining physical environment and cultural harmony of the area.

JEL Classification: Q20, O10 Keywords: hot springs, tourism, renewable energy, sustainable development, Nepal

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1. Introduction A spring that discharges water heated by natural process is known as thermal spring. If the water has a temperature higher than that of the human body (370C), the spring is called a hot spring (Lapidus, 1990). The major sources of heat, which make spring water hot, are magmatic, radioactive disintegration, thermal gradient, and chemical changes within the earth’s crust (Sterns et al., 1937). Hot springs are mostly originated in the area of volcanoes (e. g. in Japan) and in the area of young tectonic belts (e. g. in Nepal). In some occasions hot springs are also formed when ground water comes in contact with heated rocks or steam of magmatic origin and the hot water comes out to the surface through veins or fissures. The chemical composition of any particular hot spring depends on the chemical composition of the host rocks through which it seeps. In Nepal, hot springs are natural sources of hot water that are mainly found near the tectonic structures such as thrust faults (major geological fissures and cracks which have dissected the crust to significant depth). The monsoon rain or surface water seeps underneath the ground surface and gets heated by the geothermal energy deeper underground. The heated water ultimately rises up again to the surface through these faults in the form of hot spring or a thermal spring. As in the cases of other mountain belts, the Himalayan region also has several major and minor geological deformational structures like folds, faults (thrust/normal), unconformities, joints, and foliations. In case of the thrust structures, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) provide basic framework of the Himalaya (Figure 1). The Ramgarh Thrust (RT) is another major thrust fault within the Lesser Himalayan rocks (DeCelles et al., 1998). Around the Tatopani - Dana area of the Kaligandaki River Valley, west-central Nepal, Sybrubesi area (Trishuli River Valley) of central Nepal and in other locations of central and western Nepal numerous hot springs are originated mainly around the MCT and the RT zones. More to these, hot springs are also reported in the Thakkhola - Mustang area (Ranjit, 2005) where these are associated with the Thakkhola - Mustang graben related to the normal fault at around Jomsom area, west-central Nepal (Colchen, 1999). They emerged incising the deep gorges of the valleys. These hot springs, including many others in other places, are mainly located along the river bank sides of the main river valleys around these tectonic faults. Few of them are also located at the south of the MBT to the Siwaliks Hills (Surai Khola and Rior thermal springs) (Ranjit, 1994). People have been using hot springs in Nepal primarily with the belief of curing various diseases and also for the leisure and recreation purposes. Bathing in hot springs is recommended by senior people of Nepalese society for the treatment of rheumatism, gout and skin diseases, etc. The hot springs are popular among the trekkers to get relaxed after a tiresome climb up the mountain terrains. The expanding tourism industry in the region has contributed significant boost in the number of visitors to these springs. Nepal has been one of the famous tourist destinations in the world since it opened up to the world with the very first ascent of Mt. Everest by human beings in 1953. Exotic cultural heritages of Nepal also attract similar number of tourists. According to the record of Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2020, the tourists had visited Nepal in 2019 for the different purposes: 65% for recreational, 17% for trekking and mountaineering, 14% for pilgrimage and religious, and 4% for other purposes (Economic Survey of Nepal, 2019/20).

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Figure 1 (a) Regional Geological Map of the Himalaya (Gansser, 1964). (b) Generalized North-South Geological Section Showing Major Thrusts (MBT, MCT) and Normal Fault (STD) of the Himalaya (after Law et al., 2004)

Many foreigners/tourists visit Nepal every year not only to explore the natural scene and scenery, but also to experience the cultural diversity of Nepal. Consequently, considering tourism as a major economic source for the country, geothermal springs (hot springs) can effectively be used for strengthening local livelihood. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the importance of hot springs in promoting tourism and also contributing livelihood opportunities for the local people. Also, it highlights the ongoing research on the origin and geochemistry of the hot spring and pinpoints the research gap to be conducted in future. Clarifying further research needs, this paper also discusses the possibilities of hot spring to be used not only for curing certain diseases, but also as an option of the renewable energy for the sustainable development of the region. To achieve the objectives, relevant literatures were reviewed and some of the hot spring sites were also visited. 2. Origin of Hot Springs in the Nepal Himalaya The 2400 km long Himalayan range, including the Mt. Everest, the highest mountain of the world, is formed by the continent - continent collision between the Indian and southern edge of the Eurasian (Asian) plates resulting the closing of the Tethys sea during the period of Eocene (about 55 Ma) (Figure 1). Even after the evolution of the Himalayan range, the Indian continent maintained its subduction activity below the Eurasian continent and today, the Indian plate is still moving northward bulldozing through the Asian plate resulting the convergence,

