Modeling Heaven and Earth: Layout of the First Capital City in Imperial

Wu Tinghai

(School of Architecture, Institute of Architectural and Urban Studies, Tsinghua University, [email protected]) Xu Bin

(The Palace Museum, [email protected]) Wang Xuerong

(Cultural Heritage Protection and Research Center, Institute of Archaeology of Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, [email protected])

Abstract: The planning and layout of , the first capital city in imperial China, reflects a characteristic of “modeling heaven and earth” (xiang tian fa di), which was founded along with the establishment of the central autocratic system, in order to demonstrate the national unification and the emperor’s authority. Based on the historic literature, the archaeological materials and the recovery of star maps, two types of “modeling heaven and earth” in Xianyang’s planning are revealed in this paper. One is the model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du” (across the River Wei through the Bridge Heng toward the south) in the period of the King of Zhaoxiang, the other is the model of “E Pang Du Wei” (across the River Wei from the Front Palace of Epang) in the period of the First Qin Emperor. The in-depth social and cultural background underlying these two models is also explored. Ultimately, it is declared that the practice of Xianyang has formed a new stream of “modeling heaven and earth” in the history of capital city planning in imperial China.

Key words: Capital city planning, Xianyang in , modeling heaven and earth 1 Introduction

There is a long-lasting and self-contained civilization in China, which has survived through all the changes of dynasties in history and significantly influenced the development of the world’s civilization. As the first empire of imperial China, the Qin Dynasty is a crucial period of the establishment of the territory, the nationality, the political system and the academic thought.1 In the book of Hanshu (the history of the Western Han), the capital city is called “the region of prime virtue”, which means the place representing the highest level of the national civilization. Thus, Xianyang, the capital city of Qin, is the focus of researchers concerning the history of capital city planning in imperial China. The planning and construction history of Xianyang can be dated from the twelfth year of the Duke of Qin Xiao (305 BC) to the death of the Second Emperor of Qin (206 BC), a total of 144 years. During that time, Xianyang has transformed from the “capital city of a state” to the “capital city of an empire”. Tracing the process of changing will help us to understand the planning theory and method of Qin and its profound impact on the subsequent dynasties. Researchers of historical geography and archaeology have made a series of achievements, which revealed the development of Xianyang starting from the north bank of the River Wei, then gradually expanding to the south bank, and finally forming the overall layout of “the River Wei across the city” (wei shui guan du). The relics or architectural remnants discovered are Xianyang Palace, Ganquan Palace, Palace of the Six States, Lanchi and Lanchi Palace, Wangyi Palace, Bimo Mausoleums on the north bank of the River Wei, and Bridge Heng across the river, as well as the Temple of Ancestors, Zhangtai Palace, Xingle Palace, Shanglin Gardens, Zhiyang Mausoleums, the Altar of Land and Grain, the Temple of the First Qin Emperor, the Front Palace of Epang, Lishan Mausoleum on the south bank of the River Wei, etc.2 Questions would be naturally raised facing these scattered sites, such as what the spatial pattern is, and what the planning theory is behind the pattern. To answer these questions, it is necessary to carry out further study. This paper will explore the theory and method of Xianyang’s planning from the perspective of the characteristic of “modeling heaven and earth” in Xianyang.

2 The model of “E Pang Du Wei” in the period of the First Qin Emperor

The tradition of recording history was formed even in Early China. , the

1 Qian Mu (1994) 2 Jiao Nanfeng at al. (2008) court historian of the Western who wrote Shiji (Records of the Historian), recorded the history of Qin in two chapters: the Annals of Qin (history before the First Qin Emperor) and the Annals of the First Qin Emperor. The latter is regarded as the most famous work and the longest article of Shiji. The Annals of the First Qin Emperor contains a full text of more than 13000 characters (excluding the punctuations), recording important events through the whole life of the First Qin Emperor (259 BC to 210 BC) in a chronological order. The events cover a time span from the year of ascending the throne (246 BC), to the demise of the Qin Dynasty (206 BC). It is the fundamental material of studying the First Qin Emperor and his capital city Xianyang. To our delight, in the section of “The Thirty-fifth Year”, Sima Qian took notes of the planning and construction details of Xianyang, which revealed the First Qin Emperor’s intention of making Xianyang the capital city of the Empire. We read:

