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Braille Reading Accuracy of Students Who Are Visually CEU Article Braille Reading Accuracy of Students Who Are Visually Impaired: The Effects of Gender, Age at Vision Loss, and Level of Education Vassilis Argyropoulos and Vassilios Papadimitriou Structured abstract: Introduction: The present study assesses the performance of students who are visually impaired (that is, those who are blind or have low vision) in braille reading accuracy and examines potential correlations among the error categories on the basis of gender, age at loss of vision, and level of education. Methods: Twenty-one visually impaired Greek school-aged children participated in the present study. The students who participated were enrolled in different educational settings; that is, special schools and mainstream educa- tional settings. The research tool was a subset (three subscales) of a standardized instrument (Test A, Padeliadu & Antoniou, 2008) that evaluates reading accu- racy in Greek. All interactions between researchers and students were video- taped, and the analysis of the obtained data was focused on phonological and nonphonological-type errors. Results: Significant differences in performance were found between male and female participants—t(19) ϭ 2.12, p Ͻ .05—as well as between students who attained primary and secondary education: t(19) ϭ 1.96, p Х .05. The average number of errors in the three subscales correlated very highly, signifying that performance was very similar. Positive correlation was found between replacement and subtraction types of error (p Ͻ .05), and replacement and recognition (p Ͻ .001), and the total number of errors was positively correlated with replacement (p Ͻ .001), subtraction (p ϭ .001), and recognition errors (p Ͻ .001). Male participants made more replacement errors: t(19) ϭ 2.09, p Х .05; participants in secondary education made significantly fewer errors of recognition: t(19) ϭ 2.49, p Ͻ .05; and students who were congenitally blind made significantly more errors of addition: t(19) ϭ 1.96, p Х .05. Regarding the recognition type of error, there was a significant interaction effect between grade and age at loss of vision: F(3/17) ϭ 3.09, p ϭ .05. Discussion: Participants did not benefit exceptionally from semantic informa- tion, and it is unclear whether a higher school level leads to the improvement of braille reading accuracy. “Reading the entire word” seems the most effective decoding strategy. Nevertheless, further research is needed to obtain relevant ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 107 CEU Article data from longitudinal studies. Implications for practitioners: Listing and ana- lyzing braille reading errors systematically may reveal error patterns. Based on these patterns, teachers would be able to differentiate their instruction to improve students’ performances in braille speed and accuracy. Braille reading constitutes a highly spe- Additional factors that determine the cific and active tactile process, in which levels of braille reading are (a) phonolog- fingers, arms, and even elbows are in- ical awareness, (b) verbal short-term volved (Millar, 1997). It seems that ap- memory skills corroborated by auditory propriate hand movements for reading processing, and (c) speech perception ap- braille depend on (a) brain asymmetry, titude (Veispak et al., 2013). Nonetheless, (b) the sensitivity of each finger, and (c) it is still unclear to what extent braille training received at an early stage of readers purely decode each character in- learning (Lorimer, 2002). A very recent dividually or whether they also develop hypothesis suggests that the necessary larger perceptual units (Veispak, Boets, & level of tactile sensitivity for braille read- Ghesquiere, 2012). Millar (1997) sup- ing is already achieved during the begin- ported the idea that proficient braille read- ning stages of reading and no further im- ers use lexical, contextual, and perceptual provement in tactile spatial resolution cues to accomplish fast reading, whereas occurs (Veispak, Boets, & Ghesquiere, Hughes (2011) has suggested that braille 2013). Braille reading presupposes effec- reading imposes constant successive de- tive tactile spatial acuity, so that the coding. Finally, braille readers are likely reader will be able to identify the relative to apply from the beginning more or less spatial position of the braille dots and the same cognitive strategy for reading eventually acquire the maximal amount words and pseudowords, which does not of information from each braille character change fundamentally during their growth (Vakali & Evans, 2007). and academic development (Veispak, Boets Mannamaa, & Ghesquiere, 2012). This study constitutes a part of the project Braille reading accuracy “Handedness and Braille Literacy in Individ- Reading accuracy constitutes one of the uals with Severe Visual Impairments,” is im- three indicators of reading effectiveness. plemented under the “ARISTEIA” Action of the operational program “Education and Life- Braille reading accuracy relies mainly on long