SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

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1991 Festiva of American Folklife ( >n the cover Manuela Gonzales /'ere;, Mayan Tzotzil weaverfrom San . Indres Larrainzar, , spins cotton with a drop spindle. Photo In Ricarclo Martinez

On the back cover, top A sidewalkfood vendor in fans the fire under Ins

speciality, sate ayam (charcoal-grilled chicken) Hisportahle "kitchen is

ornately caned in Madurese style Photo by Katrinka I bbe

Bottom Harlan Borman hands his daughter. Kate, up to her grandfather Raymond

Atkinson, sitting in the combine Kate is now _' >' years old and an active partu ipant

in thefamilyfarm in Kingdom < 'ity, Missouri Photo courtesy Borman family SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

1991 Festival of American Folklife

June 28 -July 1 July 4-July7

Co-sponsored by the National Park Service Contents

INTR< )l>l i n >RY STATEMENTS

The 25th Annual Festival: Land and Culture 4 Robert McC. Adams, Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

Presenting America's Cultural Heritage 6 James M. Ridenour, Director, National Park Service

The Festival of American Folklife: Building on Tradition Richard Kurin

ROOTS O] RHYTHM WIMillh ["HE

Blues at the Festival: A Community Music with Global Impact 21 Worth Long and Ralph Rinzler

Robert Johnson in the '90s: A Dream Journey 22 Peter Guralnik Robert Johnson, Musician 24

Robert Jr. Lockwood, compiled from an interview with Worth Long

Wisdom of the Blues 21 , compiled from an interview with Worth Long

i I Will > (-"ARMING IN THE HEART] Wl Family Farm Folklore 32

Betty J. Belanus

A Year in the Life of a Family Farmer 36 Steven Bernts< in

The (-hanging Role of Women on the Farm 4l Eleanor Arnold and an interview with Marjorie Hunt The Farmer and American Folklore 47 James P. Leary

Threshing Reunions and Threshing Talk: Recollection and Reflection in the Midwest 50

J. Sanford Rikoon

F< IRES1 FIELD AND SEA: FO] Kl II I IN INDi 1NESIA

Forest. Field and Sea: Cultural Diversity in the Indonesian Archipelago 55 Richard Kennedy

Longhouses of East 61 Timothy C. Jessup

Environmental Knowledge and Biological Diversity in Fast Kalimantan 65 Herwasono Soedjito

Craft and Performance in Rural East 69

1 )ede < )et< imo

Boatbuilding Myth and Ritual in South 73 Mukhlis and Darmawan M. Rahman LAND IN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES Knowledge and Power: Land in Native American Cultures 76 Olivia Cadaval

Conocimiento y Poder: La Tierra en las Cultures Indigenas 81 Olivia Cadaval, traducido por Alicia Partnoy

We Live in the Amazon Rainforest, the Lungs of the World 83 Miguel Puwainchir

Vivimos en la Amazonia, El Pulmon del Mundo 84 Miguel Puwainchir

Land and Subsistence in Folklife 87 and Richard L. Dauenhauer

Clans and Corporations: Society and Land of the Tlingit Indians 91 Rosita Worl

Ethno-Development in Taquile 95 Kevin Healy

The Sukci Kollus: Precolumbian Agriculture of Tiwanaku 96 Oswaldo Rivera Sundt, translated by Charles H. Roberts

Los Sitka Kollus: La Agricultura Precolombina del Tiwanaku 98 Oswaldo Rivera Sundt

Ethno-Development Among the Jalq'a 100 Kevin Healy

The Hopi Dictionary 101 Emory Sekaquaptewa

Our Zapotec Ethnic Identity 103 Manuel Rios Morales

Nuestra Identidad Etnica Zapoteca 104 Manuel Rios Morales

Politics and Culture of Indigenism in Mexico 106 Jose Luis Krafft Vera, translated by Charles H. Roberts

Politica y Cultura en el Presente Indigena de Mexico 108 Jose Luis Krafft Vera

An Excerpt from San Pedro Chenalhd: Something of its History, Stories and Customs 110 Jacinto Arias

Fragmento de Sail Pedro Chenalhd: Algo de sit Historia. Cuentos y Costnmhres 111 [acinto Arias

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Insert I rosspointe Genesis Dawn The 25th Annual Festival: Land and Culture Robert McC. Adams Secretary, Smithsonian Institution

This year, the Festival is about human rela- surely one; the family farm is surely another. tionships to land. Culturally, land is never just 'I'he idea of the family farm also entails some ol soil and terrain. It is roamed or owned, wilder- our strongest values — hard work, self-reliance. ness or property. Land can have borders or be a family solidarity and community life At the Fes- path to different realms. Ideas of mother nature. tival, farming families from twelve midwestern son or daughter oi the soil, the fatherland, and states present their culture through family folk- heaven, earth and underworld, lor example, lore and storytelling, community celebrations show how intimately our understanding of land and demonstrations of work skills — from ma- is intertwined with ways of thinking about cos- chinery repair to computer-based management mology, ecology, society, and personal and na- of breeding records. Farm families try to pre- tional identity. serve a way of life and to remain stewards of the

Indonesian land punctuates sea and ocean to land. Hut today then task is more complex than form some 13,000 volcanic islands. On these it has ever been, given the economic, techno- islands is an amazing diversity of environments, logical and informational revolutions in farming. ranging from the sandy beaches of to Tensions between an increased productivity snowcapped mountains that rise above the rain- through innovation on one hand and a preserva- forests in Irian Java on New . To sample tion of family lifeways and values on the other. this diversity, the Festival presents cultural tradi- animate the present challenge of living oil .tnt.\ tions from three particular environments — the caring U >r the land forests of Kalimantan, the fields of Java and the Land is also important as we begin to com- sea coast of Sulawesi kenvah and Modang memorate the Columbus Quincentenary and to people oi Kalimantan show us how they have consider the meaning and consequences c >l Co- made life possible and meaningful in the rain- lumbus' voyages Five hundred years ago. the forest. Witness their careful use of indigenous year before those voyages, the hemi- plants tor medicine, trees lor vernacular long- sphere was home to a wonderful array of houses, and other forest products tor aesthetic peoples, cultures and civilizations. The land was and religious practices Buginese and Makassa- populated by the descendants of peoples who rese boatbuilders, seafarers, cooks and silk mak- crossed over from Asia to some lens of ers demonstrate skills they use to live with and thousands ol years ago. For millennia, this land from the sea — the economic trade and natural was theirs. With a knowledge and understanding bounty it has historically provided. And from of this land developed over generations, native

East Java come village agriculturalists, rice farm- peoples gathered and cultivated its bounty, bred ers of that island's rich soil who have developed new crops, derived medicines to cure sickness, an intricate fabric of social, material and per- mined ores lor making tools and ornaments, formance arts. These rich traditions are the ex- used its earth, stone and wood for building pression of a civilization whose cultural sources homes, made dyes tor cloth and invented ways

— local, Mmdu. Buddhist, Islamic — are as ot preparing and cooking food. Land and its use complex as any on earth. informed social, moral, religious and cosmologi-

Halt a world away from and much cal beliefs, and sacred m~h.\ secular practices

(loser to home is the American "heartland." Some of this knowledge and practice of land

American culture embodies a tew elemental sell- use and its symbolic elaboration in artistic forms images with mythic stature — the frontier is are still continued among many Native American groups. At the Festival, culture bearers from the enriched the spirits < >f the people — artists, schol- Haida, Tlingit and people from Alaska; ars, government officials and visiting children and Hopi from Arizona; Maya and Lacandon from adults — who annually come to meet each other Chiapas, Mexico; Zapotec and Ikood from on the nation's front lawn. The Festival has Oaxaca, Mexico; Shuar, Achuar and Canelos shown that people of different backgrounds, Quichua from Ecuador; Jalq'a and Tiwanaku from beliefs and sensibilities can indeed talk together

Bolivia; and Taquile from Perti illustrate how the and understand one another if given the oppor- land in many varied environments is cared for tunity. And the Festival has had strong impacts and thought about, and how, almost five back home, on the creative lives of individuals hundred years after Columbus, the wise and hu- and the institutional life of communities. mane use, the knowledge and power of land The Festival does not celebrate itself loudly, must be re-'discovered." perhaps in keeping with the character of the

The Festival itself is no less about land. The people it represents. The Festival resists commer-

Festival is mounted annually in a symbolically cialization, glitter and stylization. It is nonetheless powerful place, the National Mall of the United a complex undertaking, undergirded by extensive States, surely among our nation's most sacred research, detailed logistics, intricate funding ar- plots of land. In the Festival's 25 year history, it rangements and the like. The Festival is some- has brought more than 16,000 of the world's mu- times messy and unpredictable, but that is be- sicians, craftspeople, storytellers, cooks, perform- cause it speaks in and through many voices. It is ers, workers, ritual specialists and others from a 20th century genre of complex human interac- every part of the and more than 50 tion invented to get people to talk, listen, share, nations to the National Mall. Farmers and fisher- understand and appreciate one another, and to men, bluesmen and quilters, taro growers and do it in a way that is indeed filled with fun and matachines, bricklayers and potters, representing sometimes wonder. The Festival is firmly rooted only a sample of human cultural diversity, have in specially endowed land — land that belongs demonstrated their knowledge, skill, aesthetics to and provides a place for everyone. The Na- and wisdom. In doing so, they have told their in in.il Mall n< an ishes the mind, the spiril and the story to some 20 million visitors. They have identities of those who stand upon it. Our Festi- brought issues of cultural conservation, survival, val on the Mall helps empower cultures pre- continuity and creativity to the symbolic center of sented here to invite you to cross boundaries not our nation, to national and to international con- regularly crossed and hear the voices of the sciousness. earth's peoples, from around the world and from

The Festival is the foremost example of a re- <. 1< ise t< > home. search-based presentation ol living culture. It has Presenting America's Cultural Heritage James M. Ridenour Director, National Park Service

Ever since L973, the National Park Service such as the National Folk Festival held at has been a co-sponsor oi the Festival of Ameri- America's Industrial Park in Johnstown, Pennsyl- Folklife can on the National Mall in Washington, vania, and others at Jean Lafitte National Histori- D.C. We are proud to join with the .Smithsonian cal Park in . Golden Gate National Rec- in celebrating this, the 2Sth annual Festival. The reation Area in California, Hawaii Volcanoes Festival is a nationally and internationally ac- National Park, Chamizal National Memorial Park of claimed model research and public educa- in Texas. Blue Ridge National Parkway in Vir- tion, which informs our citizens and foreign ginia and . Cuyahoga National visitors about the rich and diverse cultural heri- Re< nation Area in Ohio, and Virgin Islands tage of our nation and the larger world. National Park on St. John testify to our commit- This year also marks the 75th anniversary of ment

the National Park Sen ice. The National Park This year, at the Festival of American Folklife Service is actively at work, even day through And beginning in October at Columbus Pla/a, out the United Mates, to preserve and protect Union Station And in other venues, the National the natural, historical and cultural heritage we Park Sen ice will develop exhibitions, programs all so hold dear. The National Park Service is a and publications to mark the Columbus Quin- steward tor the American people of Yellow- centenary. The Quincentenary provides an op- stone National Park. Grand Canyon National portune moment lor all to re-exam- Park, the Statue of Liberty, the Lincoln Memorial ine and re-consider the history of our hemi- Am\ literally hundreds of other natural areas, sphere and its varied peoples and cultures The historical sites and monuments that grace the National Park Sen ice is proud to play a kev role landscape and the public consciousness of our and to join with the Smithsonian to make that nati< >n. history accessible' to the broadest public In We have worked with numerous local, stale visiting the National Mall And many other na- Mid regional agencies throughout the United tional parks, sites and monuments, one can States to promote the preservation, understand- observe not only remnants of that five hundred ing oi and interpretation folklife and grassroots year history, but also its results in the practices cultural traditions. We have cooperated closely and beliefs ol living cultures. Understanding with the Folklife American Center at the Library how our cultural history was made is of great ol Congress m developing cultural conservation importance for Americans and for all the worlds policies specific and research protects with Low- people. It is a knowledge that we can build ell National Historical Park and now an Acadian upon as we begin to shape our history and cul- Cultural ("enter in Maine. Ongoing festivals, per- ture in the next live hundred years. formance programs and skills demonstrations The Festival of American Folklife: Building on Tradition

Richard Kurin

This summer marks the 2Sth annual Festival of Mary McGrory, then a reporter for The Evening American Folklife. Over the years more than Star, wrote, 16,000 musicians, dancers, craftspeople, storytell- Thanks to S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the ers, cooks, workers, and other bearers of tradi- Smithsonian Institution, thousands of tional culture from every region of the United people have been having a ball on the States and every part of the globe have come to Mall, watching dulcimer-makers, quilters, the National Mall in Washington to illustrate the potters and woodcarvers and listing to art, knowledge, skill and wisdom developed music. "My thought," said Ripley, "is that within their local communities. They have sung we have dulcimers in cases in the mu- and woven, cooked and danced, spun and seum, but how many people have actually stitched a of human cultural diversity; heard one or seen one being made?" they have aptly demonstrated its priceless value. Their presence has changed the National Mall During the mid-1960s the Smithsonian Institu- and the Smithsonian Institution. Their perform- tion re-evaluated its approach to understanding ances and demonstrations have shown millions and interpreting American culture and its atten- of people a larger world. And their success has dant institutional responsibilities. Secretary Ripley encouraged actions, policies and laws that pro- reported his initiative to mount the first Festival mote human cultural rights. The Festival has been to the Board of Regents, the Smithsonian's gov- a vehicle for this. And while it has changed in erning body, in February, 1967: various ways over the years, sometimes only to A program sponsored by the Smithsonian change back once again, the Festival's basic pur- should reflect the Institution's founding pose has remained the same. Its energy and philosophy and current role. Although it strength is rooted in the very communities and has the world's largest collections of cultural exemplars it seeks to represent, and in American folk artifacts, the Smithsonian, small, but sometimes significant ways, to help like all museums in our nation, fails to present folk culture fully and accurately. The First Festival Through the Bureau of American Ethnol-

The marble museums of the Smithsonian ogy, it has pioneered the collection, ar- Institution are filled with beautiful hand- chiving, analysis and publication of Ameri- worn things made long ago by forgotten can Indian cultural data, [but] neither the American craftsmen. Nostalgic reminders Smithsonian nor any other research institu- of our folk craft heritage, the museum tion has employed the methods of cultural exhibits are discreetly displayed, precisely anthropology in an extensive lieldwork

labeled, and dead program in American folk cultures. But the folk craft tradition has not died. The lack of museum expertise and the

Yesterday it burst into life before the as- absence of adequate field programs in tonished eyes of hundreds of visitors on American folklife studies has resulted from

the Mall. (Paul Richard in 71.ie Washington a general ignorance ol the abundance of

Post, July 2, 1967, on the first Festival ol our traditional cultures. Related to the American Folklife) collections and based on the philosophy of the Smithsonian, an exposition of the Dejan 's ( llympia Brass Bandfrom Louisiana performs on the National Mall

have generally remained sun ill. encouraging intimate audience interaction Photo Smithsonian Institution

folk aesthetic <>n the Mall accompanied by Festival's Director And Marion Hope became the a seminar would be provocative. protect assistant and then Festival coordinator A program presenting traditional crafts- and assistant director. dancers men and as well as musicians Some in the U.S. Congress felt that Ripley's

would convincingly demonstrate the vigor plans for the National Mall — which in addition traditions. ol our tolk At an interdiscipli- to a Festival of American Folklife included a seminar, nary individuals with mutual carousel, outdoor evening concerts at the muse- interests who are not ordinarily in commu- ums, and a kite-flying contest — were frivolous, nication — including scholars, government that they would turn the Mall into a "midway." and foundation representatives as well as Hut Ripley and his supporters prevailed. Ripley concerned laymen — will explore' the thought it made sense for the Smithsonian to go significance oi the traditions displayed. outdoors and establish what some members of Secretary Ripley also envisioned the eventual Congress termed "a living museum." Education formation of an American Folklife Institute that could be tun. Serious purposes could be accom- would establish standards for research and inter- plished on the nation's front lawn, historically " pretation of our folkways" and "enable the Smith- known as "Smithsonian Park The Civil Rights sonian to provide the basis for a total view of marches had already dramatically demonstrated American culture." this. James Morns, then Director of the Professors and scientists had their universities

Smithsonian's Museum Service, Ralph Rinzler, and publications; fine artists had their art galleries coming from the Newport Folk Foundation as an and museums; fine musicians had their sympho- applied folklore consultant, and others took up nies and operas. The work of popular and com- the task and the leadership of the project. Morris mercial artists was proclaimed in the mass media became Director of the newly constituted Divi- of television, radio, recordings jnd magazines. sion of Performing Arts. Rinzler became the Where could the voices of "folks back home'' be heard so they too would contribute to our sense tors, folklorists D. K. Wilgus, Richard Dorson, of national culture, wisdom and art? Simply, the Roger Abrahams, Austin Fife, Archie Green and National Mall provided just such a platform for Don Yoder, anthropologist Ward Goodenough, people to speak to the rest of the nation. cantometrician Alan Lomax, cultural geographer Through the Festival, everyone could be repre- Lied Kniffen. architect James Marston Fitch, rec- sented; it made good sense as part of the na- ord producer Moses Asch. historians, educators tional museum charged with presenting the story and other scholars from Mexico, Ireland. Canada, of human accomplishments. Members of Con- and Switzerland. The conference addressed top- gress understood this meant that their constitu- ics of American and international folklife studies, ents, the people, the folks back home, would the relationship between folklife and history, have a place in the cultural life of the nation. applied folklife. and folklife in schools, museums, Texans and Ohioans, Mississippians and Hawai- communities and government agencies. ians, Anglo-Americans from Appalachia and In the first Festival and Conference, several

American Indians from the Plains, new and older important ideas emerged. The study ol grassroots urban immigrants, children and elders, miners, traditional cultures was a multidisciplinary proj- cowboys, carpenters and many others would all ect; factors affecting the survival of cultural tradi- have a place — a special place — to represent tions in contemporary life had to be addressed, their cultural contributions. the study and presentation of cultures, through

The first Festival included a variety <>1 musi- schools and other institutions was an essential cians and craftspeople from across the country part of public education; the Festival provided a

— Bessie Jones and the Sea Island Sing- i ( illaborative means for scholars and culture bear- ers, Moving Star Hall Singer Janie Hunter and ers to discuss and present their understandings ol coil basketmaker Louise Jones from South Caro- particular traditions and communities. lina, dulcimer maker Edd Presenell from North The Festival and Conference project was Carolina, Dejan's Olympia Brass Band from New viewed in 1967 as part of a larger strategy to Orleans, Navajo sandpainter Harry Belone, study, present and conserve traditional grassroots Acoma Pueblo potter Marie Chino, the Yomo cultures. The last session of the conference was Toro Puerto Rican Band and an Irish Ceilidh devoted to planning for a National, or American Band from , singer Glenn Folklore Institute. The Institute would sponsor Ohrlin, bluesman John Jackson, Libba Cotton, intensive scholarly fieldwork on American folk Russian Glinka dancers from , King cultures, stimulate and preserve folk traditions Island Eskimo dancers from Alaska, and country through economic and educational assistance, blues singer Fred McDowell among many others. produce an annual festival, encourage regional

The first Festival represented a a invergence festivals and seminars, publish scholarly mono- and distillation of several ideas. The name. graphs and seminar proceedings as well as more "folklife" was taken from the popular works, produce documentary films, Folklife Festival and Don Yoder's scholarly adop- maintain an archive, compile resource guides for tion of the European term. The Festival's juxta- folk culture, disseminate educational materials to position of musical performance with crafts, nar- schools, advise other government agencies on rative sessions, foodways and sales came from cultural conditions related to their programs, and

Rinzler's pioneering experience the Newport develop proposals tor a national folk perform- Festival. The dominant idea — that of a festival ance company and a national folklife museum. combining art, education and the struggle for The first Festival was indeed a public success, cultural recognition — came from Rinzler with more than 431,000 visitors attending As through the influences of ethnomusicologist Alan Lomax said. Charles Seeger, social activist and educator Myles In affairs like this we realize our strength. Horton, and folklorist A. L Lloyd. We realize how beautiful we are. Black is From its inception, the Festival was to have a beautiful. Appal. ulna is beautiful and even strong scholarly base. Festival presentations old, tired, Washington sometimes is beau would indicate the cultural and social history of tiful when the American people gather to featured traditions. It would represent them ac- sing and fall in love with each other again. curately. Concurrent with the first Festival was an American Folklife Conference, organized by Mor- At the festival people do talk, meet, and un- ns. Rinzler and Henry Glassie. then state folklor- derstand something of each other as they easily ist for the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. Con- cross social boundaries usually not negotiated in ference participants included Smithsonian cura- their everyday life. And through the Festival,

9 Ernie Cornelison from Bybee, Kentucky,

demonstrates

generations, at the 1968 Festival < rafts

processes demonstrated ill the Festival typically invite close observation and

questions Photo by Robert Yellin, Smithsonian Institution

writer Julius Lester and others to develop programs through which

African Americans in Washington might see the Festival and the Smithsonian as worthy of their par- ticipation. Similar efforts were di- rected toward other communities

traditionally left out of Smithsonian museums and activities These efforts led to the appoint-

ment of Clydia Nahwooksy, the first tradition hearers enlarge the measure of cultural Native American professional at the Smithsonian, pride they brought with them to the Mall and and to the establishment of the festival's American bring it back home, energized by the experience Indian Awareness program Portions of the 1968 of presenting then traditions in a national urn- Festival were held at the Anacostia Neighborhood text While not all ot the suggestions developed Museum An African Diaspora Advisory Group - 1 m the 1967 American Folklife Conference have was formed in I ) I to develop programs on Afri- been realized, most ot them have indeed come to can-derived cultures, foster community involve- pass ment, and engage scholars in finding solutions to questions ol cultural representation Gerald Davis, Festival Benchmarks Reagon, James Early, Worth Long, Roland Free-

It is difficult, if not impossible, to summarize man, d\~\d many others became involved. Over the all the milestones, all the accomplishments of the years, the Festival played an important role of Festival of American Folklife. Key benchmarks bringing scholars and cultural thinkers to the merely signal its scope and contributions to Smithsonian from previously unrepresented or scholarship, muscology, government policy and underrepresented communities. Many, such as the life of cultural communities themselves. Reagon. Early, Manuel Melendez, Alicia Gonzalez, Rayna Green, Fred Nahwooksy have held posi- Community Involvement and Staffing tions of increasing responsibility and scope within The Festival was intended to help present and the Smithsi inian. interpret in a direct, public way the sometimes The Festival also provided an opportunity for overlooked artistic creations < >l America's diverse, networks ot minority scholars to develop. Free- grassroots cultural communities. Influenced by man, a documentary photographer, and Long, a the Civil Rights Movement, the Festival was to civil rights community organizer, teamed up in provide a means whereby many Americans could 197-r to survey and document the folklife of tell their story and exhibit their aesthetics, their Mississippi's Black communities for the- Festival; knowledge, their skill and then wisdom to the over the years they have collaborated on many rest of the nation Crucial to tins process was the projects, and are working together again this year, involvement of community members, not onl\ as The Festival has long attempted to provide performers, but also as audience and as curatorial research, training and presentational experience to and pn ifessional staff members ot minority communities. This has

In the late 1960s, the Smithsonian museums served two purposes. On one hand (lie Festival attracted vcr\ few visitors from minority commu- has helped enhance community self-documenta- nities and had only one minority curator. Follow- tion Afn\ presentation. On the other, tile dis- ing the first Festival, Rinzler met with civil rights courses of tile Festival, the Smithsonian and a activist, singer and cultural historian Bernice Rea- broad public have' been enriched with the per- gon, Anacostia Museum Director John Kinard, spectives ol minority professional and lav scholars

ID on their own community's cultures and on on ethnicity, community musics, biographical pro- broader issues of social and cultural history. files of important musicians, verbal arts, deaf cul- This kind of involvement has become a regu- ture, material culture, vernacular architecture, lar feature of the Festival. Field research con- foodways, communities and community celebra- ducted to help select traditions and participants tions, occupational folklife, children's folklore, the for the Festival is typically done by trained and folklore of the elderly, the cultures of other coun- lay scholars from the studied communities them- tries, and issues of cultural policy. Several articles selves. When Hawaiians, Virgin Islanders. Sene- have focused on institutional practice and reflected galese, or members of a deaf community are pre- on the production of the Festival itself — the ideas sented to the public at the Festival, scholars from used to develop programmatic themes, to decide those communities usually frame the presenta- on who is to be represented and how and why. tions with background information. When this is Program books are broadly distributed to the gen- not possible, presentations are done by scholars eral public every year and used in university class- who, though not of the community, have col- rooms for teaching about American cultural tradi- laborated closely with local scholars. tions. Many states and locales have reprinted ar- This ongoing commitment to cultural dialogue ticles for use in their schools. took the form of a Summer Folklore Institute in 1989 and 1990. Hundreds of lay scholars work in Featured State and Region communities across the United States document- First in b«i

community of communities, to the nation 1 >l multidisciplinary and multivocal folklore scholar- nations, we bring our spirit of aloha. ship, with articles on regional American culture. American Indian culture, the cultures of African Male and regional programs at the Festival have- Americans and of other peoples of the diaspora. also been important in generating lasting institu-

I 1 Horsemen nice down the Mallfor the Oklahoma program featured at the 1982 Festival The Festival's presentations

attempt to contextualize performances and skills, sometimes through large-scale structures, often through directed

attention to a particular individual Photo by Jeff Tinsley, Smithsonian Institution

tional effects hack home. Working in concert Smithsonian are worthy of respect, cele- with the Folk Arts Program at the National En- bration and scholarship on the home turf. dowment for the Arts, the Festival has provided a For a century, I believe the Smithsonian useful means of encouraging folk arts programs has been noted primarily for the collection within vari< ius states ol artifacts ol the American experience

Senator Mark Hatfield of < )regon spoke of this and has become the nations attic Hut it is impact at the L978 Festival: the life of the American folk that we cele-

brate here today, not their encased arti- This is a national Festival, but not just for facts as important as they may be. for it is Washington, DC. My congressional col- the people themselves here in festivals leagues and I are very much aware of the like this across the country that provide us impact this Festival has had on our own with an understanding of our own com- states and regions For example, my state. munity. No curator can convey through a Oregon, has had two successful folklife glass display case what the people them- festivals as a result ol the Festival here \ selves can say to us directly. voting woman who did the fieldwork for the 1976 Bicentennial festival returned Most states have remounted a festival program

C home to Oregon to direct a north coast back home — Oklahoma in 1 ).S2. Michigan, ev-

festival in Astoria in 1977 and a central en' year since being on the Mall in 1987, Massa- Oregon festival this year. The festival dem- chusetts in 1988, and Hawaii in 1990. The U.S.

onstrated the breadth ol folkways in just Virgin Islands plans to remount the festival on St

one state. From loggers and fishermen on Croix later this year and next year on St. Thomas, the coast to buckeroos and smoke jumpers States have also used the festival to develop their in the rugged central part of the state. own on-going programs for the study, presenta- These regional festivals demonstrate that tion and conservation of local cultures. Michigan

the cultural traditions brought out by the has clone this effectively; Hawaii is now consider-

12 Iroquois teenagers play and demon- strate the Indian-originated game i / lacrosse at the 1975 Festival- The Festival'spresentation ofAmerican Indian culture has spanned music and dance, crafts, foodways, architecture. storytelling, ritualperformance, subsis- tence activities, spurts and efforts at self- documentation and cultural revitaliza- tion. Photo by Jim Pickerell, Smithsonian

Institution

ing a collaboration with the Smith- sonian for a cultural institute; and the Virgin Islands, based upon its experience, is poised to establish a state folk arts program, pass a Cul- tural Preservation Act and establish a Virgin Islands Cultural Institute. The impact of such state and re- gional programs is not limited to formal institutions, but also extends to participating artists, cultural ex- emplars and scholars. For some, the Festival represents a personal highlight, a benchmark from which

tial the ( )jibway People. they take encouragement and inspir.it 1 Wild Rice and The American Indian program at this year's Native American Programs Festival examines use and knowledge of the land The 1970 Festival expanded to include a uni- among Native American groups from Alaska and fied program focussed on Native American cul- the U.S. Southwest. Mexico, the Andes, and tures. While the Smithsonian's long established Ecuadorian rainforest. In a continuation of the Bureau of American Ethnology had collected and dialogue begun through the Festival model. Na- documented evidences of previous lifeways, the tive American Festival participants will, during Festival's thrust was to complement this with the and after the Festival, work with staff and cura- rich dance, craft, foodways and ritual traditions of tors of the Smithsonian's new National Museum contemporary Indian peoples. The Festival of the American Indian to help shape its opera- worked closely with members of American In- tions and plan its initial exhibits. dian tribes to document and present traditions on the Mall. Collaboration in planning the Festival, Working Americans and

in training community people, and having Ameri- Occupational Folklife can Indians speak directly to the public marked The 1971 Festival marked the beginning of the development of these programs over the another series of programs, one concerned with years. the occupational folklife of working Americans. Since 1970, representatives from more than Rarely presented publically as culture prior to the 130 Native American tribes have illustrated their Festival of American Folklife, occupational

cultures at the Festival. Survey programs were folklife ci insists < >t the skills, knowledge and lore followed with thematic presentations, so that in pei >ple develi >p as members of occupational 1978, 1979 and 1980, American Indians demon- groups or communities. In 1971, during a sum- strated the uses of vernacular architecture, the mer of great national , young people

skills and knowledge needed for its construction harboring stereotypes of people in hard hats had a and its ecological soundness. In 1989 an Ameri- the opportunity to meet, talk with and reach can Indian program examined the access to natu- greater understanding of construction workers.

ral resources necessary for the continuity of tribal Since then. Festival programs have illustrated the cultures; that year's program was accompanied folklife of meat cutters, bakers, garment workers, by the publication of Thomas Vennum's influen- carpenters and joiners, cowboys, farmers, stone

L3 Folklife Legislation

The 1971 Festival also was the setting for what

Oklahoma Senator Fred Harris called, "a folk hearing down on the Mall." Senator Harris, co- sponsor of a bill called the American Folklife

F< mndation Act, felt that

American cultures have not been viewed with the pride they warrant; too often,

they have been scorned as the life-style ol an uncultured lower class. Nothing Ameri- can was allowed to bear the label "cul- ture." We had no national policy of appre- ciation and support for America's folklife.

The legislation was proposed as an effort to invest in the culture ol America's common man.

The bill, according to Harris.

says that the country fiddler need not feel uncultured simply because his fiddle does

not produce a concert tone: it says that the pottery ofjugtown, North Carolina, and

the sandpainting <>l the southwestern Indi-

ans are artistic treasures in the same sense

as those from the dynasties of China; it says that the black bluesmen along the

Brazos Valley in Texas are recognized as pure artists and welcome as a national

treasure; it says that the American Indian philosopher has something urgently im- portant lor America today and that society

Logger Gary Winnop of Sitka, Alaska, checks rigging at the 1984 wants to hear him as well as the ancient

Festival < Occupational presentations have seen bams, threshers, Greeks; it saws thai the total lifestyles ol livestock, railroad tracks and cars, buildingframes, boats Swedish Americans in Milwaukee, of Pol- and computers on the Vlall to help workers demonstrate ish Americans in and of Italian

and explain how they 1 work a living for Americans in Boston have brought a per- Photo b\ lull Ploskonka, Smithsonian Institution spective and a contribution to this country

that has enobled us as a societj , and it says that the bluegrass band has devel- oped a music with a complexity and rich- masons, oil and gas workers, sheet metal wink- ness that will grow ,wk\ that will endure ers, railroad workers, seafarers, truck and taxi always as a living monument to American drivers, bartenders, firefighters and in 1986, even musical genius. In short, the bill says that trial lawyers, who demonstrated their dramatic, there is a vast cultural treasure in strategic, storytelling and people-reading skills America's common man, and that our Some occupational groups and organizations, society will be a better one if we locals on such as the AFL-CN ) Labor studies Center and that treasure and build on it. the American Trial Lawyers Association, have

used their Festival experience in self-presenta- The bill defined folklife and called for the tion, in turning work skills into performance, to establishment of an American Folklife Foundation study and interpret then occupational culture that would give grants, loans and scholarships to

Programs in the Festival have also resulted in groups and individuals to organize folklife festi-

longer term research studies and documentary vals, exhibits and workshops, to support re-

films, such as Robert McCarl's D.C. Firefighters for search, scholarship and training, to establish ar- the Smithsonian Folklife Studies series, and Mar- chives and material and documentary collections, lone Hunt's 1984 Academy and Emmy Award and lo develop and to disseminate educational

winning film, The Stone < 'arvers materials relating to folklife. It was modeled on a

I i bill first proposed by Texas Senator Ralph Yar- of view at the L982 Festival. Said Balfa, borough in 1969 and inspired by the Festival of It matters not what part or what nationality American Folklife, by the initial 1967 conference you are. You should be proud of your na- and by the subsequent interest the conference tionality, you should be proud of your re- had generated. Sen. Harris and Rep. Thompson gion. 1 want to respect your culture, you of New Jersey, the sponsor of the companion bill respect my culture. And if we ever learn to in the House of Representatives, chaired the pub- do this, America is a beautiful country, but lic "folk hearing" on the Mall at the Festival. Festi- it would be even more beautiful. And we val participants Dewey Balfa, a Cajun fiddler from can do that. Some of us has some work to Louisiana, Barbara Farmet and Rosetta Ruyle, do, but I think we are all together. We can American Indians from the Northwest Coast, do that. Florence Reece a coal-mining wife and singer from Tennessee, building tradesman Phil Ricos, Balfa. now retired as a school bus driver, but and others testified at the hearing as did singer still playing his fiddle, was recently appointed an and folk documentor Mike Seeger, folklorists adjunct professor at Southwest Louisiana State Archie Green and Francis Utely, and Festival College to convey his knowledge of Cajun culture American Indian programs coordinator, Clydia to the next generation. Nahwooksy. Old Ways in the New World programs from

The bill was not voted upon in 1971 but laid 1973 to 1976 focused on ethnic groups with roots the legislative groundwork for the establishment in Great Britain, Yugoslavia, Sweden, Norway. of two other federal programs — the Folk Arts Finland, Tunisia, Greece, Germany, Italy, Lebanon,

Program at the National Endowment for the Arts, Japan and Mexico. They generally reunited Ameri- and the American Folklife Center at the Library of can communities with cultural exemplars from Congress. The former assumed responsibility for "back home." The connection between an Ameri- grant-making to individuals and local, state and can immigrant group, whether newly arrived or regional arts agencies, while the latter, under the long settled, and its root population has continued terms of the 1976 American Folklife Preservation to be important in Festival research and program- Act. concentrated on archival collections, folklife ming. The impact of these combinations on per- research and other programs. forming artists, craftspeople and musicians was sometimes profound. Said Balfa in 1989 when at Old Ways in the New World the Festival with French-style fiddlers from West- While the emphasis of the Festival was on ern , Quebec, New England, North Dakota American folk traditions, staff folklorists and oth- and Louisiana, ers had interests in the root traditions In mi which This afternoon we were all [together] doing many American traditions had derived. In 1973 a workshop. I imagined in my mind while the Festival initiated the first of a series of annual this was going on how long it would have programs on "Old Ways in the New World." taken me to travel all these miles and hear These programs sought to research and present this music. I got it in one hour on the Mall, the ways in which traditional practices of com- and I think that is beautiful. munity and ethnic identity, rooted in the "old world," were perserved and transformed in the The Old Ways in the New World concept American context. Programs like the one on framed the nuvd to include in our cultural history Cajun culture in Louisiana examined this pr< >cess the new immigrant groups reaching American through music, and rather than seeing immigrants shores as a result of the 1965 immigration act and Asia. Presentations of these as dispossessed of culture, presented examples < >t the war in Southeast living cultural continuity, vitality and creativity. groups at the Festival coincided with the These programs fostered pride and. in some Smithsonian's establishment of a Research Institute cases such as among Cajuns and Irish Americans. on Immigration and Ethnic Studies headed by Roy local renaissances of traditional cultural forms. Bryce-Laporte. Folks whose traditions had been devalued even Recognizing similarities in the immigrant experi- by themselves and their children reinvested en- ence between different eras and from different ergy in those traditions. Cajun fiddler Dewey continents prompted a program at the 1988 Festi- Balfa, who appreared at the 1964 Newport Folk val on "Migration to Metropolitan Washington:

Festival at the urging of Rinzler and came away Making a New Place Home." African American. promising "to take the applause that echoed in Chinese, Oromo, Amhara. Salvadoran and other my ears back to Louisiana," expressed this point immigrant communities were brought together to

c > l illustrate cultural processes which they all African Diaspora shared, and winch, when understood, could A similar impulse informed the founding of the

l help promote neighborly intercultural ex- African Diaspora program conceived in l )~() and

l »~ changes in an urban environment. produced at the l t Festival. The African Dias- Programmatic interest in newly immigrant pora program, Inst proposed by Gerald Davis and communities and their interactions has contin- developed in collaboration with the African Dias- ued in the research work carried out by staff pora Advisory Group, which included Bernice folklorist Olivia Cadaval on Salvadoran and Reagon, A. IV Spellman, Kathryn Morgan and Latino communities in Washington, D.(. An- others, was a ground-breaking attempt to make a

other researcher, Frank Proschan, is working on statement about the continuity of African cultural the recovery and conservation of Kmhmu ver tonus m the manv places in which African

bal art in collaboration with elders and la) pei iples live'.

scholars in a community widely disbursed geo Ali u.m American culture forms are rooted in

graphically throughout the United States ( in Mm a. often via the Caribbean and . rently, we are engaged in a research project on Some forms, such as Sea Island basket making, Soviet American and cognate Soviet cultures folktales, hair braiding, And some musical and resulting from a 1988 Festival program on So- verbal styles have aesthetically and functionally Met musics. Joint teams ol American and Soviet survived intact; others were synthesized and trans- researchers are conducting fieldwork on formed to deal with historical and daily exigen-

l Bukharin Jewish communities in 1 zbekistan cies The l )~i Festival program made a tri-conti- and m Queens, New York; on Old Believers in nental statement, linking musicians, dancers, southern Russia and in Oregon and California; cooks, w oodcarv crs. hairdressers, basket weavers

Ukranians in the Soviet I nion and U.S. cities; and others from Ghana and Nigeria. Trinidad and and other such root and cognate communities Tobago, and varied African American communities The project examines the transformations of in the United Stales.

identity and folklife within these communities African Diaspora programs in 1975 and 1976

and will probably result in a Festival program in continued to look al commonalities i >t the African the mid-1990s. experience as found in a diversity of North Ameri-

The ( )ld Ways in the \e\\ World programs can. Caribbean, South American and African set-

involved cultural exemplars from some id na- tings. Participants at the festival, millions oi visi-

: tions in the l esti\al and provided a means for tors. Mm an Americans. European Americans, the American public to approach cultures and scholars and Smithsonian stall discovered the

peoples usually tar removed from them. In 1978 manv vvavs in which common aesthetics in the Festival began "featured country" programs foodways, personal adornment, music, dance, use with the participation ol Mexico and Mexican of language And use ol space were expressed by Americans. Such country programs as those on peoples from Ghana, Liberia, Nigeria, Zaire, and Korea, India, Japan, France, the Soviet Union, Senegal; from Jamaica, Haiti, Trinidad X Tobago, Senegal and this year. Indonesia, provide Festi- Surinam and Brazil; and from the Mississippi val visitors with an opportunity to see artistic Delta, from the Georgia Sea Islands, from urban and cultural expressions rarely glimpsed New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Chicago and through mass media. These programs also pro- Washington, D.C African Diaspora programs side an opportunity tor close collaborative ties marked a major development in the scholarly And between American and international scholars public treatment of African-based cultures And and sometimes even influence cultural policies helped set ihc Inundation tor programs in the in the represented nation The UJSS Festival National Museum ol American History. program, "Mela: An Indian lair.' was accom- The n^cd and impetus for such programs con- plished with strong collaboration ol Indian tinues The 1990 festival featured a program on folklorists, community activists, designers, and Senegal involving the participation of Senegalese local communities who were struggling to and , Joined with the I S maintain their artistic traditions This program, Virgin Islands al the festival, participants, scholars conceptually and aesthetically organized b\ and officials "re-discovered" many of the cultural Indian principles and sensibilities, provided a commonalities — in storytelling, mockojumbi, powerful cultural representation, which not music, narrative-, foodways and adornment tradi- onl\ gave visitors a sense of Indian cultures, but tions — vvlmh unite them. At the Festival, the also influenced policies and practices aimed .it Senegalese Minister ol Culture and the Governor

broadening human cultural rights in India. ol the U S Virgin Islands announced plans for a

16 Yugoslavian participants iiml visitors join hands in dancing to tamburashi hand music at the 1973 Festival

Old Ways in I he New Worldprogram. Photo Smithsonian Institution bilateral cultural exchange program. Staff folklor- be expected, the Festival avoided massive state ist Diana N'Diaye and others are currently work- spectacle and retained its intimate presentational ing on educational kits for the school systems in modes — relatively small performance stages, Senegal, the Virgin Islands and Washington, D.C. narrative workshops, intimate crafts And so that children will have access to their cultural foodways demonstration areas, children's partici- heritage, spanning as it does, oceans, continents pation areas and the like. and centuries. We also continue to work with The Bicentennial Festival illustrated in the Senegal in developing a Research strongest terms the living nature of folk culture Center to promote continuing studies of the link- throughout the United States and the world. ages between African and African American Rather than dying in the industrial revolution, or populations. And as the Smithsonian develops its having been smothered by the influence of mass new African American Museum, and Senegal its culture, community-based, grassroots cultural

Goree Island Memorial, we trust the Festival will traditions were still practiced, still meaningful in have played a role in bridging cultural connec- the contemporary lives of Americans and other tions. people of the world. This was easy for millions of visitors to see and experience on the National The U.S. Bicentennial Mall. In sheer size and public impact, the 1976 Festi- The Bicentennial Festival was an immense val for the U.S. Bicentennial was formidable. The undertaking and illustrated the collaboration of Festival was held over a 12-week period and the Smithsonian with literally thousands of na- involved the participation < >f every region of the tional and international scholars, community United States, 38 foreign governments, scores of spokespeople and cultural exemplars invoked in American Indian tribes, and many labor organiza- the documentation, presentation, transmission tions and corporate sponsors. Despite what might and conservation of cultural traditions. The plan-

17 American Folklife after the Bicentennial were swept aside by the enormous outpouring of pub-

lic support for the Festival and its educational and cultural mission. After the Bicentennial, the Smithsonian formally established the Office of

Folklife Programs, with Ralph Rinzler as its founding director. The Office, now with a perma-

nent stall, was able to approach the larger task

set out by the initial American Folklife Confer- ence ol extending beyond the Festival to more thorough, broad ranging and varied means of documenting, studying, presenting and dissemi- nating educational materials on folk cultural tradi-

tii ins.