In the thirty-fifth year a highway was built through Jiuyuan to Yunyang. To make it straight, hills were razed and valleys filled. The emperor said, “Xianyang is overcrowded and the palaces of the former kings are too small. I have heard that King Wen of Zhou had his capital at Feng, King Wu at Hao. The region between Feng and Hao is fit to be an imperial capital.” He had palaces constructed in the Shanglin Gardens south of the River Wei. The Front Palace of Epang, built first, was five hundred paces from east to west, and five hundred feet from south to north. The terraces above could seat ten thousand, and below there was room for banners fifty feet in height. One causeway round the palace led to the Mount South and made it the gateway of Epang; another led across the River Wei to Xianyang, just as the Heavenly Corridor in the sky leads from the Apex of Heaven across the Milky Way to the Royal Chamber. After the completion of this palace, the emperor wished to choose a good name for it. But before it was done, the palace was commonly called Epang, which meant the location surrounded by rivers and hills. The emperor gave orders for the two hundred and seventy palaces and pavilions within two hundred li of Xianyang to be connected by causeways and covered walks and furnished with hangings, bells, drums and beautiful ladies, each in the appointed place.3

The words above indicated that the planning of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year by the First Qin Emperor was characterized by “modeling heaven and earth”. Several researches have been carried out: Du Zhongchao (1997), Wang Xueli (1999), and

3 Mostly according to Yang Xianyi and Dai Naidie (2008) Chen Xibo (2000) illustrated that Xianyang Palace represented the Apex of Heaven, the River Wei represented the Milky Way, represented the Royal Chamber, and the causeway connecting the two palaces represented the Heavenly Corridor. However, Wang Xueli (2000) had another opinion, which considered Epang Palace as the Apex of Heaven, and Xianyang Palace as the Royal Chamber. This paper would support the second view for its coordination with the original texts. The sentence, “Another (causeway) led across the River Wei to Xianyang (Palace), just as the Heavenly Corridor in the sky leads from the Apex of Heaven across the Milky Way to the Royal Chamber”, means that the Apex of Heaven is equivalent to Epang Palace, the Royal Chamber is equivalent to Xianyang Palace, the Milky Way is equivalent to the River Wei, and the Heavenly Corridor is equivalent to the causeway. We will explicate it as below. Firstly, it is supported by the spatial structure of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year, in which the new palace in Shanglin Gardens is the center of the city. What the First Qin Emperor said revealed his intention to build a new center in “the region between Feng and Hao”, which specifically located in “the Shanglin Gardens south of the River Wei”. It shows that the center of the capital city had been transferred from the north of the River Wei to the south. As the first and most important building, the Front Palace of Epang, was quite magnificent in terms of its scale in length (five hundred paces, approximately 600 meters), width (five hundred feet, approximately 120 meters), and height (fifty feet, approximately 12 meters). 4 The sentence, “the causeway led to Mount South and made it the gateway of Epang”, also shows that, in the First Qin Emperor’s opinion, the front palace and the natural mountain, which is approximately 25 kilometers south away were considered as a whole. Along with the construction of the new center, the range of Xianyang expanded to “the area within 200 li” (approximately 72 kilometers). From figure 1, we can see that the area was defined by the natural borders of Mount North, Mount South, and Mount Li on the east. The palaces, mausoleums and gardens, which satisfied the main function of the capital city, distributed within this area.

4 The relic of the Front Palace of Epang discovered by archeologists is 1320 meters from east to west, 420 meters from south to north, and 8 meters above the ground, according to Li Yufang, Sun Fuxi, Wang Zili, and Zhang Jianfeng (2008). It is wider and longer, while lower, than what recorded in Shiji.