Learning,” and is cofunded by the Eu- systematic and active exploratory move- ropean Social Fund (ESF) and National ments rather than passive perception Resources. (Millar, 1997). Braille reading accuracy is highly related to phonological awareness (Gillon & Young, 2002). In addition, due EARN CEUS ONLINE by answering questions on this article. to the complexity of the braille code, the For more information, correct identification of the relative spa- visit: Ͻhttp://jvib.org/CEUsϾ. tial position of the braille dots is critical for decoding braille characters (Dodd & 108 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved CEU Article Conn, 2000). Some studies indicate that son et al., 2009). Finally, Millar (1997) braille readers read slightly less accu- showed that braille readers read meaning- rately than do print readers (Veispak, ful words more accurately than pseudo- Boets, & Ghesquiere, 2012; Veispak et words. This, according to Millar (1997), al., 2012), while Dodd and Conn (2000) may be attributed to a compensatory sys- estimated that the braille readers who par- tem that braille readers use in order to ticipated in their study were approxi- extract semantic information from a co- mately 10 months behind the level of herent text to enhance accuracy. Also, it accuracy of their sighted peers. seems that the above system improves with The above inferences may be attributed increased reading experience (Veispak, mainly to (a) the nature of the braille Boets, & Ghesquiere, 2012). code, since the high degree of similarity Veispak et al. (2012) also reported that between the letters leads braille readers to the length of and familiarity with words be error prone (Millar, 1997); (b) the in- may influence accuracy in reading. It ability of students who are blind to prac- seems that the length of words affects the tice braille reading outside school hours reading performance of braille readers (Vakali & Evans, 2007); and (c) the lower more than that of print readers. The im- resolution of tactile processing, which de- pact of sufficiently sensitive fingers on mands a conscious effort to maintain reading accuracy becomes apparent when braille accuracy (Veispak et al., 2012) the words are short enough not to over- (that is, the left index finger constantly load verbal short-term memory and when decodes each character of a word individ- semantic information cannot be used to ually, while the right index finger tracks aid comprehension. Finally, the categori- down the next line). zation of error patterns of braille readers Furthermore, Vakali and Evans (2007) has not been sufficiently investigated, and pointed out that as students who have visual impairments become more experi- consequently the knowledge in this area enced readers, they also become more is limited. Some researchers hold the accurate readers, whereas students in the view that the recognition of braille char- ABC Braille Study began to show defi- acters seems to be affected by the position ciencies in acquiring higher-level decod- and the density of the braille dots (Chall- ing skills after grade 2 (Wall Emerson, man, 1978, in Papadopoulos, 2005; Nolan Holbrook, & D’Andrea, 2009). Accord- & Kederis, 1969), while others believe ing to the researchers of the ABC Braille that the majority of errors in recognizing Study, possible explanations may lie in braille characters may fall into two over- the increased stress of the readers as they all categories; that is, reverse and mirror- moved up in age and grade level, because ing. According to Millar (1997), such er- they were confronted with greater amounts rors are highly frequent due to the nature of connected reading or a lack of instruc- of braille, in which all characters derive tion or sufficient practice. Nevertheless, from the same matrix and differ only in students who were introduced to more the presence or absence of dots, and al- contractions earlier in instruction per- most all characters are developed as ro- formed better on decoding (Wall Emer- tations of some other braille cell. ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 109 CEU Article The aim of the present study was to tained consent from those who wished to describe types of errors in braille reading participate. accuracy of students with visual impair- The date for the administration of the ments and if possible to correlate them test was arranged by telephone. Twenty- with the type of visual impairment and one school-aged children who were visu- grade level of the participants. In partic- ally impaired participated in the present ular, the research aims were as follows: study, 11 female (age M ϭ 13, SD ϭ 2.19) and 10 male (age M ϭ 13.2, SD ϭ 1. to assess the braille accuracy of visu- 3.55). Eleven participants attended pri- ally impaired students on the basis of mary educational settings and 10 were in gender, the cause of the visual impair- secondary educational settings, ranging ment (or age at sight loss), and level of from the 4th grade up to the 12th grade education; and (final year of high school).
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