The web of activity generated initially by the festival and then by the Office has grown large and complex. In addition to producing the an- nual Festival and mounting the archival and held

research which makes it possible, the Office is engaged in numerous projects. The Smithsonian Ghanaian praise singer Salisu Mahama, playing ?Aegonje, aiul Folklife Studies series, formally begun in 1976 group illustrate the traditional musk playedfor the court of the _ Dagomha king at the /'» s Festival Photo Smithsonian Institution publishes documentary studies on American and worldwide folk traditions in the form of scholarly monographs and ethnographic films. Monographs ning for the Bicentennial Festival had begun in and films such as The Meaders Family: North _ ( > ] i and provided an unprecedented mc. ins oi Georgia /'otters. Tule Technology Northern Paiute

establishing cultural networks, training students, l ses ofMarsh Resources in Western Nevada, The and providing opportunities for diverse peoples Drummaker and The Korean Onggi Potter, to interpret and present their traditions, among others, are technical, documentary studies The' Bicentennial also saw the flowering of a used by scholars, community people and univer- _ l touring program, originally begun in l ' s, in sity educators. This series is supplemented by

which groups at the Festival would tour the many other books, pamphlets and articles by

United Stales, bringing part ol I he Festival to < Iffice scholars, some related to Festival pro- cities, rural areas, midwestern towns, concert grams, such as Family Folklore, others based on halls, local school classrooms, city parks and ongoing fieldwork and scholarship.

shopping malls. Through these touring programs, Suite its inception the Festival has collabo- the Smithsonian put people across the breadth of rated with Smithsonian museums m mounting America in touch with traditional domestic and exhibitions related to folk culture. Exhibits of folk foreign cultures While these (ours are no longer an incorporating objects, photographs, song and

formally clone, they served as a model of taking spoken word recordings a\io] sales were held in grassroots performance to local people lor other the National Museum ol American History and organizations and lor the Smithsonian's own spe- then toured by the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibi- cial programs, lor example, the Festival sent tion Service. An exhibit ol Copp family in contingents ol American performing groups to the Museum ol American History encouraged

the Soviet Union in 1988 and 1990. Groups in- living practitioners, like Norman Kennedy, to cluded musicians for stage performances, street work with the museum to help document and

musicians, a \ew < )rleans hrass hand and a girls interpret its collection Consultations between

double-dutch jump rope team < )n tour in the practitioners and museum curators have since Soviet Union, the Americans performed not only become a regular Festival feature,

m concert halls, hut also in the lactones ol the 'fhe < Mhce of Folklife Programs has produced Leninski shipyards, on a collective farm, in a several traveling exhibits including Southeastern Ukranian town square, on the streets of Kie\ and /'littery. The Grand Generation, which presents m apartment complexes. the folklife of the elderly, and recently Standby

Me . \frican American Expressive Culture m The Office ofFolklife Programs Philadelphia. All grew out of Festival programs Preliminary plans to discontinue the Festival of and research. In 1982-83 the Office collaborated

IS 5

with the Renwick Gallery to mount Celebration. effort. Folkways: A Vision Shared, generated con- an exhibition of objects related to human ritual siderable sales and won a Grammy Award. It also behavior curatect by Victor Turner. During the 1 led to a companion music-cultural history video month-long exhibition, artifacts in the Gallery on Guthrie and Leadbelly, a release of original were contextualized by living performances, recordings from the archives, and educational demonstrations and rituals offered by numerous materials produced in concert with the Music cultural communities. The exhibit resulted in a Educators National Conference. Smithsonian catalog and three books and established the Folkways is keeping every title in the original groundwork for the inclusion of living people as Folkwavs catalog in print and is stabilizing the integral participants in museum exhibitions. This archives. More than 70 titles have been remas- practice was at the center of Aditi: A Celebration tered and rereleased on CD and cassette. New of Life, mounted in 1985 at the National Museum albums and series are being researched and pro- of Natural History for the Festival of India. This duced — Hawaiian Dram Dance Chants, The exhibition, one of the Smithsonian's most ambi- Doc Watson Family, Musics ofthe Soviet l nion, tious and successful, gained national and interna- Lightnin' Hopkins, and many more — sometimes tional attention, set high standards for museolo- in concert with Festival projects and often in gists in design, content and programming, and collaboration with local scholars and institutions. served to connect museum display with issues of With the help of the Ford Foundation, Smith- cultural survival. sonian/Folkways has worked closely with the In- The Office of Folklife Programs has produced donesian ethnomusicological society to train numerous symposia, often in collaboration with fieldworkers and documentors and to produce a other Smithsonian units and with national and series of recordings surveying the musical culture international cultural and educational organiza- of that diverse nation. A version of the series with tions. Symposia have ranged from those on notes will be produced so popular culture and traditional puppetry to those that adults, but especially children, there can for the Columbus Quincentenary on Native have access to their own, sometimes fragile tradi- American agriculture and the relationship of com- tions. Smithsonian Folkways may also be found merce and industry to expressive culture. in unlikely places — the Boston Children's Mu-

The Festival has always generated educational seum plays its recordings in the bathrooms and materials and media products. Many documentary computer-based educational programs use Folk- films have been produced about the Festival and ways music to teach geography and cultural its particular programs over the years in different awareness. Folkways co-distributes a world music regions of the country and abroad. Radio Smith- and dance encyclopedia and is about to embark sonian has featured series of programs generated on laser disc and high definition television proj- from the Festival and other research projects; ects. Its archival holdings attract scholars in eth-

Smithsonian World has featured the Festival in its nomusicology, folklore and cultural history and television segments. A record produced from invite the attention of people from the communi- music performed at the Festival was released in ties whose music, words and art it seeks to pre- 1970 and helped establish the Smithsonian Re- serve. cordings Division. The range of scholarly, museum, educational In 10S7 the Office of Folklife Programs ac- and public service activities undertaken by the quired Folkways Records from the family of Office confirms the vision of the first Festival and

Moses Asch. Folkways — a long established com- Conference. But there is yet more to do. pany with a SO year archive and catalog of 2,200 titles spanning U.S. and world musics, verbal art, Cultural Conservation spoken word, and historical and scientific d( >cu- The Festival had long been conceived as pro- mentary recordings — took root at the Smith- moting cultural pluralism, continuity and equity. sonian under the care of musical anthropologist The concern for preserving and encouraging Anthony Seeger. To help pay for the acquisition, cultural diversity and creativity framed Rinzler's popular musicians agreed to produce a benefit work from the beginning. In 1973. Secretary album and donate their royalties to the Smith- Ripley made this explicit in his statement for the sonian. Bob Dylan, Bruce Springsteen, Emmylou Festival program b< «>k:

Harris, U2, Little Richard, Pete Seeger, Ark > We are a conservation organization, and it Guthrie, , Taj Mahal and others seems to lis that conservation extends to performed their versions of and human cultural practices. The possibility Leadbelly songs in the Folkways collection. The

19 >

of using a museum that is essentially a community-held, creatively performed grassroots

historical documentary museum as a thea- culture. Not all culture is or will be produced in ter of live performance where people a< Hollywood. Paris, Nashville or on Madison Ave- tually show that the objects in cases were nue, focal folks, people in families, communities, made by human hands, and are still being tribes, regions and occupations continue to make made, practiced on, worked with, is a very culture. More research must be clone on the con- valuable asset for our role as a preserver texts within which local forms of grassroots cul-

and conservator of living cultural forms, ture do survive and indeed, may flourish. If we

and should be understood in those terms. think cultural diversity is worth conserving, then

the time is ripe to examine how economic devel- Programs in 1979 and ensuing years examined opment strategies can encourage the continuity community efforts to preserve and extend their ol local culture, how local cultural practices and cultural traditions in such activities as vernacular knowledge can support environmental preserva- architecture, food procurement and processing, tion, how local communities can participate- in and ritual life, Rinzler look this concern tor cul- the shaping of the images used, too often by tural conservation to larger arenas in the Smith- others, to represent them, and how the wisdom, sonian when he became Assistant Secretary lor knowledge and aesthetics of diverse cultures can Public Service in 1WS2. directly, and through innovative media, be In 1985 with Petei Seitel as Director of the brought into classrooms and other forums of Office of Folklife Programs and Diana Parker as public education. Director of the Festival, a specific program called The Festival and the Office of folklife Pro- Cultural Conservation was developed for the grams will continue its work It will continue to Festival that examined how institutional practices tap into the great streams of tradition and creativ- and pressures threatened Mayan Indian, Puerto ity which, though threatened, still abound in the Rican, Ca|iin, Kmhmu and other communities and United States and throughout the world. It will how local and sometimes national and interna- continue to heed, honor and celebrate remark- tional efforts worked to assist their cultural sur- able people who. in exemplary ways, carry with vival Cultural conservation programs continued them lessons learned by word ol mouth over in following years to examine the role of local generations, so that the next generation of young social institutions, the maintenance of language artists can return to root forms when shaping and the use of natural resources in preserving new creations. And the Festival will continue to American cultural communities and allowing encourage practitioners to practice, scholars to them to define their own futures research, and the public to learn The concern for the conservation of cultural To museums, educational systems, community diversity and creativity has been expressed in groups, governments and the general public that various publications and through various Festival seek forms for presenting information about cul- projects, and it informs ongoing and developing tural knowledge, practice, wisdom and aesthetics, collaborations with international organizations the Festival offers an important resource. And as and federal, state and local agencies. American souci\. And indeed societies around the- world, daily confront cultural issues Conclusion in si I Is, homes, market places and political are- As the' Festival passes its 2Sth year it will con- nas, the Festival provides .1 model, howevei tinue to experiment with presentational tec li- emergent, of how diverse forms of cultural ex- nn |ues and to explore categories f< >r understand- pression can be accommodated, communicated ing varieties of grassroots cultural expression and appreciated within a broad framework that Festival staff, and the scores of officials, academic recognizes human cultural rights. colleagues, public folklorists and community people who vearK write and talk about the Festi- val continue to use- it as a vehicle lor thinking Kit bard Kttrhi is Director of the Smithsonian Institution through issues of cultural representation and t ffice of Folklife Programs and a Professorial Lecturer ci inservation. ill the fohns Hopkins St boot of ideant ed International An unfinished agenda from 1967 still resonates Studies tic is a 1 itltnral anthropologist with a /'It I da} ll would be a mistake to think that the In mi 1 he I nit'ersity of 1 huti^n who has done most of bis promulgation of global mass culture will inevita- resean h work in India and Pakistan lie first worked bly wipe out all forms of tradition-generated, mi the Festival of. \merican Folklife m 1976

20 ROOTS OF RHYTHM AND BLUES: THE ROBERT JOHNSON ERA

Blues at the Festival: A Community Music with Global Impact Worth Long and Ralph Rinzler

At the very first Smithsonian Folklife Festival back in 1967, you would have heard performers simi- lar to the artists in this program. Grassroots singers and instrumen- talists from the Georgia and Sea Islands, French Quarter, , and the Mississippi Delta offered the oldest songs they knew, then described in music and words their creative innovations. They ex- plained how their music coordi- nated work, praised and lifted the spirit, danced out joy or sorrow, and helped them struggle for change. In every succeeding Festi- val, the oldest, root traditions have been here alongside emergent Fiddler Mr Kenneth- and his grandchildren, 'flickers Grove, forms created by artists fired and North Carolina, 1979. Photo hy Roland L Faniun. «' I'l'H inspired by their heritage. Museums exist to study and ex- hibit history, science, and art — sometimes great, in tradition ... a Picasso, a Rodin of the blues. He ofttimes ordinary — through the perspective of passionately absorbed and then reforged the mu- time. The Smithsonian has long collected visual sic of his community and era. His art decisively in- and plastic art treasures and artifacts of history, fluenced the music of today's world. This program but prior to the 1967 Festival, it had not system- is meant to explore that story of creative change atically curated and presented living forms of and cultural continuity. grassroots music and craft. Once included, living folklife traditions were acknowledged as though Blues historian andfolklorist U brth Long has spent over they had been there the outset from and should J" years doing research on H/ih k culture in the Smith always remain. lie Inis been a Smithsonian Institution researcher spe- "The Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert cializing in blues, spiritual, and gospel music since the Johnson Era" embodies a tried and true Festival etui)' 1970s His publications include a film, made with " approach: start with the roots and present the full Alan Lomax. titled The hind Where the Blues Began. flower of the traditions, old and young; highlight Ralph Rinzler was thefounding Director of the Festival links in the creative chain of a people's art. ofAmerican Folklife tint/ of the Office ofFolklife Robert Johnson was a potent and significant link Programsfrom 1967 to 1982. He was the Assistant Secretaryfor Public Service [nun 1983 to l<><>(> Through

Km .is dt Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Johnson Era his museum projects, books, articles, films and audio has been made possible by the Smithsonian Institution recordings, he hti^ supported cultural diversity tin,/ and a grantfrom its Special Exhibition Fund, and by a institutional recognition of the aesthetic and ethical grantfrom the Music Performance Trust Funds riilues expressed in folk and working class cultures

R( >( ITS OF RHYTHM AND BLUES Jl Robert Johnson in the '90s: A Dream Journey

Who would ever have thought that ^2 years was a professional bluesman. And that was how after his death Robert Johnson would go gold? he died.

A Friend of mine wrote recently and asked: What are we to make of all this implausible Can you imagine him walking down a crowded latter-day success, the commercialization, and city street, seeing his name and face displayed in canonization, of something that would have a store window? Well. 1 can and I can't. It's a seemed, to and Keith Richards, or to

metaphor I've imagined many times in the past: me. when we were all 15 or Id years old, imper- Blind Willie McTell wandering into the TK studio vious to exploitation? There are movies in the in Miami in the late 1970s (don't ask me why TK; making; there are bitter disputes over ownership remember, this is just a dream); Robert Johnson of something that was once declared by Colum-

hearing his songs on the radio on a hot summer's bia to be m the public domain.'' What is now

night. I think the movie "Crossroads" forever being talked about is something both more — drove this fantasy out oi my mind: my dream was and less — than a priceless cultural legacy. We

rich in possibilities jn

pure Perhaps it was the mundaneness ol the modity: we are talking about the inevitable price

movie's conceit; more likely, it was just the reality ( )l success ol finding a secret treasure dug up and exposed I don't know what to think about it all. quite to the light. The music was just as magical, but honestly, It would be easv to say that America somehow the fantasy had grown old likes its heroes dead — but that would probably

be true of most cultures. While' an artist is still I don't think I'd even heard of Robert creating, he is always dangerous, there is no Johnson when 1 found the record, it was telling what he might do next. Robert Johnson? probably just fresh out I was 1^ or L6, He recorded 2 1-) songs — there are rumors of and it was a real shock that there was another one or two. There are 12 alternate takes something that powerful. It seemed as il llis work makes up a convenient canon — it can he wasn't playing for an audience. It didn't be studied and quantified. obey the rules of time or harmony or any- And what of the audience that hears his music thing. It all led me to believe that here now lor the hist time? How can they we relate? was a guy who really didn't want to play The world that he lived in, the language that he- lor people at all, that Ins thing was so un- employs ("She's got Elgin movements from her bearable to have to live with that he was head down to her toes': Elgin has to be ex- almost ashamed of it. This was an image plained, place names have to be' explained, sex-

that I was very, very keen to hang on to. ual metaphors have to be explained and excused — Eric Clapton — different time, different place). But somehow

We all were. It was the sustaining image ol a something essential comes through What is it? 1

generation, the central thesis < >l the liner notes to don't know What is it that captured me. that

the first album, even the cover illustration for the captured Eric Clapton, that captured a generation

second the romantic loner with his face turned that listened with its ear glued to a tinny speaker,

to the wall And yet the real Robert Johnson that studied even crackle on that first Lb when it played tor people; he traveled the land; he came out in 1961? King of the Sing-

played the juke joints, he was a fixture in court- ers. Even the title is indicative of the misunder- house squares, he even played on the radio He standing. Howlin' Wolf might introduce himself.

i > _ Rl lOTSOl Kin IIIVI AM) 151.1 IS Studio portrait ofRobertJohnson, circa 1935

Photo courtesy of Stephen ( LaVere, © 1989 Stephen C LaVere

mythopoetically, as "The Wolf," but Robert lines, it's not about commercial slogans, it's not Johnson? Can you imagine him referring to him- about comparing one experience or achievement self as n pyalty? to another, it's not about ownership and it's not

about sales. It's about a spirit, it's about some- One time in St. Louis we were playing one thing that lingers in the air, it's about something of the songs that Robert would like to play that can persist s2 years alter a man's death, that with someone once in a great while. will keep knocking slyly, over and over again, "Come On In My Kitchen." He was play- ignoring the rebuffs of history, ignoring the deaf- ing very slow and passionately, and when ening silence of time, until at last it is let on in.

we had quit. I noticed no one was saying

anything. Then I realized they were crying Copyright ©1991 In Peter Guralnick — both women and men. —-

Petei Guralnick is the author oj'Searching l<>r Robert That is what Robert Johnson is about. It's what mush . we have to keep on reminding ourselves, not just Feel Like Going Hume. Lost Highway and Sweet Soul about Robert Johnson but about art itself or any- Music He is currently at work mi a biography ofElvis thing that we value in our lives. It's not about tag Presley

ROOTS I IF RHYTHM AND BLUES 2.S Robert Johnson, Blues Musician

Robert Jr. Lockwood Compiledfrom an interview with Worth Long

W hen I was young, I couldn't play reels and

popular tunes at home cause I was living with my grandfather. We played them on the organ when my folks would leave. But when they'd come back, we'd play church music.

There was no name for the fust songs 1 started

playing. I had two cousins who could play two

or three little tunes on the piano, and I just

watched them and learned how to play it. Maybe

I was born to play. Because Robert was li\mg with my mother, he

told me 1 could go watch him play. I didn't have a guitar. Everytime he set the guitar down, Id

pick it up He'd set the guitar down. And he'd be

with momma, and I'd pick it up. He finally asked me. "Do you really want to play?" ami he decided to teach me. He'd play a tune and then show me how he

did it. and I would do it. He didn't have to do it

but once for me. I had a sense of time, and I

knew three musical changes, so when 1 started

playing the guitar, it wasn't a problem. 1 couldn't

get the real feel of it like he was doing but I

could still do the notes. Within three months

time, I was playing. I was only I t. Robert fr Lockwood After I learned to play, I went to Clarksdale with Robert. You got the Sunflower River ferry

I turned follow eel When 13, Robert Johnson there. So Robert put me on one side of the mother home in Arkansas, she my Helena, and bridge, and he went on the other side. He was couldn't get rid of him. Robert looked awful real smart. He said. "Robert Jr., we do it like this, young to me, and he looked young to my well make more money." He said, Now you sit mother. he But was making believe that he was here and play, and I'm going on the other side older than my mother He was full of Indian, and and play." I didn't realize what he was really he a or didn't have beard mustache. When he doing but the people were transferring across the died, when he got killed, he didn't have a beard bridge both ways, confused about who Robert either. Johnson was. I said, 111 be doggoned." We set

When I met Robert, he was playing just like on each end of the bridge and played about 35 these records are today He played by himself minutes and made almost S2() apiece when they but like I sounded somebody sitting at the piano. passed the hat around. never had heard the guitar played like that. I Soon 1 was playing all over Mississippi and always felt like I wanted to pla\ the piano until Arkansas and Tennessee. I started playing with Robert Johnson turned me onto his guitar style. Sonny Boy Williamson and also went with Robert

)i 24 l(( ITS! 'I KIIYI ll\l \\l) HI I 1 s Richard "Hacksaw" Harney in performance at the National Folk Festival. 1971 Photo courtesy Stephen C. LaVere, © 1971 Stephen C. LaVere

to a lot of little places. Most of the places where we played, where I played in Mississippi, me and Sonny Boy Williamson was on

street corners . . . we made a lot of money. Be a lot of people downtown, and we'd go down and get permission from the police to play, and we were making $75 and $80 dollars apiece. That was

a lot of money then . . . it's a lot of money now. They had house parties and things going at that time, "Saturday night sup- pers" they called them. The guys would be shooting dice and dancing and He couldn't talk plain, he stuttered. And I used to

drinking and playing on the street corners. I done catch him watching me and I would ask him,

a lot of that. "Why you watching me?"

Guitar players at that time couldn't hardly get He could play the guitar, and with the same with, playing a job in a band because you couldn't hear it. I hand he was picking he'd be drum was real always did like big bands. I liked a whole lot of parts against the guitar. Me and Robert old standards, pretty changes and I couldn't get all of that out of close to him. Hacksaw was playing blues old stan- three changes. The very first hand I had was with and Robert was playing the and

. . . but blues. the Starkey Brothers when 1 left King Biscuit dards like "Chinatown" more tunes like Time and went on Mothers Best Flour Time. I Robert was playing ragtime, show had a band made up of James, Will and Ca- "Sweet Sue" and all them old tunes. Hacksaw had mellia Starkey. One was playing piano, the others a lot to do with Robert's playing because they were playing horns, and we had drums and bass played somewhat similar. [Robert] was living in Clarksdale for a while and there wasn't no de- . . . about six pieces. That was in 1942. doing because the city In 1939, the Melrose pick-up came out and 1 mand for what he was think me and Charlie Christian were the first was too small. He was playing ballads — you

people to have one. You could just push it across could call it jazz. jazz like the hole in the guitar and plug it up. Amplifiers Blind Blake was playing ragtime and then, you would call them practice amplifiers Hacksaw did. But. at that time, the white folks now. They was just loud enough to bring the called the blues "devil's music' so everybody guitar up to the piano. played a little jazz or something like that and Robert Johnson could play the harmonica and tried to Stay away from the blues. Robert Johnson the piano, but he didn't really care too much didn't care nothing about the blues being bad. about neither of those. Robert played the guitar lie played the blues even when it was aban- by himself and sounded like two guitars. He was doned by the white society. Arkansas, playing the bass and lead at the same time. He I first met Willie Dixon in Helena,

was playing background for himself on the bass and then in Clarksdale, Mississippi. Later, when I strings and playing melody on the lead. moved to Chicago, me and Dixon played tot- Hacksaw Harney could do that. He was a Chess 17 years. We did nothing but session work, Roosevelt Sykes, Willie monster player. He was also a piano maker. I ran backing up everybody.

I played with almost into Hacksaw back when I was coming under Mayburn, Little Walter. Robert Johnson. He could play the piano well. everybody who was doing blues. I played with

ROOTS OF RHYTHM UMD BLUES 25 there's Muddy. I recorded in 1940 before he recorded. know some prejudice in this. There has didn't record until 1945 or some- to be thing like that. Robert Johnson was at least sS or 60 years ahead of his time. wasn't nothing like When I first went to Chicago. I recorded by There myself. "Little Boy Blue" was my first recording him What was there to hold him? I've seen him and "Take a Little Walk With Me." One on each sit on street coiners and make SUM) in a hour side. My first recording session was "Mean Black ,\nd a half in nickels and dimes and quarters tor Spider Blues." Little Boy Blue." "Take a Little Except Hacksaw, there is nobody else I know ol that could do the things thai Walk with Me," and "Train My Baby." I wrote all any of

Robert did. 1 to the songs. I been writing my own songs ever hate see them good ones go like that. since I learned how to play. That was my first tour tunes recorded on RCA Victor, which was That man was something. He could play and sing. didn't the Bluebird label. They sold but 1 don't know He need no help. That was the real

strong thing about his career. II I to how well they sold because I didn't get nothing just want

play the blues, I don't no from them. I got the first money that the man need help.

is his living paid me, and i ain't got no royalties. Twelve fifty John Hammond making off of a song. Everybody got caught in that. Robert. He works hard and 1 like him. But there

Wasn't no segregation about that. Twelve fifty ain't noboclv that I've taught that sounds like-

I a side and 13% of one cent lor royalty. I didn't Robert. was teaching Johnny Shines when he-

that stroke. II even get that. [Once] I made Bluebird pay me had he hadn't had that stroke, he'd be doing pretty good now $500 for the recording session. I went to Chicago with Dr. Clayton, who was pretty smart. And with You know, ['m responsible for B.B.'s career 1 all these record companies bucking against each taught Luke Stuckey, Willie Johnson and I kinda helped Ml' Murphy, and taught Fitch- other, me anci Clayton got paid $500. I ain't ever Lonnie

ford, in If got no royalties from nobody, and 1 ain't ever got who plays my style. the record com- panies were smart, they would have no publishing money from nobody, and I have me playing often wondered how in the hell do they expect Robert Johnson tunes right now But 1 know you to keep working lor them when they don't what the problem is. I'm free, black and 76 give you your money'-' It's very wierd. years old. and they think I might fall dead to-

1 got for I Finally, I had to draw a line and said. II I'm morrow, But news them. ain't going going to make a living, I'm going to have to do n< 'vv here.

There are some people who want to trv to something better than this." I have my own label get some glory because Robert is so now. Lockwood Records. 1 think by me having popular. that and by me and my wile working so hard, They say they knew Robert, and they don't we're getting the company known all over the know a damn thing. They talked about him

his soul to devil I to world, so I think things are going to tee off in a selling the want know how little bit you do that' If anybody sold then souls to the

devil, it's the groups that have to have a million fm so glad I am able to do this I don't have dollars worth ol dope and have to a mil- to listen to no one tell me, "Well, I don't like- the make songs." Ho you know how disappointing that is? lion dollars in money to play. I don't like the way they are Irving to label him was a blues That's really bad when they say, Well. I don't He like so and so." Then you got to try to do some- musician, just like the rest of them. thing they like in order to sell it Now, I just go

ahead and record what I want to record, and I put it out. And if they don't like it, it don't make no difference. And if they do like it, line. Robert jr l.ockwood. the adopted son ofRobert The audiences don't know what they like no Johnson, was bom in Marvel. Arkansas in /9/5

< 'hanging instruments piano toguitar. way until good creators do them. And after we from be first became a prominent blnesman in Memphis, in the ci<> them, then they say they like it. But if they t ompttny ofSonny Hoy U 'illiamson and /->' /)' and don't want to accept nothing they ain't never Albert King, among others After a stint in St Louis, heard, how do unexplored people ever get rec- where lie worked with the influential rocalist I >> ognized'-' How they going to keep creating-' There < lii yion. I ik kwood became a studio guitarist i>i ain't no point in creating nothing • hicago in the 1940s Here he worked with many Fifty-two years alter he died. Robert Johnson is •.•real blues artists In I960 he moved to Cleveland and getting on the charts I Here am living and play- has remained — with frec/uent /ourneys t< • festivals ing just like him and ain't getting no breaks. 1 and otherperformance stages — ever since

)i 2(l R( >TS< IF RHYTHM V\l) I Wisdom of the Blues

Willie Dixon

Compiledfrom an interview with Worth Long

Willie Dixon, born in Mississippi the same year as RobertJr. Lockwoi >d is a poet-philosopher and blues activist. He did not know RobertJohnson, but likeJohnson, Dixon created a conceptually rich repertoire of blues songs thai candid/)' offer bis deep thoughts andfeelings about critical social and cultural issues. In this interview, Willie Dixon shares some ofhis insight on African American secular and sacred musics He also provides an autobiographical frameteork that deepens our comprehension of the genius and complexities of African American mu- sic His observations on issues ofsegregation, the industrialization ofcommunity musical forms and the impact of corporate manipulation ofBlack people's culture are trenchant and insightful Worth Long Ralph Rinzler

My name is Willie DLxon and I was born in

Vicksburg, Mississippi, July 1, 1915. My whole family was from that area. 1 went to school there

for a while. I lived around there as long as I possi- bly could under starving conditions, until I had to get the hell out, so somebody else could eat. Ain't but one part of Vicksburg, and that's

Vicksburg. I lived on the outskirts of town. 1 was tl illie Dixon ut the 1989 Handy Awards, Memphis, about one, two blocks from the bus. At that time, Tennessee Photo by Lauri Lawson, © 1989 Lauri Lawson we had a street car. You got on the trolley car and went straight to the back. That's where you'd sit until you got off. And if a white person came over My father used to say, "If you don't learn noth- and needed your seat, you had to get up and let ing, you have nothing, you know nothing, and him in there — that's all. you do nothing"; but Little Brother Montgomery

They had just about the same conditions all used to say that everybody was born naked. over, you know. But the thing was, that some When I first met him as a youngster, 1 used to were well enough brainwashed, so that they ask him, "Why do you s.i\ that everybody was thought this was the best. And others knew it born naked all the time'-''' When I was older, and wasn't the best. Now, there were others that knew he and I were getting around together, he said it wasn't the best and were afraid to say different, that meant we all started the same way — you afraid to act different. Anytime you're born and can gain if you want to, or lose if you please, but raised in Mississippi ... in those days, it was the ain't nobody came in here with nothing, and ain't experience that happened to anybody that moved. nobody going to take nothing away. So get what

>7 R( >( US i )l KIIVIIIM \M) BLUES you can while you're here. And be the best you things because my mother was definitely a Chris- ean. And try to make arrangements for somebody tian all of the way around, and my father was else while you're here. sometimes a Christian and sometimes anything he

I knew Little Brother Montgomery since I was wanted to be. But he thought of the difference. quite young. I used to play hooky from school Christianity and his thing were two different just to hear those guys playing on the street cor- things, fie thought the Christian thing was just ner. He was little, and I thought then — because psychologizing people so they could be under he was a little short guy — that lie was a boy control. And after I got older, I could make my

But he was grown. At that particular time, he own decision cither way I'd feel. played all the different styles, all the styles other My lather always said, "You got to live before people never heard of. He did a song called the you die. And don't get ready to die before you get "Vicksburg Blues," which was real popular in reach to live." So that was kind of my philosophy,

Vicksburg, and then Roosevelt Sykes changed it that I have to live before 1 died. I figured getting into the "Forty-Four Blues." It was the same ready to live was better than getting ready to die. music. Little Brother had to sit down at different When I'd get old enough, then I'd start getting times and show me how they first started to play ready to die. This organization 1 have, the Blues it, and then how they added a little bit here and Heaven Foundation 1 helps you get a little heaven there, and how different people who had died before you die. Then, il you happen to miss, you long before they got a chance to record, how have a little taste of it anyway, they played. He knew all of them. 'I'he reason I have the Blues Heaven foundation

They all start from the original stuff because is so the blues will be properly advertised, publi- the blues — the rearrangement of the blues — cized, emphasized, talked about and understood created all these other styles, and it's really very ( )nce you understand the blues, it will give every- easy to see. It's like "Dudlow" out of Dudlow, body a better lite because you'll have a better life

Mississippi. He was one of the guys that inspired wiih each other. That's what Blues Heaven is all that left hand to the original 12-bar blues. When I abi mt. -- was a kid they used to call it "Dudlow" all the I always had great expectations in the real old-timers, they called it that name. But alter held I sung my fust song — I must have been the people decided they were going to commer- about tour or five years old — in the Spring Hill cialize it, record it, they started to call it "boogie- Baptist Church in Vicksburg. My mother always woogie." And by calling it boogie-woogie, then used to tell us to learn how to smg in harmony. everybody could get into the act, and everybody And there was a fellow down there in Vicksburg did get in the act. Everybody come up with a called Phelps — he was a jubilee singer He taught

boogie of his own But it was all 12-bar blues harmony singing. Well, I was with him at that par-

You learn a lot ot things when you are young, ti( ular time he started singing I'he group was and a lot of things you can tell people about called the Union Jubilee Singers in Vicksburg.

And then, some things you can't tell people. Es- Then alter that. I was singing spirituals. Once m pecially in the South, where people didn't know a while the kids would move on to other things, too much at that time and weren't allowed to b\ singing other songs that weren't spirituals And learn very much. They thought every time you at that particular time, when you didn't sing spiri- brought up a conversation about something, it tuals, they called the other songs "reels And the was something to argue about But afterwards, reels weren't considered as good music lor all the you learned they were playing the same identical spiritual-minded people then. music, the same identical tunes We used to broadcast at WQBC radio station, One was called a spiritual, and the other was clown there in Vicksburg, once a week, mostly on called the blues. And the only difference was: Friday. We rehearsed just about even clav or so. ot me them was dedicated to the earth and the Let me see now, that goes back to 1934. . . '35. tacts ol life, which was the blues; and the spiri- When Then Phelps was teaching us harmony, I

tual things were dedicated to heaven and after began to learn quite a bit about it, and I loved it. 1 death, you know. So that was the difference be- tween the spirituals and the blues. And the expe- rience you receive on earth was the only thing 'The nines Heaven Foundation, a not-for-profit organiza-

tion, was founded bv Willie- I >iv fi ir purpi ise you had to go on because nobody had the expe- m the of garner- ing proper recognition and broader acknowledgement of the rience of heaven. And I don't think they have blues ll provides an annual scholarship. The Muddy Waters had it yet. s. holarship, and, with matching grants, has donated a selec-

You see, I had a chance for two sides of tion "l band instruments to high st limits around the country.

28 K< IOTSI H RHYTHM wn BLUES still love it. I found out things done in harmony after that we had a group called the Four Jumps are always better than things done without har- of Jive. Most of the time we consisted of some of mony, don't care what it is. the same guys, and then we cut it on down to You know all kids always play all kinds of the Big Three Trio. We began making a little instruments, but one that I actually tried to play noise for Columbia, doing background for people on was a bass. Then I did play the guitar for a like Big Bill and also Rosetta Howard . . . folks little while, mostly in , when Memphis like that.

Slim and I went over there. My mother used to write all types of poems

I didn't get interested in the bass until I came and things, and I'd always tell her that I was to Chicago. After I came to Chicago, I won the going to sing them when I got older. She made a

little I a kid. Golden Gloves as a novice fighter . . . that's in lot of old poem books when was

1937. At the same time I was in the gymnasium, They were consisting of nothing but spiritual guys would be singing and playing around there. ideas and things out of the Bible. Some of them I

And I'd get in there harmonizing a little bit be- remember. Then I had a whole book of poems cause I knew most of the bass lines for all the that I wrote as a kid. things. In those days the Ink Spots were just start- I never was good at art. but I always did like ing, and the Mills Brothers. And everybody was poems. Poems of everything, of anything. There's imitating the Mills Brothers because they imitated room enough in the world for everything, and instruments. I used to imitate the bass instalment there's more ideas in the world than your head all the time because I knew most of the bass can hold. Get these ideas together and make lines. them into verses so people are interested. My

Things got rough for me in the fight game. I mother always tried to put the verses in a poetic decided to hang around with Baby Doo Castin, a form. piano player, and he insisted on making me a Many people have something that they would homemade bass out of a big oil can. And that's like to say to the world and would like the world never a the way I started playing the bass. We put a stick to know about. But most people get on the oil can. That oil can had an open bottom chance to say these things. And then, you're in a to it, and we put this stick on the back of it and going to try to make them see something

made it like an African instrument. Then he made song that an individual can't see for themselves. another thing like a fingerboard and put this one Like the average man has his own feeling about or love or whatever — what's in his heart bass string on it, attached to the center of the oil women can and on top of the stick. And the stick had a or what's in his mind. All of a sudden, here

little adjusting thing that he could wind up and comes somebody that's singing it out right. You down to play into whatever key we were playing know good and well what he's talking about, and that in. Well, I just called it a tin can bass. I didn't he knows what you're talking about. Then make any other instruments, but Baby Doo did. gives you an inspiration because here's a guy to say. That's 1 [e came from Natchez, and he made his own who's saying just what you wanted

guitar. He always told me about it, and then he- what makes hit songs. Things that are common

made one when he was in Chicago. He made it to any individual — and it's not a complicated

out of something like a cigar box. But he would thing. It makes it easier for life, easy to express, life, make the box, you know, so that it was strong easy to say. Blues songs are facts of whether

enough to hold the strings. He died last year in it's our life or somebody else's.