Figure 1: the spatial pattern of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year of the First Qin Emperor

Furthermore, the Apex of Heaven, the Royal Chamber, the Milky Way and the Heavenly Corridor are all names of constellations which can also be seen in “Tian Guan Shu” (The Astrological Treatise of Shiji). It reveals the fact that the planning of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year is characterized by “Modeling Heaven and Earth”, which is especially valuable in the history of the capital city planning in imperial China. It inspires us to use the recovery star maps of Tian Guan Shu to locate the abovementioned constellations, then to compare the location of the constellations in the sky with the distribution of the relics on earth to clarify the planning pattern of Xianyang. The Apex of Heaven and the Purple Palace are regarded as the God of heaven and his palace, both of which are the most common images appearing in the pattern of “modeling heaven and earth”. Before Shiji, the Analects of Confucius recorded: “a moral politician is like the Apex of Heaven, who is in the position surrounded by other stars.” The similar words can be seen in Hou Hanshu (The Book of the Eastern Han) as well. In the Biography of Yang, Li, Zhai, Ying, Huo, Yuan and Xu, annotated by Li Xian in Tang Dynasty, there is an explanation after “the Purple Palace” in the original texts: “the Purple Palace in the heaven is the place where the God resides. The emperor on earth who builds palace will imitate it.” In Sima Qian’s Tian Guan Shu, the Apex of Heaven and the Purple Palace are classified to “the Central Palace”:

The brightest star in the center of the Central Palace is the Apex of Heaven, where Tai Yi (The God of Heaven, also the Emperor of Heaven) lives in. The three stars beside are San Gong (the three high-rank administrators), or the three sons of Tai Yi. The four stars behind are the wives of Tai Yi, the backmost one is the Queen, and the others are the concubines. The twelve stars surrounding them are the officials. All the stars mentioned above form the Purple Palace.

Figure 2 is the recovery of “the Central Palace” by Liu Caonan (2009). As we read, the Purple Palace is made up of the Apex of Heaven, three high-rank administrators (or three sons), the Queen and other three concubines, and twelve officials. It could be considered as the whole family or the core members of the Emperor of Heaven. For people living in the northern hemisphere, it seems that all the stars go around the Apex of Heaven and the Purple Palace in their movements. So the Apex of Heaven and the Purple Palace were considered to be the symbol of eternity, which can be easily connected with the emperor and his palace. As the core building of the new layout of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year, the Front Palace of Epang could be regarded as the Apex of Heaven.

Figure 2: the recovery of “the Central Palace” by Liu Caonan (2009)

Since the Front Palace of Epang corresponded to the Apex of Heaven, Xianyang Palace on the north bank of the River Wei could be regarded as the Royal Chamber. In Tian Guan Shu, the Royal Chamber is classified to “the Northern Palace”:

On the left of the Purple Palace, there are three stars called the Heavenly Gun. On the right, there are five stars called the Heavenly Stick. On the back, there are six stars called the Heavenly Corridor, which connecting the Royal Chamber across the Milky Way. The Royal Chamber is called the heavenly temple, or the temporary palace.

The Royal Chamber connects the Apex of Heaven by the Heavenly Corridor across the Milky Way, as illustrated in figure 3. As it is mentioned above, the Royal Chamber is also called the temporary palace, which is opposite to the meaning of the Apex of Heaven and the Purple Palace as the primary palace. So, in the First Qin Emperor’s mind, the Front Palace of Epang was considered as the primary palace, while Xianyang Palace was considered as the temporary palace. It is coherent to the spatial structure of Xianyang’s planning in the thirty-fifth year.

Figure 3: the recovery of “the Northern Palace” by Liu Caonan (2009)

The six stars connecting the Purple Palace (containing the Apex of Heaven) and the Royal Chamber across the Milky Way are called the Heavenly Corridor. In Shiji Zhengyi (the annotation of Shiji by Zhang Shoujie in Tang Dynasty), it is said that “the Milky Way is the Heavenly River and the Heavenly Corridor is the way used by the Emperor of Heaven to visit the temporary palace.” Following his words, the Bridge Heng across the River Wei could be regarded as the Heavenly Corridor and the River Wei as the Milky Way. In the Western Han, the northwest gate of the city of Chang’an is named Gate Heng, which might have some relationship with the Bridge Heng in Qin. However, archeologists haven’t found any clues of Bridge Heng outside the Gate Heng. On the contrary, relics of five bridges were discovered outside the north gate of Chang’an named Gate Chucheng. These bridges are thought to be used from the Western Han to Qing. The largest bridge named No.1 Chucheng, which is 15.4 meters wide and 880 meters long, is supposed to be built upon the relics of Bridge Heng in Qin. If this is true, the location of Bridge Heng east to the Front Palace of Epang and Xianyang Palace on earth, shares the same pattern of the location of the Heavenly Corridor east to the Apex of Heaven and the Royal Chamber in the sky, as showed in figure 4.