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deformation and uplift processes with an average convergence rate of 5 cm/year (Molnar & Tapponnier, 1975; Patriat & Achache, 1984). During the convergence process, the Indian crust was fractured, shortened and thrusted to the south along series of north dipping thrust faults as slices of the breads. These thrust faults have divided the Himalayan orogeny into three major intracontinental thrust packages (Gansser, 1964; Law et al., 2004; Figure 1). These thrusts also demark the main geological units of the Himalaya, namely, the Higher Himalaya (terrain situated to the north of the MCT), the Lesser Himalaya (terrain sandwiched between the MCT and the MBT), the Siwaliks or Sub-Himalaya (terrain sandwiched between the MBT and the HFT), and the Indo - Gangatic plain or Terai (almost flat alluvial plain situated to the south of the HFT), from north to south, respectively. Beside these thrust faults, a major normal fault known as South Tibetan Detachment (STD) separates the Higher Himalaya to the south and Tibetan - Tethys Himalaya to the north (Figure 1). Out of the 2400 km long Himalayan range, the Nepal Himalaya (800 km long) is the central part of the Himalayan range (Uperti and Le Fort, 1999). The Ramgarh Thrust (RT) is another major thrust fault that has brought the lower and older rocks of the Lesser Himalaya over the younger Lesser Himalayan rocks (DeCelles et al., 1998). Similarly, the High Himalayan Discontinuity (HHD), also known as the High Himalaya Thrust (HHT) is a tectono - metamorphic discontinuity (metre- to kilometer-thick shear zone) separating the Higher Himalaya into Upper Higher Himalaya and Lower Higher Himalaya (Carosi et al., 2017). Although the MCT, the MBT, and the HFT are well exposed throughout Nepal, the RT and HHD are well exposed only in few areas. Investigations on the hot springs in the Nepal Himalaya were carried out by limited researchers (Bhattarai, 1980; Kotarba et al., 1981; Grabczak & Kotarba, 1985; Kotarba, 1985; Ranjit, 1994, 2000, 2005, 2015; Cattin et al., 2001; Evans et al., 2001, 2004; Perrier et al., 2002, 2009; IRDS, 2003; Jnawali, 2004; Alam & Chandrasekharam, 2004; Kandel, 2007; Becker et al., 2008; Girault et al., 2009; Derry et al., 2009; Rai, 2011). According to Perrier et al. (2002) the hot springs correspond to the exit points of meteoric water which is recharged on the High Himalaya (Higher Himalaya and Tibetan -Tethys Himalaya) and the Tibetan plateau (Figure 2). The MCT zone is the major sheared zone of increased permeability in the brittle crust (Perrier et al., 2002). According to Cattin et al. (2001), the geothermal circulation process, where meteoritic water gets heated, happens at high temperature at great depth and the heated water is drained out along the Main Central Thrust (MCT) zone to the surface in the form of spring. Some researches show the reactivation of the MCT and development of the younger brittle faults/deformation around the MCT at Syabrubesi, Langtang area (Macfarlane et al., 1992; Macfarlane, 1993); Burhi Gandaki and Anku Khola areas (Copeland et al., 1991); Marsyangdi Valley area (Edwards, 1995). Few hot water springs have been reported in these late phase deformational localities. In addition, some of the hot springs are mainly concentrated in around the MCT and the RT zones (Figure 3). Copeland et al. (1991) suggest that hydrothermal fluids produced in the MBT should be percolated at the MCT zone with late phase of heating/deformation around 4 Ma to 5 Ma. This late phase of deformation around the MCT could be responsible for the recharged meteoric water to emerge out as hot springs.