Minneapolis. The songs that I like the best are generally the

I try to I got together with two or three groups before ones that I am writing on as of now. keep we got together with Baby Doo. One of them my songs up to the condition where they can be was with a guy called Bernard Dennis He used educational and provide understanding to the

to play with me and Little Brother and Brother audience that's listening. I feel like the audience Radcliff, and we'd name a different group a dif- today doesn't know the value of peace. I made ferent thing every two or three weeks. But we two different songs on peace. "You Can't Make

never got a chance to record with him. And first Peace" speaks for itself:

thing I ever actually recorded was this thing You take one man's heart called the "Bumping Boys." That was with me And make another man live. and my brother and my nephew and another You go to the moon fellow and Baby Doo. We always got together And come back thrilled. crush any country and did some things on Decca for J. Mayo Wil- You can liams. After that we had the Five Breezes, and In a matter of weeks,

l<( )< lis ( X RIIV11IM AND BUTS 29 Hut it don't make sense stores. And everybody would stop and listen. I When you can't make peace. remember we finally got an old record player

You'd foul around and wind it up ton tight — the Most of the songs 1 write offer wisdom, and spring jumped loose, and nobody knew how to this is why I say most of them are considered as fix it. wisdom of the blues. I made this song up about

I

dio. I remember my brother, he was working ignorance and stupidity,'' 1 mean that everything where they made the little crystal radio, and he that's been clone wrong on the lace of the earth brought one home-. We had earphones, and you happens because of: could hardly hear anything, only about two or Evil, ignorance and stupidity three stations on the line Hut at the same lime worst things in world The three the they played most of what they wanted to. Most It ain't no good for no man or woman, was country-western. They had so many different Neither no boy or girl. kinds of songs . . . and dances, too. Nobody in

'Cause it you're evil, you're ignorant. ihe' world could keep up with all the different

And il you're stupid, you're wrong dances: the two-step, the black bottom, the snake

And theres no way in the world hip. Everybody that could do anything, they done

it it that Y< iu i. an e\ er get along and named dance,

When 1 write a song. I hope that people like it II you're evil, ignorant and stupid, we'll enough to elanee to it Because most of the You create prejudice and hate time il people- elanee to something — ten to one' II it di m t be t< >m< >rrow, — they learn something about the words ol u sc It will be >< iner i >r late that gives them a certain education they wouldn't

I try to say it in the tacts of life — one way or learn otherwise'. They learn beeause they like' it. other, it's the fact of lite or some- the whether my Hut they don't have to be listening directly to the-

else's. That's I make these- particular body why words, As you know, rhythm is the thing. Every- ot are the- true (it life types songs. The blues lads thing moves to rhythm, Everything that's under words songs inspirations expressed in and and the sun. that crawls, flies or swims, likes music. with feeling and understanding, The people. Hut blues is the' greatest, beeause blues is the

< il condition is regardless what an individual in, only one that, along with the rhythm and the want to lie in better shape. believe in they The) musie'. brings wisdom. When youngsters ge't a letting know what somebody condition they're chance to hear the- wisdom along with the music m. m order to help themselves Whethei it s — it give's them a chance to get a better educa- good, it's or wrong whether bad. Right tion and have a better understanding. The world has woken up to the' facts "I hie-, Most people' never have' looked at it like that. and blues are about the facts < it life, have been This is whv I s.iv ihe' youngsters toelay are since the beginning. The blues have been around brighter and wiser than they were yesterday. a long time. Even before Robert Johnson there Because old folks told you something, you be- were many people singing the blues. At that lieved it like- that — you couldn't believe the old time, people hadn't been taught that the blues folks lie'el Hut We' touilel out the olel folks lieel so was wrong. When I was a youngster, a lot i it to long [that now | you can't get the young folks

1 people to talk about I used Robert Johnson. trust anybi >ely never eliel actually meet him, but I saw him and I 1 made a poem that was made out ol cliches

i. in into he' also Robert Jr.. who partly raised, and ol the world. Cliches are- always made to the- laets Shines. very like- Johnny, Johnson looked much of life They sav them all over the world m differ- the original picture that he had there. I was .1 ent languages. I began to take .ill these different youngster singing spirituals, I always elid like any cliches from various parts i >t the world jn

kind ol music. I was in Mississippi in one of ( them together And I call it "Good Advice." )ne

those little Delta towns, and I saw Robert Jr and of the poems I put together: was excited to see him. People strain at a gnat. In that day, there weren t very many record- But they sw all< i\v a camel ings out there, and anybody that could get a A wise- man bets recording made' was somebody that you had to

And a f< >< il gambles lie'.n And there' were very few Black ones out

there at all. Records were played in places down- The difference between a better and a gam-

town, and people would be playing them out in bler: a gambler is going to stay there to win it all

I s 50 Rl lOTSOl KIIVI1IM \\l |',|l | But the better bets this and bets that, and says, "If When I go to the source, the roots of all

music, I find out it was the blues to I lose, I'm through." American begin with. All American music comes from the Barking dogs blues. We put the roots down. It was like discov- Seldom bite. ering America. A barking dog always warns the people, and there's nobody going to look for him to bite II ////c Dixon, musician, composer andfounder oj Blues them. Everytime somebody gets bit by a dog — Heaven Foundation, Inc., is often referred to as "the ten to one — he didn't see him coming or didn't Intel laureate of the blues " For more than 50 years, hear him, \l illie Dixon has shaped the < ourse of this musical What's done in the dark, genre and has campaignedfor the recognition oj the

Will come to the light. blues and its artists as the < ornerstone oj American popular music That's a fact. Because many things done in the dark, take a long time to get here. Some of them Further Readings take nine months or more. Most of the time it's done in the dark. Bastin, Bruce. 1986. Red River Blues: The Blues Tradi- tion in the Southeast Urbana: University of You can't tell a farmer Press. From a lover. Charters. Samuel. 1991. The Blues Maker. New York: You can't tell a book Da Capo Pass By its cover. Evans, David 1987. Big Road Blues New York: Da So these are the tacts of life. Capo Press Repeat each one as above. Then add, "That's good advice." Guralnick, Peter. 1 988, Feel Like Going Home. New You keep on going York: Harper and Row. 1989 When you're sure you're right. . Searching for RobertJohnson. New York: E.P Dutton. A weak brain York: Penguin And a narrow mind Palmer, Robert 1981. Deep Flues. New Books. Cause many a man

l Tl.'e To be left behind. Pearson, Barry Lee. l »8i "Sounds So Good To Me": Bluesman's Story Philadelphia University of Penn- A heap of people see sylvania Press. But a very few know. Titon, Jeff Todd. 1977. Early Downhome Blues A Musi- Many a one start. cal and Cultural Analysis Urbana: University of But a mighty few go. Illinois Press. The darkest part of night

Is just before day. Suggested Listening

when the cat is gone And Blues Rediscoveries Folkways RF11, The mice gonna play. Dixon, Willie. The Chess Box MCA 16500. All these things Dixon, Willie. Hidden Charms Capitol/Bug 7905952. Is good advice, you know. House, Son. The Complete Sessions can't get blood from a turnip. You 1941-42 Travelin' Man 02. All glitter ain't gold. Johnson, Robert The Complete Recordings. Columbia You can get good music CZK4622. When you play with soul. Lockwood, Robert jr. and Johnny Shines. Hanging On everything that's Cause started Rounder C-2023

I las to have an end. \eirs and the aim's Telling li Like It Is. Columbia And if you keep on betting. CK46217. Sooner or later you'll win. Patton, Charlie Founder of the Delta Blues. Yazoo A still tongue 1020. Makes a wise head. Roots ofRobertJohnson Yazoo 1073- These are the things

I RF1. That the wise folks said. The Country Blues: Vol Folkways

The Country Blues. Vol. J. Folkways RF9. Now all this is Rood advice.

ROOTS OF RHYTHM AND BLUES 3 1 FAMILY FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND

Family Farm Folklore

Betty J. Belanus

Strategies include redividing labor among family members, diversifying crops and livestock, and

establishing a farm-related "side business" t< i supplement income. There seem to be as many combinations of strategies for survival as there are farm families. And even in the "Heartland" states of the Midwest, often considered a ho- mogenous region oi European Americans, a great variety of family farms exists Midwestern family farms include small "truck patches" and huge hog producers; medium-sized

beef cattle farms and thousands of acres in corn,

soybeans .\nd wheat, fruit orchards and large daiiy farms. And the families that operate the farms include African American farmers, whose

grandfathers moved north to work in the city long enough to afford a piece of land, descen- dants of Northern. Central and Eastern European Three generations oj the Petersfamily of Vallonia, Indiana, pose in front of the sign that shows theirfarm as having been farmers, who came to America seeking land and in thefamilyfor over a century opportunities unavailable to them in the Old

Photo courtes) Jackson < ountj Schneck Memorial Hospital Country; American Indian farmers whose agricul- tural tradition stretches hack millennia on the

The "economic crisis" of the early 1980s ri- continent; and recent Southeast Asian immigrant

valed the Great Depression of the 1930s in its farmers, who work cooperatively to provide their

impact on family farming, Its effects are still communities with foods they were familiar with

being felt today. Some farms that have been in in their Ik imeland. families for a century or more have none bank- It's almost impossible, therefore, to define "the

rupt; people who love working the land have Heartland family farmer." It's easier to mention a been forced to move to towns or cities and work few common traits. We've found two things that

in factories or offices. In man) rural areas. the families researched for this years Festival churches and schools have closed or merged have m common — a body oi skills and knowl- with those in nearby towns because populations edge inherited between generations within An have become depleted. Some farmers complain ethnic and rural tradition; and a keen interest in they don't know their neighbors any more, as and understanding of their rural past, reflected in

farmland is turned into housing developments or family histories, stories, photos and memorabilia

is bought up by large agribusinesses. These two qualities — knowledge and conscious- But man} family farms have survived. In spite ness — can be called "family farm folklore," and of the ups and downs of fluctuating agricultural they have helped rural families maintain a way of markets, unpredictable weather, and debt pay- life few of them would willingly trade for easier ments, they have found strategies to persevere. and often more profitable lives in towns and cities.

The folklore of farm families is unique, for it emerges where occupation intertwines with fam- 1 .iiiiiK Farming in the Heartland has been made

possible by the Smithsonian Institution and the I s ily, where all household members are. or have

I department ofAgriculture been at one time, involved with the life of the

52 I- Will "l I AKMIV , l\ Till HEARTLAND Mandan Indians, Lydia Sage-Chase am/ her husband, Bob, m their garden in North Dakota Today. Lydia and other members of herfamily carry onfarming traditions, using seeds passed down through the generations, blessing the crops eacli year with special ceremonies- Photo courtesy Lydia Sage-Chase

farm. Farm families arc not like those where fa- members in community or county histories. ther and often mother work outside the home Along with writing, other families have found and interact with children only in mornings and unique ways of preserving and displaying their evenings, on weekends and during vacation. past. lona Todd and her daughter. Deonna Todd Most farm families live in an almost constant state Green, from Mecosta County, Michigan, created of "togetherness." This often extends to grand- an extraordinary family quilt. It tells the story of parents and sometimes even great-grandparents, Stephen Todd's escape from slavery, his marriage who live nearby and still help on the farm. The to Caroline Todd, their eventual settlement as folklore of families owning other types of family pioneer fanners, and their six generations of de- businesses may be somewhat similar — but (arm- scendants; the quilt incorporates family oral nar- ing is as much a distinctive lifestyle as it is a busi- ratives, Bible lei orcls. and documents found ness. Some examples will bring this unique type through library research. The mother and daugh- of family folklore into focus. ter quilters have also created an "old settler's quilt" commemorating other African American Consciousness of a Rural Past homestead farmers in the history ol their county. Like many other families, Heartland farm fami- Family stories are one of the most important lies mark their histories with documents, photo- means of conveying family history. Like photo- graphs, stories and various types of material ob- graphs, these also can reflect a rural past. For jects. But the way a farm family constructs its instance, Ordell ("Bud") Gustad who farms with history is remarkable in the extent to which their his three sons in Volin, South Dakota, likes to tell history reflects that of the farm itself. Large aerial the story of how his father raised enough cash to photographs of the farm 20 years ago and today start farming on his own in the 1930s. Ineligible may take up part of the living room wall; home for a WPA (Works Project Administration) job. displays of photographs mix family portraits with Bud's father got the ingenious idea of selling images of children showing prize daily or bed coffee and doughnuts to the WPA workers. The cattle. Future Farmers of America (FFA) certifi- next year, he started farming on his "coffee and cates of merit, and blue ribbons won at the 4-H doughnut" money. fair for perfect garden vegetables. Another recollection from the recent past gives Some families have written lengthy histories of a humorous family- story a rural twist. Judy Bor- their ancestors, or are included as founding man, who grew up on and now runs her family's

I Wlin FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND 35 Marktavious Smith with his son and mother-in-law, Mane Berry Cross, at home in Mecosta County, Michigan Their ancestors settled in Michigan asfarmers in I860 The fiddle has been handed down forfive generationsfrom the time of the first settlement Photo In Roland Freeman, © 1986

dairy farm in Kingdom City. Missouri, with her children were asleep to build the desired toy. husband, Harlan, tells the story of how she was Lain has since completed la of these models at almost late to her own wedding. Before the cere- the request of other sugar beet farming families. mony she spent a little too much time showing While many families proclaim their rural past oft the family farm to the out-of-town guests. Bv by displaying old plows or other parts of used the time she arrived at the church to get dressed, machinery on a lawn, or by incorporating them most ol the guests had already arrived and were into a mailbox post, the Arnold family of Rush- seated. To avoid being seen by anyone, she ville, Indiana, restored the original 1820 log sneaked into the dressing room by climbing up homestead on their farm as a tribute to the farm's the fire escape. founders. The modest cabin stands as a physical Along with stones, the material items that farm reminder of the humble beginnings of the family, families choose to collect also reflect the impor- and of then progress over the years. The farm- tance ol the farm in their lives A common col- house that Eleanor and Jake Arnold live in — the lectible is model farm machinery. A wall of second house on the farm, built in 1853 — is shelves in the living room or family room often itself a tribute to earlier members of the family. displays their collection, which more often than not reflects the type of machinery currently or Knowledge and Skills once owned by the family. Larry Loganbach. Most knowledge and skills needed to run a whose family has raised cucumbers, tomatoes, family larm are passed clown from one genera- and sugar beets tor several generations in north- tion to the next through a process combining western Ohio, found himself in a dilemma when informal learning and formal apprenticeship. As his young son requested a model sugar beet har- children follow their parents around the home vester lor a Christmas present. Since none of the and farm, they are gradually introduced to simple commercial farm machinery model companies tasks. They graduate to more complex ones as carried such a relatively uncommon item, Larry time goes on. At the same time, most farm chil- and his wile. Connie, labored for weeks after the dren in the past several generations have been

3 t I Wlll\ FARMING IN THI HEARTLAND encouraged to join rural-based clubs that more formally prepare them for farm life. Recently, more and more young people have attended college, studying agriculture and bringing mod- ern innovations back to the farm. The older gen- eration has embraced what they find useful in this new knowledge, combining it with the tried and true methods of the farm operation. As most farmers will admit, farming often re- lies more on continual trial-and-error than on science. Traditional knowledge also helps. Dave Jones of Brown County, Nebraska, explains how his father used the phases of the moon and the information in a farm almanac to guide his plant- Close by the originalfamilyfarm house, the Cemy brothers oj ing. While Dave does not always use this method Cobden. Illinois, prepare t<> plant tomato seeds in the hotbed today, he has become known in his family and their grandfather built Most vegetable growers now begin community as a weather predictor in recent their seeds in green-houses, but the Cernys prefer the years. Applying information he read several years oliler method Photo by LeeEUen Friedland ago in a farm magazine, Dave predicts the com- ing winter's snowfall by examining the choke- things a little better than we found them." cherry and plum bushes in the area. 11 there is Generally, family farmers seem conservative not enough fruit on these bushes for small ani- and progressive at the same time. Machine sheds mals to store, then there will be less snowfall to house small tractors dating back to the 1940s, allow them to forage for food. This knowledge which are often still used for some farm opera- has served Dave and his two farming sons, Tom tions, side-by-side with giant tractors with com- and Jim, well in the past few years, warning them puterized dashboard controls and stereo sound to store more feed and hay for farm animals if a systems. The old and the new, the older genera- severe winter is predicted. tion and the younger generation, come together Children are usually introduced to more com- on the family farm. Like folklore itself, life on the plex chores on the farm before the age of ten. family farm embodies both continuity and dis- Bradley Peters of Jackson County, Indiana, was juncture, change and durability. almost eight last year when he received his first heifer calf, which he raised under his father Larry's supervision as a 4-H project. The heifer Betty Heliums i\ the Curator of this year's Family Farm has now been bred, and when she calves, Brad- program She grew u[> on a [arm in the dairying area oj ley will get to raise the offspring as well. He Addison County, Vermont, and holds her Ph.D in trades work on the farm for feed for the heifer. folklorefrom Indiana University His father proudly says that his son is building "a little business of his own" and saving money toward his college education. Other farm children Further Readings have started their own profitable side businesses Americans in Agriculture: Portraits ofDiversity 1990 as well, building on what they learn from their Yearbook of Agriculture. Washington: U.S. Depart- parents as well as the skills they learn from clubs ment ( >t Agriculture. like 4-H and FFA. Berry. Wendell. 1977. The Unsettling ofAmerica Cul- Recently, many farmers have been attempting ture and Agriculture San Francisco: Sierra Club to reduce the chemicals used in the form of fertil- Books. izers and herbicides on the farm, and to employ Friedberger, Mark. 1988. Farm Families and Change in more aggressive soil conservation methods. For Twentieth-Century America. Lexington: I Iniversity the Cerny brothers of Cobden, Illinois, this means Press of Kentucky. a blend of traditional practices they have already Klinkenborg, Verlyn. 1986 MakingHay. New York: been engaged in for years, and soil conservation Vintage Departures techniques like "no-till," which leaves corn resi- due in the field after harvest to act as mulch and Ki >hn, 1 1( iward 1988 The Last Farmer: An American Memoir New York Harper and Row. reduce erosion. As Norbert Cerney puts it, "This land has been farmed for a long time, and it's Rhodes, Richard. 1989. Farm: A Year in the Life ofan

been farmed hard. . . . Maybe we can leave American Farmer. New York: Simon & Schuster,

FAMILY FARMIM, [\ Till HEARTLAND 55 A Year in the Life of a Family Farmer

Steven Berntson

Steven Berntson farms with his wife, Joanne, and and grandparents lor the rich life they gave me as sail Panic/ in northwest Iowa, nearPaullina The a child on this particular home place, the place of farm has been in thefamilyfor 80 wars, estab- my mi >< irings. lished by Steven's grandfather, a Norwegian im- Tuesday, February 6 migrant. Thefollowing are excerptsfrom his per- I'm deep in the art of taxes; my lax appoint- sonaljournalfor the year 1990 ment is Friday. Bookkeeping is not my forte, but

Thursday, January 11 it must be dc inc.

In Roman mythology, Janus, guardian of por- Today I also paid tor some of my seed corn tals and patron of beginnings, was a god of two bul won't pick it up until late April, just before faces: one looked forward, the other hack planting. Is seed corn ever getting expensive!

We are deep into winter, and the great snows Some ol il is now over $70 a bushel. In return.

of the season are swirling upon us. These days I'm lucky if I can get S2 a bushel lor the corn I are an enforced break from busyness, a rare time grow and sell. Who said farming ever made for quiet thought. And so 1 look forward and sense-' back in my own inner inventory of what it means Saturday, February 17 to belong to the land, My attention is slutting from the farming year Robert Frost once wrote, "We were the land's past to the- year upcoming. I have finished my before the land was ours." It is a line that seems taxes and am doing some thinking about crop paradoxical but isn't. We claim ownership in insurance lor the next year. I low much risk titles a\m\ deeds, but in the end, what are we

should 1 take? without cornfields? Without the farmer, the earth This afternoon I'm going to a meeting to hear is yet the earth. Without the earth, what is the ( l about the government farm program tor l ) tl) farmer?

We d<> not own the land, it owns us It gainers Thursday, March 1 our steals II days and our hearts tanning were a March I is the traditional date lor the major drug, we would all be addicts, mo\ c-s lit the year: taking possession « il a newly-

Sc imehi >w , w hen \ < >u farm, e\ erything gets all bought farm, making payments on a mortgage. mixed up together — your wile and kids, your moving to a rented place, etc. In that sense, it is acres and your work, your home and your life the beginning of a tanner's year. itself. It gets all knitted together in what we call I can never begin a new farming season with- the home place. Painted on the great white barns out thinking of my Grandpa Berntson, a Norwe- with a date neatly inscribed below, the name of gian immigrant, who exactly 80 years ago this the home place is spoken in a reverential, almost very day made that fateful move from an 80-acre

In >ly w ay hill farm in Marshall County in southeastern Iowa The home place: a remembered place' A place to this farm near Paullina. How many times have of sec rets ( .md memories and dreams )| mistakes I heard that long and eloquent story! I low he as well. loaded his family and machinery and livestock A sale place- A place where you know who and furniture on two freight cars, and then on An you are, A place of stories, A place to go back to, unseasonably warm March day was surprised to sometimes in person, more often in mind. be met at the Paullina depot by his new neigh-

For myself, I am deeply grateful to m\ parents bors, who helped him move the final live miles

•) I I 36 AMI ARMING l\ II II III -Aid I V.I l tor of that promise. But in a larger

and truer sense, I am more than

curator. I am creator. For I own the land adjacent to his land; my dream borders his. His place has become my place.

And yet it is not a case of intru-

sion, of a stranger in his place. It

is the fulfillment of his place.

Monday, March 26 The snowstorm that swirled in just ahead of April had to give way quickly to the sun and the thaw.

It was a rich snow, indeed, for

it leaves behind a greening earth

that contrasts wildly with the dirti-

ness of fall's leftovers. And this is

a green like no other. I have often marveled at the solid green of corn neck-deep in a wet July, and then after the harvest another kind of richness in the color of money. But here in the green spring there

is no price whatever, but a bar- gain basement value of promise and hope.

Tuesday, April 10 These spring days are tentative and yet decisive.

I began field work today, seed-

ing 20 acres ot oats on last year's

cornstalks. There is something ele- Dried soybeans arc by elevator into a steel bin for winter storage lifted mental and fundamental about Steve and bisfather, Glenn, watch from below sowing oats — no high-tech ma- Photo by Bill Neibergall, courtesy Des Moines Register chinery, no herbicides, no fertil-

izer except for what I haul out ol the barn. intoxicating, to a new farm and a new life. Here he and his The crisp air was utterly the wife. Karma, the enchanting evangelist from crunch of cornstalks a potent medicine tor a Mayville, North Dakota, who had stolen his heart farmer's soul. eel at a tent meeting, achieved a good measure of High overhead, flocks of Canada geese plow worldly success in their farming (buying a second faint furrows into then own wist blue prairie farm in the midst of the Great Depression), only fields. to have their confidence in themselves and in What a marvelous day! their God grievously shaken when scarlet fever Saturday, April 21 plucked two of their children, Burdette and We still haven't had a good spring rain, so Beulah, from the bloom of childhood. farmers can work in their fields without interrup-

I write this in the very house — indeed, in the tion from the weather. Joanne and Daniel and I very room — they died. And that has meaning, have been living kites in the evenings when the too: if the story of my immigrant grandfather wind goes d< iwn. sustains and fortifies me, it also scares me. in caution and apprehension. Wednesday, May 2

I started planting corn today. Here in northwest I am a keeper of his story, a custodian of his old-but-not-so-odd dream of land, and the inheri- Iowa we try to plant our corn between May 1 and

FAMILY FARMING IN Till. HEARTLAND 37 .

Steve inspects an ear of com Steve's father built this storage bin in 19 2from wire and old telephonepoles Thesun and the wind dry these ears naturally, unlike the mechanical process used in closet/ steel bins

Photo b) Bill Neibergall, courtesy Des Moines Register

May K) — earlier than May 1 and you risk dam- mic grunts, call their piglets, who squeal and frost, later age from than May 10 and the crop fight t iver their milk.

doesn't have a hill growing season Several litters ol kittens have been born in the

bales of the barn, but it will be a lew weeks yet Friday, May 18 before the tabbies bring their young out into the Daniel was excited today to have our ol the wi irld. nests (i| ducks hatch out. The mother has 18 in Daniels dinks have hatched lour nests, to- her brood Where hut on a farm does a child talling 17 ducklings, and some of the ducks are grow up so close to life, to birth and death itself? now sitting on their second clutch of eggs, Saturday, May 26 ( )ur grove is home to squirrels, owls, wood

I finished planting soybeans today. It's a job I clucks And a host of smaller birds. Badgers and

enjoy for many reasons: it doesn't require quite foxes have dug dens lor their young in the grass- the precision corn planting does, the days are hack terraces, and pheasants and partridge are warmer, it's the end ol spring planting. nesting in the grassy waterways of the fields

Memorial Day is just around the corner, I'm Life is on its legs again, and I exult.

read) fi >i a nap! Tuesday, June 12 Monday, -4 June What a terrible hailstorm last night! [ doubt if

II is the season of motherhood again. The farm there is a more horrifying sound to a farmer than teems with life. the clanging and banging of hailstones on the

is The hoghou.se lull ol hog music, sometimes n K >f nearly as the sows, with deafening deep rhyth- I have been through desiccating drought be-

S8 will i I \UMI\c. \K nil HEART1 \M) fore — it wears on the soul like a lingering, lan- There is a place for everyone. I remember guishing cancer. Hail is easier to take — like a how my grandfather in his eighties could still heart attack — sudden, swift, definite, definable. take pride in just being able to bring out lunch, My beans have been hurt the worst, but not even though he couldn't scoop corn the vigorous enough to warrant replanting. way he once did. 1

Wednesday, June 20 Thursday, August 23

Late this afternoon Daniel raced out to the This morning I went to an auction of 80 acres field to ride the tractor with me while I finished of land about five miles from home. Early specu- cultivating the beans. Back and forth, back and lation was that the land might go for around forth we went, to the throaty solo of the Farmall $2,300 an acre. That was optimistic; it sold for M. $1,940.

Then, as the day was dying, a doe and not Sometimes I get a little weary from all the talk one, but two fawns shadowed forth to our little about what land is worth, and I think that in the stream for an evening drink. They came closer, deepest sense, to the true farmer, it's beyond and ever so close, and we sensed then a kinship with apart from dollars. Sure, I suppose it's more fun them. the more digits that are on your net worth state-

Utterly motionless, they stared, but music like ment, but it's a shallow measure. One of the the "Moonlight Sonata" cascaded from their wild greatest crimes inflicted upon rural America is the brown eyes, and I understood every note. Both notion that somehow a man's net worth and his melodies are inscribed this hour upon my heart. I human worth are one and the same. When you know which is the more beautiful. belong to the earth it really doesn't matter.

Monday, July 2 Tuesday, September 25 We baled our second cutting of hay today. We had our first hard, killing frost last night, a The recent rains have made for a lot of hay, but reminder of how fickle fall can be. it's also tougher to get the hay to dry properly. One day you marvel in an immense sky and

heady, crisp air. And the next day the sky turns Sunday, July 22 sullen and melancholy and leaden, and the wind, Both sides of my family have been having like work, finds you no matter where you try to their annual summer reunions. Typical summer hide. reunions: lots of talk (same old stories, a few 1 suppose you could decipher the season in new ones), too much food, a few new babies, terms of jet streams and fading chlorophyll and pictures, too much lemonade, relatives I see ev- mean temperatures, and you would be correct, in ery day and others I see only at reunions. a sense. But not really, for fall has more to do What compels these family reunions? It is, I with meanings than reasons, believe, a fundamental curiosity about yourself. Apart from your kin, you cannot begin to under- Wednesday, October 3 stand who you are or what you mean. Their stoiy Our soybean harvest is in full swing now. gives the sense to your story. Most of the beans are averaging 24 bushels an

Bound by kinship to the soil and to one an- acre, which is about half the normal crop. It's the other, these are my people. We relish our time biggest loss I've had in my 15 years of farming. together. Good families don't just happen; they When you farm, you take your losses with need to be nourished and nurtured your gains

Tuesday, August 7 Saturday, October 20

We've been busy shelling last year's corn. As We picked corn again today, and it looks like farmers go, I am about as average as average can be, farming a half section of land in a typical 'Author's note Corn shelling is the process in which ears corn/soybean rotation and raising hogs. of corn arc removed from a turn crib using .1 horizontal But I am decidedly old-fashioned in picking elevator called a dragfeed, and then run through a sheller — corn in the ear and then shelling it the next sum- a combine-like machine which removes the kernels from the mer, rather than simply combining my corn in cobs. A typical shelling crew includes two or three men in the corn into one to run the the field. crib to scoop the the dragfeed, man sheller and others to level oil cobwagons and truck the corn Corn shelling is some of the most grueling, hot to town Corn shelling is considered hard work both because and dusty work on the farm, yet we seem to of the physical exertion required and because it is dusty- enjoy it. That's in part because we enjoy each work, often done in the hottest days <>l summer jnd the other — joking, telling stories, eating together. coldest days of winter

FAMILY FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND 3 C) metaphorical. Daniel was walking, quite literally, in my footsteps. One of my favorite and most comical images of my lather comes from when he would get home from a long day in the field, and then, doing chores, would be trailed by — in approxi- mately this order — his elderly father, his brother and partner in farming, his youngest son, the clog and at least a dozen cats. The cats were waiting for him to milk the cow; the rest ol the proces-

sion had assorted concerns of the day. It made lor quite a collection ol footsteps.

Tuesday, November 13 We received our first serious snow ol the sea-

son today, about three inches. The first snow is a

marker ol the season, like the first frost. The gray slate of the land and the year are now cleared.

There is no liner imagery than snow; even the

Scriptures use it: crimson sins are washed "whiter than snow The snow has blanketed our fields, covering whatever the sins of our farming were.

Sunday, November 18

Steve and Daniel inspect thefarm from theirpickup As I write on this quiet, rural autumn evening,

truck Photo b\ Bill Neibergall, courtess the western sky, like embers upon a hearth,

Des Moines Register sends marvelous shadows across the land. It is

spectacular in its subtlety. We are but lour days

from Thanksgiving. I wonder, could Thanksgiv- clone we could get this next week with any luck ing have found a more reflective time of year? at all. Dad dines tlie picker tractor, and Daniel Tuesday, December 18 and I haul and unload the corn. Joanne and I Working with the soil doesn't automatically will he relieved when harvest is over because we endow a man with either wisdom or philosophy, worn about the danger of .ill these machines.

but it does accord him an understanding Accidents happen in a twinkling. of the sequences and cycles ol the seasons Daniel's job is to stay on the tractor and work

A farmer lives by these seasons, and it is good the hydraulic lever that raises the wagon as I unload the corn into the elevator lies very to have them clearly and cleanly defined, not bv the but by proud that he can "higher the wagon, as he calendar, the days themselves. You plant your fields; you harvest them in their clue tails it season, again and again and again, in endless I'm not sure which I enjoy more: listening to repetition, until one clav you are worn out and (\.u\ as he tells about his 50 years < >l cornpicking, or answering Daniels delightful questions. used up and gone. And then in that final harvest,

i he farmer himself is planted into the soil, his At 36, I wonder — at what other job are you final seed. blessed at once with the wisdom ol a 76-year-old into and the wonder ol a 6-year-old? We are slipping again the deep midwin-

ter, I walk into the still, star-shot night, pondering Saturday, November 3 the \ear past, looking up, like Whitman's learned

Today Daniel and I tore out an ancient, sag- astronomer, in perfect silence at the stars.

ging fence just north of our cattle . It wasn't

a long stretch, only 150 feet or so, and it served Steven Bernlson /turns and writes ahuut farming in no useful purpose, holding nothing either in or northwest Iowa He has been puhlished in the Des

( nil Moines Register, the Northwest Iowa Review, andfarm When the ^\a\ was clone, all (hat was left were < ooperative magazines Steven graduatedfrom Dana two sets ol footprints in the mud. irresistibly College, Blair, Vehraska, with a B.A in English

40 lAMin FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND The Changing Role of Women on the Farm Eleanor Arnold

Introduction

The role women have played in the farm fam- Also during the war, women and girls worked in ily has changed many times over the years, hut the fields to keep farm land in production, taking one thing has remained constant —women have up the slack left by rural men w ho were in the always been an essential part of the team. services. Pioneer women came into the forest and the Peacetime found farm women with more work plains, bringing with them one or two cherished options than ever before. Their responsibility for pieces of furniture and "starts" of flowers from homemaking and child rearing did not change, their previous homes. They moved into their log but some continued to help with the farm work cabins and sod houses and began the long hard outside, as larger equipment and other technology work ahead of them. They often worked side-by- made it possible for a single family to farm larger side with their husbands, making the land ready acreage. Other farm women continued their tradi- for farming, while at the same time raising their tional "around the house" roles but took on fur- families, cooking and preserving food, spinning ther responsibility for bookkeeping, marketing and cloth, and making a home in the and other paper-work functions. Some farm wilderness. women took full- or part-time employment off the Their daughters and granddaughters in the late farm. These trends continue to the present. 1800s and the early 1900s had their spheres of Unlike urban families, whose daytime interests responsibility on the busy, self-sufficient farms of may vary widely, a farm family has always been the era. As always, the family was the first con- involved in the family business together. They live cern of a homemaker, as she did the housework in the midst of it; they are at their work site from and child care. In addition, however, she would the time they awaken. Family members work as a be responsible for the poultry, the dairy cows, unit, sharing the work, the worries and the bene- the care of the milk and butter, the garden and fits of their lifestyle. the preserving of food for winter. Laundry, iron- This is especially true for the farm woman. She ing, cooking, baking, sewing and mending t< >< >k has always been essential to farm life. Her love of much of her waking hours. She also might be her family and the energy she expends to make called on for occasional light work in the tields, life good for them are the central part of her life, but the mores of the era argued that women just as they are for urban women. But the farm didn't do field work. This was just as well, since woman is also vital to the financial success of the she was busy from morning to night with her family business — their farm. Her work, and own work, in addition to being pregnant or nurs- sometimes her salary, help to make the farm eco- ing through most of her work years. nomically viable. Her homemaking and mothering

The decades surrounding World War II were a make the home a warm, welcoming center tor the watershed. The advent of electricity and gasoline whole enterprise. engines lightened many back-breaking and time- Methods of farming and the part the women consuming chores and created some discretion- play in the intricacies of farm and family life have ary time in women's lives. The wartime call to changed through the years, but woman's vital role the nation's factories and businesses made work- — as an essential component of the farm family ing outside the home a possibility for women. team — has never changed.

1 FAMILY I ARMING IN THE 111 \RTLAND t Interview

Note Eleanor and Clarence "Jake" Arnold and alter dark. There were no lights on the horses, theirfamily own and operate a 1.200 acre grain you know, and they had to come in. But a and //restock farm in Rush County, Indiana, woman kept right on working. which has been continuouslyfarmedfor over 170 Marjorie: When you were growing up. what were years by six generations ofArnolds Thefollowing your responsibilities on the farm' is excerptedfrom an interview with Eleanor and

Jake Arnold conducted byfolklorist Marjorie Hunt. Eleanor: There were two boys and two girls in my family. The boys helped d.id, and my sis and Marjorie: When you were growing up. what type 1 helped mother. The boys had to feed the of work did women do on the farm'' horses, feed the cows, and we fed the chickens

Eleanor: When 1 was young, women nearly al- and gathered the eggs, brought in the corn, ways took care of all the poultry. If yon had tur- brought in the wood, pumped the water and keys or chickens — then that was women's work. brought it in. There were all sorts of chores that My mother always did all the gardening — that were d< >ne daily — sometimes two or three times was traditionally a farm woman's thing. You put daily. out about as much as yon were going to eat be- ( )f course there was plenty to do in the cause that's where food came from. We were house, too. We had kerosene lamps, and every raised in the '30s — the late '20s and '30s — and morning we washed the chimneys because they that was very hard times on the farm. And essen- got sooty. And so that was part of the morning tially you didn't want to buy anything at the gro- chores: we used to wash them, clean them up, cery store if you could manage it at home. I've refill them and have them reach for when night seen many a time my mother would sit down at a came because, ol course, all your light was from table like this and say, "Everything on here except kerosene. It wasn't that you were looking for the sugar — I grew." My mother tried to preserve something to do. Especially before electricity, everything that she grew. She even canned meat everything was physically hard to do in the because she didn't have any other way to pre- h< line serve it except curing; and so she canned all her Marjorie: How did changes in technology — like beet. Because il she didn't have it put away, we electricity — affect your family'-' just didn't have it'

Eleanor: Oh, electricity 1 That was the watershed Marjorie: What other things would women of — because before that everything was done by your mother's generation do? somebody's muscle, either your muscle or a Well, Eleanor: mother mowed the lawn, and she horse's muscle. We didn't get electricity until I always went down and helped with milking in the was nine years old. which would have been evening. In the morning she didn't, because she 1938. Alter that, you had all sorts of help in all was busy getting breakfast. Now. mother didn't sorts ol different directions. do Held work. A lot of people thought it was Like ironing — we had these bin black irons. terrible when women did field work at that time You put them on the old coal range. And when In lad. there wore a couple of sisters who helped you thought they were warm, you held them up. their brother in the field. And il was the talk of the and put your finger lout], and licked it. and neighborhood! That just wasn't done when we touched it. And if it went ssst'.'W was warm were growing Lip — it was a shame to a man. enough. You ironed with it. And then when it got

There were a lot ol things I saw as a child that cool you had two or three other ones waiting on niv mother knew, like making soap and things the stove. Most women, when they got electric its like that. Those were women's skills: what to do — the first thing they got was an electric iron. with your meat alter it was butchered, how to cut They weren't very expensive, and they did save it up, how to cure it, how to make the different s< i much work. sausages. real skills, These were women's skills; Another big change was plumbing. Jake and I and they're no longer necessary, so they're gone. didn't have water in the house until 1955 — alter Well, you know the old saying, "A man works three children! We had a privy in the back and a tn mi sun to sun, but a woman's work is never well with a pump. When I was going to Whi a] done." It ^<\ definitely came from the time an wash, I went out to pump the water, and put it agrarian society, because men couldn't do much on the stove, and heated it, and then carried it

I Wlll.'i FARMINl , l\ 1 1 II HEARTLAND Four generations ofArnold women — Jake's great-grandmother, Sarah Arnold, her granddaughter, Sarah, great- granddaughter, Flora and her great-great-granddaughter, Leona — posefor a picture taken in the early 1900s Photo courtesy Arnold family

back out and put it in a conventional washing cient that way . . . and a lot of it falls along tradi- machine. It was so much work. And it was even tional lines. At first Jake was so busy on the farm, more so when my mother had to wash clothes and I had the little children at home, so I by nibbing on the board. Back then, laundry was couldn't get out and help very much. So I ended a real skill. Now anybody can go and open up up doing what was traditionally thought of as the door and put in laundry. But a white wash women's work on the farm. He would come in was something a woman was really proud of — and help a little with the children. But he was

"She puts out a good white wash" -- that's what tired. He was out all the time, so he didn't par- you'd hear. ticipate a lot in child care. No one wants to go back to washing on a Jake: After they got a little older I'd take them board who's ever done it. No one wants u > g< > with me out on the tractor. In fact, I can even out to privies at night who's ever had to. There

remember John . . . I'd actually take him on the were lots of nice things about the good old days, cultivator. He'd crawl in between the frame and but no one who has ever done both ways would sit up there and ride back and forth across the want to give up the technology. field. And I remember one field had raspberries

at he'd Marjorie: After you got married, how did you at one end that was ripe that time. And raspberries. then he'd andJake divide the work on yourfarm? get off and eat some And get back on and go around. And then he'd crawl Eleanor: We've always worked as a team. But, underneath the truck and go to sleep. That's you know, you divide things up. It's more effi- where he took his nap.

FAMILY FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND 43 Eleanor: He wanted me to have little red jackets Marjorie: What are some of the other changes for them to wear because he said he could see you see in your children s generation? them all over the field that way. He was always Eleanor: So many women now work off the worried — the safety factor, you know. farm. 1 think a common pattern is to work until Our kids have always helped. John, you just you have your children, stay home until the chil- had to scrape him out of the [tractor] seat. He's dren are in school, and then go back to working always wanted to farm, at least part-time; and, and always was fascinated maybe when the children by machinery, and was al-

are c ilder, working full- ways right there to help.

time. 1 think that's a very When the kids were grow- common pattern now in ing up — we were sort of farm housewives. in that transition period — Well, coming out of the we didn't have as many home was definitely be- actual chores that had to gun during the Second be done. We had quit the World War. There was just chickens and the milk very little of anything. cows, so hog feeding was Women were not em- ab< >ut the only thing that ployed outside except as they really had to do. teachers, perhaps nurses, The kids always helped sometimes social work, me in the garden They and as soil of an informal enjoyed it. dne\ we always thing, the hired girl. Those had a li it (A fun. were the things that were As far as household Mary Arnold pretends u> help with the ironing open, but in the Second chores, the girls always by imitating her mother, Eleanor World War, it was a patri- helped me. They shelled Photo courtesy Arnold f.imiK ( itk dut) to c< ime out of peas, and snapped beans, the home and be "Rosie and helped me can. and the Riveter," and you got helped clean the house. They just helped. What- lots ( il acclaim lor doing that sort of thing. ever I was doing, they were helping, too. We just ( )nce they had found that they could earn all kind of worked together. Everyone pitched in. money and that the\ could work outside the

Marjorie: Did you work m thefields? home, they felt freer — financially freer — be- cause they didn't feel as dependent on the father, Eleanor: Oh yes, I went out to the fields in the husband, brother, whatever. And also, the fact spring and the fall. I usually plowed and disked. that their work had value meant something to I was one of the first ones who actually started them — like it or not. we do value by the dollar. working in the fields around here, hut everybody il you're paid tor it. the work means more — and admired it — "Oh, that's wonderful, you know, I think this was a profound change with \( lu're helping." women When the war was over, it never was I never planted because that's a very crucial unthinkable again to work outside the home. It it. part of and 1 never combined 1 used to drive wasn't an option in my mother's time and my the tractors and the wagons or the trucks awa\ sisters time, but in my time, it was an option. from the combines I'd take the seed corn into Just m our community, il you go around, town because you had to sit there and wait. Ami you'll find very tew farms that are absolutely Jake's so antsy, and sitting and waiting in harvest Kit i"d farmers. 1 mean either the husband or the season was jusl he couldn't do it. wife works outside extra, too. Jake always was good, when I was working out m the fields, to come in and help me with Marjorie: What son ofsupport groups didfarm what had gotten behind in the house. But with women have?

people our age. I think there's a lot more separa- Eleanor: Women's club work was, many times, tion ol mens work and women's work than the real salvation for women farm women, they there is with kids nowadays — the young farm- stayed so close to home, and they had only a few ing couples, My son just comes in and does eve- things that were socially acceptable that took rything. 1 mean he cooks, he does whatever them out. That's why extension homemakers and needs to be done.