Figure 4: the model of “E Pang Du Wei” in the period of the First Qin Emperor

In brief, the capital city planning by the First Qin Emperor in the thirty-fifth year is to connect the new palace on the south bank and the existing palace on the north bank together by the causeway across the River Wei. The Emperor’s route between the two palaces is similar to the God of Heaven’s route between the two constellations. It is exactly described by Sima Qian as “the Heavenly Corridor in the sky leads from the Apex of Heaven across the Milky Way to the Royal Chamber”. In this paper, we name it the model of “E Pang Du Wei”. 3 The model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du” in the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang

In the previous chapter, we have discussed the record of Shiji and the layout of Xianyang in the thirty-fifth year of the First Qin Emperor. Similarly, later in the book Sanfu huangtu, which is considered to be written sometime between the Eastern Han and Wei Dynasty, there is another record about Xianyang’s planning of “modeling heaven and earth”. We read:

The First Qin Emperor is extremely luxury. He built Xianyang Palace against the North Mesa with the Gate Duan leading to four directions, in order to imitate the Purple Palace to show its holiness. The River Wei crossing the capital city is like the Milky Way. The Bridge Heng toward south is like the Altair. The bridge is six feet in width, two hundred and eighty paces from south to north (in length), with sixty-eight frames, eight hundred and fifty pillars, as well as two hundred and twelve beams. On the north and south bank of the bridge, stone pillars are erected.

What recorded in Sanfu Huangtu is quite different from the model recorded in Shiji. This new model equals Xianyang Palace to the Purple Palace, the River Wei to the Milky Way, and the Bridge Heng to the Altair. Let us call it the model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du”. As we noticed, it is contradict to the model of “E Pang Du Wei” since Xianyang Palace can’t be the Purple Palace and the Royal Chamber at the same time. The paradox is worth studying. Firstly, Xianyang Palace and the Bridge Heng were not built under the rule of the First Qin Emperor; on the contrary, they already existed before the First Qin Emperor. Xianyang Palace is a massive building cluster which had been used from the late Zhanguo (475BC-221BC) to Qin (221BC-207BC). It is considered to be built in the period of the King of Qin Huiwen. In the Record of Five Elements in Hanshu, we find these words: “When the King of Qin Huiwen just ascended the throne, he expanded the palace to the south bank of the River Jing and the north bank of the River Wei. This activity was out of consideration and was against the qi of the earth.” Furthermore, in Sanfu huangtu we find the similar words: “When the King of Huiwen just ascended the throne, he cut down the huge woods in Qi and Yong to build three hundred new palaces, which covered the area between the south bank of the River Jing and north bank of the River Wei. The palace (or palaces) mentioned above is (are) supposed to be Xianyang Palace. In the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang, the name of Xianyang Palace officially appeared in the historic literature. Shiji Zhengyi quoted Sanfu Jiushi as: “In the period of Zhanguo, there was Xingle Palace on the south bank of the River Wei and Xianyang Palace on the north. The King of Qin Zhaoxiang intended to connect them, so he built the Bridge Heng which was three hundred and eighty paces in length.” In the period of the First Qin Emperor, Xianyang Palace was still used as an important administrative place. According to The Story of Cike (assassinator) in Shiji, the famous assassinator Jing Ke, coming to Xianyang with the head of Fan Wuqi and the map of , was welcomed by the First Qin Emperor (who was called the King of Qin Zheng at that time) in Xianyang Palace. Also, in the record of the First Qin Emperor in Shiji, we can see Xianyang Palace was still in use at the year of thirty-four and thirty-five. Additionally, according to the records above, the Bridge Heng was built in the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang. Secondly, as the south gate of Xianyang Palace, the Gate Duan is probably located in the flat field at the foot of the North Mesa, the second terrace on the north bank of River Wei where the Xianyang Palace located, and might be close to the major road north of the River Wei. So, it is reasonable to say “the Gate Duan leading to four directions”, and it can’t be regarded as “extremely luxury”. Thirdly, the data of the Bridge Heng, including the width, the length, and the number of the frames, pillars and beams, is apparently the description of the real situation. As the real project across the River Wei, the Bridge Heng can’t have any flaws. So, it can’t be regarded as “extremely luxury” either. In all, it could be inferred that the words “the First Qin Emperor is extremely luxury” was added by someone who lived after Qin. In his opinion, Qin Dynasty is an example of extremely luxury leading to demise. The following words, such as “he built Xianyang Palace against the North Hill with the Gate Duan leading to the four directions, in order to imitate the Purple Palace in heaven, to show its holiness. The River Wei crossing the capital is like the Milky Way in heaven. The Bridge Heng toward south is like the Altair in heaven”, are actually the description of Xianyang’s planning during the King of Qin Zhaoxiang. It is valuable in two ways: one is as an evidence to trace back the tradition of “modeling heaven and earth” in Xianyang’s planning to the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang, the other is as an evidence to confirm the center of the capital city in that time is Xianyang Palace, despite other constructions south of the River Wei, as showed in figure 5.