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Figure 2 Schematic Diagram (Not In Scale) for Geothermal Circulation in the Nepal Himalaya. The Meteoric Water Percolate Through the High Himalaya (The Higher Himalaya and The Tibetan - Tethys Himalaya) and The Tibetan Plateau and Recharge at The Greater Depth and Finally the Recharged Meteoric Water Drain Out along The Main Central Thrust (MCT) or around The MCT Zone to the Surface (Perrier et al., 2002)(See figure below on left)

Figure 3 Location of hot springs at the MCT and the RT zones at Syabrubesi area, Central Nepal. HH: Higher Himalaya; LH: Lesser Himalaya; MCT: Main Central ThrusT; RT: Ramgarh Thrust

3. Hot Spring Locations in Nepal Geological circumstances suggest that there could be many hot springs in Nepal. However, due to poor accessibility to the potential locations they are yet to be investigated in detail. They may be located at the difficult terrains or there may not be any settlements around to provide information on it. Some of the well-known hot springs are located around the accessible area connected by the motor-able roads or trekking routes: Syabrubesi (Rasuwa); Kharpani (Seti River); Jhinu (Modi Khola); Marsyangdi River (just below the headquarter of Manang district); Tatopani village (bank of the Kaligandaki River Valley); Khalanga Bazaar (bank of Tila Nadi Mayana near Bauli Gad and Jeoli Gad); Tapoban (Bajhang); Valley of the Ritha God River (Darchula); bank of Burhi Gandaki River (Manaslu Base Camp route), Bhurung (Myagdi) along Annapurna circuit; Singha Tatopani along Myagdi Khola; Kodari, Tatopani Bazzar (near Nepal - China boarder, Sindhupalchowk district). Most of the hot springs of the different parts of country are compiled and presented in Figure 4 and Table 1. From Figures 2 and 4, it can be said that in the Nepal Himalaya the meteoric water or surface water seeps beneath the ground through the discontinuities existed in the rocks exposed in the region. The water then reaches at greater depth around the MCT or the RT and gets heated due to high temperature in the crust and rises up to the surface along these fractures/thrust faults in the form of hot spring. The same phenomenon can be attributed to the springs in the Siwalik Hills situated to the south of the MBT.

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Figure 4 Location map of hot springs in Nepal (modified after Ranjit, 1994)

4. Geochemical Composition of Hot Springs Generally, hot springs contain the following minerals: calcium, chloride, iron, sodium, magnesium, potassium, silicate, lithium and sulphate. Among them, sulphates are mixed with the spring water in extremely high amount. There are few researches carried out on the geochemistry of the hot springs in Nepal (Bhattarai, 1980; Kotarba et al., 1981; Grabczak & Kotarba, 1985; Kotarba, 1985; Ranjit, 1994, 2005, 2015; Evan et al., 2001, 2004; Perrier et al., 2002, 2009; Kandel, 2007: Girault et al., 2009). Bhattarai (1980) has found the thermal springs are of tectonic origin based on the chemical results with dissolved silica content and the atomic ratio of Na/K with the low subsurface temperature. Ranjit (1994) has carried out the geochemical analysis of the 14 hot springs of the Nepal collecting the samples from the lower altitude (Siwaliks) to the higher altitudes (e. g. Jomsom, High Himalaya). The hot spring water are colorless, alkaline and characterized by the hydrogen sulphide odour in the hot springs of Jomsom, Tapoban - Bajhang, Rior, Darchula, Syabrubesi, Bhurung - Myagdi (Ranjit, 1994; Kandel, 2007). Perrier et al. (2009) have carried out a research on high carbon dioxide and radon - 222 discharge at Syabrubesi hot spring of the central Nepal. The hot spring of Syabrubesi has high salinity, high alkalinity with the temperature of 610C. According to them, carbon dioxide gas is released from the middle crustal depth of the Indian continent due to the metamorphic reaction,