', i i \io\ii -.< i It win , in i in ur \ki i v.i church groups were popular because they shared aims. It's not just the man and the wife, gave women sociability. it's the children also. I think (the farm] is the fin- est place there is to raise a family. For one thing, Marjorie: How has that changed over the years? you don't have as many worries because the chil-

Eleanor: It's changed a lot. The isolated country dren are always there with you. They're sharing woman image is done for. You know, people and working, and they're talking to you about look to find time to be what's going on. They see home now, because what daddy does, and he's they're on the go so much. right there. He's in and There are so many de- he's otit, and they're in mands on their time that a and out with him. I think

it's fairer to the male. Be- night at home, I think, is treasured now; where cause I think [in urban before, my mother went to life] when the male goes her ladies aid, and she away early in the morning went to her home and comes back home ec[onomics club] — and tired, and the woman has those were her two times to do all the discipline and

out. She went to church so forth — I think it's on Sunday morning, and unfair to the male. every two weeks she went Jake: I'll agree with that. to town to cash the milk You've got to realize, check — and, literally, when I walk out the door mother might not be off I'm at my workplace. No the place other than that. John Arnold pretends to dure hisfather's tractot commuting time! It's great, And so her home ec club Photo courtesy Arnold family you know. I come in. and and her ladies aid — the — we've always had a support of women, the noonday meal — we see- talking with women, the the kids. Actually, you're really getting down to being with women — meant a great deal to her. the basis of farm life. We chose it and we enjoy They meant a very great deal to her. Now, you it. might have visiting back and forth on Sunday

afternoon, but I tell you: the rural woman's life Marjorie: Eleanor, what do you consideryour was isolated. most important contribution to yourfamilyfarm?

Marjorie: Getting hack to your own familyfarm, Eleanor: Well I undoubtedly think my children what made you decide to go into farming'-' are my greatest accomplishment. And I think that most women would say thai. Because whether a Eleanor: It's a choice we made together when farmer or otherwise, we're very happy that we've we were still down at school. We were two farm raised three good children and feel that we've kids, and we knew what life was like on the made a contribution to the community. And that's farm, the good and the bad. And we stood at a my greatest accomplishment. crossroads, you might say. "Shall we go on with Now, if you're wanting to think about — as a our education and do something else that w ill farmer or as a farm woman, what's the best thing probably make us more money — more spend- I I've done? I don't know . . . The work did on able income — or shall we go back to the lite we the farm for years. 1 worked for about 20 years know?" And we both together decided we un the tractor, and thai helped us economically. wanted to go back to the life we knew. Because But another thing I did thai helped economically we felt there's so many values there that we I was that I was a very thrifty person. always wanted to have for ourselves, that we'd had in 1 to canned, 1 always froze, I sewed. tried use our our own lives. And we wanted our children to funds wisely and tried to look ahead and see that too. have them, ol we needed to save. 1 think that's a good deal Marjorie: What do you value must about your my contribution — spending the money wisely. old saying — "She can way of life? There's an country

throw it out the front door with a teaspoon faster Eleanor: Well, the fact that we're together. We're than he can scoop it in the backdoor with a working together, and we have common and

1 If I Wlin I ARMING IN 1 HEARTLAND 45 homesites — the homes are no longer there. Because as the people who were living on the Nils got older And died or moved into town, the person next to them bought the land. He wanted

to farm it. ... So you have all these old home-

sites where maybe the daffodils still come up or

there's still a lilac bush blooming, but the home-

places are gone. This is not just here, it's happen- ing everywhere. The technological advances, the larger equipment, means a farmer's able to farm more land.

Marjorie: )<>// once told me that there's no money in farming, yon hare to lovefarming tofarm '^ujN '•>

Jake: You asked me it 1 could tell a successful

farmer driving down the road. And then I got to The Arnoldfamily in 1991 Photo by Marjorie Hum thinking. "What is a successful farmer?" And I

came to the conclusion that if he's kept half way financially secure, and raised a good family with si oop shovel" — for a woman who isn't thrifty, decent kids, and put a little something else back Because there's only a certain amount of money into the community, he was a success — whether that comes in from the (arm. and how you use he had 1(1.00(1 acres or just five. That's the truth. 1 that limited amount makes a good deal of differ- feel that, ence

Eleanor: We could sell all our land, and we Marjorie: Are you still canning? could put the money in the bank, and we could

Eleanor: < )h yes! I can and freeze, I can green live oil the interest better than we do now. We

beans. I can applesauce, I can peaches. I can want to live like this.

pickles. I can tomatoes, and 1 do tellies and pre-

serves with whatever we have that year. , . . And

I — freeze peas and peaches and all the fruits Eleanor Arnold is the project director and editor of

cherries, raspberries, blueberries. Everything is Memories ol Hoosiei Homemakers, a six-volume oral

grisl to my mill — whatever comes that we cant historyfoi using on the life and work of rural women in Indiana, and Voices ot American Homemakers, a eat fresh, win. I freeze it national version She attended the Folklore Summer Marjorie: does the hunks yourfamily? Who m Institute for Community Scholars at the < office of Folklife Programs in 1990 Eleanor: lie was an accounting major — I have

nothing to do with them! I'm the world's worst Marjorie I taut is

with books. the i V//i e oj Folklife Programs Her interest in family farming steins from her own family's tvots on u farm in Marjorie: / understand that in somefarm fami- southwestern Missouri lies women hare that responsibility,

Eleanor: Many, many times 1 would say we're Further Readings

an exception. awful lot of it. An women do Arnold, Eleanor, ed 1983-1988 Memories of Hoosier Homemakers (6 volume series) Indiana Extension Jake: A lot of women do marketing. Quite a lew I li imemakers Ass< iciation. ot them, they're quite good at it. They're not as

. 1985 Voices ofAmerican Homemak- emotional as a man, I think they look at it more ers National Extension Homemakers Council objectively. They're better traders than a man in

Si inic i ases Jensen, Joan M, 1986, With These Hands Women

Working on the Land. < )ld Westbury, New York: Marjorie: You mentioned to that there used to me Feminist Press he a farm on every 80 acres? Thomas, Sherry, 1989, "We Didn't Have Much, But We

Eleanor: That's so very true You can look up Sure I Unl Plenty Rural Women in their ( lieu and down this road and see where there are Words New York Anchor Books.

Itl i I Wim 1 \K\II\( UN (111 111 \K I I \\l The Farmer and American Folklore

James P. Leary

Alert visitors to rural America will note a pro- No wonder John Lomax informed the Ameri- liferation of bumper stickers proclaiming, "If you can Folklore Society in 1913 that the nation's criticize the farmer, don't talk with your mouth folksongs concerned miners, lumbermen, sailors,

full," and "Farming is everybody's bread and soldiers, railroaders, cowboys, and members of

butter." In an era when many farmers feel that "the down and out classes — the outcast girl, the market forces and government policies threaten dope fiend, the convict, the jailbird, and the the family farm, in a time when too many people tramp." No wonder Richard Dorson's America in think milk, bread, and meat come from the store, Legend declared sixty years later that the nation's these combative and pithy slogans stress the fun- heroes were preachers, frontiersmen, boatmen, damental importance of farming and food. mill hands, bowery toughs, peddlers, cowboys,

Through them, farmers remind their non-agrarian loggers, miners, oil drillers, railroaders, acid neighbors, "you need me"; they inform their oc- heads, and draft dodgers. The steady, family- cupational fellows, "I'm one of you"; and they tell oriented farmer, the backbone of the community, themselves, "I'm proud to be a farmer." seems to have sparked few songs or stories. The Such conscious and complex cultural expres- farmer apparently embodied the dull background sions beg consideration of the farmer's symbolic against which others loomed large. place in rural life and in American society as a Despite name-calling and neglect, farmers whole. Unfortunately, Ray Allen Billington's char- have always made profound symbolic statements acterization of the farmer as "the forgotten man' about their life and work — often in deceptively- of American folklore remains accurate (Fite simple ways. One late May afternoon in 1978, I 1966). While investigations of the rural scene was driving through Portage County in central have been a mainstay of American folklore schol- Wisconsin. The corn was just poking through the ars, studies generally have been done according soil as I encountered a farmer with a hand to cultural regions, ethnic groups, or folklore planter working in the corner i >t a field. His me- genres. We know about Appalachians, or Ozark- chanical planter's turning radius had prevented ers, or Illinois "Egyptians"; about the Pennsylva- him from filling out the corn row — and he nia Dutch, or the Cajun French; about barns, or wanted symmetry. agricultural beliefs, or rural tall tales, or common Farmers take pride in the true furrow, the folks' food. But our understanding of the expres- straight row, the verdant crop-signs of their skill, sive dimensions of farming as a changing occu- their industry, their dedication to the land. In pation has lagged. contrast to other heroes in American folklore, American farmers have stayed at home when their triumph has been one of community and frontier adventure and city lights beckoned, and harmony, not individualism and conquest. My old home has always been a place where hard, re- Barron County, Wisconsin, neighbor, George petitive, dirty work is done. Farmers have been Russell, once told me about maligned accordingly as unsophisticated rustics: ... a city girl named Foy. She was a rubes, hicks, yokels, and bumpkins. They have lawyer's daughter and [my sister] Ann been lumped with regional fare and its procure- worked for them. Ann took the girl home ment and have been associated unfavorably with to the farm country one time, and we outdoor work and topography through slurs like were out riding in the buggy. It was the prune-pickers and rednecks. late summertime and we were going

FAMILY FARMING IN I III III ARTLAND 47 A cow sign byfarmer/artist Ewald Klein adonis an out- building on the Kallenbach

l>la<:c in Barron Count):

it isconsin

Phi ih i by James P. Lear

Drought, deluge, disease,

insects, frost, fires threaten. Accidents occur. Always there are bills to pay, and

income is never certain. More give up farming ev- ery year.

1 was visiting Max Trzebiatowski that corn- field afternoon in Portage County. Born on a farm in

1402, he had farmed all his

life, raised il children with his wile. Rose, and clone

well. 1 le had also had brushes with death from a

through the fields. And Ann said, "Nice tall in a silo, a runaway team, a falling timber, an

country, isn't it?" She said. "Yes, but you angry bull. Hut his most miserable experience can't see over the corn." was a brief stretch in the Great Depression when he sought cash to pay the mortgage by working Ms. Foy missed the point. 'The com wasthe in a Milwaukee brewery. a luntry. He told me a story about a young man who The Russells not only took pride in then- was forced to leave the farm crops, but they considered their ample farm a "show place." The driveway and house were bor- One time there was a family. They had a dered with a stately pine windbreak. Flowers lot of boys. They didn't need them all. So brightened the yard. The barns and outbuildings in the spring of the year clad says. "Boys, were painted vivid yellow and adorned with some ol youse'U have to go out and find murals of livestock. Woodlot, pastures and fields yourselves a job. There isn't enough work were well-maintained and bountiful The entire foi all ol us." So one morning one of the farmstead exemplified a balance between nature boys took off. And he went looking for a and culture. It presented the very image that job And he went to the neighbor, if the aerial photographers capture nowadays .\nd neighbor needed a man for the summer? farmers frame on then" fireplace mantles: a God's- "No, no. we don't need a man tor the eye view of the farm at harvest time. summer." He'd go to the next place. It was This blissful image of the farm — drawn from the same way, "We don't need.'' He tried life and emblematic of a way of life — has been maybe a do/en places. And — no work. replicated countless times, either entirely or in Then he — by that time he was just about part, by countless farmers using assorted media. in the village.

Some give their farms lyrical names and install (Like the heroes ol "old country" magic tales, the porn. uis of fattened Herefords and full-uddered youngest son sets out to seek his fortune. But Holsteins on sign-, along the road. Some tell sto- there is no beggar or helpful animal to give him nes, write reminiscences or compose poems cele- aid, and there are no workers needed on the brating life. Others paint pictures of shared har- farms. Max took his tale to town.] vest chores, build models of equipment, sculpt domestic animals and fellow farmers, or stitch So he went into the drug store to see if "story quilts the druggist would hire him. Druggist was Seasons turn and times change. The harvest — hard up lor help; he needed a helper. But when it comes, if it comes — is too short what did a farm boy know about a drug

18 I Wlirv FARMING IN Till' III Mill AM) store? Nothing. He didn't know what this

is called, what this sells for. He didn't know nothing. But the druggist thought:

I'll keep him here for a little while and see Max Trzebiatowski what he \v< >uld make. breaks out a social He had him there for two weeks and bottle of brandy the hoy was getting pretty good. He knew while his wife, Ruse, what this was being called, and what that reaches a lunch sells for. he heel hire him. And thought Portage Comity, He asked the boy, "How much would you Wisconsin. Photo have to have if I hired you?" by James P Leary Well, the boy hesitated. He thought if he was going to say too much, he

wouldn't be hired. If he's going to say too

little, he'll lose out. Oh he didn't say any- thing. And the druggist says: "Well, how about a dollar an hour?" And the boy hesitated for a while, and

he says, "No, give me fifty cents." factories." But as yet this is not the prevailing Then that stunned the druggist. "Why, 1 rhetoric of family farmers. To be sure, they are wanted to give you a dollar, you just want astute businessmen and women; yet they are part fifty cents," he says, "Why?" of a long tradition that is more a way of life than "Well," the boy says, "just in case you a way to make a living, and that has more to do wouldn't pay me. I wouldn't lose so with beasts and land than with products and much." cash. How future farmers will deal with the tug The farmboy's response, foolish by urban stan- between agribusiness and agriculture may de- dards, nonetheless reflects such rural virtues as pend upon their image of just what a farm is. economic conservatism and mistrust of commer- We'd better watch those bumper stickers. cial middlemen. While in-town wages may be fixed by contract, farmers' pay depends upon the

leary i\ \\ nature of the harvest And a fluctuating market. He Inn StaffFolklorist al the isconsin Folk Museum in Mount Horeb, Associate who borrows against expected revenue, who and Faculty al I niversity of Wisconsin, Madison He grew up in a counts proverbial chickens before they hatch, dairyfarming community in northern U isconsin ami may easily "lose out." holds his I'h /> in folklorefrom Indiana I niversity Family farmers as a whole have been losing out and leaving steadily throughout this century, Citations and further Readings a process revealed in recent jokes like the follow- ing: Allen, Harold. 1958. Pejorative Terms for Midwestern Farmers, American Speech 33:26-265. What can a bird do that a farmer can't? — Fite, Gilbert C, 1966, The Farmer's Frontier. New York; Make a deposit on a tractor.

I [i ilt. Rinehart, Winston. and Ice, Joyce, 1990. Farm Work and Fair Play Delhi. Did you hear about the farmer who was \'e\\ York: Delaware County Historical Society arrested for child abuse? — Kammerude, Lavern and Chester Garthwaite. 1990. He willed the farm to his son. Threshing Days The Farm Paintings ofLavern Coping with an altered rural community and Kammerude. Mount Horeb, Wisconsin: Wisconsin an unstable economy also affects the expressive Folk Museum culture of those who continue. Modern farmers bean, James P. 1991. Midwestern Folk Humor Jokes on monitor the chemical composition of their soil, Farming, Logging, , and Traditional Ways breed and feed their livestock in a way that maxi- Little Rock. Arkansas: August House mizes production, and follow market trends on Mitchell. Roger 1984 From Fathers to Sons A Wiscon- home computers. More than a few prefer terms sin Family Farm (Special issue of Midwestern Jour- like "milk producer" or "livestock manager" to nal ofLanguage and Folklore.) Terre Haute: Indi- "farmer." Some even speak of farms as "food ana State University.

FAMILY FARMING IN Till III \K I I \M) 49 Threshing Reunions and Threshing Talk: Recollection and Reflection in the Midwest

J. Sanford Rikoon

During summer and early fall in every mid- knowing from experience that each gen- western state, public festivities celebrate agricul- eration enjoys a clean, wholesome gather- tural technology and farm life from the first half ing of an educational and historic nature of the 2(>th century. Variously called farm ma- such as ours, the Association hopes to chinery exhibits." "threshermen reunions,' steam always keep gathering like this, where we and gas shows," "antique engine displays," and can meet and harvest the golden memo- "old settlers' reunions," these typically weekend ries of yesteryear and pause in our daily events are never quite identical, but almost all (asks each year to visit and relax, always blend themes of community, historic farm tech- with a thought in so doing, to improve the nology, education, and celebration. future harvests of good fellowship and

Threshing reunions (and celebrations with gi M id citizenship. different names that center around threshing technologies) are perhaps the most alluring and In contrast to most museum displays or an- popular of the gatherings The oldest reunions tique shows, threshermen reunions stress work- started m the late 1940s and early 1950s as small ing exhibitions. Visitors can often witness horse- informal meetings of rural male residents who sweeps, steam engines, and internal combustion liked to collect and tinker with "old" machinery. engines powering grain separators ol 1880-1940

Most of these men were farmers or retired farm- vintage Threshing typically occupies a place at ers, and their "old" machinery included the gen- the center of the grounds or in front of the erations of threshing separators, steam engines, grandstands in addition, and depending on the and tractors largely abandoned for pull-type com- number and interests of exhibitors, there may be bines and improved all-purpose tractors by 1950. demonstrations ol hay baling, sawmilling and People who had used the devices as part of then veneer-making, silo filling, corn shelling, and everyday operation now found themselves to meal and grain grinding. As one Ohio show ad- possess "historical" artifacts and information vertises, 'The Steam Show offers the entire family about work processes increasingly unfamiliar to an opportunity to sec' history in action. Hundreds the owners' children and grandchildren. of sic-. mi .\n^\ gas engines, antique tractors and Small local gatherings with periodic demon- equipment in use, just as they were operated strations have now grown into multi-activity during the golden age of steam.'" events lasting up to five days and attracting thou- The celebratory and educational functions of sands of visitors, Their complex planning and these events is further emphasized in the marked organizing have become formally attached to absence of midways and carnival rides. 'We pro- threshermen associations, engine clubs, Lions vide a festival Atmosphere, Not a Carnival" ad- Clubs and other fraternal organizations, Cham- vertises the Miami Valley Steam Threshers Asso- bers of Commerce, and County Fair Boards. Ex- ciation in London. Ohio As individual threshing pansion and popularity, however, have generally reunions grow in popularity and size, organizers not diluted original goals. A typical statement of typically acid activities they believe appropriate to the primary intentions of show organizers is the a family-oriented event. Music performances tend Creed of the Midwest Old Settlers and Threshers to be popular country-and-western acts or old-

Association," adopted soon alter their initial show time fiddle contests. Food is served by local or- in 1950: ganizations, and camping is generally offered on

50 FAMILY FARMING IN TI IE HF.AK II AND the grounds. Some activities are not especially associated with agricultural tasks, but fit within the overall historic theme; these include antique shows, arts and craft displays, pioneer buildings and skills, horse and antique tractor pulls, steam railroads, calliopes, and hay and pony rides.

Expression of regional values and beliefs is an important part of these celebrations. Many shows include an invocation by a local religious leader, flag raising ceremonies with the singing of the , local beauty, baby, and other competitions, a parade through town, Sunday 42nd REUNION morning church services, and other activities that reflect what a central Illinois organizer calls "the Aug. 29 - Sept. 2, 1991 homespun and wholesome values of the Heart- # Over 100 Operating Steam Engines * Over 300 Anti- land." While the Midwest is, and has likely al- que Tractors # Over 800 Gas Engines * Electric Trolleys ways been, a region of often competing and con- * Steam Trains * Antique Cars & Trucks * Large flicting voices, the threshing reunion is in many Working Craft Show * Antiques For Sale * Museum Exhibits * Camping * Food and Much, Much, More! ways a public performance of a grassroots and dominant Heartland middle-class ethos. INTERNATIONAL J.I. CASE HERITAGE FOUNDATION ANNUAL MEETING One thread of this ethos is the public presen- tation of a regional and national patriotism per- MIDWEST haps made more siginificant in recent years by OLD patterns of agricultural globalization and indus- THRESHERS trial concentration and a belief, shared by many Route I, midwestemers, that the rest of the country has Threshers Rd. Ml. Pleasant, Iowa lost touch with basic values and sentiments. The 52641 threshing reunion incorporates a great deal of (319) 385-8937 red, white, and blue, both explicitly in public ceremony and implicitly in patterns of techno- logical display and performance. Machinery on display carries names of now-disappeared, but once well-known regional midwestern implement steam is compounded by the machines' status as manufacturers (e.g., Aultman-Taylor of Ohio and the first major manifestation of America's indus- Gaar-Scott of Indiana) or of the present-day trial revolution to appear in many farming re- giants of American farm industries (e.g., Case and gions. Further, the threshermen who purchased, John Deere). used and maintained these devices were role The heart of threshing reunions are, of course, models for adults and children during the transi- the machines gathered together for public dis- tion of farming from horse-power to horsepower. play, admiration and demonstration. And the Threshing reunions thus expose a technological keepers of the heart are the former threshermen, core of midwestern niral society through celebra- farmers, and machinery buffs who collect, restore tion of mechanical power, inventiveness and and maintain the machinery. A highlight of most knowledge. events is the machinery parade, often held each Displays of threshing machines and the en- day around noon, but sometimes occurring two gines used to run them represent more than a or three time a day. The cavalcades provide history of agricultural technology and mechanical viewers with a procession of the tractors, steam inventiveness. For the midwestemers who used engines, wagons and other implements of agri- these devices, grain separators conjure memories culture during the first half of the 20th century. of an annual niral social and economic institution Simultaneous commentary by announcers point — the threshing ring. Most niral neighborhoods out the year, model, and manufacturer of each developed cooperative groups called "rings' so machine as well as the name and hometown of that families could help one another with the the individual owners and restorers. labor and equipment needed to complete each The centerpieces of threshing reunions are the member's threshing. This cooperation was neces- steam engines that dominated midwestern thresh- sary because machinery used to thresh before the ing between 1885 and 1925. The romance of adoption of pull-type combines was costly and

FAMILY FARMING IN THE HEARTLAND 51 Ihis crew is ready to thresh on the P.C Frok farm in ecu mil Iowa, 1900 Photo courtesj State Historical Society oi Iowa

was employed for only one to three days a year as families away from the heat and noise of the on most farms. Steam threshing equipment was machinery, and in other informal contexts. The hard to repair compared with other implements dialogue is certainly not always on threshing oi the time, and it needed large crews <>l ten to itself, although one usually hears all sorts of sto- twenty persons to bring the crop to the machine nes about threshing meals, job experiences, local and handle the threshed gram and straw The threshermen, good and bad crops, practical jokes work generally look place in July and August, carried out by ring members, and accidents. A and a rings 'run lasted between two and loin group ol men and women with shared experi- w eeks ence often exchange narratives (and often the

There were many variations in the way fami- same ones) year alter year, and at reunions one- lies formed and operated a ring Some groups can usually find a tew people with reputations as cooperatively purchased a set of machinery, but threshing raconteurs. most contracted the services of an itinerant Outsiders may view threshing talk as reminisc- thresherman, who provided the equipment and ing Such exchanges do provide older residents the crew to run it And was paid by the bushel. an oral history forum, a means of repainting

Groups also differed in how they divided the some

included a dinner ( at n< >< in > pn ivided by the Ik ist ventories ol rural neighborhoods, as tinnier farmer's family and a post-harvest event, like a neighbors try to recall the members of their rings picnic or ice cream social, to mark a completed and catch up on the news of area families. In this seasc in. sense, the cooperative nature of threshing rings is

\i threshing reunions, one ever present, a perfect vehicle lor shared discussion of people, though not highly visible, activity is what might places and experiences. The How of conversation he called "threshing talk" b\ older rural residents is typically not chronological or bound by agri- who participated in the last phases of threshing cultural tasks or seasons; it is rather the associa- rings. People may talk threshing when they meet tions of people and places — all perhaps bound to admire engines and separators a\k\ watch together In shared participation in an occupa- working demonstrations, when the\ eat together tional task — that provide the turns and cues for

^2 I WIIIV I \RMING INTUI III \KI ! \\1 l A farmer harvests soybeans using

continued discussion. their occupation as "a way of life" or "expression Threshing talk also frequently educates of life." They recognize that the social life associ- younger generations of rural residents, many of ated with a community's way of farming ex- whom do not farm, about farming systems no presses And develops dominant rural norms. And, longer practiced except among some Amish and importantly, those men and women who have Mennonite groups. Reunion visitors may see ma- lived through the stepped-up phases of mechani- chinery and exhibitions, but the technology is, cal — and then chemical and now biogenetic — after all, inanimate and demonstrations are re- revolutions often feel a sense of decline in the creative in selective fashion. Embedded in thresh- qualitv of rural life. Quality in this sense is not ing talk are descriptions of farm tasks, activities solely measured by crop yields or numbers of and cultural landscapes, as well as verbal expres- conveniences or quantities of household goods, sions, which often seem foreign to the current but rather is tied to the perpetuation of subjective farming generation. Oral and visual history les- social values and traditional cultural practices. sons of neighborhood processes, machinery and Perceptions of a declining quality of lite thus occupational techniques provide the "rest ol the often portray a sense of loss or abandonment ot story" for equipment displays through specific cultural and social norms. recollections of local and regional uses ( >1 tech- This perception is a complex idea that should nologies. They remind listeners of individual not be confused with nostalgia <>r selective mem- values, social goals, and a degree oi local control ory. The result of giving up important cultural in mechanically complex occupational contexts. traditions can be felt like the loss of a relative or

Threshing talk, however, is not simply didac- friend; both may include emotions ot denial, tic, for through them participants also engage in a anger, or remorse. Years after their last bundles debate ewer change and the impact of current passed through grain separators, threshing ring agricultural structures on cherished cultural and members accept the past and the necessary cul- social norms. Many farm residents do identify tural compromises they made to participate in

I llll I VV1MV VRMING IN HEARTLAND S3 technological change. People who talk threshing stem from the subject, declare that the agricul- do not associate the "good old days" of the tural "way of life" has at times supported people's threshing ring with easy work or high profits. Nor basic social needs and desired cultural goals. do former participants advocate returning to Threshing ring participation satisfied the labor horse fanning or to the technologies exhibited at needs of a complex technology, but in a way these reunions. The modern, pull-type combine that also fulfilled shared perceptions and values resi lived many farm needs, and most farmers grounded in local traditions and expectations.

(and threshermen) welcome its speed and effi- Older rural residents who congregate at threshing ciency. reunions and talk threshing tend to view current The change from threshing ring member to agricultural structures and transformations in rural combine owner becomes more significant in the life as being directed by outside influences, cor- wider context of changes in rural life, from tech- porate manipulations, and decisions made with nological developments to school and church little sensitivity to or understanding of traditional consolidations and the decline in the farm popu- rural patterns In contrast, threshing experiences lation. For many older midwesterners, the thresh- suggest things familiar, comfortable and shared. ing ring is a reminder of a time when shared participation and local tradition were guideposts of social activity and expectations. In contrast, / Sanford Rikoon is Research Assistant Professor of they perceive today's rural society as fragmented Rural Sociology tit the / niversity of Wissouri-i olumbia In addition to Threshing in the Midwest, 1820-1940 and unperson. if in part because technological ;s I 1988), he coeditor Idaho Folklife ( 1985) and evolutions have distanced families from the land, of

Interpreting Local Culture and History ( 1991) the lifestyle, And each other. Threshing attains special symbolic status in conceiving this duality, and contemporary discourse about cooperative work becomes a form of social criticism. Further Readings

l )(S2. According to the many midwesterners' world I km, R. Douglas l American Farm Toolsfrom view, the present rural crisis is older than the Hand-Power to Steam-Power. , Kansas: past decade Kvents of the 1980s, however, dem- Sunflower University Piess onstrated that the disruption of long-standing Isern. Thomas I) 1990 Bull Threshers & Bindlestiffs-. occupational patterns continues to have profound Harvesting ami Threshing mi the North America)) social and cultural impacts. Many midwesterners Plains Lawrence 1 niversity of Kansas Press

feel that occupational "progress' is now noi syn- Jennings, Win.) ( lose 1979 Old Threshers at Thirty social progress. onymous with And a sustainable ]0th Anniversary Picture History of the Midwest ( >hl

1')~ ( agriculture may not in itself stem the disintegra- Settlers and Threshers Association. 1950- >

( >lcl Settlers tion ot many small miclwestern communities. It is Mount Pleasant, Iowa Midwest and not simply thai "neighbors don't get together like Threshers Ass< iciation. they used to," noted Dan Jones of Oak Hill, Rikoon, J Sanford 1988 Threshing in the Midwest,

< )hio, but that "people don't have any idea any- 1820-1940 A Study of Traditional Culture and more about traditions in their own places, they've Technological Change Bloomington Indiana Uni- \ctsh\ Press lost si i nuic h

To talk threshing, then, is to point to a per- Wik, Reynold M 1953 Steam Power on the American ceived historical time and regional place when /'arm Philadelphia University ot Pennsylvania the work itself included opportunities to maintain Press desired cultural and social norms. Threshing, and 1991 Seventeenth Annual Steam and das Show Direc- the wider discussions of the period that naturally tory Lancaster Stemgas Publishing Company.

~>4 FAMILY FARMING IN THl HEARTLAND FOREST, FIELD AND SEA: FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA

Forest, Field and Sea: Cultural Diversity in the Indonesian Archipelago Richard Kennedy

On the Indonesian national emblem the 14th now should be reformulated. This phrase, used century Hindu-Javanese phrase, Bhinneka to underscore the major role that water and the Tunggal Ika, "Unity in Diversity," appears on a seas have played in traditional Indonesian life, banner clutched in the talons of an eagle. The has lost some of its authority in the face of the phrase honors these sometimes contradictory- overwhelming influence of air waves, airplanes national goals, which seek to unify a complex and air mail. However, if the skies have helped nation and at the same time to respect the to unite the country, its distinctive lands and enormous cultural diversity of its 300 distinct waters still encourage its diversity. ethnic groups living on more than 1,000 islands Examples of cultural adaptations by people distributed across 3.000 miles of ocean. Indonesia from three Indonesian provinces to vastly differ- to is the fifth most populous country in the world ent environments can provide an introduction with a population of over ISO million. Indonesia's great diversity — Kenyah and Mo-

Unity is an old concept in Indonesia and the dang people living in the lowland and upland motto, "Unity in Diversity," was taken from texts forests of , Bugis and Makassa- written under much earlier rulers. In the 9th cen- rese maritime people living in coastal South Su-

tury and later in the 1-tth, royal kingdoms se- lawesi, and rural Javanese and Madurese agricul- cured vaiying degrees of political control over turalists living in coastal and inland . many of the western islands. And even before These communities also display some of the in- this dominion was achieved, established commer- digenous skills and traditional knowledge that

cial routes linked the peoples of Borneo and the have developed in environments outside the Moluccas with Java, China and India. urban centers and fertile river valleys of the Indo- Today, examples of successful programs of nesian heartland. national unification are evident throughout the archipelago. A vast majority of the people now Forest: Upriver People of East Kalimantan speak Bahasa Indonesia, the lingua franca of the Indonesia has one of the largest areas of tropi- nation, and schools, newspapers and TV are cal rainforest in the world. From Sumatra to Kali- found in even the most remote corners ol the mantan to Irian Java the dense, biologically di- country. As a result, however, some of the di- verse environment of the rainforest contains one verse cultural traditions of Indonesia have a frag- of the most varied populations of flora species in

ile existence. the world. In one small five-acre area in Kaliman- Modern mass communication and extensive air tan, the Indonesian area of Borneo, for example, travel have greatly increased the islands' internal 250 species of lowland trees have recently been unity and external participation in international identified. People who live in the Indonesian trade, information exchange and politics. In fact, rainforests have a complex, systematic under- the classic Indonesian description ot their coun- standing of this rich environment.

try, tanah airkita, "our land and sea," perhaps The human population of Indonesia's rain- forests represents some of the archipelago's earli- est inhabitants. Descendants of the earliest Aus- Forest, Field and Sea: Folklife in Indonesia ispartofthe tronesian peoples who arrived from the Asian Festival ofIndonesia l <><)<>- l'><>l and has been made mainland tens of thousands of years ago still live possible with the support ofYayasan Nusantarajaya, Garuda Indonesia Airlines and American in the upland forests of Sumatra, Kalimantan and /'resident Lines Sulawesi. Many of these people moved inland

FOREST. FIELD AND SEA: FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 55 Field Terraced fields such as these tire [omul throughout Sumatra, Java and Elaborate irrigation systems were introduced intoJava over 1,000 years ago enabling the island to support large

populations Photo ty Hermine Dreyfuss

*

"^Bs- ;

"W 1 Forest (above) Dayak farmers clear and bum plots in the forest to pi, mi swidden fieldsfor dry (unirrigated) rice

tit It trillion Farmers plant these fields for several seasons and

then more to (i nearby plot The swidden fields are usually

leftfallowfor several years until they are fertile enough to be planted again Photo t»\ < ynthia Mackie

Sea (right) This Mandarfisherman works on a rampong platfortn off the coast ofSouth Sulawesi Fishermen sail to these platforms in the evening and sleep there to start work the next morning This platform floats in 6,000fool waters Photo bv Charles Zerner

iKI 56 l< SI FIELD AND SEA FOl M II 1 I N IND( )\1 M \ PHILIPPINES

PACIFIC OCEAN

KALIMANTAN^ SULAWESI o

^-\> <5\rC^

S" INDONESIAN c=>^°° 1 JAVA-O / \3f>,QC§a EAST JAVA <=^ BALI o ^ INDIAN OCEAN

after the subsequent migrations of other Aus- tradition. In fact, the term "Dayak" is used, some- tronesian people from China and Southeast Asia, times pejoratively, by coastal people to refer to

Hindus from the Indian subcontinent and Muslim all upriver people and has limited currency. Ref- traders from the Middle East. These relative new- erence to individual ethnic groups such as Ken- comers settled in the coastal regions of the is- yah, Modang and Iban is more appropriate, but lands and established extensive trade networks. Dayak is the only common term for the groups as They maintained commercial contact with other a whole.

Indonesian islands, India and China for over \l< >st aspects of Dayak social life are closely 1,500 years. The earlier settlers retreated inland to associated with the forest. Previously, these up- the forests where they continued many of their river people were primarily hunters and swidden beliefs and social practices well into the 20th agriculturalists (preparing fields by clearing and century. Resisting both Hindu and Muslim con- burning) who established only temporary vil- version, many were later converted to Christianity lages. This nomadic lifestyle is changing rapidly. by missionaries. A vast majority of are now settled Kalimantan has the largest population of de- farmers, and some have migrated to cities for scendants of these early Indonesian settlers. This work with logging and oil interests that have island and especially its upland peoples have boomed in the past decade. However, even to- been a target of adventurous fantasy in the West- day, when mote and more communities have ern world in the 19th and 20th centuries. Often established permanent homes in villages, their characterized as isolated, remote and even fore- culture remains rooted in the forest environment. boding, Kalimantan is, in fact, a complex society Many Dayaks maintain a sharply honed of settled traders and farmers, with remnants of a knowledge of the fragile forest environment. royal courtly life as well as numerous semi-no- Although they are dwindling in number, some madic tribes. remember nomadic life and cany with them a Dayaks, the inland people of Kalimantan, have sophisticated knowledge of the flora and fauna in been relatively isolated from most of the major the vast tracts of uninhabited forest land through currents of regional history and the societies of which they used to travel and hunt. The forest coastal peoples. Furthermore, as semi-nomads provided them with edible and medicinal plants the Dayak tribes have for centuries remained as well as potent poisons for their arrows. separated from each other by language and local Even within settled communities Dayaks re-

FOREST. FIELD AND SEA FOI.KLIFE IN INI" INESIA 57 Schoonersfrom throughout Indonesia line up ui Sunda Kelapa, the port forJakarta Some of these ships, especially the mighty pinissi, lire still being built by South Sulawesi hi u n In tiU lets ft >r trade throughout the archipelago.

Photo by ( )wen Franken

main minim. illy dependent on outside resources. and a succession of powerful empires Rice, pigs and chickens arc raised locally; and In the 10th century the eastern part of Java timber for individual dwellings or longhouses, was settled by Hindus, ( )ne center of state power rattan and other fibers for weaving, bamboo for in Java remained in the eastern part of the island containers and — in the recent past — bark for for the next 500 years, but it moved to central cloth and feathers for decoration have usually \a\a during the rise of in the L5th century been available near the village. and continued there under the subsequent colo- The Dayak economy, however, has always nial rule of the Dutch, Since 1500, East Java — required some contact with coastal and maritime cspec [ally outside the northern port cities — has people. Mainstays of the inland tribal culture been less influenced by outside forces and the such as salt, pottery containers and decorative rise ol the Islamic slates to the west such as beads were traded with Muslim and Chinese' Surakarta, Jogyakarta and Cirebon. East Java is merchants for rattan, birds nests and medicinal "deep Java," or quintessential Java, inheritor of supplies. These commercial contacts have wid- some of the islands oldest traditions ened in the past decades, and national education Not all of the land on Java has benefitted from and medical systems have reduced some ol the the elaborate irrigation systems built over the past isolatu in, 1,(100 years in the fertile river valleys of the is-

land, < )n much of the land, subsistence crops

Field: Rural Tradition in East Java have provided little surplus income for farmers. On these lands outside the fertile river valleys, Religion comesfrom the sea. adat (custom) life has been less affected by the social, eco- ( nine*, from the hills nomic And cultural changes brought by empire,

The coastal regions (pasisir) of the major Indo- commercial trade and outside cultural values In nesian islands have historically been the meeting these marginal lands local custom is strong, even ground for indigenous And migrant peoples. Here though Islam is the faith of 90% of all Indone- traders and conquerors from China, India. Europe sians Pre-Islamic traditions. Hindu and pre- and Arab lands arrived and established local cen- I lindu, remain pi >w erful ters of activity and power Some of these immi- Many older traditions can still be found in grants brought sophisticated methods ol irrigation communities throughout East Java and rural and elaborate systems of clams and water catch- Madura. For example, women in the village of ments with which they annually produced two Kerek still weave their own cloth, which they dye and three crops of rice in the rich volcanic earth with natural colors. Worn as sarongs, these every- of Sumatra, lava and Bali. These yields provided day cloths are sturdv enough for work in the resources to support an increasing population fields. And across the strait in Sumanep on

58 FORES1 FIELDANDSEA lolMIII IN INDONESIA Lumber pruritics income far workers in same upriver villages as well as in sawmills in larger cities ofEast Kalimantan But the rapid rate ofdeforestation ofthe land is altering thefragile ecology of the region tnnl destroying hundreds of plant species that have potential benefit to mankind Photo by Owen Franken

Madura Island, Indian epic tales are still per- chants. For nearly 300 years Bugis and Makassa- formed by the local topeng (mask) dance troupes. rese controlled much of the trade in Sulawesi and Kerek batik artists experiment with new dyes and established commercial and even political power storytellers in Sumanep include tales of contem- in ports throughout the archipelago and on the porary life in their repertoire, yet at the same mainland of Southeast Asia. During most of the time, both retain traditions that embody local Dutch colonial presence in the country, the Bugis values and tastes. ruled a vast commercial and political empire from their capital at Bone, and the profits of this mari- Sea: Coastal People of South Sulawesi time trade supported an elaborate court life. At one time, the royal rulers of the Hast Kalimantan 77>e sea unites and the lain/ divides. kingdom of Kutei were merchant Bugis. In fact, Maritime people from China, Southeast Asia coastal (pasisir) peoples throughout the archipel- and India settled Indonesia in waves. Many ago often have closer social ties with one another brought navigational skills and knowledge, with than they have with neighboring lowland farmers which they maintained commercial and social or upland tribal groups. relationships with mainland Asia. Their skills not The tie between Kalimantan and Sulawesi only tied island with island and the archipelago continues into the 20th century as Sulawesi mer- with the mainland but also enabled further explo- chants and sailors maintain the trade in lumber, ration of Melanesia and Polynesia. Navigators spices and grains. Twentieth century technology, who sailed from Indonesia settled most of the however, has radically changed the boats which islands in the Pacific more than 3.000 years ago. ply the sea routes between Indonesian islands. The navigators and boatbuilders of South Su- Motors have now supplanted sails, while com-

lawesi still maintain some of these skills. Bugis, passes and electronic monitoring have replaced Makassarese and Mandar peoples of the Province navigation by seasonal winds, wave patterns and of South Sulawesi continue to draw their income stars. Nevertheless, the mighty 200-ton pinissi from the sea as fishermen, navigators and mer- sailing ship or the delicate outrigger can

FOREST, FIELD AND SEA I I U.KLIFE IN INDONESIA 59 still occasion. illy be seen in harbors throughout Lindsay, Jennifer 1986, Javanese Gamelan. Traditional

the archipelago, and the courtly dances of the t Orchestra ofIndonesia. : < )xford University

I 'less royal cities of Gowa and Bone are still performed in a few villages of South Sulawesi. Like a Ken- Peacock, James. 1968, Rites ofModernization: Symbols yah tanner's intimate knowledge of East iiiul Social Aspects ofIndonesian Proletarian Kalimantan's rainforest or the tales of valor told Drama Chicago University of Chicago Press.

by a Javanese storyteller, the Bugis' deep under- Ricklefs, M. C. 1981. A History ofModern Indonesia. standing of Indonesian seas is an important link Bloomington: Indiana University Press, to the country's past and may provide critical Sutton. R. Anderson 1991. Traditions of Gamelan cultural for its knowledge future identity Music in Java Musical Pluralism and Regional Encouraging the diverse cultural traditions of Identity. Cambridge: Cambridge t niversity Press peoples of the forests, fields and seas of Indone- Volkman, Toby Alice and Ian Caldwell. 1990. Sulawesi sia is an important component of Indonesian Island Crossroads ofIndonesia Lincolnwood, [Hi- national unity. This diversity is a source of nt >is: Passpi irt strength and stability, Waterson, Roxana 1990 The Living House An Anthro- pology ofArchitecture in Southeast Asia Singapore

( >xford. Ric hard Kennedy is curator of the Indonesia /'/< gram Suggested Listening lit the 1991 Festival <>/ . \meric iin Folklife He ret eived

> his I'h I in South and Southeast . \sia sin, Ins

I niversity of i dlifornia. Berkeley, and is presently 79204-2

< hairfierson oj South Asia Irea Studies at the Foreign Indonesian Popular Music Kroncong, Dangdut, and Seri'ii e ln-.il/uh' oj the I 5 Department of State Langgamjawa Smithsonian Folkways SF40056

Javanese Court Gamelan Explorer Nonesuch H72044.

