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Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020, 24 – 42 Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020, 24 – 42 ©2020 KarmaQuest International, Canada www.karmaquest.org/journal (ISSN: 2371-9540) Hot Water Springs (Thermal Springs) in Nepal: A Review on Their Location, Origin, and Importance Santa M. Rai1, Tara N. Bhattarai2, and Durga Khatiwada3 1KarmaQuest International, 941 Goose River Avenue, Gloucester, ON, K1V 1T7, Canada 2Professor, Department of Geology, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal (E-mail:[email protected]) 3Central Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal (E-mail:[email protected]) Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Santa Man Rai, KarmaQuest International, 941 Goose River Avenue, Gloucester, ON, K1V 1T7, Canada. E-mail: [email protected]. Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020 Abstract Hot spring is a natural source of hot water that gets heated by the geothermal gradient beneath the earth and ultimately rises up to the earth’s surface through the fissures or fractures of the rocks. In Nepal, hot springs are mostly originated in the area of geologically active tectonic belts (major faults): the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Ramgarh Thrust (RT) and the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). Spa and wellness tourism (leisure and recreation) and health and medical tourism (thermalism, balneology, and hydrotherapy) are likely to play an important role to boost the local economy leading to sustainable development of the communities. Mostly domestic and international tourists have been using the hot spring water for the treatment of different diseases/physical problems besides the relaxation, recreation and leisure. It can also be considered as an optional renewable energy for the production of the hydroelectricity in some places. Based on literature reviews, this paper highlights the ongoing researches on the origin and geochemistry of the hot spring and pinpoints the research gap to be conducted. It also discusses how the hot springs could be used effectively in the favour of local communities maintaining physical environment and cultural harmony of the area. JEL Classification: Q20, O10 Keywords: hot springs, tourism, renewable energy, sustainable development, Nepal 25 Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020 1. Introduction A spring that discharges water heated by natural process is known as thermal spring. If the water has a temperature higher than that of the human body (370C), the spring is called a hot spring (Lapidus, 1990). The major sources of heat, which make spring water hot, are magmatic, radioactive disintegration, thermal gradient, and chemical changes within the earth’s crust (Sterns et al., 1937). Hot springs are mostly originated in the area of volcanoes (e. g. in Japan) and in the area of young tectonic belts (e. g. in Nepal). In some occasions hot springs are also formed when ground water comes in contact with heated rocks or steam of magmatic origin and the hot water comes out to the surface through veins or fissures. The chemical composition of any particular hot spring depends on the chemical composition of the host rocks through which it seeps. In Nepal, hot springs are natural sources of hot water that are mainly found near the tectonic structures such as thrust faults (major geological fissures and cracks which have dissected the crust to significant depth). The monsoon rain or surface water seeps underneath the ground surface and gets heated by the geothermal energy deeper underground. The heated water ultimately rises up again to the surface through these faults in the form of hot spring or a thermal spring. As in the cases of other mountain belts, the Himalayan region also has several major and minor geological deformational structures like folds, faults (thrust/normal), unconformities, joints, and foliations. In case of the thrust structures, the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), and the Himalayan Frontal Thrust (HFT) provide basic framework of the Himalaya (Figure 1). The Ramgarh Thrust (RT) is another major thrust fault within the Lesser Himalayan rocks (DeCelles et al., 1998). Around the Tatopani - Dana area of the Kaligandaki River Valley, west-central Nepal, Sybrubesi area (Trishuli River Valley) of central Nepal and in other locations of central and western Nepal numerous hot springs are originated mainly around the MCT and the RT zones. More to these, hot springs are also reported in the Thakkhola - Mustang area (Ranjit, 2005) where these are associated with the Thakkhola - Mustang graben related to the normal fault at around Jomsom area, west-central Nepal (Colchen, 1999). They emerged incising the deep gorges of the valleys. These hot springs, including many others in other places, are mainly located along the river bank sides of the main river valleys around these tectonic faults. Few of them are also located at the south of the MBT to the Siwaliks Hills (Surai Khola and Rior thermal springs) (Ranjit, 1994). People have been using hot springs in Nepal primarily with