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and it is circulated upwards with the meteoric water along the existing faults or fractures and degassed before reaching to the earth’s surface. Table 1 Locations of Hot Springs, Their Flow Rates and Surface Temperatures in Nepal (Compiled by Ranjit, 1994, 2000, 2015; Kandel, 2007, Raza et al., 2011) S.No. Locality Longitude Latitude Flow rate Water ( E ) ( N ) ( lit./s ) temperature at surface ( 0C) 1 Sribagar, Darchula 80.600 29.900 0.90 73 2 Sina-Tatonpani, Darchula 80.700 29.900 0.80 30 3 Chamaliya, Darchula 80.600 29.700 0.30 30 4 Tapoban, Bajhang 81.200 29.600 0.3 31 5 Dhanchauri-Luma, Jumla 82.300 29.300 0.8 24 6 Tila Nadi, Jumla 82.700 27.900 3 42 7 Rior, Dang 82.700 27.800 1.5 33 8 Surai Khola, Kapilvastu 83.700 27.800 1.7 37 9 Chaarang, Mustang 83.980 29.200 0.2 33 10 Jomsom, Mustang 83.700 28.500 0.07 72 11 Dhima, Mustang 83.980 29.100 1.5 NA 12 Chookumau, Mustang 83.700 29.800 0.2-0.5 21 13 Sadhu Khola, Mustang 84.200 28.400 1.39 69 14 Singha Tatopani, Myagdi 83.300 28.200 6 54 15 Bhurung Tatopani, Myagdi 83.700 28.400 1.8 72 16 Ratopani Tatopani, Myagdi 83.800 28.900 1.5 54 17 Darmija Tatopani, Myagdi 84.080 29.250 1.0 40 18 Gurja, Myagdi NA NA NA NA 19 Tareja, Myagdi NA NA NA NA 20 Dharapani, Manang 84.350 28.500 0.16 33 21 Chame, Manang 84.23 0 28.500 1.0 55 22 La Ta, Manang 84.300 28.500 NA NA 23 Makaibari, Manang 84.36 0 28.400 NA NA 24 Kharpani, Seti River 84.100 28.400 0.4 48 25 Mayangdi 83.500 28.200 2 40 26 Bhulbhule Khar, Tanahu 84.200 28.200 1.05 34 27 Thuman thermal spring 85.300 28.300 0.83 48 28 Chilime, Rasuwa 85.200 28.100 0.4 34 29 Syabrubesi, Rusuwa 85.200 28.100 0.3 34 30 Kodari, Sindhupalchok 83.90 0 27.900 5.5 42 31 MachaKhola, Gorkha NA NA NA NA 32 Hotiyana, Sankhuwasabha NA NA NA NA 33 Lendekhola thermal spring 85.200 28.100 NA NA 34 Chitepani thermal spring, Madi 84.400 28.100 NA NA Riverside 35 Seti Khola thermal spring 83.600 28.200 0.2 44 Note: NA refers to Not Available 31

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Evan et al. (2001) have carried out a research on hydrothermal source of radiogenic strontium to Himalayan rivers near the Main Central Thrust in the Marsyandi River of central Nepal. Evan et al. (2004) found that the high-temperature silicate alteration is the dominant source of hot spring alkalinity with more than >50% of the cationic and enriched in germanium (Ge) with high but variable Ge/Si charge. Girault et al. (2009) have carried out the research on persistance of radon - 222 flux Monsoon at geothermal zone in Nepal. The surface temperature of the thermal springs show that Sribagar records the maximum surface temperature (730C), followed by the Jomsom and Bhurung Tatopani (720 C), followed by Sadhu Khola (690 C) (Ranjit, 1994) (Table 1). The geochemistry results of the geothermal springs show that the spring water has extensive interaction with the country rocks at the low temperature based on the evaluation of Na-K and K-Mg equilibrium temperatures of the springs (Ranjit, 2000, 2005). The spring water of Sadhu Khola, Bhurung Tatopani, Chimile, Sribagar, Jomsom, Dhanchauri and Tila Nadi are equilibrium while the water of the other springs seems to be unsaturated and mixed with the hydrothermal alteration minerals (Table 2). The spring water of Sadhu Khola, Mayangdi and Bhurung Tatopani are rich in chloride while the waters from Jomsom, Dhanchauri, Surai Khola, Chilime are in CO2 reactivity based on the Cl-SO4- HCO3 diagram (Ranjit, 2005; Table 2). Table 2 Chemical Compositions of the Some Hot Spring Localities in Nepal (in mg/l) (after Ranjit, 2005)