Further Readings Music for Sale: Street Musicians of Yogyakarta. Hibiscus

l'< HLC-91. Allan, Jeremy and Kal Muller 1988 East Kalimantan Singapore limes Editions Music /rum the Outskirts ofJakarta Gambang Kro- mong Smithsonian Folkways Recordings SF40057. Ave, loop andjudi Achjadi, eds 1988 The Crafts oj Indonesia Singapore Times Editions Music ofBali Gamelan Senar Pegulingan from the

\ 'illage ofKetewei I \ rk hi ird 7408 l Copeland, Marks and Mintari Soeharjo l ».si The Indo- nesian Kitchen. New York Atheneum. Music ofIndonesia, Vol 1&2 Smithsonian Folkways SF4537. Dalton, Bill 1988 Indonesia Handbook < hico, < alifor-

11 Musit Sulawesi Celebes Indonesia Smithsonian 111. 1 Mi hi Publication of

Fi ilkwaj s SF 1351. Elliot, Inger McCabe. 1984 Batik Fabled Cloth offava New York: Crown. Street Music of CentralJava Lyrichord 7310

Kayam, Umar, 1985 The Soul ofIndonesia A Cultural Street Music ofJava Kiwi Pacific Records 1986,

Journey Baton Rouge: Louisiana state 1 niversit} Songs Before Dawn Gandrung Banyuwangi Smith- Press sonian Folkwaj s SF 10055.

60 EORES1 FIELD AND SEA lolMIII IN INDONESIA Longhouses of East Kalimantan

Timothy C. Jessup

Longhouses are large dwellings built by the local aristocrat or chief occupying the central Kenyan, Bahau, Modang, Lun Dayeh, and other section has certain rights that resemble "owner- peoples of the interior highlands of Hast Kaliman- ship" of the house as a whole. Houses are there- tan and surrounding areas in central Borneo. fore sometimes referred to as "the house of so- Building a longhouse requires great expenditures and-so," the aristocrat. For example, Umaq Pelen- of labor and materials as well as considerable —tan means "Grandfather Lenjau's House" ( lenjau skill in wood-working and engineering. Formerly "tiger," an aristocratic symbol and name). The found widely throughout East Kalimantan, long- central apartment of the aristocratic family is houses are now built only in a few remote parts larger than its neighbors, and its roof is higher. of the province; and only in the isolated Apo Its exterior may be decorated with murals, roof ornaments. Kayan plateau are they still the predominant form wooden statuary, or of dwelling. (Longhouses of a modern type de- Each house is also given the name of a nearby as scribed below are still common in the Malaysian geographical feature, such UmaqMudung, state of Sarawak in northwestern Borneo.) "Hill House," or Umaq Laran, "House of the A longhouse (Kenyan umaq) ] is actually a row Laran Tree" (Dipterocarpus oblongifolius). Many of contiguous family sections, each consisting of communities occupy, or at one time occupied, a an enclosed apartment on one side of the house single longhouse, and perhaps for this reason the and an open veranda on the other. Both are cov- word umaq (or uma) can refer not only to a par- ered by one roof, with a dividing wall between ticular house but also to an ethnic community. apartment and veranda under a ridge-pole. Ex- This association with ethnic identity points to the tending outward from the front and rear of some material and symbolic importance of longhouses sections are uncovered platforms used for drying in the lives of central Borneo people. to rice, and some apartments have enclosed exten- Longhouses in the 19th century ranged up length, with as sions at the rear to provide more interior space. about 400 meters (1,300 feet) in Inside are sleeping compartments and places for many as 120 apartments housing some 500 to 600 cooking and eating, for storing household goods, inhabitants. The width of a house was 8 to 18 and for various intimate social activities. meters (25 to 60 feet), and the height of the floor, The veranda sections joined end-to-end create raised above the ground on great hardwood a continuous gallery along the whole length of piles, was generally 1 to 6 meters (3 to 20 feet). higher as the house. The veranda is a place tor all manner Some houses were raised even — pur- of work and play and for meetings, rituals, and much as 12 meters (40 feet) — for defensive built fortified hill- storytelling. It is also sometimes a sleeping place poses, while others were on or for visitors and bachelors and always tor the tops. The roof rose another 8 meters (25 feet) ubiquitous hunting dogs. so above the floor and was supported on a mas- House sections are owned by the households sive frame of columns and beams. The hewn or families living in them, although traditionally a planks of the floor were up to 12 meters (40 feet) long and a meter wide. Longhouses today are smaller than they were

1 The terminology used in this article is in the Kenyah lan- in the last century. Communities themselves are guage unless indicated otherwise; most longhouse dwellers in smaller, in large part because many have emi- East Kalimantan today are Kenyah. A terminal "q" indicates a grated to the lowlands where economic opportu- glottal stop, rather like a "k" in the back of the throat. The because large populations Kayan word for house is uma, without a glottal slop nities are greater, and

FOREST. FIELD AND SEA FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 61 ^ u,;. ,*»v <*

1 tfV*t *

" : ;J*

>*^ H

'//)(• /)/o.s7 distinctivefeature ofa traditional Dayak village is the longhouse This communal longhouse in the north- central highlands ofKalimantan accommodates more than a dozen families Each family lues in an individual

apartment < lamin > with a kitchen extension off the back of the building Photo by Mady Villard, courtesj ol Bernard Sellato

are no longer required for defensive purposes. parts can be transported overland or by river. Similarly, massive fortified houses are no longer Even heavy beams and columns can be lashed to needed, as they once were, to protect against canoes jnd floated downriver to be erected again marauding enemies. Changes in religion and at a new site social organization, which formerly bound bath family is responsible for preparing its people more closely to house-owning' aristo- own section of a longhouse, and all must contrib- crats, have also contributed to a reduction in the ute to the duels central section. These prepara- size of houses tions include selecting the various kinds of timber and other materials needed, felling and dressing House Construction the timber, and transporting the finished pieces

Houses are periodically built or rebuilt, usually to the house site. All this can take several years, when a village group migrates. Dining the l^th as the work is clone intermittently between agri- century, many Kayan and Kenyan communities cultural seasons and may be delayed by various moved as often as once a decade, although some distractions, misfortunes, or bad omens. remained in one spot for much longer Since the The major structural elements of a longhouse 1930s, with the cessation of tribal warfare and are the roof-columns, beams and floorboards. For increased government control over population its various components, builders select different movements, migration has become less frequent, species ot timber trees, palms (such as the moun- and so houses are rebuilt less often. tain sago palms. Eugeissoiui species, whose

Pioneer migrants moving to previously unin- leaves are sometimes used .is roofing material), habited areas, sometimes far from their former and rattan (used to fasten the other parts). Bor- villages, must build completely new houses. neo ironwood {Eusideroxylon zwagerii) is prized

However, when houses are rebuilt on their ear- where durability is important, as in shingles and lier sites, or close to them, or on the sites of pre- piles, while lighter wood with a clear, straight vious longhouses, some parts of the old houses gram (such as that of Shorea species and other can often be used again. If necessary, the old dipterocarps or the coniferous Podocarpus and

62 \< Mil s[ FIELD \NDSEA F< (LKLIFE IN IMx (NESIA The covered veranda of ibis Ihan longbouse shows the gallery where daily act in lies and periodic ceremonies take place Women weave and preparefood while children play nearby Individualfamily apartments open onto tins communal space Photo from Dorothy Pelzer Collection, courtesy National Anthropological Archives, Smithsonian Institution

Agath is species) is preferred for making floor- around the turn of the century, when trade steel boards. Tropical oaks (Litbocarpus and Quercus came into wide use. Axes and adzes are still used species) are used to make shingles wherever in house construction, but other tools such as ironwood is not available, as in the Apo Kayan. planes, handsaws, and even power saws have

Altogether a great many species are used f( >r been added. building materials. A large amount of timber is required to build and maintain a house, and prin- Architectural Variation cipally for this reason, villages are located wher- Longhouses differ in construction technique, ever possible near stands of old-growth forest. materials and architectural style. Sometimes these Residents protect these forest reserves from over- differences can be attributed to the ethnic identity exploitation or agricultural clearing. of their builders, but more often they occur as a Once all the parts of the house have been consequence of local conditions, such as vari- prepared and assembled at the building site, the ations in terrain, the abundance or scarcity of actual erection of the structure is remarkably different kinds of building materials and (in the swift. The columns and beams are raised into past) vulnerability to or security from attack. position by teams of men, then fastened with In 1900 for example, the Dutch explorer. A. mortised joints and rattan lashings or. in some W. Nieuwenhuis, observed differences between newer houses, with nails. After the framework of longhouses on the upper Mahakam River and the house is in place, each family, working on its those in the Apo Kayan. Apo Kayan houses were own section, lays down the floorboards and fas- built much closer to the ground: their remote tens the lighter wallboards and shingles in place. location and their inhabitants' reputation as fierce Until fairly recently, when saws began to be warriors made them relatively safe from attack. used, the wooden parts of a longhouse were Other architectural differences reflected the worked entirely with a few simple tools, particu- availability of building materials. Here is larly axes and adzes. Kayan and Kenyah smiths Nieuwenhuis' description of the Kenyah village forged these tools from locally obtained ores until of Tanah Putih in the Apo Kayan:

FOREST, FIELD \ND SEA FOLKI.IFE IN INDONESIA 63 All ten longhouses in the village were built locally available materials by skilled craftsmen, to in the usual Bahau [or k.iv.ml style, . . who adapt form and construction techniques

Inn they Mood i >n posts only one to two the Kalimantan environment and to changing meters high and were made from different historical conditions. This adaptability can be materials The reason was that the dense seen in the architectural variety of houses, past population had exhausted the high forest and present, and in the structural innovations ol

in the surrounding area, and the quantity recent years.

of timber necessary for (he construction ol Nevertheless, it is sad (especially to one ol

such a large village could lie obtained Romantic temperament) to see the disappearance only from a great distance Most ol the of the last old In 'uses, with their massive hand- people therefore had recourse to bamboo hewn timbers, their quaintly crooked lines, and tor constructing floors, and to large tree- then dark and homely smoke-filled interiors

leaves arranged in the form ol mats for Even more distressing is the complete abandon- making walls and roots Only the houses ment of longhouses that has occurred, often

ol the heads [i.e., aristocrats] were built through force of social pressures, in many parts completely of wood (Nieuwenhuis l'^ii- ol Kalimantan. In this light, the continuing inno-

07, v. 2:368-369; m\ translation, assisted vation in longhouse construction should he wel-

by Berthold Seibert i comed as a wa\ ol combining economic devel-

opment i which the people universally want) with .Similar variations in the availability mi^\ use ol cultural continuity and the spirit of community. materials can still he seen among the various Kenyali communities in the Apo Kayan A major innovation in longhouse construction - Timothy < /esstip is ii Ph I > candidate in the Human ( appeared in Sarawak in the l ) ()s and spread to Ecology Program n technique uses relatively light-weight, sawn long-term research and policy planning in East wooden members in place ol heavy, hand-hewn Kalimantan timbers (It is thus similar to the transition from framing w ith hea\ v timber t< > the use < it the light

< i'tations and Further Readings "balloon frame" in the United States during the

19th century) This change was made possible In Hose < .mil \\ McDougall 1912 Ti.w Pagan Tribes of

( 2 > the introduction <>l power saws, which le( build- Borneo vols London Macmillan.

ers i ui into trans- i wood smaller, more easih lessup. I 1990 House-building, Mobility, and ported pieces in tar less time than was spent Architectural Variation in Central Borneo Paper preparing timber b\ hand. The new houses also presented at the First Extraordinary Session i>l the c incorporate other modifications in design such as Borneo Research Council in Kuching Sarawak, a- ) he published in the Research increased ventilation and semi-detached kitchens August To Borneo Bulletin (to protect against the spread ol fire) These

changes were initially made at the behest ol gov- , and A P Vayda 1988 Dayaks and ernment oil Rials hut have since gained popular- Forests of Interior Borneo Expedition (special issue

..ii Borneo) 30( 1 i 5-17. ity

Kelbling. S 1983 Longhouse at the Balu> River Sara Conclusion teak Museum Journal 32 133-158

\ Davak longhouse shelters a whole commu- Nieuwenhuis, \ \\ 1904-07 Querditrcb Borneo (2 with within single structure are buill ) nis a They vols I eiden Brill,

(it i i;i I I \ . line v.i .sea KOI M n l\ IN1X >M M Environmental Knowledge and Biological Diversity in East Kalimantan

Herwasono Soedjito

building skills, as Tim Jessup discusses elsewhere Longhouses, the characteristic dwelling of in this collection; but Dayaks' skill and knowl- many Dayak groups, require a great many plant edge of selecting building materials from natural species for building materials. To sustain their resources is uniformly exceptional. supply of materials, Dayaks have always pro- their forests. Today we recognize the need tected Botany of Longhouses for more forest cover for the earth, which may As noted, a great many plant species are used die without it. Indeed, the need for forests and, for building a longhouse. For example, in the more importantly, for biological diversity is now construction of one longhouse in the Apo Kayan becoming obvious. This diversity is important for plateau of East Kalimantan, 48 different plant people as well as nature. In the past, when Day- species have been identified. These building aks could still practice their traditional way of materials — plants of varying ages, wild and life, they helped maintain biological diversity. cultivated, from recently tilled and fallow fields Dayaks live interdependently and harmoni- — are collected from the surrounding environ- ously with tropical rainforests. But we, who arro- ment, a living mosaic composed of rainforest, gantly call ourselves modern people from devel- fields and village. To make various parts of a oping or already developed countries, have little house, villagers select species of plants ranging regard for or appreciation of these traditional from herbs, vines, rattan, palms and shrubs to big people. We harvest tropical wood only for our trees. own economic benefit and thereby push the Strong hardwood, prized for its durability, is Dayaks to abandon their culture. They often can- used for making piles and shingles. The best not practice their culture because of moderniza- wood for these purposes is Borneo ironwood tion and because there is no forest left. (Eusideroocylon zwagerii), which is locally called Fortunately, on this rare occasion organized by ulin. Sixteen species of large trees have been the Smithsonian Institution and Festival of Indo- identified that are used for the piles alone.' And nesia 1990-1991 Committee, we will be able to some tree species are used for making shingles communicate directly with some of the Dayaks alone.- Not all parts of a tree can be made into from East Kalimantan. From this communication, shingles, only those with straight fibers that allow there is a chance for mutual understanding and a the wood to be split in thin sections. Not all long- hope for mutual appreciation. Dayaks will pre- house roofs are made of shingles. Some villages sent aspects of their valuable culture that still use leaves of the trees Eugeissona ittilis and have relevance and importance for contemporary— life. In this short essay I will use ethnobotany the study of native peoples' systematic knowl- 'Among these are Aglaia ganggo, Diplerocaipus Eugenui Dipterocarpus spp , Elaeocarpus spp edge of the plant world — to illustrate how kunstlerri, spp., Hopea dryobalanoides, Ochanostachys amentacea, Ocbrosia building longhouses, producing food, curing the spp., Podocatpus iwrufolius, Sborea spp., Tiisttinui sick, and making the tools of everyday life em- whitianum, and Vatica cupularis

body Dayak skills for exploiting and conserving 2 Among iIk-il- are Castanopsis spp , Ficus concosiata, is the resources of their environment. There con- Lansium domesticum, Litbocarpus spp . Quercus argentata, siderable variation in architectural styles and and Shores spp.

FOREST, FIELD AND SEA: FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 65 made ol the long, straight but small stems i ap- proximately 4 cm in diameter) ol a variety of

spec ies. There is apparently no preference as to the species used. Villagers usually collect the sapling stage of main canopy species (the tallest

rainforest trees) or understory species (less tall).

What they look for is straightness and durability.

Rattan rather than nails is used to fasten parts of the building together. A large number of rattan strips are used to fasten shingles to the roof laths. There are dozens of rattan species used to lash

1 joints. Do you know that rattan is in the same-

family with the coconut palm ( Cocos nucifera),

and that a single stem of one kind of rattan (Ca- lamus caesius) can reach more than 100 meters long'' People should learn more about the rich

diversity of species in tropical rainforests.

Food Plants 'The Dayak farmers carefully maintain a diver-

sity of species in their fields as well as in their gardens close to home. Traditional tropical agric- ulturalists diversify their production to make their food supply as secure as possible In one village

Kenyah women pound bark to extrai t dyefor of Long Sungai Barang, for example, farmers use decorating woven baskets Photo by ( ynthia Mai kie .it least ISO species of food plants, including 67 wild species. In their home gardens alone, there

were 1 species that belong to 70 genera and Phacelophrynium maximum for their roofs. 38 families All of the specimens have been identi- Lighter wood with a clear and straight grain is 1 fied, and in Herbarium preferred for making floorboards. A good floor recorded preserved the Bogoriense, in the city of , . Sur- also should be properly resonant, for it is usually

prisingly, for one species oi rice ( Oriza siitirci) used as a musical instrument played to accom- alone, local pany dances, especially the datan julut dance. In villagers have more than 25 varieties, conditions their performances, dancers stamp on the floor which are specialized for certain soil slopes, creating loud and beautiful sounds. A longhouse such as wet soil, flat land, dry soil in black floor capable of producing the most beautiful soil, etc.

< ienetk diversity is very important for future sounds is usually preferred for important ceremo- agricultural development. Many breeders stress nies The same tree species used for the floors is that more gene pools available because also used for making planks that separate long- we need cropping rice serious house apartments, or lamin. continuous of can lead to problems like pest epidemics. "This problem in The beams of the middle lamin that belongs food soon because, as Har- to the "owner' ol the house are usually longer supply may come

grove, el al ( 1988) found, a large number of and thicker than others. Hut the tree species is no improved rice varieties carp- similar cytoplasm. If different. The main criteria lor selecting beams are not careful preserve the germplasm are straightness and length.' Rafters are made of we to resources that are still in the hands of traditional limbers from the' same species used lor beams. farmers, we may not be able to rebuild high yield but the most preferred is Eugenia polyantha. should disease or other tonus ol pestilence Roof laths, which support the shingles, are crops, strike. The l>a\ak environment might have wild spe- Vmong these are Agatbis borneensis, Ciimamomum sp., Litboccitpus spp.. Perseci rimosa, Poclocarpus imbricatm cies of crops that will be important in the future. PottiK'urpits neriifoliiis. Polyosma intergrifalia, Schima For example, the shoot of the Diplazium esculen- utilii bit, and Shorea spp tum fern (of the family Polypodiaceae) is now pedes used for beams include Dysoxylum bvxatuinim, EUiem arpus glaber, Elteriospermum tapos,

Si < ': banostachys amantacea, Ocbrosia sp., Persea ime ol them are < alamus spp . emtorobus concolor and

and Sc<

iKIsi FIELD AND SEA FOLKLIF1 IN INDONESIA harvested from a wild habitat but in the future may produce a vegetable as valuable as as- paragus. And Seta ria palm {fo-

lia, a species of grass (Poaceae), yields a bigger edible shoot in formerly culti- vated fields than in wild habi- tats. Its evolution might be unintentionally affected by human agriculture. As Jackson (1980) notes, the ancestors of our current crops may well have been "camp followers," colonizers of the disturbed ground around human habita- tion. Varieties of habitat and successive forest stages — not just jungles or primary forests — yield valuable species for agriculture as well as for medicine and crafts. This shows the importance of cul- tural practices of Dayaks and other forest dwellers to the evolution and maintenance oi biological diversity.

Medicinal Plants Traditional medicine de-

rived from plants still plays an important role in curing dis- eases and wounds. In Long Sungai Barang village, 37 spe- These Aoheng women teho lire several days upriverfrom the coastal city oj cies, 33 genera and 26 families , Hast Kalimantan, are reviving the art of weaving localfibers <>/ of plants that have medicinal pineapple and orchid, Abandoned after World War II this weaving tradition value have been recorded. 1 ' teas retired in the early l>),sos to produce materials for sale to These species grow in a vari- outside markets Photo by Bernard Sellato ety of habitats: in the home garden, in the fields, in very young secondary forests in

primary forests and on riverbanks. At present, This is a very great biological diversity. They use

many institutes and universities are hunting me- almost all the parts of the plants: stems, leaves, dicinal plants in tropical forests throughout the bark, sap, fruit, branches, twigs and seeds. These world that might contain a curing material tor species arc also found in an array of habitats — cancer and AIDS. home gardens, fields, secondary and primary forests. Habitat diversity is very important in sus- Plants for Crafts taining a supply of materials for the Dayaks'

Almost all utensils and handicrafts used by handicrafts, some of which attain high artistic Dayaks are made from material available in the value. area. There have been at least 96 species identi- fied that belong to 74 genera and 40 families. Biosphere Reserve

To conclude this short article, it is obvious that the biological and ecological diversity in Dayak "Species that were considered especially powerful were villages, especially in the Apo Kayan, is very Callicarpa longifoliaf. subglabrata, Cassia alata, Fagraea mcemosa, Kadsura scandens and Lindera polyantha. high. This area embraces a great many species

o| FOREST, FIELD AND si A I KLIFE IN INDONESIA 67 useful for food, medicines, crafts, building con- reserve, which is to provide models for sustain- struction and aesthetic uses. It is impossible to able resource use. The Kayan needs the legiti- separate this useful diversity from the fact that mate status of biosphere reserve in order to pro- Apo Kayan fanners practice shifting cultivation, tect the area from destaictive powers before the carefully exploit the mountainous forest environ- beauty and value of its ecological diversity are ment, and have cultures that enable them to live gone. harmoniously with nature. Accordingly, it is es- sential to save this area from destructive eco- nomic development. This does not mean that Herwasono Soedjito is senior ecologist at Herbarium local people should live unchanged or that farm- Bogoriense. The < enterfor Research and Development in Biology. Indonesian Institute Sciences hie received ers should be prevented from improving the of his 1/ Si and Ph l> in Human Ecology and Forest quality of their lives. The welfare of indigenous Ecologyfrom Rutgers University. New Brunswick. Netv peoples, their role in the environment, and natu- terse) ral conservation are combined in a new approach to conservation known as the "biosphere re- < itations and Further Readings serve." Altieri, M. A.. M. K Anderson and I. C Merrick L987 The biosphere reserve concept is more realis- Peasant Agriculture and the Conservation of Crop tic than earlier approaches that exclude humans, and Wild Plant Resources ( onservation Biology since it includes local populations as key con- II 1 1 49-58 tributors to and beneficiaries of the environ- Ave, J B. and V. T. King. L986 The People ofthe Weep- mental process (Tangley 198S). Jackson ( 1980), ing Forest Tradition and Change in Borneo Leiden for example, states that the most efficient storage Natii inal Museum of Ethm >li >g) of genetic variations is in the living plants, while

Hargrove, T K.\ I Cabanilla and W Coffman 1988. seed storage m a laboratory is expensive and has Twenty Years ol Rue Breeding BioScience difficult requirements. Therefore, many more 381 10):675-681. species sanctuaries must be established through-

Hill. I. I) L983 SeedsofHope The Ecologist out the world (Hill 1983). Indeed, it is time to 13(5) 175-178 recognize traditional farmers' active role in ge- netic resource conservation (Altieri, et al. L987). [ackson, W 1980 New Rootsfor Agriculture San Fran-

Furthermore, when not disturbed by economic or ^ i.so) Friends of the Faith political forces, farmers' modes of production Kartawinata, KM Soedjito, T Jessup, A P. Vayda,

destroy natural ( I' Colter generally preserve rather than and I 1984. The Impact of Develop- resources. ment on Interactions Between People and Forests in

Finally, the most appropriate way to develop East Kalimantan A Comparison ol I wo Areas of

Environmentalist i. the Apo Kayan might be through the establish- Kenyah Dayak Settlement. The Supplement No. 7:87-95 ment of a biosphere reserve to conserve ex amples of the world's characteristic ecosystems, Tangley, 1. 1988. A New Era tor Biosphere Reserves. "landscapes for learning" about both natural and BioScience 38(3):1 18-155 locally managed ecosystems. The Apo Kayan Whitmore, T C. 1984 Tropical Rain Forests of the Far already achieves one of the goals of a biosphere East 2d ed Oxford Clarendon Press

68 i HELD AND SEA FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA .

Craft and Performance in Rural East Java Dede Oetomo

The rich earth of the volcanic islands of Java the Province after the fall of Mojopahit Dynasty and Madura has nurtured its people for millennia: in the 16th century, the majority of the arts re-

Sundanese in western Java, Javanese in central mained those of the common people ( wung and eastern Java, and Madurese on Madura Island cilik). In the towns and cities, the elite (priyayt) and the northeastern coastal areas of Java. Agri- continue to be connoisseurs of the high arts of culture directly supports nearly three-quarters of the neighboring courts, such as shadow puppet the more than 32 million inhabitants of Fast Java, (tvayang) plays and their derivatives. These a province that consists of the eastern third of forms are also enjoyed by common people but

Java, all of Madura and a few smaller islands. The mostly by those living in what was the "outer vast majority of these rural villagers are landless realm" of the Central Javanese courts. farm workers or peasants with little land. They Performers from four artistic traditions have mostly cultivate rice but also grow cash crops in- come from East Java to the Festival of American cluding tobacco, cotton, sugarcane, nuts and Folklife this year. The traditions represented are: various fruits. peasant batik from on the north coast,

For the last 300 years, the peoples of East Java which uses hand-woven cotton; masked dance- have generally contrasted their way of life with drama (topeng dhlang) of Madura, which is based that of the Javanese of , whose socie- on stories from the Indian epics, Mahabharata ties have been dominated by the kingdoms ol and Ramayana; gandrung social dance of Mataram. The influ- Banyuwangi; and ence of this imperial the music and dance known past can be seen in MADURA performance the distinctions Indo- Jakarta as reyog from the re- Kerek gion of Ponorogo nesians frequently —I— d^ draw between a on the western side -Banyuwangi of the Province. To courtly, refined style 1 Ponorogo marked by politeness illustrate the rela- :4P tionship between and indirection ( ha- EAST JAVA lus) and a rural, earthy JAVA mral life and art style marked by quick forms, two of these, speech and frankness the batik of Kerek (kasar). The people and reyog of Pono- living in and around the valleys of the great East rogo, both symbols of the continuity of the Java rivers, the Branta and the Solo, in the so- Province's rural heritage, are examined below. called Mancanegari, or "outer realm," of the central kingdom, are said to be more like the The Peasant Batik of Kerek Central Javanese in their refined style of speech To the north of the limestone hills in north- and behavior. On the other hand, those living in eastern Java lie dozens of arid and rather bleak the arid limestone regions of the north coast, in rural districts. Kerek, a subdistrict 30 km north- the capital city of , on the island of west of the coastal town of Tuban, is typical of Madura, and in the eastern region of Java are said the region except for the type of batik produced to talk faster and more frankly. in several local villages. The people of East Java have developed a Approaching Kerek by way of the paved road great variety of art forms. With no royal courts in leading into the district, one notices homespun

FOREST. FIELD AND SEA FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 69 on each piece collectively, in be- tween planting, harvesting and other tasks of subsistence farming, the major source of livelihood in the

community. Today the batik is still valued for being sturdy enough to wear in the fields, and some prized pieces are handed down as cher- ished heirlooms. In the past, a piece of batik was

never s< )ld as a commodity; it was worn by a woman of the household

in which it was made. This has been gradually changing over the past five or six decades. Today people often

take new or used batiks to sell on

market days at the marketplace in Kerek. Local people have become aware of the value outsiders place on the material. batik making has recently become- part of a rural development scheme, for the past decade the Ministry of

Industries office in Tuban, pursuing a policy of promoting local small- scale industries within a framework ol economic development, has tried to assist women of Kerek in trans- forming batik crafting into a truly income-generating industry. Officials in the Ministry would like the Tuban At a weekly market, women in Tuban Regent \> of EastJava inspect cot region to become known for a ion f<>r batik Although some of the women wear machine-made unique craft. The new uses created sarongs they all use a selendang < shawl worn over the shoulder) lor Kerek s batik include tablecloths, of local handmade batik material to carry their pillowcases, modern dresses, skirts, purchases Photo In Kin-- I leringa vests, coats and even blazers.

( )nc labor-saving idea that has batik sarongs worn by women working in the been introduced into Kerek's batik industry is the fields or walking along the road carrying woven use of the commercial dye naphthol. Though

bamboo baskets supported by .\n equally coarse some traditionalists, both in Kerek and in the batik selendang (a shawl-like sling worn over outside world, still prefer natural dyes, which one shoulder). Perhaps nowhere else in Indone- they believe last much longer, most batik crafts- sia can one find this kind of batik, dyed on women now prefer to buy batik dyes rather than homespun fabric with bold, brightly-colored live- make natural dyes themselves. These new batik hand buds, flowers and other more abstract de- elves include non-traditional colors such as yel- signs. Batik crafted elsewhere in Java is worked low, green and purple. 'I'he availability of these on fine, factory-produced cotton or even syn- dyes has changed the batik tradition of Kerek. thetic material and tends to use more muted col- but even some younger women who enjoy ex- ors. perimenting with these new colors continue to Remarkably, some women of a single house- use the natural dyes side by side with commer-

hold, as in the past, still grow the cotton, spin it cial c< >li irs. into , weave yarn into cloth, make dyes from plants, and design and dye the cloth into batik. Reyog Ponorogo

Natural dyes such as indigo for blue and soga, The of Ponorogo is located in the another vegetable dye for brown, remain the river valley near the border of Central

primary colors used in the process. They work Java. It has been known for hundreds of years for

~0 FORES'I HELD AND SEA: FOLKLIFF. IN INDONESIA Above: Young men from the village near Salatiga in CentralJava perform a hobby-horse dance with a lion figure similar to the reyog tradition in EastJava. Photo by Rachel Cooper

Right: Thefigure of the reyog passes through the town ofPonorogo in East Jura The procession, which includes musicians, acrobats and clowns, re-enacts a battle between the tiger and the forces ofa king. Photo by sal Murgiyanto

its men (and women) of prowess, the tvetrok. In this region, some of which was part of the "outer realm" of the kingdom of Mataram hut was often difficult to rule, warok have until very recently- been economically, politically and magically powerful local personages surrounded by bands of youths in a patron-client relationship, Warok and their followers, warokan and gemblok, per- form reyog — a public dance drama — as a dis- play of their power. In any group of reyog performers, the warok

.tiki warokan can easily be identified as the several three-tube older, more mature and fierce looking men (kendhang Ponorogo) and or warok or dressed in black, loose-fitting three-quarter length bamboo angklung. One two heavy tiger/lion mask and trousers and collarless shirts. They wear a belt of warokan carry the the reyog twisted cotton yarn and coarse leather slippers. A headdress that is the centerpiece of of pea- number of them play musical instruments associ- pageant and is decorated with hundreds ated with the reyog performance: shawm (slom- cock feathers. Other warok and warokantake roles in play clowns, nobles, etc. pret), metal kettles (.kenong), suspended gongs different the — of the troupe (kemput), small drum (tipung\), very large drum The gemblak, junior members

FOREST, FIELD AND SEA FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 71 who enter into patron-client relationships with villagers. Performances nowadays, especially in particular warok and warokan, perform the urban areas, are focused on the acrobatics of hobby-horse (jaran kepang or jathilari) dance. lifting the heavy tiger/lion and peacock feather They are dressed in a more refined way, in imita- headdress and on the antics of the clowns. Some tion of the courtly dress of Central Javanese per- of these performances are clone for a fee. formers in wayangoi kethopak plays. In the past Reyog performances may last several hours these hobby-horse performers were often trance and are usually performed during the day. They dancers. Nowadays the dancers sometimes cross- typically involve elaborate costumes, music and a dress and — especially in the big cities outside lengthy procession of dancers and actors. There Ponorogo where reyog troupes have also formed never seems to have been a set number of epi- themselves — they may even be young girls who sodes m a reyog performance. Particular episodes are not gemblak. In these big-city troupes men in the performance are drawn from the following dress in the traditional black attire, but they do story. King Klanasewandana of Bantarangin trav- not seem to practice the traditional warok eled to the town of Kedhiri to ask for the prin- warokan lifestyle, a change lamented by purists cess in marriage. He was accompanied by 144 in Pone in >g< > knights under the command of Hujangganong. In In his quest for power, a person becomes a the jungle, the tiger Rajawana (the king of the

warokhy following its traditional lifestyle, refrain- woods) tried to devour the horses. Bujangganong ing from heterosexual relationships. In most fought the tiger but could not defeat him. The cases this is a man who has accumulated wealth king asked help from the hermit Kyai Gunaresa. in agricultural land and livestock and feels ready After the hermit rendered the tiger harmless, the to become a patron of less wealthy members of king gave a feast that was graced by gamelan his village and surrounding communities. A few music and dancing, including a dance by a cases of female warok have been recorded, woman named Wayang Jopre and the clown though these do not seem to exist today. Patrajaya. A contemporary performance of reyog Warok arrange patron-client relationships with retells this story in the earthy style of rural East youths, the gemblak of the troupe. The rights and Java and provides the viewer with a glance into a duties of this alliance, like those of a marriage, world of heroes, supernatural powers and trance. include economic and sexual aspects. The warok

>r employs a matchmaker to reach an agreement I Dede ( ietomo is a le< turer at the School of Sot ial with the parents of a particular youth. Warok Si ieiit es, \irlangga I diversity, Surabaya, East Java provide the parents with cows, water buffaloes, Further Readings or the use of a plot of land. A warok's power is proportional to the number of gemblak he can Geertz, Clifford 1976. The Religion ofJava Chicago: keep. When a youth comes of age, his warok- University of Chicago. patron must arrange and pay for his marriage. A Heringa, Kens 1989 Dye Process and Life Sequence: few gemblak do become warok, but this is rare. The Coloring of Textiles in an East Javanese Village.

In addition to independently wealthy warok, In To Speak with < loth: Studies in Indonesian Tex- there have also been bands of unmarried young tiles, ed Mattiebelle Gittinger. Los Angeles Museum men who search for power, either in the service of Cultural History, LI.C.L.A. of a warokov not. These men are the warokan Karii inn. Margaret. 1976. Performance, Musk, and and normally share resources to keep a gemblak Meaning in reyog Ponorogo Indonesia 11 (< )cto- communally. ber) 85-130,

A reyog troupe did not originally perform for Wolbers, Paul A 1986 Gandrung and Angklung from money or on a special occasion. Performances Banyuwangi: Remnants of a Past Shared with Bali. were primarily spectacular displays of prowess t< > Asian Music 18 ( 1 1:71-90

'1 FORES! FIELDANDSEA FOLKLIFE IN INDom si V Boatbuilding Myth and Ritual in South Sulawesi

Mukhlis and Darmawan M. Rahman

For many centuries before European colonial We Tenri Abeng had given a very difficult task powers came to Indonesia, trade was carried on to Sawerigading, because it would take a large- throughout the archipelago. Makassarese and boat and a long time to sail to We Cudai's king- Buginese islanders traveled by sea throughout dom. We Tenri Abeng showed Sawerigading a Southeast Asia and even to China. Only after the big tree called Walenrang growing in the forest. Portuguese and Dutch arrived in the late 16th A boat for the journey could be made from this century was the sea trade lost to European fleets, tree. Sawerigading resolved to follow his twin's which forced local cultures to submit to the mo- suggestion. But although he tried for days to cut nopoly of the . Local down the Walenrang tree he was not successful. boatbuilding traditions adapted to the arrival of In despair Sawerigading went to his grandfather, Europeans, and they have continued to evolve to La Toge Langi Batara Gum, who lived in heaven. this day. For centuries now, particular ethnic- He told him what had happened. After hearing groups have been building boats of many sizes the story, La Toge Langi Batara Gum told Saweri- and sailing them in inter-island and interconti- gading to return to the world and to wait by the nental trade. sea. C. C. Macknight (1979) writes that there are La Toge Langi Batara (aim used his supernatu- four principal boatbuilding traditions in Indone- ral power to fell the Walenrang tree. It disap- sia. The first is found among coastal peoples peared into the earth and reappeared suddenly living in Sumatra and on the west and south on the shore, in the form of a large boat Saweri- coasts of the Malay peninsula. A second gading named his new boat "La Walenrang." boatbuilding tradition is found in the port towns Before sailing across the ocean to find his bride, and fishing villages of the north coast of Central he swore an oath that after he married We Cudai, Java, in the port of Gresik in East Java and on the he would never return to . island of Madura. The third and fourth traditions Soon after Sawerigading arrived at his destina- are found in the eastern part of the Indonesian tion, he found his princess, We Cudai, married archipelago: the South Sulawesi tradition and the her and settled in her kingdom. tradition of boatbuilding found in Moluccas, Aru One day he felt homesick, so he gathered his islands, and southern Philippines. In this article wife and followers together and sailed his boat we examine the South Sulawesi tradition of back across the sea to his home kingdom of boatbuilding. Luwu, thus breaking the oath he had sworn.