the belief of curing various diseases and also for the leisure and recreation purposes. Bathing in hot springs is recommended by senior people of Nepalese society for the treatment of rheumatism, gout and skin diseases, etc. The hot springs are popular among the trekkers to get relaxed after a tiresome climb up the mountain terrains. The expanding tourism industry in the region has contributed significant boost in the number of visitors to these springs. Nepal has been one of the famous tourist destinations in the world since it opened up to the world with the very first ascent of Mt. Everest by human beings in 1953. Exotic cultural heritages of Nepal also attract similar number of tourists. According to the record of Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation, 2020, the tourists had visited Nepal in 2019 for the different purposes: 65% for recreational, 17% for trekking and mountaineering, 14% for pilgrimage and religious, and 4% for other purposes (Economic Survey of Nepal, 2019/20). 26 Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020 Figure 1 (a) Regional Geological Map of the Himalaya (Gansser, 1964). (b) Generalized North-South Geological Section Showing Major Thrusts (MBT, MCT) and Normal Fault (STD) of the Himalaya (after Law et al., 2004) Many foreigners/tourists visit Nepal every year not only to explore the natural scene and scenery, but also to experience the cultural diversity of Nepal. Consequently, considering tourism as a major economic source for the country, geothermal springs (hot springs) can effectively be used for strengthening local livelihood. The main objective of this paper is to highlight the importance of hot springs in promoting tourism and also contributing livelihood opportunities for the local people. Also, it highlights the ongoing research on the origin and geochemistry of the hot spring and pinpoints the research gap to be conducted in future. Clarifying further research needs, this paper also discusses the possibilities of hot spring to be used not only for curing certain diseases, but also as an option of the renewable energy for the sustainable development of the region. To achieve the objectives, relevant literatures were reviewed and some of the hot spring sites were also visited. 2. Origin of Hot Springs in the Nepal Himalaya The 2400 km long Himalayan range, including the Mt. Everest, the highest mountain of the world, is formed by the continent - continent collision between the Indian and southern edge of the Eurasian (Asian) plates resulting the closing of the Tethys sea during the period of Eocene (about 55 Ma) (Figure 1). Even after the evolution of the Himalayan range, the Indian continent maintained its subduction activity below the Eurasian continent and today, the Indian plate is still moving northward bulldozing through the Asian plate resulting the convergence, 27 Journal of Development Innovations Vol. 4, No. 2, 2020 deformation and uplift processes with an average convergence rate of 5 cm/year (Molnar & Tapponnier, 1975; Patriat & Achache, 1984). During the convergence process, the Indian crust was fractured, shortened and thrusted to the south along series of north dipping thrust faults as slices of the breads. These thrust faults have divided the Himalayan orogeny into three major intracontinental thrust packages (Gansser, 1964; Law et al., 2004; Figure 1). These thrusts also demark the main geological units of the Himalaya, namely, the Higher Himalaya (terrain situated to the north of the MCT), the Lesser Himalaya (terrain sandwiched between the MCT and the MBT), the Siwaliks or Sub-Himalaya (terrain sandwiched between the MBT and the HFT), and the Indo - Gangatic plain or Terai (almost flat alluvial plain situated to the south of the HFT), from north to south, respectively. Beside these thrust faults, a major normal fault known as South Tibetan Detachment (STD) separates the Higher Himalaya to the south and Tibetan - Tethys Himalaya to the north (Figure 1). Out of the 2400 km long Himalayan range, the Nepal Himalaya (800 km long) is the central part of the Himalayan range (Uperti and Le Fort, 1999). The Ramgarh Thrust (RT) is another major thrust fault that has brought the lower and older rocks of the Lesser Himalaya over the younger Lesser Himalayan rocks (DeCelles et al., 1998). Similarly, the High Himalayan Discontinuity (HHD), also known as the High Himalaya Thrust (HHT) is a tectono - metamorphic discontinuity (metre- to kilometer-thick shear zone) separating the Higher Himalaya into Upper Higher Himalaya and Lower Higher Himalaya (Carosi et al., 2017). Although the MCT, the MBT, and the HFT are well exposed throughout Nepal, the RT and HHD are well exposed only in few areas. Investigations on the hot springs in the Nepal Himalaya were carried out by limited researchers (Bhattarai, 1980; Kotarba et al., 1981; Grabczak & Kotarba, 1985; Kotarba, 1985; Ranjit, 1994, 2000, 2005, 2015; Cattin et al., 2001; Evans et al., 2001, 2004; Perrier et al., 2002, 2009; IRDS, 2003; Jnawali, 2004; Alam & Chandrasekharam, 2004; Kandel, 2007; Becker et al., 2008; Girault et al., 2009; Derry et al., 2009; Rai, 2011).
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