S.N Location pH Na K Mg Ca Cl SO4 HCO3 SiO2 B TDS 1 Bhurung Tatopani 7 370 95 27 108 583 207 370 71 14.1 1650 2 Jomsom 8 60 5.6 54 113 96 249 302 14.3 2.4 850 3 Tila Nadi 7.3 56 0 1.2 6 45 130 0 60 0 253 4 Dhanchauri Luma 7 49 1.3 0.2 6.1 82 104 217 56 0 803 5 Mayangdi 8 460 49 17 2 351 68 430 43 0.3 1340 6 Rior 9 310 4 3 4 14 70 7.9 37.5 6 788 7 Surai Khola 9 123 3.9 28 18 3.2 70 370 38.5 0.1 510 8 Sribagar 7 100 11 5.5 NA 34.2 18.5 NA 35 0 516 9 Chamaliya 7 NA NA NA NA 39.6 10.7 NA 10 NA 1320 10 Tapoban Bajhang 5 NA 22 10 NA 50.1 25.9 NA 16 0 444 11 Sadhu Khola 7 300 12 0.6 10 268 197 78 60 0 954 12 Chilime 7 7.35 8.1 20.8 25.8 10 6 180 47.1 0 166 13 Singha Tatopani 7.2 64 1.5 1.8 6.8 51 140 10 68 0 353 14 Syabrubesi 1 8 73 44 84 38 66 94 848 59.7 NA 620 15 Syabrubesi 2 7.5 7.2 12.5 90.5 75.9 12 121.4 760 35.3 NA 1300 16 Kodari 7.3 147 29.7 20.5 53.5 31.5 85.6 412.5 44.3 1.36 NA Note: NA refers to Not Available

5. Discussion The importance of use of hot springs is well recognized in the society from various approaches: medical, recreation, farming, fish hatching, tourism, etc. Although Nepalese society has placed all of these sectors with equal importance, it would be more beneficial if high priority is given to tourism and medicinal purposes.

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5.1 Hot Spring (Geothermal Tourism) Related Tourism Tourism sectors have been using the hot spring or geothermal resources to provide recreational facilities to the tourists or visitors (Erfurt-Cooper, 2010; Figure 5). These days’ people are more aware of and tend to take care of their health and wellness any way possible. Many have been using geothermal and mineral water therapies to improve their health conditions along with the spectacular view that comes with these springs (Erfurt-Cooper, 2010, 2011). Erfurt-Cooper (2010) has mentioned the following tourism sectors that are using the hot springs: (a) spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation); (b) health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, hydrotherapy); (c) geo-tourism and ecotourism (geothermal features as visual attractions); (d) adventure tourism (extreme geothermal environments); and (e) nature- based tourism. Figure 5 Different Tourism Sectors benefiting from the Hot Springs in the World (Erfurt-Cooper, 2010)

Geothermal spring can be used for the promotion of the tourism industry in Nepal. Among the different tourism sectors, (a) spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation); (b) health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, and hydrotherapy) have culturally, religiously, medically, and traditionally been used in Nepal. It could also be a part of geo- tourism. 5.1.1 Spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation) Hot spring baths can be used for mentally uplifting and relaxing for people seeking alternative ways for healthy lifestyle and wellbeing (Erfurt-Cooper, 2010). Nepal, as a mountainous country, is one of the major attractions for many international and domestic tourists for each year. People from all over the world visit Nepal in order to admire the natural beauty and experience the cultural heritage and diversity of the society and the socio-cultural environment. During their visits, people often use the hot springs for spa and wellness purposes, mostly along the famous trekking routes such as Annapurna circuit (the Ghorepani Tatopani and Bhurung Tatopani - Dana Tatopani); Singha hot spring along Myagdi Khola, close to Beni