Figure 5: the spatial pattern of Xianyang in the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang

The meanings of the Purple Palace and the Milky Way have been discussed already. Now let us take a look at the Altair. In Tian Guan Shu, the Altair is also classified to “the Northern Palace”:

The Southern Dipper is the temple. The constellation north to it is Jian, which means the flag. The Altair is the sacrifice to the God of Heaven. The constellation north to it is the Drum, which contains three stars, one is like the general in front, and the others are like the generals in left and right. There is a constellation called Wunv. The constellation north to it is the Vega, which is the granddaughter of the God of Heaven.

In Shiji Zhengyi we read: “the Altair is the sacrifice, or the pass, or the collected fire. The Drum containing three stars is north to the Altair. It dominates the drum in army on earth. The three stars of the Drum are the three generals of the God of Heaven to repel the enemies and to protect the pass. The middle one is the major general, the south one is the left general, and the north one is the right general. The old saying about the reunion of the Altair and the Vega on the seventh July actually refers to the Drum and the Vega.” Shiji Suoyin quotes Er Ya as saying that: “The Drum is called the Altair.” It also quotes Sun Yan (the confucianist who annotated Er Ya in the Three Kingdoms era) as saying that: “The twelve stars making of the flag of the Drum are actually on the north of the Altair. Maybe the Drum is the Altair.” So, the Altair related to the Vega is actually the Drum, as illustrated in figure 3. In figure 6, we can see the Altair (actually the Drum) and the Vega are located on different banks of the Milky Way. If we regard Xianyang Palace as the Purple Palace, and the River Wei as the Milky Way, then the line connecting the Altair (actually the Drum) and the Vega is quite like the Bridge Heng across the river. Moreover, the Altair (actually the Drum) is just on the south bank of the Milky Way. It can explain the words in Sanfu Huangtu “the Bridge Heng toward south is like the Altair”. The meaning of the Altair “to repel the enemies and to protect the pass” fits the crucial function of the Bridge Heng as well.

Figure 6: the model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du” in the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang

No one could neglect the status of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang in the history of Qin. During his fifty-six years’ ruling (325 BC to 251 BC), he expanded the territory of Qin to the east, and annihilated Zhou and gained the power to give order to other states. In the nineteenth year of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang (288 BC), he entitled himself as the West Emperor, together with the King of Qi Min as the East Emperor. According to the record of Qin in Shiji, it writes: “in the nineteenth year, the King (of Qin Zhaoxiang) got the title of the West Emperor, and the King of Qi Min the East Emperor. Later they both gave up the titles.” Although it was a temporary title, Sima Qian considered the King of Qin Zhaoxiang was “becoming the Emperor of the world” in the story of Marquis of Rang in Shiji. The King of Qin Zhaoxiang got the title of emperor more than half a century earlier than the First Qin Emperor. However, as the title itself sounded, there was another half of the world to be conquered. The capital city Xianyang had the image of “modeling heaven and earth” in the period of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang, which should have some relationship with his ambition and career of “becoming the Emperor of the ‘world’ (tian xia, under the heaven)”. The model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du” reveals the King’s intention to make Xianyang Palace the center of the capital city.

