CRUSADING PROPOSALS OF THE LATE THIRTEENTH AND EARLY FOURTEENTH CENTURIES Antony Richard Leopold Submitted to the University of Durham for the degree of PhD February,S 1998. -2J Li8 ABSTRACT Crusading proposals of the late thirteenth and early fourteenth centuries Antony Richard Leopold Submitted to the University of Durham for the degree of PhD, 1998 In the period lasting from shortly before the fall of Acre to the cancellation of Philip Vi's crusade in 1336, a plethora of treatises was written offering advice on how the Holy Land could be recovered. Historians have viewed them as a novel and distinctive feature of the crusade in this period, and they have usually been treated as a homogeneous group. However, they were written by a diverse group of authors, from monarchs to merchants, whose motives in writing varied across the period. This thesis gives a comprehensive examination of the proposals both to explore their differing origins and purpose, and to evaluate their content. The earliest proposals were advisory treatises written for the papacy, belonging to a tradition of advice requested by popes who took the lead in organising new expeditions which dates to the time of Innocent III. The style of these works was adopted by later authors who sought to combine practical advice with promotion of the crusade, or, in a few cases, to discuss a range of other issues beyond the crusade. The proposals covered all aspects of crusading, concentrating on crusade strategy but also dealing with the preparations needed to launch a crusade in Europe, such as recruitment and finance, and with spiritual issues, aspects of their advice which have been neglected. The range of issues included by the authors illustrates their differing concerns. Their advice drew heavily on existing practices and lacked originality, but in some areas, it is possible to discern the influence of the early proposals on those which followed. The survival of manuscripts of some proposals in the later part of the century raises the possibility that they had some impact on crusades launched during this period, and on the proposals written at the beginning of the fifteenth century. No part of this work (which falls within the statutory word limit) has previously been submitted for a degree in this or any other university. The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information from it should be acknowledged. At the discretion of the librarian of the University of Durham, this thesis may, i. be made available to bona fide scholars. ii. be photocopied wholly or in part for consultation outside Durham. CONTENTS Acknowledgements 11 Abbreviations 111 Introduction 1 Chapter I Authors and proposals 10 Chapter II Preparations for the crusade 70 Chapter III Spiritual aspects of crusading 113 Chapter IV Enemies, allies and preliminary strategy 145 Chapter V The general passage 189 Chapter VI Planning for a new Jerusalem 236 Chapter VII Later proposals and crusades 259 Conclusion 275 Bibliography 282 11 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My greatest debt of thanks is to Dr Alan Forey, who has patiently supervised this project from the beginning. In addition to his constant guidance, the contents of his bookshelves have been a vital addition to the resources at Durham. I am also very grateful to Dr Len Scales and Professor David Rollason for commenting on a portion of this work in draft. I am obliged to Mr Alan Piper who provided assistance with certain problems of palaeography and to Ulrich Fischer who assisted with translation from German. This project could never have been undertaken without a grant from the British Academy, for which I am very gratefuL I have valued the historical insights and friendship of my postgraduate colleagues Imogen Anderson, Mark Arvanigian, fellow crusader Jeff Neal, and Isabelle Charmantier (who also kindly obtained material from the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris). Many others, too numerous to mention, have helped to make my time in Durham very enjoyable. Finally, I am indebted to my sister and mother for their encouragement and support, both emotional and fmancial, for what must have seemed an endless project. 111 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AOL Archives de l'Orient Latin BEC Bibliothèque de l'Ecole des Chartes BIHR Bulletin of the Institute of Historical Research CCCM Corpus Christianoruni: Continuatio Medievalis (Turnhout, 1951-) Crusade and Settlement Crusade and Settlement, ed. P. W. Edbury (Cardiff, 1985) Cyprus and the Crusades Cyprus and the Crusades, ed. N. Coureas arid J. Riley- Smith (Nicosia, 1995) EHR English Historical Review Golubovich Biblioteca bio-bibliografica delia Terra Santa e deli' Orientefrancescano, ed. G. Golubovich, 5 vols. (Quaracchi, 1906-27) HLitt Histoire Littéraire de la France (Paris, 1733-) MGH Monumenta Germaniae Historica, ed. G. H. Pertz et al. (Hannover, Weimar, Berlin, Stuttgart, Cologne, 1826-) SRG Scriptores rerum Germanicarum in usum scolarum (Hannover, 1839-) SS Scriptores, 32 vols. (Hannover, Leipzig, 1826-1934) Migne, PL Patrologiae cursus completus. Series Latina, ed. J. P. Migne, 