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Bazaar; Tatopani along the Kaligandaki River Valley towards upper Mustang, Syabrubesi hot spring along the Bhotekoshi River - Langtang Valley, Kodari hot spring along the Bhotekoshi Nadi (Nepal - China boarder), etc. (Figures 6a – 6f). Many domestic visitors usually come to these locations for balneotherapy as well each year. The tourists during their trekking journey in the hilly region like to take relaxing bath in hot springs for relaxation, leisure and recreation. This in turn has helped the local businesses such as restaurants and hotels to stay afloat. The growing numbers of visitors to these springs have benefitted more from the hot water bath than just relaxation. People use these springs in order to help with certain health issues as well. Removing bodily toxins, heightening the metabolic rate, retaining a good blood circulation and getting rid of normal strain and stresses of daily life have also been main purposes of people visiting these hot springs. 5.1.2 Health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, hydrotherapy) Thermal therapy and balneo therapy are commonly used for the treatment of chronic aches and pains. Hot springs are also equally important for the therapeutic and curative value. Especially in the Nepalese society, use of hot springs is traditionally, culturally, medically and religiously embedded as a part of life. It is strongly believed and increasingly accepted as an alternative to conventional medical practices in treating various long - term diseases including arthritis. People believe that using of hot spring helps cure the problem of joints, gastritis, gout, arthritis, ligament damage, relieve pain, skins diseases, paralysis, rheumatism, sleep disturbances, weight loss, preventing sickness and virus, increasing the immune system, killing the harmful germs in the body. Das et al. (2012) have carried out a research on the use of hot spring linking it with the society and medical importance in Sikkim, India. The study indicated that 36.98% of people with arthritis, 30.14% with joint pain, 19.18% with gastric/metabolic disorder, 5.59% with skin diseases such as scabies, and 9.59% of the people with paralysis (4.11%) have utilised the hot spring to help them cure. Hamzah et al. (2013) carried out a research on the hot spring water of + + 2+ 2- State of Selangor, Malaysia and found the chemical constituents of Na , K , Ca , S, SO4 and Cl- anion present in the water are good for balneotherapy. Vaidya & Nakarmi (2020) have carried out a research on the belief and perception of patients towards the natural hot spring bath and its medicinal properties for musculoskeletal problems in Myagdi, Nepal. They found that 31% of the patients had inflammatory arthritis, degenerative disorders (29.4%) and followed by soft-tissue rheumatism in 12.7%. 5.2 Research Previous studies have been very limited in the aspect of hot springs and their socio- economic effect in the region. Most of the prominent springs are located immediately below or above the MCT. Because the MCT is a highly sheared zone, where water easily percolates down, through which the recharged water from greater depth of the crust rises up along these sheared zones in the form of spring. Two interesting phenomenon have been observed indicated by the location of the hot springs in Nepal. First, there is currently only one known hot spring (Hotiyana hot spring, Sankhuwasabha district) reported in the eastern Nepal (Ranjit, 2015) and rest of the hot springs are mostly located in the western and central Nepal around the MCT and RT zones. These springs are emerged in the base (foothill) of steep and deep gorges along the

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major river banks. Second, hot springs are not reported to and around the Mahabharat Thrust (MT) (southern extension of the Main Central Thrust) in the crystalline nappe (e, g. Kathmandu Nappe) thrusted southwards close to the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). This may be because of the fact that these thrust planes might be aligned along the shallow depth and the percolated meteoritic water do not have sufficient temperature to be heated due to low thermal gradient. Besides, it may be that the uprising recharged water from the depth might have been mixed up with the aquifer of the groundwater and water temperature goes down significantly. Also, no hot springs are reported around the High Himalayan Discontinuity (HHD)/High Himalaya Thrust (HHT) zone in the Higher Himalaya, north of the MCT. It requires further research on the existence of the hot springs and structural controls in the crystalline nappe and other parts of the country around the MCT and the RT zones (e. g. eastern Nepal) and the HHD/HHT zone of the Higher Himalaya. Figure 6 Some Popular Hot springs of Nepal. (a) Kodari Hot Spring, Bhotekosi Nadi; (b) Syabrubesi Hot Spring, Bhotekosi River; (c) Tatopani Hot Spring, Kaligandaki River Valley; (d) Tatopani Hot Spring, Bhotekosi Nadi; (e) Hot Spring along Annapurna Circuit; and (f) Bhurung Tatopani Hot Spring, Myagdi.

Note: Sources for Figures d & e: https://traveltriangle.com/blog/hot-springs-in-nepal/ and source for Figure f: Shrestha, S., 2016, Nepali Times