4 Conclusion and discussion

As the center of the “world” (tian xia, under the heaven), the capital city was the place where heaven and earth combined, the harmonized, and the rule of the emperor carried out. Two types of planning models emerging during the process of Xianyang’s transformation from “the capital of a state” to “the capital of an empire”, to a great extent, were related to the background of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang’s success of becoming the West Emperor and the First Qin Emperor’s success of becoming the Emperor of the “world” (tian xia, under the heaven). It is demonstrated that the theory of “modeling heaven and earth” in capital city planning is a by-product of the establishment of the central autocratic system. Specifically to Xianyang, the model of “Heng Qiao Nan Du” emerging under the rule of the King of Qin Zhaoxiang, endowed Xianyang Palace (the center of the capital) and the Bridge Heng (the new project across the river) with the meanings of the Purple Palace and the Altair. Later, when the First Qin Emperor conquered other six states, he surpassed the King of Qin Zhaoxiang not only in the achievement of war, but also in the title. As a result, the First Qin Emperor started another round of “modeling heaven and earth” in capital city planning and construction. The model of “E Pang Du Wei” emerging under the rule of the First Qin Emperor, combined the geographical feature of “the River Wei across the city” and the celestial pattern of “the Heavenly Corridor in the sky leads from the Apex of Heaven across the Milky Way to the Royal Chamber” together, to form a new order of the capital city in accordance with the heaven and the earth. The theory and method of “modeling heaven and earth” inspire us to explain Xianyang’s planning and layout in a scientific way. First, the recovery star maps are used to get the spatial pattern in the sky; then, the pattern of constellation in the sky is transformed to the pattern of the city planning on earth; finally, the two patterns are compared to unfold the intention of the King or the Emperor and to determine the function and status of the palaces. The practice of Xianyang is a milestone in the development of the theory and method of “modeling heaven and earth”, as well as a successful application of using such theory and method in the field of capital city planning. Xianyang’s experience had a continuous influence on planning of the subsequent capital cities. Chang’an, the capital city of the Western Han (202BC-8AD), was built upon the relics of Qin. It also inherited the planning theory and method of Qin to arrange the palaces according to the pattern in the sky, as recorded in Hanshu, Sanfu huangtu, ’s Xidu Fu and Zhang Heng’s Xijing Fu (Fu is a typical literary works in Han). The palaces and gates of , the capital city of the Eastern Han (25AD-220AD), were embodied with the symbols of heaven in Li You’s Chengmen Ming (Ming is another typical literary works in Han) and Zhang Heng’s Dongjing Fu. Other capital cities, such as Luoyang in the Western Jin (266AD-316AD), Jiankang in the Eastern Jin (317AD-420AD), Luoyang in the Northern Wei (386AD-557AD), Ye in the Eastern Wei (534AD-550AD) and the Northern Qi (550AD-577AD), Daxing in Sui (581AD-619AD), Chang’an in Tang (618AD-907AD), Luoyang in Sui and Tang, Dadu in Yuan (1271AD-1368AD) and in Ming (1368AD-1644AD) and Qing (1636AD-1912AD), were all recorded as the city of “modeling heaven and earth” in the contemporary literature. To conclude, with the rebuilt of the two models of Xianyang’s planning of “modeling heaven and earth” based on the historic literature, the archeological materials and the recovery of star maps, it is demonstrated in this paper that a new and important tradition in the history of capital city planning in imperial China was established in Xianyang in Qin Dynasty.

Acknowledgment

This paper is funded by National Natural Science Foundation of China (51378279), and Doctoral Program of Higher Research Fund (20130002110027). Thanks for the valuable advice by Guo Lu (postdoc of Tsinghua University).

Reference

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