South Sulawesi boatbuilding is still connected Before he could arrive, a fierce storm smashed

in the minds of many people to the following his boat "La Walenrang" to pieces. All its passen- myth of origin called Sawerigacling. It is told in gers were drowned. The waves beached the keel the Buginese legend of I Lagaligo that one day o! his boat on one of the islands to the south, the Sawerigacling, a prince of Luwu, a kingdom in mast in a different coastal village, the shattered

South Sulawesi, fell in love with a beautiful girl. pieces of deck nearby, and the hull on a shore in We Tenri Abeng. The two lovers were to be mar- the same region. ried, but the young girl learned that she was The people who lived nearby collected all the

really Sawerigading's twin sister. Seeking a way sea-strewn pieces of the boat. Thus it was that out, We Tenri Abeng suggested that her twin from the wreck of Sawerigading's boat "La look for another girl who resembled her — We Walenrang," the ancestors of the Buginese Cudai, a princess of a neighboring kingdom to people learned to build large boats, which they the southwest. have been building for generations ever since

FORES! FIELD AND SEA FOLKLIFE IN INDONESIA 73 I

Ibove Sulawesi boatbuilders are renown throughout

Indonesia 'Ibis boathuilder near . South Sulawesi, works with simple tools The dowels are

made oj'iron wood and the caulk ofc rushed < oral tin,

ml The large ship he is building /nil cairy cattle and passengers between Kalimantan (Borneo) and

Sulawesi PI hy < harles Zerner

Right Sulawesi navigators have directed their boats through the was oj Indonesia for centuries Pita' Haji

Saniaya, a Mandar captain ami navigator, sails to fishing waters offshorefrom his home in Majene.

Smith Sulawesi Photo l>\ Charles Zernei

I li S'l I I ( IKl FIELD \NI SI \ )[ Mil I IN IN|)i INFSIA This myth tells the origin of boatbuilding in identity, which was kept secret until this moment. South Sulawesi. A typical prau (sailboat) from Then, the punggawa mounts the front deck and this region has curving stem posts and a broad gives the command to launch the boat. A song in

hull. The mast is a tripod, easily lowered by re- the local dialect is sung that encourages and leasing the front legs so the other two legs can gives spirit to the people pushing the boat into pivot on pins that provide the main footing. The the water.

sail is rectangular and slung at an angle. Myths and ritual in boatbuilding in South Su-

The initial steps in building a boat are marked lawesi still exist in the knowledge and practice of by ceremonial and ritual activities. The tree used traditional experts, even though their traditional for a boat must be of a specific type. When cut ways face challenges from ever-increasing mod-

down, it must topple in the direction decided by ern technology.

a panrita (boatbuilding master). If the tree falls

otherwise, it should be abandoned. Before start- Darmawan M. Rahman is a professor and researcher at ing to saw up the tree, people gather at the the Teacher Training College (I.K.I.P.) in l'iuni> boatyard for a ritual. On what will be the rear Pandang, South Sulawesi He received his M.Sc in section of the keel they put traditional Buginese Anthropologyfrom the I 'niversity ofPennsylvania and cakes including onde-onde (marble-shaped cake his /'/) D m Anthropologyfrom Hasanuddin I 'niversity

with palm sugar filler), songkolo (sticky rice), in I fung Pandang. ciicur (disc-shaped, wrinkle fried brown sugar Mukhlis graduatedfrom Gajah Mada I niversity in and sticky rice flour cake), baje (steamed sticky Yogyakarta m Centraljava He did advanced studies rice with palm sugar) and bananas. The keel is in Social Anthropology til the I niversity of Oslo, then sawn to length with a tool that has been Norway, and received his Ph D in Social Anthropology given supernatural power the master crafts- by from Hasanuddin I 'niversity m I /mm Pandang man. It must be cut through without stopping by one man alone. Citations and Further Readings The night before the boat is launched, another - l > public ceremony takes place. People gather at Abidin, Andi Zainal l i The 1 Epic Cycle the boatyard throughout the evening. They are of South Celebes and its Diffusion Indonesia served the traditional Buginese cakes. Everyone 17:161-169.

who attends this ceremony also comes the fol- Clad, James, 1981. Before the Wind: Southeast Asian

lowing day to help the launch, which is led by a Sailing Traders Asia 4:20-23, 43. punggawa (a traditional respected leader in Horridge, Adrian 1985. The Prahu: Traditional Sailing boatbuilding). The punggawa starts the work by Boat ofIndonesia Singapore: Oxford drilling into the middle of the keel for about one Macknight, C. C. 1979. The Study of Praus in the Indo- centimeter. dust The from the drill is then given nesian Archipelago Canberra: Australian National to the owner of the boat, publically declaring his University.

F( >REST, FIELD AM ) SEA F( >I KLIFE IK IND( INESIA 7S I.AM) IN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES

Knowledge and Power: Land in Native American Cultures

Olivia Cadaval

The encounter between the peoples of eastern class citizens was a prelude to the current on- and western hemispheres that began nearly 500 slaught of modern economic expansionism. years ago has had a dramatic effect on the waj Today, Native Americans continue to be ex- land and natural resources in the are ploited and their lands continue to be expropri- thought about and used. Exploration and coloni- ated while their cultural values and symbolic zation led to land use practices foreign to those universes are denigrated and denied. developed by indigenous societies and compat- At the core ol most Native American cultures ible with the existing ecosystem. Almost 500 are concepts ol land, which shape all facets of years ago, newcomers failed to learn from those political, social, economic and symbolic life To who understood their home environment. The Europeans, the 15th century conquest of the European campaign of discovery" And conquest Americas simply provided land to be exploited made this exchange impossible. Native popula- for the enrichment of European royal states In tions ol the Americas continue to pass on their contrast, Native American cultures have generally systematic knowledge about then environment, perceived land as part of their cultural environ- but usually only within their own communities ment as well as the source of nourishment and This years commemoration of the 500th anniver- shelter. Land sustains Native American communi- sary o| the- year before Columbus' voyage has ties At the 1990 Continental Conference, "500 been undertaken in the belief that it is possible Years ol Indian Resistance," held in Quito, Ecua- for our present society to learn and profit from dor, participants formally declared: "We do not indigenous knowledge about the land ol the' consider ourselves owners of the land. It is our

Americas, Conserving the earth in the present, as mother, not a piece of merchandise. It is an inte- in the past, is as much about indigenous knowl- gral part ol our life. It is our past, present and edge and society as it is about ecology and eco- future." nomics. The intruders strategies to control Native

{ Since I i >-. Native American lands and ways Americans and then lands obscured the diversity ol life have been under siege. Native populations of indigenous cultures; they defined European were enslaved, exploited and nearly extermi life as the only ethical model and classified all nated, systematically driven off their lands, iso- Native Americans simply as "savages," who had lated in ecologically marginal reservations and no valid culture of their own and who needed to largely disallowed social existence in the- contem- be "civilized." The newcomers' lack of respect porary world except as subjects of ethnographic lor the land was matched by the lack of respect studies. The colonial despoilment of lands and they showed native cultures. Diversity was ex- resources, the cultural domination and distortion cluded, And Native Americans were categorically of native societies, the extinction of entire popu- called "Indians" ignoring the distinct cultures, lations and the conversion of people- into second- histories, languages and ecological circumstances

'in, Tican < i ill i lies is co-sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution s National Museum of the Anient- iin

i >,;) i made possible by the Smithsonian, the Inter-American Foundation, the 1 s Embassy m Bolivia,

nd, Sealaska Heritage Foundation, the Government <>/ < hiapas, Hexit o, Instituto Nac ional Incligenista

/<- eutro i tnvestigai. ioues r llstudios Superiores en Antropologia Sac nil, and American Airlines ofQuito,

76 I \ND IN X.VIIVI AMI RI( V\ i IES that have shaped Native American experience. HoonahL\J uneau The first Europeans to come here encountered a world popu- lated by many ancient and com- plex societies. The chronicler Ber- nal Diaz del Castillo writes of Tenochtitlan (the Aztec urban complex that has become Mexico City),

When we saw all those cities and villages built in the water, and other great towns on dry land, and that straight and level causeway leading to Mexico, we were astounded. These great towns and cues and buildings rising from the

water, all made of stone, seemed like an enchanted vision from the tale of Amadis.

It was all so wonderful that I do not know how to describe

this first glimpse of things never heard, seen or dreamed BOL1VIA of before. (Diaz del Castillo 1963) Taauile* ^-"&" ^ Tirifeofca

The Aztec city of Tenochtitlan Comunidaiies-^. ' S * de JalqV had a population larger than any '-, » x> .Sucre city in Europe at the time. CHILE " ~ The conquest succeeded in undermining political organization but not in eradicating cultural plu- ralism. Distinct, unique cultures continue to de- fine the Native American landscape, in spite of tinent. So we have as a cultural profound transformations caused by particular product. But maize is also diversity and histories of colonization, imposed patterns of diversity means knowledge and experi- settlement, missionary intrusions, and the more mentation. Diversity was the way to live recent immigrations and forms of exploitation. near the natural environment and not to

Native horticulture has depended upon crop fight with it. . . . (Warman 1991) variety and genetic diversity for maintaining suc- Contemporary Native Americans do not claim cessful food production in different environ- to have retained without change the cultures that ments. At the base of both Native American cul- existed prior to the European conquest. Much ture and horticulture is the concept of living in has perished, much has been destroyed and all harmony with the diversity of the natural world. has changed. In many cases, native communities The Mexican anthropologist Arturo Warman uses have been able to absorb and restructure foreign the analogy of corn, which is native to the Ameri- elements to respond to new situations. The Ma- cas. "Maize is our kin," he writes. Like Native yan anthropologist, Jacinto Arias explains, "In our American culture, he continues, stories we tell ourselves our way of being did not

maize was not a natural miracle; maize die; nor will it ever die. because we have special was a human creation made possible virtues that compel us to defend ourselves from through human intervention. Maize was any threat of destruction." These moral virtues the collective invention of millions of combined with thousands of years' knowledge of people over several millennia on this con- the land, cultural pride and staiggle for self-deter-

LAND IN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES traditions combine c reativity and continuity Weavers are inspired by dreams, legends, memories and other textiles Today in many communities, textile revivals have brought about a growing sense of cultural pride and self- worth A group o/Tzotzil Maya weavers from San Andres Larrainzar study the patterns and brocading

technique used in ii ceremonial huipil, or tunic Photo In Ricardo Martinez

mination have forged cultures oi resistance. blighted alternately by drought or flood. Al- Oriented both by the Smithsonian's overall though rich in resources, the coastal rainforest of concern for the conservation of cultures and by southeastern Alaska is almost inaccessible from global attention focused on the meaning of the the interior because of mountains. Communica-

Quincentenary, this program will be an opportu- tion even between communities is difficult due to nity to heat the voices of members ol Native the impenetrable rainforest and has been limited American .societies that have persevered for 500 to boats and more recently airplanes, weather years and have maintained an ancient tare for permitting. the earth and the continuity of their own cultures. The program will present Native American

This program samples the cultural and ecologi- knowledge about land as it informs sacred and cal diversity of Native American societies. The secular practices, which are often inseparably groups selected have for centuries continuously intertwined. The natural and spiritual relation- inhabited the regions presented. It is worthy of ships between humans and land are central to note thai the continuity of their land tenure has the world order of many Native Americans. As depended in a large part on the marginality of Chief Robbie Dick of the (Tee Indians in < .real the land they inhabit. The Amazonian rainforest, Whale. Quebec, succinctly states. 'It's very hard called by the Shuar "the lungs of the world." are to explain to what we mean by almost impenetrable and until recently were ig- Land is part ol our life.' We're like rocks and nored by the outside world. The Andean high- trees." In Hopi tradition, physical and cultural lands are harsh and inhospitable, as is the arid survival derive from the unity of land and corn. desert of I he Hopi in Arizona. The steep and Emory Sekaquaptewa explains how the "Hopi eroded Mexican mountains of Chiapas and language and culture are intimately intertwined,

< )axaca are a challenge even to native agricultu- binding corn, people and the land together ralists. The sanely dune country of the Ikoods is ( Sekai [uaptewa 1986)

78 LAND l\ NATIVE AMI KI< \\ i II II RES The program is about land, ecosystems and cultural knowledge that have sustained Native American cultures before Columbus and in the present. Each culture represented has a vision of the cosmos and the world as a system of dy- namic and interconnected processes. Research for the program examined howr domestic, economic and ceremonial processes are connected through material and expressive culture to form a social fabric of productivity and meaning. Agricultural and ritual cycles often coincide in Native Ameri- can cultures and echo seasonal rhythms of the land. Participants of the Quincentenary program come from 15 cultural groups in six different eco- logical areas, including northern and tropical Subsistence for the Lacandon in the Chiapas rainforest depends rainforests, Andean highlands, Arizona desert, mi d diversity of crops iiml the rotation ofgarden /'lots, sup- and Sierra Madre mountains and coastal dunes of plemented by resources from forest and nicy Vicente Kin Paniagua helps clear the growth on mi abandoned the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in Mexico. plot topreparea newmilpa, orgarden The Tlingit, Haida and Tsimshian participants

Photi i by Ricardi i Martinez come from the Southeast Alaskan rainforest. They represent distinct but related cultures that form part of a broader cultural regii in extending from nology of the pre-Inca Tiwanaku society. The Alaska to Washington State commonly known as Jalq'a participants, who are also from Bolivia but the Northwest Coast. The Canelos Quichua, speak Quechua, live in communities in a remote, Shuar and Achuar participants come from the rugged mountainous area south ot Tiwanaku. rainforest region of eastern Ecuador, which forms Jalq'a cultural identity emerged among groups part of the northwestern region of the Amazi >n relocated by the Inca empire to be frontier out- river basin. Canelos Quichua have settlements in posts; links with their original communities were this area among the foothills of the Andes, while later completely severed by Spanish settlers. The Shuar live in the region's swampy lowlands, third group of participants are Quechua-speaking which extend beyond the Ecuadorian borders Taquilenos, who live on the island of Taquile in into Peru. The Achuar are the Shuar s neighbors the Peruvian part of Lake Titikaka. to the east. The Lacandon participant comes from Hopi participants come from the high, and the rapidly disappearing rainforest region of east- desert of Arizona. Here the land has been eroded ern Chiapas in Mexico. Although different in into buttes and mesas cut by deep canyons. Riv- history, social organization and cultural patterns, ers flow only during snow melt or after a rain- these northern and tropical rainforest societies storm, and streams How underground. As in the often parallel one another in their management Andean highlands, people can live in this dry of resources and understanding of the land. region only with sophisticated agricultural tec h The Andes mountains rise above much of niques. Colombia, Ecuador, Pern and Bolivia. They form Participants from the multiethnic highlands of high plateaus where the climate is cool even at Chiapas in Mexico come from the Tzotzil-speak- the equator, which passes through the highlands ing community of San Pedro Chenalho and the of Ecuador and Colombia. This region has alti- Tzeltal-speaking community of Tenejapa. Com- tudes ranging from 6,600 to 14,600 feet and an munities in this Mayan cultural region renown for impressive diversity of terrains, microclimates and its textiles distinguished themselves from one distinct cultural groups that live here. another by characteristic styles of dress. Weaving Andean participants in our Festival come from and natural dyeing traditions in the area are cur- three different cultural and ecological areas. The rently being revitalized by state and private self- Aymara-speaking participants come from commu- help projects. nities in the high pampas of Tiwanaku, which Like Chiapas, the state of Oaxaca in Mexico is slope gradually into Lake Titikaka in Bolivia. also multiethnic Zapotec participants come from Members of these communities are currently the farming communities of Zoogocho and engaged in the Wila-Jawira Project to recover the Tenejapa in the northeastern mountainous region ancient raised-field or suka kollus, farming tech- of the state. They differ in culture and dialect

I.AM) IN NATIVE \MERI< A\ (I 111 RES 79 ,

from the Zapotec communities to the west and Bazua, Silvia 1982. Los Unities. Mexico, D.F.: Instituto south. [kood participants come from the fishing Nacii mal [ndigenista. community of San Mateo del Mar in the dunes on Buechler, Hans C. 1971. The Bolivian Aymara New the Pacific coast of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. York: Hi ilt, Reinhart and Winston, [nc Although remaining culturally and linguistically Diaz del Castillo, Bernal. 1963. History ofthe Conquest long distinct from nearby societies, they have en- ofNew Spain London: Penguin Classics Edition. gaged in commercial trade with the dominant Gomez Perez, Maria. 1990. Bordando milpas Chiapas Zapotecs, who inhabit the surrounding area, and Taller Tzotzil, INAREMAC.Holm. Bill. 1987. Spirit in bartering relationships with the Chontal, who and Ancestor A Century ofNorthwest (.oast Indian live just north of them along the coast. Art at the Burke Museum Seattle: University of Participants will demonstrate subsistence ac- Washington Press tivities and craft skills, present parts ol ritual per- Johnsson, Mick 1986. Food and Culture Among Boliv- formances and narrate oral histories. These cul- ian Aymara Symbolic Expressions ofSocial Rela- tural elements have been passed from generation tions Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International. to generation and speak eloquently oi the con- Mashinkias, Manuel and Mariana Awak Tentets 1988 nections Native Americans have constructed be- la selva uuestra rida sabiduria ecologica del tween land and society. Discussion sessions will pueblo shuar Instituto Bilingue Intercultural Shuar locus on some oi the major issues which con- Bomboiza Morona Santiago, Ecuador Ediciones front Native American cultures today. These in- \\',\ \ \ ALA. clude: natural resource management, traditional Mexico Indigena Mexico Instituto Nacional [ndigen- technology, maintenance and destruction oi an- ista No 1 ii IV) logical equilibrium and questions <>l monocultiva- Morris Jr., Walter F. 1987. Living Maya New York tion, property titles, national parks, transnational I [any \ Abrams, Inc. corporations, military zones, economic develop- Napolitano, Emanuela. 1988. Shuary anent el canto ment models, agrarian reform laws, foreign debt, sagrado en la historia de un pueblo Quito Edi- political repression, self determination, cultural ciones ABYA-YALA. identity, intrusion of religious sects, fragmenta tion of lands and human rights. Pellizzaro, Siro 1990. Arutam mitologia Shuar Quito: Ediciones ABYA-YALA.

Ramirez Castaneda, Elisa 1987 Elfin de los montiocs Mexico, 1)1 Instituto National de Antropologia e

. nteuary Program and i I listoria.

Festival's Land in Satire American < allures program Rasnake, Rogei Neal 1988 Domination and Cultural /),/s She i o iii Ii u led resean h and i ollabt irated in publii Resistance Authority and Power Among Andean miming with the Washington /»< Latino and People Durham: Duke University Press Caribbean communities for over a decade She received Signorini, Halo 1979. Los huaves de San Mateo del Mar her I'b /> from the George Washington I uirersily Instituto Nacional \merican Studies Folklife Program Mexico, D F Indigenista

\ iew from the shore: American Indian Perspectives on the Quincentenary. Northeast Indian Quarterly.

< nations anil Further Readings 1990 (Fall). Arias, Jacinto 1990 San Pedro Chenalho Algodesu \\ arman, Arturo. Forthcoming. Maize as ( (rganizing

Historia, < uentos v < ostumbres Tuxtla Gutierrez, Principle How Corn Shaped Space, Time and Rela- Chiapas; Talleres Graficos del Estado. tionships in the New World In Seeds of the Past Barahas, Alicia M and Miguel A Bartolome 1986 Washington, D.C Smithsonian Press

Etnicidad \> phiralismo cultural la dindmica etnica Whitten, Dorothea S. and Norman Jr, 1988 From Myth

en Oaxaca Mexico, 1 ) F Collecuon Regiones de tn< reation Chicago: University of Illinois Press,

>- Mexico, liwiuit< > Nacional de Antropologia e I hsii Wyckoff, Lydia L. 1985 Designs and Factions Politics. i i.i

Religion and ( eramics on the Hopi Third Mesa

Albuquerque 1 niversity oi New Mexico.

SO AND [N \ \ll\ I Wll Mi AN i I III RES Conocimiento y Poder: La Tierra en las Culturas Indigenas

Olivia Cadaval traducido por Alicia Partnoy

El encuentro entre los pueblos de los hemis- El programa de este festival se basa en la pre- ferios occidental y oriental iniciado hace casi 500 ocupacion del Smithsonian por la conservation anos ha tenido un efecto dramatico sobre la de las culturas y por la signification del quinto forma en que la tierra y los recursos naturales en centenario. En este marco se podran escuchar las las Americas son concebidos y usados. La explo- voces de los miembros de cliversas sociedades ration y la colonization propicio practicas ajenas indigenas que durante 500 anos han perseverado en el uso de la tierra a las desarrolladas por las en conservar la tierra de sus ancestros y en pro- culturas indigenas e incompatibles con el ecosis- teger la continuidad de mis propias culturas. Los tema existente. Los recien Uegados, hace casi 500 participantes provienen de catorce grupos cultu- anos, no supieron aprender de los que conocian ralmente diferentes. Las seis zonas ecologicas de su ambiente. La campana de "descubrimiento" y origen son el bosque humedo, la selva tropical, conquista hizo imposible este intercambio. Las el altiplano, el desierto, la montana y los poblaciones nativas clc las Americas conservan y medanos costeros. Se incluyen representantes utilizan su conocimiento sistematico del ambiente tlingit, haida y tsimshian, del sudeste de Alaska; aunque solo dentro de sus comunidades. La con- canelos quichua. shuar y achuar del oriente de memoracion del aniversario de los 500 anos del Ecuador; indigenas de habla aymara de Ti- ano antes del viaje de Colon ha sido concebida wanaku; jalq'a de Bolivia \' taquilenos de la zona en la creencia de que es posible para nuestra peruana del lago Titikaka; los hopi de Arizona en sociedad aprender y beneficiar del conocimiento los Estados Initios; de Mexico, lacandones del indigena en cuanto al uso de la tierra en las oriente de Chiapas, la comunidad de habla tzotzil

Americas. La preservation de la tierra en la actua- de San Pedro Chenalho y la de habla tzeltal de lidad, asi como en el pasado, debe basarse tanto Tenejapa, zapotecas de Zoogocho y Tenejapa, y en el conocimiento de los indigenas y de la so- los ikood del istmo de Tehuantepec. ciedad como en el manejo de la ecologia y de la El programa es sobre la tierra, sus ecosistemas economia. y los conocimientos culturales que han man- La mayoria de las culturas indigenas considera tenido a las culturas indigenas desde antes de la como conceptos clave aquellos relativos a la llegada de Colon hasta nuestros dias. Cada cul- tierra, los que dan forma a todas las facetas de mi tura representada tiene una vision del cosmos y vida politica. social, economic.! y simbolica. Para del mundo como un sistema de procesos dinami- los europeos la conquista del siglo XV fue sim- cos e interrelacionados. La investigation para este plemente un hallazgo de tierras para la explo- programa consistio en el estudio de los procesos tacion en pro del enriquecimiento de sus monar- domesticos, economicos y ceremoniales en mi quias. En contraste, las culturas indigenas han relacion cultural. La production y los ciclos ritua- concebido generalmente a la tierra de manera les coinciden en las culturas indigenas y hacen mas compleja, atribuyendole tanto valores cultu- eco a los ritmos de las estaciones. Los participan- rales como economicos. tes present. nan al publico divers. is actividades de Los conquistadores consiguieron corroer la subsistencia y artesanales, v elementos de sus organization politica de los indigenas. pero no ceremonias rituales. Ademas, narraran historias lograron erradicar el pluralismo cultural. E] que han sido transmitidas de generation en gen- paisaje indigena esta marcado por la presencia de eration y que explican elocuentemente la rela- culturas diferenciadas y singulares. tion entre su tierra y su cultura. Las sesiones de

LAND IN NATIVl AMERICAN CULTURES

Saul Mill.m

1 icente A in Paniagua talla diferentes puntas lie flecha, Uis puntas iiiniiu segun el tipo del in I nun I cazado Foto de Ricardo Martinez

discusion se centraran en algunos de los ic-m.is tural, la intromision de sectas religiosas, la par- principales que actualmente preocupan a los celacion de tierras \ los derechos humanos indigenas americanos. Estos tenuis incluyen el liso de recursos naturales, la tecnologia tradi- ( ilirin ( adaval es Piret torn del Programa Quintu cional, Li destruccion del equilibrio ecologico, los ( entenai in de In ()fici>ia de Programas de < iilturas problemas del monocultivo, los titulos de ales ri uradora del programa delfestiral In propiedad, los parques nacionales, les corpora- 1 en las < iilturas Indigenas Por mas de una ciones transnacionales, las zonas militares, los inrestigac tones v ha 1 olaborado en las modelos economicos de desarrollo, leyes de 1 nit is fui hi tins <. 1 in hi comunidad lalina y del

reforma agraria, la deuda externa, la represion 1 arihe de Washington. I> < Recibio su doctorado de la politica, la autodeterminacion, la identidad iiil- I nirersidad de Genrge Washington

' 82 Wl IN \ VriYl WW RII \N 1 1 I I 1 l;l We Live in the Amazon Rainforest, the Lungs of the World Miguel Puwainchir

We live in the Amazon rainforest, the lungs of We educate our children in our own land, in our the world. We have our our own culture, which community, and prepare them in order that they future. is threatened by the aftermath of the Spanish will always return. That is preparing the conquest and by western culture. We struggle to Other places have witnessed the flight of native restore, to revalidate, the sense of our own professionals. It is a luxury to be in New York, worth. Frankfurt or Paris. Hut it is a greater luxury to be a

For us, culture is language, and land is our professional who defends the rights ot your existence. When the land is destroyed, we cease people, defends your own existence. That is why being Shuar and Achuar. We declare our pres- we return and we will continue returning to our ence and strengthen our alliances with non-na- communities. tives to continue to survive on this planet. The Shuar Federation is a regional organization For us there are three earth spaces: under- and co-founder of the national organization of ground, where a Shuar group lives; where we indigenous organizations. Within three years, we litigation. live; and above, where yet another Shuar group hope to solve the problems with land there lives. We have learned this from our ancestors. We need to expand our programs. But now Therefore, we defend the underground and the is confusion and we need time. Governments do above, the air space, because our family dwells not provide much support to native communities there. We need to defend the people that live in the not graduates ol the We value the land because it sustains us. We rainforest, people who are want the land because we want to live on it, not university, but who have maintained the Amazons of years. must commercialize it. We want it to cultivate and to for thousands and thousands We not the animals or the trees or give it its worth, not a price. We have no other defend people, and space where we can go. People cannot under- the underground resources. People know and stand because they think of land as a commercial understand the beauty and richness of the Ama- enterprise, something to divide and sell. We per- zons. They know how to survive in the rainforest. ceive land as a collective entity. We may be the We need to provide them with technical and fi- to only native group in the world which is all re- nancial assistance and strengthen programs their death. lated. I have family wherever I go. We have or- prevent ganized a federation. Land must be global be- We ask the government: what will you do rivers, about the de- cause we are all one family. about the pollution of our From the time of our ancestors, our warrior struction of our forests? The reforestation program parents, the Shuar woman has been a major is ambiguous, political. We need more than rice. source of strength and support. She implored the some clothes and corregated roofs. We need train- gods to protect the warrior; she encouraged the ing for our people, strengthening of our programs warrior to go to the waterfalls in search of the in aviation, education, topography, civil registry, arutam spirits to gain his valor. We want our health and all the programs organized by the sisters to remain in their communities to cultivate Shuar Federation. We need to defend our position their lands and raise their animals. Women will and continue lighting. be able to have their savings and get credit from

the federation. We will fight for real change in Miguel Puwainchirs is President of the Shuar and our community and the equality between men Achuar Federation, a local organization <>/ in- and women. digenous peoples located in the rainforest oj east-

Our time is ours, and we depend on no one. erti Ecuador

I I s < I I HI I \\l> IN NATIVE AMERII \\ 83 Vivimos en la Amazonia El Pulmon del Mundo Miguel Puwainchir

Somos un pueblo como cualquier otro pueblo una tinea, lo cual es nun contrario a lo que pi- del mundo con la diferencia de que vivimos en la ensen los no shuar Nosotros queremos tierra por amazonia, en el pulmon del mundo. Cada pueblo que queremos \ tenia y no comercializarla, tiene mi propia cultura y lo que hoy tratamos es Queremos tierra por que queremos producir a revalorizar esa cultura por que ya se esta pei esta tierra, \ dai valor a esta tierra. no precio, por diendose. Perdiendose por que hubo influencia que nosotros no tenemos otro espacio donde ir. de la conquista espanola y por que la cultura < )tra gente dira que nosotros muertos nemos al occidental y la cultura shuar se tergiversaron, v cielo, pero nosotros tenemos la esperan/a de que confundieron todo nuestro sentimiento cultural. el shuar nunea muere. Eso ustedes lo poelran

Para nosotros la cultura es el idioma y la tierra averiguar, que el shuar no muere v si muere es en nuestra misma existencia. Tenemos que hacer por que alguien lo ha matado. Por eso es que nuestra presencia como seres que todavia esta- nosotros estamos luchando por la supervivencia, mos en el planeta y dar un mensaje de solidari- y eso nadie nos va a entender por que piensan dad, de unidad hacia quienes no son indigenas que la tierra para mucha gente no shuar hay que para fortalecer lazos de amistad, para que este comercializar; hay que individualizar v entregai pueblo siga sobreviviendo en este planeta retazos de tierra a personas; mientras que no-

Para nosotros hay ties espacios de tierra. Ila\ sotros buscamos la colectividad de las tierras un espacio subsuelo en que vive un grupo shuar. Nuestra caracteristica fundamental creo es que este en el que estamos ahora, v que es nuestra somos los unicos indigenas en el mundo de que tierra donde estan ubicados los shuar, v arriba todos tenemos el mismo parentesco familiar, no hay otro espacio en donde vive otro grupo shuar. nos diferenciamos Yo tengo familias, en

Esto fue una ensenanza desde hace muchos cualquier lunar que este, eso es la gran ventaja anos, Creemos en eso y por eso que defendemos que tenemos. es por eso que nosotros buscamos el subsuelo por que alii vive nuestra familia Lo y nos hemos organizado en una sola federacion. mismo defendemos el espacio aire por que sabe- Las tierras globales tienen que ser globales por mos que alia vive nuestra familia. que es de una familia

F.I shuar enseno Lis tecnicas y tiicticas de de- Nosotros hemos pensado que nuestros an- fensa a la guerra. Por ejemplo los compaiieros tepasados. nuestros padres guerreros, hacian shuar que viven arriba, ellos tenian miedo a esas guerra pero eon el apoyo fundamental de la hormigas anangospor que eran asesinas pen' un mujer Si la mujer ujaj no imploraba a los espiri- shuar viajo de aqui y les enseno, de que eso no- tus. esto podia hacer morir al guerrero. Si la sotros aqui los shuar comemos anangosy les mujer no le ayudaba, o no le animaba para que ensenaron a como cazar anangosy asi abajo en se fuera a las cascadas, en busca del arntatn, que el subsuelo. Hay una mujer, una diosa, que se es el dios para nosotros, entonces el nunea podia llama tsunki, la diosa del agua. Le enseno al ser valiente. Es ^Wxw la mujer shuar es la parte honibre a vivir bajo el agua, y hay vida bajo esta fundamental de la existencia del hombre v del tierra pueblo Shuar.

Para iidsiitnis Li tierra es el elemento vital de Queremos que toelas estas hermanas nuestras la existencia del pueblo shuar v achuar. Eso es queden en su propia tierra, en sus comunidades nuestra vida. En el momento de que se acaba la y que la organizacion como tal les apoye a ellas, tierra ya no somos shuar. ya no somos achuar v que sus recursos economicos que ellas generan

> >s. si que n< >tr< >s luc harm >s N( > pi >r tener se vaya ya ahorrandose en cooperativas de

1 s . \ 1\ l wit ku \\ i i i ii la ahorro y credito que la Federation Shuar ya va a hacer funcionar. Nosotros tenemos fe, en el cam- bio, un cambio economico social y politico, en- tonces ya no va a haber esc shuar humillado. Hay que darle importancia a la mujer que va a tener su dinero, por la cria de chanchos, polios, cuyes, mani, poroto, y otros. Vamos a luchar por que se de un verdadero cambio en nuestro pueblo; y una igualdad entre la mujer y el hombre shuar-achuar. Esta es nuestra tierra, no tenemos otra. Nos- otros somos visitantes cuando andamos en otros lugares, hemos tenido oportunidades y nos han ofrecido que podamos trabajar en las ciudades pero hemos dicho no. Podemos ganar fuera desde mil a dos mil dolares mensuales, pero gasto todo eso viviendo en una sociedad de con- sumo. Pero en nuestra tierra, hay todo. Aqui yo puedo vivir. Puede haber inflaciones, puede haber crisis economicas al nivel del mundo, pero no asi en mi tierra. Por que de nuestros nos po- demos sacar peces, de la montana puedo obtener animates, y de la tierra podemos cultivar lo que nosotros queremos. Aqui es un paraiso. En el campo podemos trabajar las horas que tino de- sea, no dependemos de nadie, y podemos pro- ducir lo que nosotros queremos, y comercializar nuestros productos, no dependemos de nadie. Los shuar del bosque humedo ecuatoriano usan Educamos nuestros hijos en la propia tierra, en la leyendas mitologicas intra ensenara las jdvenes sobre propia comunidad y Ios preparamos para que su cultura r su tierra Ins shuar tienen relaciones animales Dicen haber despues, ellos regresen a la comunidad y vivan o espec tales am diferentes domesticado til oso que se volvio en su protector Este sea. eso es preparar el futuro. En otros lados ha dibujo, queforma parte de una serie de dibujos habido la fuga de muchos profesionales indige- diddcticos del Centra de < dpacitacion en Sucua, nas. Es un lujo y un privilegio para esa gente de representa tt un oso protegiendo a un shuar del ataque estar en Nueva York. Frankfurt, o en Paris. Pero tie un tigre. Foto de Pilar Larriamendi \los t ,^'> mejor lujo es cuando. si es profesional, defender los derechos de su pueblo, defender la existencia pero a recursos que viven bajo tierra. de si mismo. Es por eso es que nosotros re- arbol, esos si no a esc hombre, a esc hombre que no se gresamos y vamos a seguir volviendo a nuestras comunidades. gradua en la universidad, a ese hombre shuar o el que vive la selva, que mantuvo La Federation Shuar ha dado origen a la for- a< hnar que es durante miles miles de anos esa amazonia, a el mation y organization regional, y hemos sido los y tienen defender, a el tienen que decir hay cofundadores de la organization national de que organizaciones indigenas en Ecuador. Esperamos que darle asistencia tecnica y financiera para que fortaleciendose, en tres anos solucionar los problemas de lidera- los programas de salud vayan y ese shuar. ese hombre amazonico no se mu- ciones de tierras. Tendremos programas que se que era, el sabe, el conoce la belle/a la riqueza de van ir ampliando pero habra dificultades de otra y con la selva, naturaleza, ya no scran de tipo politico. Es un la amazonia. El sabe como curarse el sabe alimentarse de la selva, el sabe proceso que tiene que darse con el tiempo, pues como esa es un cambio. Por que ahorita hay una confusion como vivir en la selva v como mantener por eso estamos preocupados le total con lo cual hay la influencia de todos los selva. Es que y gobierno va hacer usted sectores. Por eso es que en estos momentos no hemos dicho al — ique nuestros no hay gran apoyo de parte del gobierno hacia las con la contamination de rios? — no comunidades indigenas. hablcn tic agua potable, por que hay ni agua van a hacer cuando destruyan Lo mas importante es que se debe defender al aqui. Hablcn que nuestras selvas. I.a reforestation es un programa hombre que vive en la selva, no al animal ni al

I I I I \\l l\ NATIVE AMERII \\ ITI'RKS 85 ambiguo y politico nada mas. No nos hablen que Shuar imntramuka chikich tarimiat aents irini- no nos van a comprar con arroz o con ropita o tain najanatnniun juarkiniaiti, aintsank Ekuatur- con planchas de zinc. Nosotros no necesitamos num inmtiamiisha iM). necesitamos un algo mas alia. Hay que ca- Nakaji in 3 uwi taasainiai jui shuaran nujd pacitar a nuestra gente, hay que fortalecer los achuaran nunke iwiarturtin. Tura ukunmaka programas que dirige la Federacion Shuar como chikich itinrchat takustatji. Chicham emeskamu la aviacion, la educacion, la topografia, el registro iruneawai tuma asamtai Ekuaturan untri imian ci\ il, la salud y todos los demas programas que yainmatsji. esta dirigiendo la Federacion Shuar. Tumasha nekas ayampruktinkia Aentsviti, kam- Les hemos dicho que nosotros somos ecuatori- punniunam pajand nuna, auka yajasmaka. uu- anos, y por eso es que cuando hablan de que los mikia imianchaiti. aents pueblos indigenas quieren formar un estado den- Shuar-Achuar yaintiniaiti takakjai, kuvtjiai tura Shuar-Achuar iruntra- tro de otro estado es atentar contra la seguridad takakjuarkimiuana iiini yainkiartiniaiti. indigena Hemos sido claros no es que queramos munam Tuma asamtai Ekuaturan uuntri paant timiaji ii formar un estado. ustedes nos obligan a que haya kampunniun emesramsha itiura iwiarattam? ii esa intention de parte de los indigenas. Ustedes entsari yajauch umaktajme husha itiurkattam? se han olvidado. Parece como los pajaros k'ii/>i aratmaktajai turutip, Saar Entsan amastajai turu- que vienen del Peru en las epocas de frutas nada tip, nuka wait chichamaiti, tumatskesha arus, mas, o sea en epocas electorales, y despues desa- apachin turujiri surnsaip. Ikiaau ini- parecen. Hablan de que somos ecuatorianos, mamush, ankasar utsumeaji, tuma asamtai ii takatnin yaiu- cantamos el mismo himno nacional, que estamos makta cubiertos por la misma bandera pero despues eso IL'ici Ekuatur aentsuitji, mi tesatai tatsuji, desaparece. Hay que mantener nuestra position auka atumek mini anentaimprume iran waitruarum y seguir luchando contra esa presencia, es una anakaitarme, antrarum nuamtakitji tarume, ayatik presencia muda, por que no es nada cierto. anaitiukat tusarum tumasha yamaikia penke anentaimkiaji tuma asar takakmakir wetatji, alum Yfiguel Pmvainchir es Presidente de la Federcu ion tumak'd Shuar/. \chuar una ua del umutsuk waitra asakrumin. oriei uc de Ecu,

! S() \\|> !\ \| [\ | \\|1 RIl Will I1IRES Land and Subsistence in Tlingit Folklife

Nora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard L. Dauenhauer

For many Native American people, subsistence Tlingit life, especially the sharing of food. As this remains at the heart of traditional culture and oi article was being drafted, a Tlingit man delivered contemporary' folklife as well. For other cultures a cardboard box of seal meat .is a gilt lor the of the United States, "subsistence" may be an mother of one of the co-authors. Seal is impor- unfamiliar concept, but today many Native tant for . fhe skin is used for sewing moc- Americans cling tenaciously and assertively to the casins and vests, the meat is eaten, and the tat is subsistence rights that are central to their ethnic rendered into oil used to preserve other foods or heritage, cultural identity, traditional spirituality to be eaten with foods such as dried fish. Tradi- and legal standing under numerous treaties with tionally, the intestines were braided and pre- the United States government. served m seal oil, but this practice is relatively The Tlingit Indians live in Southeast Alaska, rare today. the part of Alaska that is about the same size and With spring comes the herring run in South- shape as . It is a land of rainforest and east Alaska, and herring eggs are a favorite. The fiords, where few communities are connected by best herring spawn is in Sitka, and the Sitka road. In this spectacular setting, the natural, ma- Tlinuit have traditionally been generous to their terial, social, ceremonial And spiritual worlds are friends and relatives in other communities, shar- tightly connected in most ol the activities and ing the richness of their harvest. In May the artifacts of Tlingit folklife. Animals are central to eulachon ('hooligan' -- small, smelt-like fish) cultural identities and processes. A Tlingit indi- run, and people who live near the supply com- vidual, following Ins or her mother's line, is born monly share with those who live farther away. into one of two moieties: Raven or Eagle. Tradi- Major summer activities are berrying and putting tionally, one married a spouse from the opposite up fish. Berries are picked and jarred or frozen, moiety, so that each person's father and a man's to be eaten all \ear m social and ceremonial children were of the opposite moiety. Each moi- uses ety includes several clans, also named alter ani- Fishing has for centuries been the primary mals and using animals as their emblem, or to- source of food for the people of Southeast tem. We should emphasize here that these totems Alaska. The summer runs are abundant, and fish are not objects of religious worship or venera- were traditionally smoked, dried and stored for Southeast Alaska tion, but are heraldic in nature. < )ften referred to winter use Native people of as "crests," they indicate ones ancestry and social have always been innovative, and now also use- identity. Some clans of the- Raven moiety and new technology such as freezers for storing fish. their crests are: Lukaax.ddi (sockeye, or red There are stories of people using hair driers and salmon). L 'uknax.ddi (coho, or silver salmon), laundry driers to preserve seaweed at times when L 'eineidi (dog salmon), Kiks.ddi (frog) and the weather is too rainy tor drying it in the sun. T'akdeintaan (snail, seagull or tern). Some clans Smokehouses are not as common as a century of tlie Eagle moiety and their crests are: Teikweidi ago. but main families and communities continue (brown bear), Dakl'aweidi (killer whale), Choo- to smoke and dry fish. The fish are purchased kant'idH porpoise) and Kaii^wiinntaan (wolf). A from commercial fishermen, caught by sport fish- person becomes a member of one ol the clans at ermen of the family, or are obtained on subsis-

birth and is given a personal name, which often tence permits. also describes or alludes to an animal Recently, two problems have emerged. Often, The social use of resources occurs daily in areas designated for subsistence use are at con-

LAND IN NATIVI AMERICAN CULTURES 87 siderable distance from population centers, no no longer able to hunt for themselves. Also as

tliat fishing in these areas may cost more money with fishing, this practice may put traditionally than can be afforded by those who have the minded Tlingits at odds with the law, because

greatest economic need for subsistence. In recent bag limits are designed with the individual in wars, fish hatcheries have given fish away after mind, and not the idea that a person may also then" eggs have been removed for breeding. Un- be hunting or fishing for other people. fortunately, these hatchery fish are not firm In addition to social sharing, the ceremonial

enough to preserve by smoking, And alter I reev- distribution of food is at the heart of traditional

ing they are too mushy to be cooked in any way Tlingit ceremonial and spiritual life. Nowhere is except boiling. Tlingit people are concerned this better demonstrated — and. perhaps, more

about increased reliance on fish hatcheries it misunderstood — than in the ceremonial called there are problems with the fish. "" in English, and kou.Oex in Tlingit.