217 vols. (Paris, 1844-64) PPTS Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, 14 vols. (London, 1896-1907) RHC Recueil des Historiens des Croisades Arm. Documents arméniens, 2 vols. (Paris, 1869-1906) 0cc. Historiens occidentaux, 5 vols. (Paris, 1844-95) lv RHGF Recueil des Historiens des Gaules et de la France, ed. M. Bouquet eta!., 24 vols. (Paris, 1737-1904) RHSE Revue Historique du Sud-Est Européen ROL Revue de l'Orient latin RS (Rolls Series) Rerum Britannicarum Medii Aevi Scriptores (London, 1858-98) Setton A History of the Crusades, ed. K. M. Setton, 2nd edn., 6 vols. (Madison, 1969-90) TRHS Transactions of the Royal Historical Society Owing to the frequency with which the proposals are cited in the footnotes, they are referred to in a very abbreviated manner, and are listed here. Full titles are given in the first reference and the bibliography. Charles II Charles II of Anjou, 'Le conseil du Roi Charles', ed. G. I. Bratianu, RHSE 19 (1942) 'Directorium' 'Directorium ad passagiuni faciendum', RHC Arm. 2 Dubois Pierre Dubois, 'De recuperatione Terre Sancte', ed. and tr. W. Brandt as The Recovery of the Holy Land (New York, 1956) Durant William Durant, 'Informatio brevis', ed. G. DUrrholder, Die Kreuzzugspolitik unter Papst Johann XXII (Strasbourg, 1913) Fidenzio Fidenzio of Padua, 'Liber recuperationis Terrae Sanctae', Golubovich 2 Galvano Galvano of Levanto, 'Liber sancti passagii', ed. C. Kohler,ROL 6(1898) Hayton Hayton, 'Flos historiarum terre orientis', RHC Arm. 2 Henry II Henry II of Cyprus, 'Consilium', ed. M. L. de Mas Latrie in Histoire de l'Ile de Chypre, vol. 2 (Paris, 1852) V Hospitallers 'Tractatus dudum habitus', ed. B. Z. Kedar and S. Schein, BEC 137 (1979) 'Memoria' 'Memoria Terre Sancte', ed. C. Kohier, ROL 10 (1903- 4) Molay James of Molay, 'Consilium super negotio Terre Sancte', ed. E. Baluze, Vitae Papae Avenionensium (Paris, 1693) Nogaret William of Nogaret, 'Quae sunt advertenda', ed. E. Boutaric, Notices et extraits des manuscrits de la Bibliothèque Nationale 20 (1862) Sanudo Marino Sanudo Torsello, 'Liber secretorum fidelium crucis', ed. J. Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos (Hannover, 1611) 'Via' 'Via ad Terram Sanctam', ed. C. Kohler, ROL 10 (1903- 4) Villaret Fulk of Villaret, 'Hec est informatio', ed. J. Petit, BEC 9 (1899) William Adam William Adam, 'De modo sarracenos extirpandi', RHC Arm. 2 William le Maire William le Maire, 'Livre de Guillaume le Maire', ed. C. Port, Mélanges Historiques, vol. 2 (Paris, 1877) INTRODUCTION 'There are many who, although they lament the evils which the Saracens inflict on Christians, offer no advice on how to resist them' (Humbert of Romans, Opus Tripartitum). Sixteen years after Hurnbert made this complaint, there began an outpouring of treatises offering advice on how the Holy Land could be recovered, lasting from shortly before the fall of Acre in 1291 to the cancellation of Philip Vi's crusade in 1336. Prior to this, contemporary non-descriptive writing on the crusades tended to be mostly theological, concerned with questions surrounding the justification of the movement, or the morals and intentions of its participants. In contrast, the literature of this later period was practical in tone, offering concrete advice on how a recovery expedition should proceed, often supported by information about current conditions in the east and the events of earlier crusades. The proposals were written by a diverse group of men, including monarchs, nobles, prelates, masters of the military orders, mendicants, doctors and a merchant. The works they produced covered all aspects of the crusade, strategic, financial and spiritual, and range from sober proposals for the recovery of Jerusalem to extravagant schemes for the utter defeat of Moslems and Greeks. These works have been viewed by historians as the most distinctive feature of crusading in the decades after the fall of Acre, but there has been no study giving comprehensive treatment to all the proposals and their ideas. In addition, the differing origins and purposes of the works largely remains to be analysed. Most of these proposals are well-known to historians, and some were first printed centuries ago. Bongars included Sanudo's Liber secretorum and Dubois's De 2 recuperatione Terre Sancte in his collection of sources printed in 1611. 1 The majority of the recovery treatises were published in the late nineteenth century, a golden age for research into sources for the history of the crusades. Three of the longer works were printed in the Recueil des Historiens des Croisades under the aegis of the Académie des Inscriptions et des Belles-Lettres. The proposals of the Armenian prince Hayton, along with the Directorium and William Adam's De modo sarracenos extirpandi were published in the second volume of the Documents Arméniens, even though the editor admitted that the last two were 'entièrement étrangers' to Armenian history.2 The activities of the Société de l'Orient Latin, founded in 1875, also contributed to knowledge of the later crusades through its publications the Archives de l'Orient Latin and the Revue de l'Orient Latin.