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A few researches have been carried out with the good results on the geochemistry of the thermal springs in Nepal. Based on the variable surface temperature from 210C to 730C and flow rate (0.07- 6 l/s) of various hot springs from different geologic units (Table 1), there might be roles of the different parameters: chemical composition of the host rocks where meteoric water interact, depth of thermal gradient and chemical changes, depth of the recharged zone, nature of the porosity of the sheared zone, inclination of the sheared planes, etc. Until now there has not been any report of the quantity of hydrogen sulphide (H2S) in hot spring water of Nepal. Presence of hydrogen sulphide in spring water is considered to be one of the essential factors for its use in curing various skin diseases by local people. For more clarification, further research on chemical studies including the stable isotope geochemistry of the host rocks and hot springs water with the surface water during different seasonal periods should be carried out in each of the different geologic tectonic zones. Finally, comparing the results with each other will certainly enhance our knowledge to understand the details of recharge area of the hot spring water and their chemical and mineralogical compositions. Hot springs of Nepal have always provided a sense of recovery for people who have exhausted all of their options for curing their diseases. People tend to visit hot springs even when they are on a certain medical treatment, just to fasten the recovery process. Mineral hot spring with sodium bicarbonate and calcium helps for the blood circulation in the body. So, the springs are more of an alternative therapeutic advantage these days, leading to have specialised fields such as balneotherapy and thermal therapy. Most of the people have felt some sort of cure after hot spring treatments, and some even fully recovered. However, we still do not have enough researches to link the specific properties of hot spring water which is contributing to cure diseases. Are there any relations between chemical and mineralogical compositions of the hot spring water with the chemistry of the human body (patient)? If such a research is carried out, it would be interesting to see the interaction between the chemical properties of the hot water and the body chemistry of the patient. Such study will certainly help to highlight the importance of the hot spring in curing certain specific type of disease. 5.3 Thermal Energy In the fiscal year of 2019/20, Nepal has been the energy consumption by the different purposes (traditionally - 68.7%; commercially - 28.1%, and renewable energy - 3.2%), respectively (Economic Survey of Nepal, 2019/20; Figure 7). Traditional energy consumption sources are firewood for cooking, agriculture residues, and livestock residues; commercial sources (petrol, coal) and electricity; and renewable energy, respectively. Thermal energy is one of the alternate energy resources for the renewable energy especially for hydroelectricity production. The electricity can be produced by using the hot springs of Sribagar (Darchula) (having maximum surface temperature of 730C); 720C of Jomsom hot spring of Mustang district and Bhurung Tatopani, Myagdi district and 690C of Sadhu Khola hot spring (Mustang district) (Ranjit, 2000, 2015). Although the electricity production may not be of high quantity, it can be used to attract tourists including school students to teach them about the origin of the hot spring in Nepal and how electricity can be generated through it. Based on the stable isotope studies the Sadhu Khola hot spring and Jomsom hot spring have a possibility of the large geothermal reservoir in central Nepal (Ranjit,

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2010). However, it still requires a detailed geological study including geophysical survey to get more information for the estimation of the geothermal reservoir. Figure 7 Status of Energy Consumption (in percentage) (Source: Ministry of Energy, Water Resources and Irrigation, 2020 in Economic Survey 2019/2020, Government of Nepal)

Most of the hot springs have the surface temperatures less than 400C, which may be used for the productive economic projects such as fish hatching, space heating, mushroom growing, greenhouse heating, soil heating for multiple crop production, snow melting, etc. 5.4 Involvement of Local Community/Local Government Hot springs in Nepal are gradually gaining their foothold as a popular destination for relaxation and wellness among local as well as international visitors. On some occasions, it gets extremely difficult managing the hot spring properly due to high influx of visitors during the winter season. This normally happens on some of the popular ones. The role of the local community and the local authorities becomes very important for the proper management of the hot springs along the hiking routes, or for some of the popular hot springs located elsewhere. The local communities, municipalities, and provincial governments should work in joint collaboration adapting clear policies and upholding law and order to develop and manage physical infrastructures required. Amenities such as showers, change rooms, toilets, ticket counters, and information desks should be established and located in the vicinity of the spring area and should be kept in order. Safety establishments such as safe drinking water, security and accessibility, ease of access for people who might find it harder to access the site should be addressed properly. These locations should also be made friendly to elderly and disable people. Proper drainage system, facility constructions under prevalent laws and policies, with minimal effect to the local environment should be considered. Facilities to provide first aid and primary health care, waste management and safety policy should be established. Further, plans to include therapies such as yoga, ayurvedic medicinal techniques and even shamanism with approaches to include travel and trekking agencies as potential partners in exploiting the hot springs would help. A detailed geological and hydrogeological study of the hot spring area should be conducted and its findings such as source of heat, mineral composition, temperature 37