Tlingit people traditionally use the entire fish. where many different aspects of Tlingit lolklife

It fish are filleted, backbones are usually smoked come together. It is called "invitation" in Tlingit or boiled in soup. I leads are baked or boiled in because the hosts, who have lost a clan member soup, but they may also be fermented (tradition- through death, invite guests of the opposite moi-

ally in a hole on the beach, where they are ety to a ceremonial The hosts give food And

rinsed with each tide change). The result is a other gilts to the guests, thereby ritually giving

food traditionally called k'ink'in Tlingit and af- comfort to the spirits oi the departed by giving

fectionately tailed "stink heads in English li may comfort to the living. In Tlingit this is called iht

1 be 1 tmpared t< > the turning of milk int< > Lim- naawii x'eix at gugatee — "he will Iced his de- burger cheese in European culture. Likewise, tish ceased Death-bed wishes often specifically eggs are not discarded, but are preserved in vari- request that subsistence foods, usually the per- ous ways Most often they are frozen and later sonal favorites of the departed, be served. served in a soup with seaweed (which is pre- Verbal jnd visual folk art are important parts served by drying and then reconstituted), They of this traditional ceremonial, especially the rites may be salted (as caviar), or fermented as a dish for the removal of grief. During these rites, the called kahdakw kas'eex guests display then clan crests represented on

Fall brings the hunting season, Sitka black carved wooden hats, sewn felt beaded button tailed deer are abundant in most areas, hut man\ blankets, tunics, woven Chilkat robes, and other

Tlingit hunters complain that in areas ol heavy regalia, called at.OOWm Tlingit. As part ol the logging, there are fewer deer. The protective display ol these- totemic crests, designated orators

cover from deep snow provided In Siika spruce from among the- guests deliver speeches to the

and other tall lives in the rainforest allows winter hosts. The purpose ol the oratory and the display

grazing on moss, skunk cabbage and other forest of visual art is to oiler spiritual comfort to the

plants. Where snowfall is heavy, there is risk of hosts, and to help remove their grief.

Starvation lor deer Brown and blac k bear are The visual art becomes the basis of the ora-

hunted to a much lesser extent, and in some tory. In the guests' speeches the visual art is

communities and families there are cultural ta- transformed by rhetoric, especially through simile boos on eating bear meat. Sheep and goal are and metaphor The frog on the hat. for example,

hunted even less Deer skin is used tor drum is imagined as coming out ol hibernation to re-

making and lor sewing moccasins and vests. move- the grief of the hosts by taking it back into

Deer hoots are made into dance rattles Mountain its burrow. The beaded terns on a felt blanket

goat is the traditional source ol tor weaving (who are identified as the paternal aunts of the

Chilkat blankets but is increasingly difficult for hosts) fly out from their rookery, drop soothing

weavers to obtain. One problem is that wool is down feathers on the grieving hosts, and fly

best lor weaving when the goats are not in sea- away with (heir grief, taking it back to the nests. son, so special permits need to be negotiated Through the verbal art of the orator, the spirits

Hut throughout the deer season, the sharing of depicted in the visual art come to the human

deer meal is much in evidence, Many Tlingit world, give comfort, and remove the grief of the

hunters consider it bad kick to keep their first kill living t< i the spirit w( irld.

of the season, and often give the entire animal fills interaction is also a good example ol the

away rather than keep it for themselves As with reciprocity or balance so important in Tlingit fishing, those who hunt typically share with those world view Hosts and guests comfort each other who do not have access to the resource, and on spiritual, physical and social levels flic hosts

younger hunters provide meat to elders who arc- feed and clothe the spirits of their departed

cSS LAND IN NATIVl VMERICAN CULTURES Austin Hammond, wearing a Sockeye Salmon Chilkat robe,

/

history. " The robe depicts clan history and serves as claim to the land and subsistence use Photo bv Richard Dauenhauer

through gifts of food and clothing to living mem- abstractly displayed in static isolation, but are arts bers of the opposite moiety; and the guests rally ritually displayed in spiritual and social action in their range of spirits to give comfort to the hosts ceremonials. To the extent that subsistence mate- by removing their grief. As we take care of the rials are needed for making art objects them- living, we also take care of the departed. If we selves, subsistence and art become linked. For take care of the living, the living will take care of totem carving, one needs large trees; for weav- us. If we take care of the departed, the departed ing, one needs spruce roots and cedar hark. For will take care of us. Chilkat weaving one needs mountain goat wool,

Ritual distribution of food and other gilts is although sheep wool is now commonly substi- explained bv Tlingit elder Amy Marvin in her tuted out of necessity. Traditional dyes are made telling of the "Glacier Bay History" (Dauenhauer from moss, lichen and minerals and Dauenhauer f 987:277). Only if food is given Subsistence food affects the physical as well as articles and eaten with an opposite clan can it go to the the social and spiritual being. Studies and relative who is mourned. "Only when we give to (Drury 198S; Kennedy 1990 a.b; Tepton 1990; been done on the nutritional . 1988) the opposite clan . . does it become a balm for Young have our spirits." We find this passage so powerful that value of traditional foods and on the impact of we used her Tlingit words and a paraphrase change in diet from Native American to European translation as the title of our book Haa American food. Obesity, diabetes, cancer and

Tuwundagu Yis, for Healing Our Spirit Tlingit heart disease have become much more prevalent. Oratory (Dauenhauer and Dauenhauer 1990). These effects can be attributed not only to nutri- The introduction to this book explains in detail tional content, but also to the process by which the ceremonial oratory, visual art, and distribu- food is obtained. The act of getting and preserv- tion of subsistence food. ing traditional food keeps one more physically fit Meals are an important part of the memorial than shopping at a store (and using leisure time ceremony. Subsistence foods are especially val- to sit by the TV and VCR). ued and are carefully preserved for ritual distribu- For reasons of health, social interaction and tion. Menus typically include: deer stew, seal spirituality, subsistence rights and activities are as meat (baked, boiled or smoked), salmon (as important to the cultural identity of Native Ameri- dryfish, soup, baked or fried), halibut, seaweed cans as sport hunting and fishing rights are to the and salmon egg soup. Many families have special individual identity of European Americans and pots, often inherited, for preparing ceremonial other citizens of the United States. Because these food. At a recent memorial in Sitka, the cooking pursuits lie SO close to the spiritual core of .ill the pot for the deer stew was two feet high and three people involved and are so deeply rooted in their feet in diameter! respective folk belief systems, subsistence be- highly politi- It is important to notice here the role of visual comes an extremely emotional and art in Tlingit folklife. The totemic crests called cal issue. at. now in Tlingit are not detached objects of art Commercial exploitation of land and resources

LAND IN NAT1VI \MERICAN CULTURES 89 is basic to European American world view, and

people with this ethnic heritage often find it frus- Berger, Thomas 1985 VillageJourney The Report of the trating to sec land and resources not used for Alaska Native Review Commission New York: Hill cash profits and "development For Native and Wang Americans, money has traditionally been an ab- Brody, Hugh. 1981 Maps and Dreams New York Pan- straction, whereas theii connection to the land theon Books has been personal and spiritual Theirs has been a subsistence, not a cash, economy Commercial . 1988 Living Arctic Hunters of the Canadian North Boston Faber. pressure also threatens subsistence. Manx Tlingit London and Faber and loods are highly valued In the Japanese, and Cogo, Rober and Nora Cogo n.d. Haida Food From Native Americans fear commercial exploitation Land and Sea Distributed by Mariswood lYlueation.il will damage traditional subsistence areas, Resources, Box 221955, Anchorage, Alaska 99522- loda\ the subsistence issue remains one of 1955. the most heated legal and legislative battles in Dauenhauer, Nora Marks ami Richard Dauenhauer. Alaska, involving both state and federal agencies. 1987 lUici Shukd, Our Ancestors Tlingit Oral Narra-

Seattle I fiess \ati\es are protesting a recent policy to deny tives niversity of Washington subsistence use in some communities because of 1990 Haa Tuwunaagu Yis, for Healing Our their size, regardless ol ethnii it\ and lifestyle of Spirit Tlingit Oratory Seattle University of Washing- tin.' residents. Natives often feel bitter that most ton Press people making the law and setting policy in Drury, Helen M 1985 Nutrients in Native Foods of

S( Alaska are newcomers from 'outside" who will lutheastern Alaska Journal ofEthnobioh >gy 5' - > 87 not retire and die in Alaska They make laws tor inn others and will leave without having to live with Edenso, Christine n.d. The Transcribed Tapes of them. Natives leel that laws involving are them ( hristine Edenso Distributed In' Mariswood Educa- bem- made In Non-natives, people from other tional Resources, Box 221955, Anchorage. Alaska cultures not familiar with subsistence and often 99522-1955 hostile to it. Natives feel that most subsistence u .s s Fienup-Riordan, Ann I The Nelson Island Eskimo laws and policies discriminate against the lifestyle Soc nil Structures and Ritual Distribution. Anchorage: and culture ol Native people lor example, be- Alaska Pacific I niversirv Press ginning in 1979 it took three years to gel legal

Kenned) . ( ieofl 1990a. Diabetes Linked to Western permission to traditional gall honks to use take Lifestyle Tundra Times 2 \pnl salmon lor subsistence use Natives often leel lwub stud\ Indicates Subsistence Foods Aid increasingh disenfranchised on their own land I Icalih Tundra Times i June

Nelson. Richard K 1969 Hunters of the Northern Ice

Chicago t ni\crsit\ of ( hicago Press

1973 Hunters of the Northern Forest Designs for Survival Among the Alaskan Kutchin (.din ago University of Chicago Press

P>N/i Wake Prayers to the Raven A Koyukon

I iew <>/ the Northern Forest Chicagi > University of

Chicagi i Pi ess

1989 The Island Within San Francisco North Point Press

Tepton.John 1990 New Lifestyles, Diet Killing More Natives Anchorage Times 6 Maj

Young, T k 1988 Chronk Diseases Among Canadian Indians Towards an Epidemolog) of Culture Change. Artie Medical Research \1 (Suppl.l):434-44l

11

I

i i i 1 s i\ \\\\ kii w i 1 la Clans and Corporations: Society and Land of the Tlingit Indians

Rosita Worl

Native Corporations Relationship to the Land The North Pacific Coast has always been a Tlingit complex environment, abundant in resources but Belong to the land. difficult in access. The indigenous population Free to wander anywhere developed knowledge of their habitat, a special- Signing pieces of paper ized technology, and well-organized productive Village labor units to maximize the sustainable exploita- Regional CORPORATIONS tion of the environment. Elements that the native could not control by physical means Land in corporations population were appeased through spiritual rituals. An abun- Stocks replace fish drying dant environment, an efficient extractive technol- Dividends replace hides curing ogy, and extensive methods of food preservation Corporate offices replace for later use allowed them to pursue a broad Tribal houses spectrum ot activities. Voting replace storytelling A house group consisting of a chief his broth are land We of the ers and their wives, children and maternal neph- Not corporations ews was the basic production unit. Male children This was forced upon us over the age of ten moved into their mothers Choices were never ours brother's house and received a rigorous course of Our forefathers taught us well training from their maternal uncles. The house WE WILL SURVIVE group had a well-defined organization of labor, WE WILL ADAPT which assigned its members various tasks in WE WILL SUCCEED hunting, fishing, gathering, preparing and pre- foods. All members of the house WE WILL THRIVE! serving their were expected to work. Grandparents took care of too young to help, while their moth- Sherman J. Sumdum children Chookaneidi of Hoonah ers gathered and stored foods for future use. The cycle of production was determined by the sea-

With the rich resources of their homeland in sonal availability ol resources As long as fish Southeast Alaska, the Tlingit Indians developed were running, men harvested them, and women one of the most complex cultures in indigenous hung them up to smoke or drv North America. With their vast stores of surplus Like most American Indian tribes, the Tlingits' goods, they extended their aboriginal commerce relationship to nature is rooted in their religious ol along ancient trading trails through valleys and systems. According to the ancient beliefs the mountain passes to the northern interior regions Tlingit. animals, like humans, are endowed with of Alaska and Canada where they traded with the spirits. These ideas were the basis of their behav- Athabaskans. They traded westward with the ior towards animals; people felt a form of kinship Eyak and the Chugach Eskimo along the Gull of with them. Hut their beliefs did not prevent then- environ- Alaska coast in south-central Alaska. In their (id- effective, sustainable exploitation of the foot long canoes, they traveled south to the ment and its wildlife. < )n the one hand, they foragers who Queen Charlotte Islands in Canada to trade with were skilled hunters, fishermen and the Haida and the Tsimshian on the mainland. effectively utilized their environment; and on the

LANDINNATIVl VMERICAN CULTURES 91 other hand, they revered their environment and vices, but perhaps more significantly they intro-

attributed their success in its exploitation to the duced a new legal system that suppressed Tlingit spirits and deities which abounded in their world. customar) property laws and rights and paved The distinctive arts of the Tlingit and the the way lor permanent American settlements and

Northwest Coast Indians were visual symbols of economic expansion into Tlingit territory. their relationships to one another and to nature. In 1878 two salmon canneries were estab- They mastered the use of horn. hone, stone, lished at Sitka and Klawock followed by ten wood, skins, furs, roots and bark to satisfy their more in the next decade (Gruening 1968). And utilitarian and aesthetic needs. Their woodwork- unknowingly, an Auk Tlingit named Kaawaa'ee ing was unrivaled among American Indian tribes. unleashed the 1880 stampede into Southeast Artistically inspired by their relationship to the Alaska by showing Joe Juneau and Dick Harris — environment, Tlingit adorned their bodies jmA now credited as discoverers in most historical homes with symbols of their real and supernatu- accounts — where gold could be found (Worl

l )')ii) ral world. | 'The biggest gold mill in the world was later established in Juneau (Gruening L968). The

Historical Overview 1 nited States recognized the Tlingit as the rightful

Their rich environment and their social and owners of the land under aboriginal title, but

cultural strengths enabled Tlingit to confront the ironically, did not allow them to file gold claims

initial arrival of western explorers and traders in on their own land because they were not citizens 174] much on their own terms Fur trading was of the United States The traditional hunting m^\ conducted from the ships thai frequented Tlingit fishing economy that had supported the rich communities. Once tenuous peace agreements culture of the Tlingil was giving wax to a new had been established between Tlingit and Rus- economic order, which they could neither control sians, trading posts were built in Yakutat in 1796 socially or share in economically. and then Sitka in 1799 (Krause 1956). Tlingit used the goods they received in trade to enrich their Land Claims society. < lathering the inner strengths that had given but nothing in their shamans or herbalists' rise to this proud society, the Tlingit entered the repertoire of medical care could resist the waves 20th century They were undaunted by losses — ol infectious disease that the new visitors brought epidemics, Russian occupation, gold rush stam- to their shores The Tlingit aboriginal population, pede, bombardments ot then villages by the which is estimated at near 15,000, was reduced Navy, depletion ol fish ami wildlife, and dispos-

by more than 50% after the great smallpox epi- sl'ssk >n ( )f their am estral lands — w Inch might demic of f835-1840 (Boyd 1990; De Laguna have demoralized other people They strove to

1990). With several villages reduced by as much learn and use the institutions i >t the westerners to as two-thirds, social and economic systems al- protect then society; but at the same time, the) most ceased to function. retained the elements of their ancient culture they Another significant element ol their culture deemed appropriate lor the modern era was undermined, and new gained influ- They repeatedly brought their blankets

ence, when the Tlingit learned that then- shamans aeli irned with clan i rests i< > Washingti in, D.C. were powerless to combat the smallpox Father They showed Congressmen these blankets, which

Veniaminov observed thai three months before served as then title to the land. They told the clan

the smallpox epidemic a Tlingil forced t<> submit stories and sang the songs that recorded the his-

to the needle probably would have torn the very tory ( if ownership of their territories. With a flesh horn his vaccinated arm but when the highly developed system ol customary property

s, Tlingit saw that Russians vaccinated against small- law a pi iwerlul i < >n\ u In in i >t their inherent pox survived, they clamored to be vaccinated. rights to their land, and a strong love for then

i >nce the) realized its effectiveness, they also homeland, they successfully appealed to the

began to accept the Russian I >rthodox faith at the sense ol fairness and justice i >l American jurispru- expense of their own religion (Fortuine 1989) dence The) achieved an unprecedented settle-

The Tlingit who had scoffed at many ol the ways ment with Congress and secured legal title to ot the white men now sought the establishmenl their land

< 'I i hurches and schi >ols. From the time of their first contact with Euro- The process ol social disintegration heightened peans, the Tlingit resisted outside claims on then

alter American jurisdiction was established in land. They did not allow the first Europeans who

L867. Military forces brought other diseases ,\iid set toot on their shores to leave. Thev removed a

i i 1 1 s 92 LA xn ix x\u\i wii ui< \\ i la cross the Spaniards left in 1775 as a sign of their claim to Alaska. They extracted payment from the Spanish not only for the fish they brought to them but also for the water the Spaniards got for themselves (Krause 1956). From the time the United States and Russia signed the Treaty of Cession in 1867, the Tlingit protested the foreign- ers' assertion of ownership. They argued that if the United States wanted to purchase Alaska then they should negotiate with its rightful owners. The Haida joined with the Tlingit to pursue a land claims settlement with the United Slates. They relentlessly pursued compensation lor the land the United States forced them to surrender. The Southeast Alaska Indians attained two separate land settlements with the United States: the first, a judicial settlement in 1968 through the U.S. Court of Claims; and the second, a legislative compact through an Act of Congress in 1971. The

Tlingit and Haida used the first settlement of $7.5 million to establish the Central Council Tlingit and Haida Indian Tribes of Alaska. Its primary function is to promote the social and educational welfare of its tribal members. The second settlement achieved by the Tlingit and Haida was an unprecedented land settlement Fish continues /<> be the primary source offoodfor with America's indigenous populations. Its native peoples ofsoutheastern Alaska However, in uniqueness was not in the size of the settlement, recent years, subsistence practices hare been limited by but rather in the means by which it would be g< wernmental regulations Areas designatedfor subsis- accomplished. Under the Alaska Native Claims tencefishing may befar awayfrom home A subsis- or- Settlement Act of 1971 (ANCSA), Congress tence fisherman skillfully fillets thefish to preparefor dered that the Alaska Natives form corporations smoking ami drying Photo by Richard Dauenhauer to administer their land award. Clearly, the intent was economic assimilation. In previous judg- ments with American Indians, the United .states hold title only to the surface estate. The regional itself acted as a trustee that held land for tribes corporation, Sealaska, holds title to the subsur- under a reservation system. face estate of all village and urban corporation

lands, in addition to its own 300,000 acres.

Tribal Corporations Each Tlingit and Haida is enrolled as a share- With an entrepreneurial drive and vigor wor- holder in the regional corporation. In addition, thy of their ancestors, the Tlingit and Haida ea- those residing in a village or in Sitka and Juneau gerly joined the market economy with their new were also eligible to enroll as members of their corporations. Under ANCSA, the Tlingit and respective village or urban corporations. How- Haida Indians reclaimed ownership of did. t

LAM > IN \A IIVE AMERICAN CULT! IRES 93 profit-making, shareholders also asserted other ad Further Readings cultural values. A 1981 survey of Sealaska share- Blackman, Margaret B. 1990 Haida: Traditional Cul- holders indicated they felt Sealaska should be ture In Handbook ofNorth American Indians more than a profit-making company that provides Northwest Coast ed Wayne Suttles Volume 7, pp. dividends to its shareholders. They insisted that 240-260 Washington, D.C. .Smithsonian Institution the corporation provide jobs, educational assis- Boyd, Robert T 1990, Demographic History. 1774- tance, support for cultural activities and special 1874 In Handbook ofNorth American Indians 7 programs for the elders In response, the elected Northwest < oast, ed Wayne Suttles. Volume . pp. boards of directors have devoted themselves to 135-148 Washington, D.C: Smithsonian Institution

social as well as business matters. The regional Drucker, Philip 1965. Cultures of the North Pacific corporation, Sealaska. calculates that as much as Coast San Francisco Chandler Publishing Com- 25% of its annual operational costs are for social pany of the programs affecting its shareholders. Many Fortuine, Robert. 1989 Chills and Fever, Health and village and urban corporations have organized Disease in the Early History ofAlaska Anchorage separate charitable foundations to promote the University of Alaska Press cultural heritage of their shareholders. Others Gruening, Ernest 1968 The State ofAlaska The State or have established educational endowments ill Mask. i \c\\ York Random House generous scholarship funds for shareholders. Jonaitis, Aldona 1986 Art of the Northern Tlingil Se- Perhaps the single most important issue is the attle aiiA London I niversiDj of Washington Press protection of subsistence hunting and fishing. Krause, Aurel 1956 The Tlingit Indians Results ofa The corporations have taken the lead in oppos- In/' l<> the Northwest (.nasi if American and the ing various attempts over the past several years Bering Straits Translated In 1'rna Gunther, Ameri- to undermine the subsistence priority rights of can Ethonological Society. Seattle University of rural residents, who are primarily Native. Washington Press The corporations have been successful in vary- Murray, Peter 1985, The Devil and Mr Duncan Victo- ing degrees One corporation filed lor protection ria, British Columbia: Sono Nis Press under bankruptcy laws, while others have been Albert P The Coast Indians of Southern extremely successful and have been able to pro- Niblack, 1890 Alaska ,in<.\ Northern British Columbia Annual vide substantial monetary distributions to their Report of the I S National Museum of 1881 Wash- shareholders. Financial consultants continue to ing!! m. D.C advise the corporations that the\ cannol success- Oberg, Kalervo 1973 The Social Economy of the Tlingit fully combine business and tubal practices in

Indians Seattle and London I niversity of Washing- their corporate operations and locus. Tlingil and ti in Press Haida continue to develop new tonus . >| tribal Worl, Rosita 1990 History of Southeastern Alaska corporations. They seek new ways i it accom- Since 1867 In Handbook North American Indi- plishing their economic objectives while at the of ans Vorthwest Coast, ed Wayne Suttles Volume 7, same time fulfilling the social and cultural re- pp 149-158 Washington, D.C Smithsonian Institu sponsibilities they acquired when they received lion title to their ancestral lands

Rosita Wcrl. Yeidiklatsok, /s

/•> \e from Kluhu an sin- a child of the Sockeye < Ian

Her spirit is the shark she ira\ named in cnithropi

al Harvard I niversity and has lectured and published extensively mi A •tllures

94 LAND l\ \M l\l Wll KH \\ (III! RES Ethno-Development in Taquile Kevin Healy

Peru'.s Taquile Island, 13,000 feet above sea supported aid agency, which supports alternative level, is set against spectacular mountain scenery community empowerment projects for socio- of the Lake Titikaka basin. Quechua speaking economic change. Taquilenos farm steep, eroded hillsides and catch fresh trout, pejerrey and catfish for their island Kevin Healy teas a Peat e < orps volunteer on Taquile economy. Some islanders are master boatbuilders Island in the Lite sixties He subsequently wrote a book for the Aymara and Quechua communities on the about rural development in Bolivia and since 1978 as Peruvian side of Lake Titikaka. a grant officer with the Inter-American Foundation has Taquile's geography and vibrant lolk culture been funding alternative socio-economic development lie degrees attracts rugged tourists from around the globe. projects in the Andes, especially Bolivia has fmni Notre Dame, Georgetown ami Cornell Over the past 15 years, the Island's 1,201) resi- dents have developed a model for Native Ameri- can community control of tourism, frequently a source of cultural distortions in societies the world over. In Taquile, islander control of tour- ism has helped them maintain a strong sense of cultural integrity while adding economically to their community. Their local enterprise includes *!$mm motorboat transportation, housing, restaurants, handicraft stores, a local museum and tour guide services. By working through local families and m^>% community organizations, islanders maintain a scale of tourist activity consistent with a people- to-people approach and invite visitors to appreci- * ate their local life and cultural values. The work- ** ."*%— ings of this system has insured an equitable distri- bution of the economic benefits and dynamic practices of peasant self-management. Taquilenos' everyday attire attests to their thriving weaving tradition. Combining dominant Inca reds, Andean geometric symbols and other fanciful designs, they are among the best weavers in Peru. As a cottage industry weaving provides economic benefits to everyone on the Island. On ground women weave woolen belts, bags and ponchos of all sizes, while on treadle looms men weave cloth for peasant shirts. Men also knit vests and stocking caps. Through their ethno-development strategy ol tourism and textiles under Andean community control, Taquile has changed from one ol I lie-

poorest Lake Titikaka communities to become Weaving is a major sot nil ami economic activity mi the island

one of its better-off during the past 20 years. of Taquile in Lake Titikaka, /'em ( >n a patio surrounded by Outside support for Taquile has come from the living quarters a weaver spins sheep's wool with a traditional Inter-American Foundation, a congressionally drop Spindle Ph In Olivia Cadaval

i I I 1 LAND IN NATIVl \MERII \\ 1 RES 95 The Suka Kollus: Pre-Columbian Agriculture of Tiwanaku

Oswaldo Rivera Sunclt

translated by Charles //. Roberts

in The Bolivian highlands (altipland) lie between Beginning approximately 1150 A.D. climatic the eastern and western mountain ranges of the changes reduced agricultural yields in the Boliv- Andes; many valleys and profound ravines stretch ian highlands The social organization of the down to the Amazon jungle toward the east, and Tiwanaku collapsed, the state disintegrated, and to the desert coasts ol the Pacific toward the its extensive territories were fragmented. The west. Here, people domestic. ited the llama and highlands could support only a subsistence econ- alpaca; they followed them in then permanent omy; agricultural technologies were lost. The search for renewed pastures to the highlands in arrival of the Spaniards, who were more inter- the hot months and crossed the Andes to the ested in exploiting minerals than in cultivating valleys in other seasons. The fate ol Andean the land, was the final blow. An agricultural a people. since, the peoples is inextricably bound up with that of the people became mining Ever South American camelidae (alpacas, llamas, vicu- domestic economy of the highlands has revolved nas, and guanacos), which provide wool, leather, around a hunger-based agriculture meat, bones, fat, and excrement for fuel, jnd In 1978, researchers Alan Kolata and Oswaldo which are also used as beasts of burden Rivera traveled throughout the vast plains of With the advent of crop farming, people be- Kohani Pampa in the Andes, beginning an arche- came sedentary. Solidarity in communal work ological research project which years later would to \\ ila-|awira was fundamental to the life of the community, lead the Interdisciplinary Archeol- which had a non-hereditary form ol government. ogical Project. Subsequently, geographers such as The aylluia local descent group) was the bask William Denevan and others discovered ruins of pre-Columbian agricultural works on the banks form of social organization; it persists in the rural communities of Bolivia to this day. Exogamous of Lake Titikaka. The initial exploration and exca- marriage was a unifying factor creating and sus- vation ol small mounds led to archeological re taining links ol kinship among the separate search in the pre-Columbian area of the city of ayllus. Lukurmata. The objective of this study was to investigate the agricultural and fish-farming sys- ( her the centuries major changes took plate in the Andes. The vast Andean state of the Ti- tems of the ancient Andean society, This city, wanaku arose. Experimentation produced an considered the third leading urban center ol the extraordinary agricultural technology, known as Tiwanaku culture, is located near the pre-Colum- the suka kollus (raised agricultural fields), which bian agricultural systems. were complemented by livestock production and During explorations of these raised fields, the fishing in Lake Titikaka. One of the greatest suc- question arose as to whether these agricultural cesses was the cultivation of potatoes; indeed, works and ancient technology in general could Bolivian archeologist Carlos Ponce has called have been capable ol generating sufficient wealth Tiwanaku the "Culture of the Potato." A confed- for the development of Tiwanaku civilization eration of ayllus governed under a non-hereditary L'ntil then, their productivity had not been quan- council. The original Tiwanaku village became tified. At the same time. Ignacio Garaycochea and the major city with approximately 100,000 inhabi- Clark Erickson were conducting similar research tants spread across 600 hectares (about 2.5 work in the area of I'uno, Peru. They were the square miles), tied to a network of other cities first to rehabilitate and plant the raised fields. and villages of Tiwanaku society. Religion en- These fields yielded a hefty crop, outstripping the compassed all activities, including art. usual production of contemporary peasants.

96 LAND l\ NATIVE AMERII AN ( ULTURES Today native communities in the high plateau region of the Andes, with the assistance ofanthropologists, archeologists and agronomists, are recovering the ancient raised-field technology of their ancestors Localfarmers pin in a

mink. i. or communal work group, to plant the raisedfield Photo bj Alan Kolata

In 1986 reconstruction of the agricultural fields uncovered in the process. Most of the project was begun by peasant families in several commu- effort went into the fields of Lakaya in 1987, and nities in the area of Tiwanaku. The peasants were the productivity obtained was t2.S tons/hectare, skeptical. Previous technological transfer projects as compared to 2.S tons hectare obtained by the undertaken by development organizations had same community members on surrounding lands. led only to poor harvests and experiences of Although this figure has not been equalled, yields failure. The lands near the ancient structures had continue to reflect the superiority of pre-Colum- long been abandoned; the peasants did not recall bian technology. that they had ever been planted. They were The recovery of technology used in the same- being used as pasture for livestock. Some peas- place but at an earlier time is a task for rural ants told us that the seeds would rot because of society. The well-being of future generations will the excessive moisture of the land and that the depend on their own involvement and effort. open fields offer no protection from frost. Never- theless, when told about the agriculture of their

/* awichns (grandparents or ancestors) in the nay- ( )swaldo Rivera Sundt Direi tor of the National in Bolivia For years he nipacba (ancient, pre-Columbian times) the ma- Archeology Institute (INAR) 16 has been research archeologist ttiul clue/ executive oj jority felt a special sympathy for the project and a the Planning Office at INAR Since 1978. he has worked pride in their reaffirmed identity. Leaders such as with l>i Man Kolata from the I 'niversity of Chicago in Roberto Cruz from the community of Chukara. the recovery ofpre ( olumbian agricultural techniques Bonifacia Quispe from Lakaya . and Martin til lie is ( o Director of the multidisciplinary arcbeologn of Kiripujo accepted the project on their Condori project Wila-Jawira and Director of the program for the lands. In order to recover the fields, organized recovery of the pre-Columbian agriculturalfields, groups of community members dug and rebuilt Rehasuk, and Founding Professor oj the Rural channels and mounds, collecting the artifacts Academic University in Tiwanaku

LAND IN NATIVl UV1ERICAN CULTURES 97 Los Suka Kollus: La Agricultura Precolombina del Tiwanaku Oswaldo Rivera Sundt

El altiplano esta definido por dos cadenas cluyendo el arte, dentro de la expresion de pen- elevadas de montanas a ambos lados y muchos samiento colectivo. valles y profundas vegas que van a terminal .1 la Alrededor del ano HSo se inician cambios en selva amazonica por el este y a las deserticas el clima del planeta que da como resultado en el costas del Pacihco por el oeste. altiplano boliviano un bajo rendimiento agricola.

El hombre domestico a la llama y la alpaca, La organizacion social del Tiwanaku se desmo- siguiendolas en su permanente busqueda de rona, el Estado se disuelve y sus extensos territo- pastos renovados; subiendo a las alturas en los ries se dispersan. El altiplano vuelve a una eco- meses calidos, y en otras estaciones, nomia de subsistencia y se pierden tecnologias trasponiendo la cordillera para llegar a los valles. agricolas. La llegada de los espanoles, quienes se

Una misma suerte une al hombre andino y al interesaron mas en la explotacion de minerales camelido cine provee de lana. cuero, tame, blue- que en los productos cultivados de la tierra es el ses, cebo y excremento para combustible y es golpe final. Un pueblo agricultor se convirtio en tambien el animal de carga. minero v la economia del altiplano desde en-

Con la domesticacion de las plantas, el tonces giro en torno a una agricultura de hombre se vuelve sedentario. La vida de la hambre. comunidad andina se desarrolla dentro de pa- En 1978, los investigadores Alan Kolata y trones de solidaridad en el trabajo comunitario, ( )swaldo Rivera recorren la extensa planicie cle bajo una forma de gobierno rotative Kohani Pampa, iniciando un trabajo arqueologico

El ayllu fue la organizacion social basica que que, anos mas tarde, formara el Proyecto Agroar- germinara \ perdura aun en las comunidades queologico Interdisciplinario Wila-Jawira. Mas rurales bolivianas actuales. El matrimonio ex- tarde, geografos como William Denevan y otros, ogamico era el factor esencial que aseguraba la descubren en las margenes del lago Titikaka los vinculacion entre tiyllus\ daba a la culture una restos de construcciones agricolas precolombi- homogeneidad de pensamiento y accion. nas. La exploracion y excavacion inicial cle A (raxes de los siglos transcurren grandes cam- pequenos monticulos, condujo posteriormente a

bios en el escenario andino. Surge el vasto es- los trabajos de investigacion arqueologica en el tado andino del Tiwanaku. area precolombina cle Lukurmata. con el ob-

I na creciente experimentacion agricola des- jetivo de estudiar los sistemas agricolas y piscico- emboca en una extraordinaria tecnologia, la de las de la antigua sociedad. Esta ciudad. consid-

los siikd kollus, complementada por la ganaderia erada como el tercer centra urbano cle la cultura ile camelidos y la explotacion de productos riwanaku, se encuentra cerca cle los sistemas piscicolas del lago Titikaka. Uno de los mayores agricc ilas precolombinos.

exitos fue el cultivo de la papa, lo que eon razon Durante exploraciones cle los campos agrico-

lii/i) calificar al arqueologo boliviano Carlos las surgio la interrogante sobre si estas construc-

Ponce a Tiwanaku como la Cultura de la Papa. ciones, y la tecnologia en general, serian capaces Se forma la confederacion de ayllus, gobernando cle general rique/a suticiente para el desarrollo bajo un consejo de caracter no hereditario. La cle Tiwanaku Hasta ese momento no se hahia

aldea inicial se convirtio en una ciudad comple- cuantificado el rendimiento. Paralelamente, los tamente planificada con aproximadamente investigadores [gnacio Garaycochea y Clark loo. 000 habitantes en una area de 000 hectareas Erickson, realizaban labores similares en el area

Lo religioso relaciona todas las actividades in- de Puno. PeriTv lograron asi la primera rehabili-

98 I \ND IN NATIVl AMERII AN CUL II KI s Las comunidades bolivianos en las alia pampas del Tiwanaku que rodean el lago Titikaka cultivan principalmente tuberculos. Estos cultivos incluyen variedades de papa. oca. babas y quinua que es an cereal de alta proteina. Aqui un grupo de mujeres selecciona papas para el consumo bogareno. para el comercio, para preparar chufio, o

< para la semilla. F< >t< > de )swaldo Rivera Sundt

igualado esa cifra, pero tacion de camellones que resulto en una notable anos posteriores no se ha los rendimientos marcan la superioridad produccion que superaba la produccion que demas precolombina frente a la actual. solian obtener los campesinos. de la tecnologia Las investigaciones arqueologicas se han for- A partir de 1986 se inicia la reconstruction de la incorporation disciplinas campos agricolas, trabajo realizado en varias talecido con de tecnicas. Vocablos des- comunidades y familias campesinas del area de cientificas, analiticas y suka kollus hoy se han vuelto Tiwanaku. Las malas cosechas y experiments de conocidos como derivaciones transferencias tecnologicas fracasadas. realizadas palabras tecnicas. creandose como sukakolleros. Para tratar de explicar el por diversas instituciones de desarrollo, los terrenos tecnologico agricola se han habian tornado incredulos. Los terrenos donde fenomeno del rescate una serie de conceptos, como arqueo- hoy yacen las antiguas construcciones siempre ensayado agroarqueologia, agroecologia, habian estado abandonados; y los campesinos no logia aplicada. recordaban que alguna vez hubieran sido sem- revolution verde del altiplano. iniciatlo investigation cientifica brados. Ahora son tierras de pastoreo de ganado. Se ha una el conocimiento del pueblo tie Tiwanaku, Otros campesinos nos advenian que la semilla se sobre alternativa para ti desarrollo del altiplano. pudriria por la excesiva humedad de la tierra, como rescate tecnologico en el tiempo, su transfer- que los campos son abiertos y no ofrecen pro- El y en el espacio, le corresponde a la teccion a las heladas. Sin embargo, la mayoria encia mismo rural. su participacion esfuerzo sentia una especial simpatia hacia el proyecto sociedad De y depende el bienestar tie las ruturas generaciones. cuando se les hablaba de la agriculture practicada en el nayrapacha de los tiempos precolombinos por sus awichus. sus abuelos o antecesores

( )swaldo Rivera s////

los mas atendidos por el proyecto logrando un Jawira v Direi tor General del Programa de

rendimiento de 42.5 toneladas por hectare. i. Rei uperai ion de i ampos Agricolas Precolombinos frente a las 2.5 toneladas obtenidas por los mis- REHASUK. yelfundador v profesor de la Universidad mos comunarios en hectareas circundantes. En Academica ( dmpesina de Tiwanaku

I \\l> IN \\II\I AMERICAN CULT! RES 99 Ethno-Development Among the Jalq'a Kevin Healy

The Jalq'a are an Andean ethnic group scat- Their weaving revival has m\ innovative tercel among 30 communities in the remote, rug- method of using color photographs of Jalq'a ged mountainous area in the Chuquisaca region pieces attained from private collections. Jalq'a of south-central Bolivia. Families eke out a living families use the photographs as guides to recover from farming ancl pasturing and earn supplemen- their rich repertoire of cultural motifs, as they tal") income from low paying work in the city weave for the new community enterprise to- Since 1986, this subsistence economy has gether in their outdoor patios. They have been changed tor a growing number ol female weav- successfully creating for sale from these ers (now icaching 380) and their families. To- traditional models and drawing inspiration from gether with a Bolivian organization, Antropologos them for new pictorial compositions. del Sur Andino (ASUR), and support from the Inter-American foundation. Jalq'a's community organizations have begun a revival of a unique textile tradition. The Jalq'a's animal motifs are singular among the weaving traditions ol thou- sands of Andean communities; then ajsusov w omens overskirts depict a dreamlike world of stylized creatures (condors, monkeys, foxes,

lions, hats and cows) in reversible images in the past, outside commercial pressures eroded handicraft standards, and foreign dealers bought up the remaining line textiles in Jalq'a communities. In addition, drought damaged pas- ture lands causing a drastic drop in the wool supply. The weaving revival began as an economic development strategy to reverse the decline in their folk art and to increase cultural sell-esteem

among the population, creating a base for social

change Weavers together with ASUR have in >w organized weaving workshops, purchased raw

material, acquired elves, opened a store in the

i it\ of Sucre and held exhibits in museums to promote their work throughout Bolivia As a

result, the market demand in Bolivia for their ajsus has grown rapidly. The Jalq'a have learned bookkeeping and administrative skills for their

burgeoning enterprise through AS1 IR's multi- cultural community educational program. Organ- AJalq'a weaverfrom the community ofPotolo m the province of izational and business know-how are as essential Chuquisaca, Bolivia, weaves mi her upright in the shade tn their ambitious future programs as are recov- ofthe enramada (arbor) in the patio of her home.