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and discharge fluctuations, recharge area, oxygen isotope, seeping path, etc. should be made public appealing local people to conserve the area with utmost care. The media can be utilized to its full potential in disseminating the information about the hot spring sites. The media includes manual flyers distribution, television, radio, and social media that can be used to inform, educate and organize workshops in national and international level. The hot spring water can be pumped and stored in hotels and restaurants, particularly in night time, to be used for showering and other domestic purposes. This will lower the burden on local electricity transmission lines. Short trekking routes can also be operated around the hot spring sites to provide more attractions to the tourists. 5.5 Socio-economic Impact Spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation) and health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, and hydrotherapy) have proven themselves to be one of the major productive economic sources for the people of hot spring localities of Nepal. The emergence of some of the popular hot springs in Nepal has shown both positive and negative impacts in society and its economics. Around these famous hot springs, there are many restaurants, hotels, lodges, recreation centres built for the visitors/tourists. As a result many people are getting employment in providing the services to the visitors and tourists; selling the local agricultural products; so the economy of the local community has been going in progress and being strong day by day. However, there may be possible negative impacts as well with the environment pollution due to mismanagement of solid waste and using of polluted water in the hot springs. Consequently, the visitors may be sick. Similarly, any other activities conducted defying the law and order will result crimes which might be serious. Although there aren’t many side effects known until now, some people might feel slight discomfort by being in the hot water for a long time. If the hot springs and settlement area have not been properly protected against geological hazards, there is a possibility that the settlements in the vicinity may suffer during cloud burst or seismic event. Likewise, a good attention is to be paid always for not having cross-cultural misunderstandings among the tourists and the local inhabitants. 6. Conclusion Located in a central part of the Himalayan arc, Nepal has different mountain ranges developed due to the collision of Indian and Asian continental plates. As a consequence of the collision, geological structures like folds and faults are well developed in the Nepalese terrains. Among the major faults, the High Himalaya Thrust (HHT), the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Ramgarh Thrust (RT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) provide the basic framework of the Nepalese Himalaya. These faults, particularly the MCT, the RT and the MBT have resulted in deeply penetrated cracks or permeable zones in their peripheries through which geothermal heated water emerges to the ground surface in the form of hot water springs, whose temperature and discharge vary between 21 and 730C, and 0.07 and 6 lit./s., respectively. Similarly, the content of SO4 variation is also remarkably contrasts (6 – 249 mg/l). However, further research is required to clarify the role of major geological structures for not reporting the hot water springs in the HHT and the MT (southern extension of the MCT) areas. The recharge area for the existing hot water springs is the mountainous terrain located to the north of the MCT including the snow-peaked mountains and

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Tibetan plateau. Detailed geological investigation should be conducted to identify the critical locations which should be conserved in order to safe guard the existence of hot water springs. Visitors within the country come to the hot springs to help treat and potentially cure various diseases/problems including joints, gastritis, gout, arthritis, ligament damage, pain, skin diseases, paralysis, rheumatism, sleep issue, weight issue, boost the immune system and to get rid of germs from the body besides relaxation, recreation and leisure. So, the hot water spring localities can be designated as the tourist destinations with emphasis on spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation) and health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, and hydrotherapy). This will enable both national and international trekkers to be benefitted from healing properties of these hot springs which will reduce stress and help feel them relaxed at the end of the day. There is a high potential to attract more tourists in the days ahead with upgrading and expanding existing physical infrastructures around these natural springs. Hot water spring can be used as an alternative renewable energy source by using it to produce hydroelectricity in some places (e.g. at Jomsom hot spring and Sadhu Khola hot spring) as of now. However, a detailed geological study including geophysical survey is to be carried out to estimate the possibility of development of a geothermal reservoir at these locations. In majority of the cases, the hot springs can be used for the productive economic projects such as in fish hatcheries, mushroom farms, as a heating agent in space heating, heating greenhouses, heating soil for multiple crop production and even melting snow. It is recommended that the local government in collaboration with the local communities have to explore further to utilize the hot water spring to the extent possible. The research on the origin and development of hot water reservoir can contribute academically to construct a model on the Himalayan hot water springs. It will greatly assist to make a decision on the utilization of the thermal energy as renewable energy in Nepal. Furthermore, a study on chemical and mineral composition of hot springs can help to understand the link between the composition of the hot spring water and its effects on specific disease and its cure. References Alam, M. A., & Chandrasekharam, D. (2004). Geothermal Nepal: Prospects, implements and solutions. Abstract, Jour. Nepal Geol. Soc., 30, 22-23.

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