Photo by ' )li\ i.i Cadaval ery of weaving skills and the maintenance of a strong sense of ethnic identity.

loo I \\[ I IN NAT1V1 Wll RIl Will II HI s A statement by the Hopi Tribal Council on Hopi participation in the Quincentenaryprogram of the 1991 Festival ofAmerican Folklife

The Hopi people are a caring people. We arc a patient people We consider ourselves stewards of this great land called North America. We bate welcomedpeople to these lands to share its resources, 'through aforum of this type, we hope that others may come to understand the Hopi people. Today's lifestyle demands a respite Tl?e Hopi

can offer this pause in our hectic lives through the sharing of its cultural ways. We

hope that the visitors trill go away with a betterperspective on life . . .

that while life is a real challenge, life is also simple.

This is the message of the Hopi.

The Hopi Dictionary Emory Sekaquaptewa

For the first time in its history, the Hopi lan- guage in modern times because of the interven- social guage is on the threshold of literacy. A Hopi tions in Hopi culture by modern and eco- dictionary is being compiled today by project nomic institutions. Under these prevailing influ- teams from Northern Arizona University and the ences there is no doubt that the Hopi language is University of Arizona in collaboration with the threatened with extinction. New generations of Office of Cultural Preservation of the Hopi Na- Hopis want to be, and are becoming, more and world. seek tion. It is near completion. more involved with the outside They The Hopi language has been spoken by opportunities to meet their own goals in modern people who have inhabited the areas of north- society. This is the reality of today's Hopi world eastern Arizona for nearly two thousand years. It that justifies the writing of our language. continues to be the foundation of custom, usage Those who work on and contribute to the and ceremonialism, which rely on oral tradition dictionary are deeply mindful of the implications for their continued existence. Oral tradition incor- that written Hopi holds for the future. In addition porates ritual and ceremonial forms, spatial con- to important cultural-historical perspectives on its stated text, and drama to create a powerful tool that Hopi life that the dictionary can reveal, makes an indelible mark on the minds and hearts goal is to preserve the language. In so doing it of those participating. The Hopi language, in will be a reference tool lor producing Hopi litera- association with rituals, customs and other forms ture, and thereby assist the continued evolution of usage, continues to call up memories of the of the language. In this sense, the dictionary ad- past that give meaning to the present and future. dresses the concerns of Hopi and non-Hopi For this reason, the Hopi people feel confident people about the survival of the Hopi language. the oral that our language is alive today. The dictionary is not intended to replace Why then, the need for a written form of the tradition practiced today by establishing a writing

is it an instrument for a revival ol Hopi language? It is a proper question, whether system. Neither to vistas literacy in Hopi will enhance its viability in its Hopi culture, but rather a way new for own cultural setting, or will detract from the Hopi studies beyond ethnographic approaches. power of the spoken word by undermining its use in the traditional context. It is not a technical question whether Hopi can be systematically Emory Sekaquaptewa is Direi tor of the American written, for that has been practically accom- Indian Studies Program ill tin' University ofArizona, plished. Tucson, (iiul lecturer m anthropology and linguistics

But some Hopis and students of Hopi have lie is co-prim ipal with Ekkehardl Molotki andJeanne expressed concern about the survival of the lan- Masayesva mi the Hopi dictionary project

LAND IN NATIV1 WIIKh IN CULTURES 101 Two Entries from the Hopi Dictionary

1 ENTRY Our Zapotec Ethnic Identity Manuel Rios Morales

We, the Zapotec from the northern mountains Another distinctive trait of Zapotec ethnic in Oaxaca, Mexico, are a group related linguisti- identity is the social group formed for communal cally and culturally to other Zapotec groups from work and reciprocal help known as shin-raue the valley, the isthmus and the southern moun- and gson. Through these native institutions, the tains. Even though our dialects differ we share community meets social needs and collaborates the same historical consciousness, a geographical in public works when the need arises. Commu- space and similar cultural traditions. We use our nal labor is not only a way of working; it is also differences and similarities to express our particu- a strategy for defending identity and sharing re- lar identity in the context of our national society, sponsibility which has allowed our peoples to which is composed of diverse ethnic identities. survive as distinct groups. At the regional level our Zapotec identity is Recent Zapotec migrations have made the recognized in language, in culture and in a Valley of Mexico, the city of Oaxaca, and Los shared geography. At district levels, we, who live Angeles, California, new spaces of conquest and in the areas of Zoogocho, Yalalag and part of establishment of Zapotec cultures. Migration is Villa Alta y Cajonos, define ourselves as the not only the physical removal of our brothers and Be'ne'xon, to distinguish from the Be'ne'xisha, sisters, but also the transfer of traditions, values, Zapotec from Talca; the Be'ne'reg, Zapotec from beliefs, feelings and patterns of day-to-day life the area of Ixtlan and the Be'ne'rashe, Zapotec into the new settlement areas. Beginning in the from the Valley. And at the local level, our Zapo- fifties, various migrant voluntary associations in tec ethnic identity is defined by the particular have emerged: the Zoogocho Fraternal Union historical-structural conditions of our communi- Mexico City, the Zoogocho Unifying Front in ties of birth — poverty, exploitation, dialect, local Oaxaca and the Zoogocho Social Union of Los culture. Angeles in California. After more than three centuries of colonial As contemporary natives, we recognize the destruction, more than a century of political inde- great responsibility we have within the structure that the pendence with its forces of social disintegration of our national society. We recognize and cultural assimilation, and a decade of over- problem before us is how to overcome the whelming modernization in the sixties, our iden- contradictions inherent in every dynamic society, discrimina- tities emerge today with a new strength, a greater such as marginalization, domination, awareness of self-preservation and human dig- tion, self-contempt and self-degradation. We be- will nity. Despite the impact of modernization, we lieve that the essence of our identity endure have maintained important parts of our culture — at least 500 more years, but we also recognize such as our cosmology, our communal organiza- that if we do not assert our own demands, we status of a minority. tion, our language — all important elements in will continue to have the sustaining our identity. Zapotec ethnic identity has also been pre- a native Zapotec Zoogocho, served by music. In our region, each town has its Manuel Rios Morales, from Oaxaca, is a professor in the master's program in own music band, small or large. Music is inti- Native American linguistic s, sponsored by I he National mately associated with community life, an impor- Indigenist Institute (INI), and the < enterfor Research tant element of social cohesion, a language with ami Graduate Studies in Social Anthropology (CIESAS) which to express joy, nostalgia, abundance or He is a graduate from the Resean h ami Social deprivation. The music of the region is common Integration Institute of Oaxaca, and received a master's groups. It in- to Zapotec, Mixes and Chinatec degreefrom the Centerfor Social Integration in Mexico cludes a variety of marches, waltzes, boleros, City As a Fellow, he panic ipated in the Program

LAND IN NATIVE AMERICAN ( ULTURES 103 Nuestra Identidad Etnica Zapoteca Manuel Rios Morales

Los zapotecos de la Sierra Norte de Oaxaca, grande o pequena. La musica se encuentra mti- Mexico, formamos parte de un grupo mayor em- mamente vinculacla a la vida comunitaria. es y ha parentado, lingiiistica y culturalmente, con zapo- sido el elemento de cohesion social por excelen- tecos del Valle, del Istmo y de la Sierra Sur. Aun- cia, otro lenguaje que puede expresar alegria o que nuestros dialectos difieren, todos nemos nostalgia, abundancia o carencia. La musica re- compartido una misma conciencia historica, un gional es comun a los pueblos zapotecos. mixes espacio geografico especifico, una tradicion cul- s chinantecos. Incline una variedad de marchas, tural similar. Estos elementos nos han permitido valses, boleros, fantasias y, basicamente, los reconocer tanto nuestras diferencias como sones v jarabes. Son los generos musicales que nuestras similitudes y expresar de esta forma una acompanan a todas las festividades religiosas y particular identidad dentro del contexto de los grandes acontecimientos sociales de la nuestra sociedad nacional que esta compuesta comunidad. por diversas identidades etnicas. Otros rasgos distintivos de la identidad etnica

Al nivel regional la identidad zapoteca se re- zapoteca lo constituyen el trabajo comunitario >'

conoce en el idioma, la cultura y una geografia la ayuda mutua que en nuestro zapoteco se compartida. Los zapotecos que habitamos en las conocen como shin-rauey gson. Con estas insti-

areas de Zoogocho, Yalalag, parte de Villa Aha y tuciones indigenas el pueblo realiza las diversas Cajonos, nos autodefinimos como los be'ne'xon, obras de caracter social v colabora cuando la

a diferencia del be'ne'xisha, zapotecos eld area necesidad o el compromiso asi lo requieren. El de Tale a; del be'ne'reg, zapotecos del area de trabajo comunitario, por su contenido y por sus

(xtlan y del be'ne'rdsbe, zapotecos del Valle. Y implicaciones, const it Live mas que una simple en el nivel local nuestra identidad etnica zapo- forma de trabajo. La comunidad es una estrategia

te< a esta aun mas definida espe< ificamente por de defensa de la identidad. un mecanismo de

las condiciones historico-estructurales de nuestra autoidentidad y de responsabilidad que ha per- comunidades natales — pobreza, explotacion, mitido a nuestros pueblos sobrevivir como

lengua, dialecto, cultura local. grupi is diferenciadi is, Despues de mas tie ties siglos de destruction Recientes migraciones zapotecas han conver- colonial, de mas de un siglo de vida politica tido el Valle de Mexico, la ciudad de Oaxaca y acompanada por fuerzas sociales de desintegra- Los \ngeles en California, en nuevos espacios de

i ion \ asimilacion cultural y una importante conquista v asientos culturales La migracion no epoca de modernizacion en los anos sesenta, es simplemente el desplazamiento fisico de nuestras identidades emergen hoy eon nuevas nuestros paisanos sino el traslado a las nuevas fuerzas, eon una mayor conciencia de sobre- areas, de las tradiciones, de los valores, de las vivencia v de dignidad humana. A pesar del im- creencias, de los sentimientos \" de la vida coti-

pacto de la modernizacion, se mantuvieron otras diana. Se dio origen a diversas organizaciones de

l partes importantes de nuestra cultura como son migrantes desde los anos de l )Sn como son la

su cosmovision, su organizacion comunitaria y su Union Fraternal Zoogochense en la ciudad de lengua. Mexico, el Frente Unificador Zoogochense en la La identidad etnica zapoteca, tambien se ha cuidad de Oaxaca y la Union Social Zoogochense

podido preservar gracias a la importancia que la de Los Angeles en California. miisica tiene entre nosotros. En nuestra region, Los indigenas actuates reconocemos que tene- cada pueblo tiene su propia banda de musica, mos una gran responsabilidad dentin de la

'

. I I \ I ( 10 I \M l\ I Wll I'd w I I ri'RES Los zapotecas de la sierra oaxaquena cultivan en las laderas del montey crian a ui males. En el pueblo de Zoogocbo cultivan cana de azucar que procesan en el pueblo. Despues de extraery hervir el liquido, la melaza es vaciada en moldes de madera

i enfriada. El azucar endurecida se envuelve en hoja de maiz

F< )t< i de Manuel Rios

estructura de nuestra sociedad nacional. El Manuel Rios Morales. Nativo Zapoteca de Zoogocbo, dilema que se les presenta hoy a nuestros pueb- Oaxaca, es profesor en elprograma de maestria en los es como superar las contradicciones inheren- linguistica indigena, auspiciado por el Instituto tes a toda sociedad dinamica incluyendo situa- Nacional Indigenista (INI), y el C entro de Investi- tales como la marginacion, ciones o fenomenos gaciones v Estudios Superiores en Antropologia Social la dominacion, la discriminacion, el autodespre- tCIESASi Graduado del Instituto de Investigacion e cio y la autodegradacion. Creemos que la esencia Integracion Social de < laxaca, ret ibid su maestria del Social en la de nuestra identidad podra continual por otros ( entro de Investigai ion para la Integracion elPrograma 500 aiios, pero tambien reconocemos que mien- ( iudadde Mexico Bajo beca participo en

< omunitario en Haifa. Israel Colabora en tras no seamos capaces de plantear nuestras pro- tie Desarrollo programas prqfesionales indigenas v de desarrollo pias demandas, seguiremos manteniendo la con- comunitario de investigai ion dicion de minoria en el marco de la sociedad plurietnica.

Cancion Zapoteca

Recopilacion del Sr. Demetrio Morales Vicente.

Bene Xoon Neda Soy zapoteco

Yeshrio zito zanda De tierras lejanas vengo Yeshrio sdun za neda tie tierras desconocidas tambien Chguanda tu bsu subiendo una cuesta chetga tu retg bajando otra igual Bente xen rasho quiero que me perdones Bi gazen chura por lt> queyo haga Bente xen rasho quiero que me perdones Bi da rish cuiro par venir a tu casa.

Tu chela, tu gurida I ii abrazoy una caricia Tu bxidze da shneba v un best) nomas yo tepido Bente xen lasho quiero que me perdones bi gazen shia. par h> que te digo.

II vID IN NATIVH AMI RI( \N CI I RES 1<>5 Politics and Culture of Indigenism in Mexico

Jose Luis Krafft Vera

translated by Charles H. Roberts

In Mexico official "indigenism" began to take making centers ol government, the indigenous shape by the 1910s. Its development was influ- resistance in recent years has produced organiza- enced by the great social movement of the 1910 tions that foster respect for and understanding of Mexican Revolution. Indigenism was the political traditional values. These millenary cultures, with means used by the state to attend to the develop- a powerful wisdom, have been able to survive in ment needs of culturally distinct Mexican popula- national societies in which indigenous peoples tions. are at the bottom of the economic ladder. A system of thought known as Mexican Indi- This display of organizational strength has had genism, which brings together research and so- an impact on the state institutional structures that cial action, has become a substantial part of the develop indigenous policy today. The National Mexican School of Anthropology. Indigenism is [ndigenist Institute (known as INI: Instituto also fundamental to an understanding of the pe- Nacional Indigenista) has abandoned the theo- culiarities of Mexican nationalism. retical and practical policy of integrationist indi-

Mexican Indigenism has drawn from various genism. adapting its actions to the organizational currents at different times in the 20th century. renaissance of the indigenous peoples. No longer Thus, the incligenist policy is not a finished, per- are indigenous initiatives supplanted by state fectly systematized whole. Nevertheless, it has agents who underestimate indigenous peoples' provided a model for government policy towards capacity to manage their own development based indigenous peoples in other Latin American on their life experiences, plans and capabilities. countries with large indigenous populations, Thus, indigenous peoples play a more promi- Mexican Indigenism has inspired the establish- nent role in society. Their organizational move- ment ot Indian institutes in several Latin Ameri- ment, which encompasses the SO ethnic groups can countries, after the First Inter-American In- that live in Mexico, each with its own culture and dian Congress held in Patzcuaro, Michoacan, in language, has stated three main principles that 1940 must be made pari ol the [NTs policy:

The initial postulates of indigenism have been 1. Indigenous peoples and communities must modified in light of experience; dynamic efforts participate in planning and implementation of continue to shape indigenism in response to the the INI s programs. particular developments in the indigenous world. 1. This participation should culminate in the Mexican Indigenism has gone through agrarianist, transfer of institutionalfunctions and resources educational, and developmentalist — also known to indigenous organizations and communities, as integrationist — phases. and to other public institutions and social groups In the last twenty years the outlook for the involved in and committed to incligenist action. indigenous peoples in Mexico and throughout 3. INI must coordinate all of its actions with Lai in America has changed significantly. The federal, state and municipal institutions, and so- indigenous movement has developed economic. cial organizations m\c\ with international agen- political, social and cultural organizations with a cies. strategic outlook. Indigenous peoples' growing These general principles for governmental effectiveness stems from their more decisive en- action by the INI are motivated by a firm resolve gagement of national societies in defense of their to break the fetters that inhibit the full and inte- human rights, collective and cultural. Marginal- gral development of the indigenous peoples of ized lor over Sou years from the main decision- Mexico. The indigenous peoples number 8 mil-

i Kio I \\l l\ NATIV 1 AMI Kl< A\ CULTURES In the highland communities of Chiapas, textiles represent complex cultural ideas Designs may represent the origin ofhuman society or the identity and history ofa local community Petrona Mendez Intzin, a Tzeltal Maya weaver from Tenejapa in the highlands of Chiapas, brocades on the traditional backstrap loom of the region Photo by Ricardo Martinez

lion in 1991, accounting for over nine percent ot highest density of indigenous populations and the Mexican population, based on projections cultures in the country, are participating this from the 1980 National Census. No other country summer in the Festival of American Folklife. of the Americas has as large an indigenous popu- This cultural exhibition will offer the public an lation as Mexico. opportunity to learn about indigenous knowledge The key demands raised by the indigenous and wisdom of the land and the environment. communities and their organizations include Now that the Western world has begun to turn its equal justice and equality in civil rights and obli- attention to the environment of the planet, the gations, as required by law for all Mexicans. The indigenous peoples of the Americas — despite National Commission of Justice for the Indige- having all institutional practices operate against nous Peoples of Mexico was established by presi- their interests for the last 500 years — offer us dential initiative in April 1989. This Commission, their knowledge of the harmony that must be presided over by the Director of the INI, Dr. preserved between man and nature.

Arturo Warman, is charged with proposing The hour of the earth has come, and it is time changes in the Mexican Constitution, after consul- to listen to the indigenous peoples of our Amer- tations with indigenous and other organizations ica. The subjugation and discrimination of recent involved in development and indigenous affairs. centuries will be no more in the new millennium. These constitutional changes will lead to recogni- The cultural resistance of indigenous peoples tion of indigenous cultural rights for the first time should find expression in a full renaissance of in the history of independent Mexico. This Presi- their indigenous abilities, lor the benefit ol all dential initiative was presented to the Chamber of inhabitants of this planet. Deputies and the Senate. Article 4 of the Jose litis Krafft. ethonologist. is Assistant Directorfor Constitution is to be amended to recognize that Cultural Promotion for the National Indigenist Institute Mexico is a multicultural country and that indige- (INI) He graduatedfrom the National School of nous peoples have specific rights. Anthropology and History in Mexico City, spe< ializing Members of the Ikood, Zapotec, Tzotzil, in indigenous cultures of the rainforest, particularly the Tzetzal and Lacandon cultures, representing the Lacandon region He has published extensively on the states of Oaxaca and Chiapas, which have the indigenous cultures oj Mexico

I LAND l\ NATI\ I \MI RI< \N ULTURES 107 Politica y Cultura en el Presente Indigena de Mexico

Jose Luis Krafft Vera

E] Indigenismo oficial en Mexico se formo En los ultimos veinte afios el panorama al que dentro de una tradicion que comienza, por lo se circunscriben los indigenas del pais, v en gen-

menos,desde la segunda decada del presente eral en toda Latinoamerica, ha mostrado modifi- siglo, bajo la influencia del gran movimiento caciones considerables. La capacidad organizativa

social que signified la Revolucion Mexicana de indigena se destaca a nivel economico, politico,

1910. Este movimiento fue la politica disenada social y cultural observandose una disposition

por el estado para atender el desenvolvimiento estrategica. Para el mundo indigena, su efec- integral de las poblaciones consideradas cultu- tividad radica en una inmersion mas resuelta en ralmente diferentes. Entre mis representantes las sociedades nacionales que los incluyen y estan Manuel Gamio, Moises Saenz, Alfonso absorben, y en una defensa de sus derechos Caso, Alfonso Villa Rojas, Gonzalo Aguirre humanos colectivos y culturales. Marginado de Beltran, Ricardo Pozas, quienes le han dado un las instancias primeras de decision del poder can/ teorico basico a esc sistema de pensamiento gubernamental desde hace medio milenio, en denominado indigenismo mexicano. Considerado anos recientes el poder de resistencia indigena ha como parte sustancial de la Escuela Mexicana de estable< ido organizaciones que los representen y Antropologia, por su caracter inseparable de in- defiendan el respeto v comprension de sus va- vestigacion-accion, se considera Lin nucleo de lores tradu ion. iles Estas culturas milenarias con pensamiento fundamental para entender las pe- un saber poderoso han logrado sobrevivir en culiaridades intrinsecas del nacionalismo mexi- sociedades nacionales en las que los indigenas cani 1, ocupan el nivel economico mas bajo. El indigenismo mexicano se ha nutrido de cor- Esta demostracion organizativa ha tenido

rientes diversas en determinados momentos de la repercusion en las esferas estatales encargadas de

historia del presente siglo. Esto impide mostrar la disenar la politica indigenista en el presente.

politica indigenista como un todo acabado \ V lualmente el [nstituto Nacional Indigenista ha perfectamente sistematizado, pero ha contribuido abandonado las direcciones teorico-practicas del a tijar las reglas de action <_lcl ambito estatal en indigenismo integrador para adecuar su accion a los parses del subcontinente latino-americano, este renac imicnto organizativo indigena. Se ha que cuentan con importantes nucleos poblacion- terminado con la suplantacion de iniciativas ales indigenas, Ma sido base fundamental para la indigenas por parte de agentes estatales que

fundacion de instituciones indigenistas en desvalorizaban la capacidad de gestion indigena

naciones de la geografia mencionada, despues para desarrollar, desde su vivencia, sus proyectos del Primer Congreso Indigenista Interamericano principales \ las maneras adec uadas de realizar- celebrado en Patzcuaro, Michoacan, en 1940. los

El indigenismo ha atravesado circunstancias Esta "puesta al dia" del quehacer indigenista concretas habiendo asi modificado sus postula- con el movimiento organizacional mostrado por dos iniciales en un afan dinamico de adecuarse a las ^(> etnias con cultura \ lenguas diferentes que los ritmos particulares del andar indigena. Se habitan nuestro territorio nacional, tiene ties identifican como momentos del indigenismo principios generales de accion: mexicano: el de corte agrarista, el educacional, v 1. La participation de los pueblos y el desarrollista, tambien conocido como integra- comunidades indigenas en la planificacion \ cionista, cuyo principal exponente es el Dr. ejecucion de los programas de la Institucion Indi- Aguirre Beltran. genista.

los LAND l\ \ \ll\ I \MI UK A\ i I I II HI s 2. La participation debe culminar en e] tras- paso defunciones y recursos institucionales a las organizaciones y colectividades indigenas, asi como a otras instituciones publicas y grupos de la sociedad involucrados y comprometidos en la accion indigenista.

3. La coordinacion con las instituciones fede- rales, estatales, municipales, de la sociedad, y con los organismos internacionales como tin principio permanente en toda la accion imple- inentada por el Institute) Nacional Indigenista (INI). Estos principios generates de accion guber- namental efectivizados por el INI son animados por la intencion resuelta de terminar con las amarras que inhiben el desarrollo pleno e inte- gral de los pueblos indigenas de Mexico, una Maria Patistan Licanchiton, una chamula maya poblacion dinamica que representa, en terminos izntzil de los alias tie Chiapas en Mexico, bila land de demograficos oficiales, mas del 9% del total de borrego en el patio tie su casa El borrego quefue mexicanos. Basada en el censo poblacional de traido por los espanoles, era llamado "venadode 1980, esto significa en 1991 mas de ocho mi- algodon por los mayas Foto de Ricardo Martinez llones de indigenas. Ningun otro pais del conti- nente americano tiene, en niimeros absolutos, la Participan este verano en el Festival de Cultu- poblacion indigena que tiene Mexico ras Tradicionales Americanas miembros de las Dentro de las demandas clarificadas por las etnias ikoods, zapoteca, tzotzil, tzetzal y lacan- comunidades indigenas y sus organizaciones es clona, representa ndo los estados de Oaxaca y muy importante la de procurar la igualdad de Chiapas, dos de los estados mexicanos con justicia en sus derechos y obligaciones ciuda- mayor densidad demografica y cultural indigena danas. como lo demanda la ley para todos los de nuestra Republic.! mexicanos. Por iniciativa presidencial, se fundo Con esta muestra cultural el publico asistente la Comision Nacional de Justicia para los Pueblos tendra la oportunidad de relacionarse con el Indios de Mexico en abril de 19H9. Esta conocimiento y sabiduria del indigena sobre la comision, presidida por el Dr. Arturo Warman, tierra v el medio ambiente que lo rodea. Ahora

Director General del INI, tiene la tarea de pro- que el mundo occidental ha empezado a preocu- poner, despues de previas consultas con organi- parse por el cuidado ambiental del planeta que zaciones indigenas y de la sociedad involucradas habitamos, las culturas indigenas de las Americas, en el desarrollo y el acontecer indigena. Esta a pesar de haber tenido todo en contra en estos iniciativa de Decreto Presidencial que fue som- ultimos quinientos anos, nos ofrecen su cono- etida a las Camaras de Diputados y Senadores a cimiento sobre la armonia que el hombre debe mediados de abril de 1991 que reconoce la reali- guardar en su relacion con el entorno natural. dad pluricultural de Mexico en el articulo 4 de la Es la "hora del planeta" y tambien la hora de Constitution, admitira la especificidad cultural de escuchar al indigena de nuestro continente. Los los pueblos indigenas y sus derechos colaterales. siglos ultimos de sujecion y discriminacion no El mencionado articulo integraria el siguiente deben transmitirse al nuevo milenio. La resisten- texto: cia cultural indigena debe convertirse en el La Nacion Mexicana tiene una composicion renacimiento pleno tic Lis capacidades indigenas

pluricultural sustentada originalmente en sus para el mejor provecho de todos los habitantes pueblos indigenas. La ley protegera y pro- de nuestro planeta. movera el desarrollo de sus lenguas, culturas, Jose I ins Krafft, etnologo, es Subdirector del Promocion usos, costumbres, recursos, formas espe< ifi< as Cultural del Instituto Nacional Indigenista Graduado de organizacion social, y garanti/ara a sus ile la Est iiela Nacional de Antropologia e Historia, integrantes el efectivo acceso a la juridiccion especializandose en las c ulturas indigenas de la selva, del estado. En los juicios y procedimientos particularmente la region lacandona Fue investigador agrarios en aquellos parte, se to- que sean del Vluseo de las < ulturas de la Ciudad de Mexico Ha maran en cuenta sus practicas y costumbres publicado extensamente sobre las culturas indigenas tie

juridicas en los terminos que establezca la ley. Mexico

10') LAND IN NATIVE AMERK AN i ULTURES An Excerpt From San Pedro Chenalho: Something of its History, Stories and Customs Jacinto Arias

This late 19th or early 2()th century episode in one protested because Hotaz had a lot of power. the history of San Pedro Chenalho, a village in the He threatened and abused the people exten- sively. In a with the Presidential of- highlands of Chiapas, is told by one a scribe, Man- conspiracy fice, Spaniards the lands surrounding the uel Arias. As a village scribe, his role is to chron- he gave icle events and transmit written communications town. between relatives, between community members This is when the Peclranos began to feel es- and between the local village and the outside au- tranged from the land that gave them their iden- thorities. In this fragment, he recalls a village titv. security and protection. They assembled with scribe who abused this power and betrayed his apprehension on Sundays and holidays, tor their community, a familiar theme in the history of the authorities had not been able to defend the liiiu. subjugation oi Native American cultures. Before, a single Kaxlanetik gave orders, but now

It not Throughout the period ol Spanish domination, many wanted power. was the same to take natives had to endure being treated like children orders from them when the)' lived outside in San by the Kaxlanetik (the descendants of the Span- Cristobal, as to watch them stroll arrogantly in the

It less iards). The image of the Spanish master was glori- middle of the native parish. was far humili- fied in San Pedro Apostol, father of the Pedrano ating to carry the Spaniards' suitcases when they to packages for people. San Pedro is not a native but a European were only travelers than carp god The relationship between the patron saint their wives m\l\ daughters, who daily mistreated and his children crystallizes the one between them. Kaxlanetik and natives during the time when they Peclranos surely felt neglected by their protec- tors: telt like the domestic animals of the Spaniards Why — if they were gods — did they not For a long time after the Spanish arrived, the destroy these people who made them suiter? Pedrano territory was five from incursions \s Were they also weak and afraid like their own sons' Hut continued to pray at night, tor the early as 1850, there were only two ranches ll was they night has hidden forces to help the neglected during the Porfirian era that most < >t the planta- tions were established, and the Pedrano people Peclranos gain courage. They prayed and asked started to feel the brunt of slavery, To continue for courage from their scribes. They said to their working the land they had owned for generations, gods: peasants had also to work three days a week lor If you have not given our authorities i he landowners. Enough courage in their hearts. flic central authority of the native parish Unni) If you have not given them did not allow the Kaxlanetik to live in the commu- Enough cleverness in their heads. nity. They could visit the town only as merchants Let someone rise among your children during holidays and weekends; the rest of the time With a stii >ng heart lliev lived in their homes in the lown of San To face the Kaxlanetik. Cristobal (JobeD. The lands surrounding this town provided firewood only to the native parish. The Kaxlanetik had none of the rights to the lands that facinto Arias /s Director of the Department ofEtbnh

( 'ultitres "I the < hiapanei Institute o/i ttlture oj the ihev have t< >day.

State oj < hiapas I lis work has been dedicated to the During the Porfirian era the best ally of the i/c/ci/v oj the indigenous cultures qj < hiapas, Kaxlanetik against the natives was a Pedrano particularly to the preservation of language in its scribe named Antonio Hotaz. who instead of pro- written form He ret eived Ins I'h D in anthropology tecting his people, helped the Spaniards ac- own from Princeton University His publications included quire land within the linn to build houses and sell Mundo Numinoso de Ins Mayas, and San Pedro merchandise, The town was thus, profaned, but no Chenalho Algo de su Historia, Cuentos v Costumbres

s 110 1 AMI l\ \ \ll\ 1 Wll RI( AN M I II HI Fragmento de San Pedro Chenalho: Algo de su Historia, Cuentos y Costumbres

Jacinto Arias

Este episodio en la historia a fines del siglo 19 la semana para el patron con tal de que pudieran sembrar en las tierras que sus padres les habian y principios del 20 de San Pedro Chenalho en los altos de Chiapas, es narrado por el escribano dejado; o a servir de mozos para pagar las gran- Manuel Arias. Como el cronista del pueblo, el des deudas que tenian con el patron. escribano mantiene su historia y facilita la comu- El htm, la cabecera municipal, no habia acep- nicacion entre miembros de la comunidad y entre tado la residencia de los ladinos. Estos visitaban los pueblos y autoridades fuera de la comunidad. el pueblo solo como comerciantes durante las En este fragmento, habla de un escribiente que fiestas, sabados y domingos; el resto del tiempo abuso de su poder y traiciono a su comunidad, vivian en sus casas en Jobel ( San Cristobal). Las un tenia familiar en la historia de subjugacion de tierras que estan alrededor del pueblo Servian las culturas nativas de America. solo para dar lena a las autoridades y demas

A lo largo de la dominacion espanola los in- personas que celebraban las fiestas de los santos; dios tuvieron que soportar el trato de nihos que ningun ladino alegaba tener derechos sobre ellas les daban los kaxlanetik (ladinos). La imagen del como ahora. ladino patron quedo entronizado en la persona Pero el porfiriato tuvo de aliado a Antonio de San Pedro Apostol que es un gran kaxlan Botaz, un escribano que, lejos de ser defensor de padre de los pedranos. San Pedro no es un dios su pueblo, se puso del lado de los ladinos. Por nativo sino ladino. La relacion entre el Santo unos garrafones de trago, unos manojos de came Patrono y sus hijos cristaliza la que existio entre salada, unos cigarros y unas cuantas "tortillas ladinos y nativos en los tiempos mas dificiles ladinas," permitio que los comerciantes hicieran, cuando estos se sintieron como polios, puercos o primero, sus galeras para vender sus mercancias, perros, frente a aquellos. luego, sus casas dentro del htm. Se profano el Durante mucho tiempo, despues de la venida pueblo, pero nadie protestaba porque Antonio de los espanoles, el territorio pedrano estuvo Botaz era muy temido; aventajaba a los ladinos libre de las invasiones ladinas. Por 1850, segun en el maltrato a sus paisanos: al saludo reverente los titulos de compras que los pedranos hicieron de inclinacion de cabeza de los que pedian justi- de sus propias tierras al Gobierno, habia nada cia respondia con los pies, en lugar de corre- mas dos ranchos que estaban en las lineas sponder con la mano como es costumbre; abusa- mojoneras con Pantelho y Tenejapa; por lo que ba de las mujeres de los que mandaba a la carcel. muy probablemente las haciendas se establecie- ron en el territorio pedrano durante la jefatura fai into Amis es Director del Departamento de < 'itlturas politica que estuvo en Larrainzar poco antes y Etnicas del Instituto < hiapanet o de ( ultura del Estado durante el porfiriato. Fue entonces cuando los de Chiapas Se ha dedicado it la defensa de las hijos de San Pedro empezaron a sentir mas de at/Hints indigenas de < hiapas y en particular a la los las cerca la esclavitud de parte de duenos de preservai ion de la lenguay mi escritura Recibio su

haciendas; fue cuando las tierras que poseian los doctorado en antropologia de la I niversidad de trabajadores desde generaciones anteriores em- Princeton Sus publicaciones incluyen El mundo pezaron a ser baldias y ellos, mozos; entonces numinoso de los mayas, rSan Pedro Chenalho: Algo

i. < is istumbres, varios de ellos comenzaron a trabajar tres dias a de su I listi mi. luenti ) G

LAND IN NATIVE AMERICAN CULTURES 111 Antonio Botaz supo dar mas miedo a los ya te- ridad del pueblo; no era lo mismo recibir instruc-

merosos paisanos suyos: "Si te alzas, si sigues ciones del ladino que vivia en San Andres o en San hablando, si no obedeces lo que te digo, te iras Cristobal que ver pasearse altaneramente a varios

muy lejos para no regresar jamas .1 tu casa," decia de ellos en el corazon del mismo pueblo; tampoco a los acusados de cualquier delito. Tambien en era tan humillante para los regidores y los algua- complicidad con el secretario de la presidencia ciles cargar las maletas de ladinos transeuntes como Jose Aguilar Rodas, fue el que dio a los ladinos cargar a las esposas e hijas de quienes recibian

Lis parcelas de las orillas del puebli 1 maltrati is de diarii >. Asi los pedranos comenzaron a sentir enajena- Se sintio seguramente el pedrano abandonado

cion del pedazo de tierra que les daba identidad, por sus seres protectores. ,l\>r que, si eran dioses,

seguridad, proteccion; ya con temor se congrega- iii> acababan con esas perse mas que los hacian su-

ban los domingos y clias de fiesta, su ayun- frir? Acaso los dioses eran tambien debiles y te- tamiento no habia sido capaz de ser el baluarte, merosos como sus hijos? Sin embargo siguieron el fortin, del lum. Si, anteriormente tambien era rezando sobre todo en las noches porque esta, que

el secretario el que mandaba en el pueblo, pero esconde fuerzas imperceptibles, da valor al pedrano

no era lo mismo tener a tin ladino que a varios que se siente abandonado; rezaban y pedian valor a que comenzaban a querer apoderarse de la auto- sus escribanos o decian a sus dioses:

Me muk' xavak'be stzat/al sjol yo'onik Si a estos iid les diste

ti boch'otik va'al tek'el avu'une, kajval, valor en sits care/zones.

ak'o yaluk tal, ak'o tz'ujuk tal avu'un si no les diste

ti boch'o skotol sjol talento en sus cabezas, skotol yo'on satilta sba que venga, que se levante de entre lus hijos. sva'lebin sba xchi'uk alguno de corazon fuerte ti sba avol, sba anich'one. para que se plante a los ladinos.

1 12 LAND IN NATIVE AMI KK AN CULT1 His SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 1991 Festival of American Folklife

June 28 -July 1/July 4 -July 7

Co-sponsoredby the National Park Service General Information

Festival Hours museos de Historia Nbrteamericana y for interpreted programs. Oral inter- for individuals if a Opening ceremonies for the Festi- de Historia Natural estaran abiertos preters are available is three full days in ad- val will be held on the Main Music desde las 10:00 a.m. hasta las 5:30 p.m. request made Call 786-2414 (TDD) or Stage in the Roots of Rhythm and. vance. (202) (202) 786-2942 (voice). An audio-loop Blues area at 11:00 a.m., Friday, June Rest Rooms/Telephones Festival will amplification system for people who 28th. Thereafter, hours There are outdoor facilities for the are hard of hearing is installed at the be 11:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. daily, with public and disabled visitors located parties every evening 5:30 to Roots of Rhythm and Blues Music dance near all of the program areas on the Stage. 7:00 p.m., except July 4th. Mall. Additional rest room facilities Large-print copies of the daily are available in each of the museum schedule and audiocassette versions of Horario del Festival buildings during visiting hours. the program book and schedule are La ceremonia de apertura al Festi- Public telephones are available on available free of charge at Festival in- val se celebrara en el escenario del the site, opposite the Museums of formation kiosks and the Volunteer Programa de "Roots of Rhythm and American History and Natural History, tent. Blues," el 28 de junio a las 11:00 A.M. and inside the museums. Wheelchairs are available at the A partir de ese dia, las horas del Festi- Festival Volunteer tent. Volunteers are val seran de 11:00 a.m. a las 5:30 Lost and Found/ on call to assist wheelchair users and p.m. diariamente, con baile cada no- Lost Children and Parents to guide visually handicapped visitors. che, excepto el 4 de julio, de 5:30 Lost items may be turned in or re- There are a few designated parking p.m. a 7:0,0 P.M. trieved at the Volunteer tenrlh the spaces for disabled visitors along both Administration area., Lost family mem- Mall drives. These spaces have three Sales bers may be claimed at the Volunteer hour time restrictions'. Traditional food from Indonesia, tent also. We advise putting a name Central and South America and the tag on youngsters. Parties midwestern United States will be sold. Evening Dance Musical groups playing traditional See the site map for locations. Personas music will perform every eve- A variety of crafts, books and y dance objetos Perdido p.m., 4th. Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings re- ning, 5:30-7:00 except July Las personas que hayan perdido a daily schedules for specific loca- lating to the 1991 Festival will be sold See sus ninos o a familiares pueden pasar in the Museum Shop tents on the tions. por la carpa para voluntarios, en el Festival site. area de la Administracion por ellos. Program Book Press Recomendamos que los ninos lleven Background information on the cul- puestos tarjeta de identificacion con Indonesia, native Visiting members of the press tural traditions of sus nombres. Los objetos encontrados North and South America, should register at the Festival Press people of o extraviados podran entregarse o re- in the midwestern tent on the Mall near Madison Drive family farming clamarse en dicha carpa. States and the roots of rhythm and 12th Street. United and blues is available in the Festival of Metro Stations American Folklife Program Book, on First Aid Metro trains will be running every sale for $3.00 at the Festival site or by A first aid station will be available day of the Festival. The Festival site is mail from the Office of Folklife Pro- near the Administration area on the easily accessible to either the Smith- grams, Smithsonian Institution, 955 Mall. The Health Units in the Muse- sonian or Federal Triangle stations on LEnfant Plaza, S.W., Suite 2600, Wash- ums of American History and Natural the Blue and Orange lines. ington, D.C. 20560. History are open from 10:00 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. Services for Primeros Auxilios Disabled Visitors sign-language interpreters are Una unidad de primeros auxilios se Four on site every day at the Festival. instalara cerca del area de la Adminis- the printed schedule and signs tracion. Las unidades de salud en los Check Participants in the Family Farming in 1991 Festival of the Heartland Farm Families Arnold Family American Folklife Rushville, Indiana (hog and grain farming) Clarence "Jake" Arnold Eleanor Arnold Roots of Rhythm and Blues: John Arnold The Robert Johnson Era Leslie Arnold Borman Family Home/Work/Social Spirituals and Gospel Mary Pinckney - Johns Kingdom City, Missouri Gatherings "Mcintosh County Shouters" Island, South Carolina (dairy farming) R.P. Hunt, harmonica - Catherine Campbell - Loretta Stanley - Johns Harlan Borman Coldwater, Mississippi Townsend, Georgia Island, South Carolina Katherine Bonnan Thelma Ellison - Townsend, Kelly Borman Children s Games Georgia Reverend Leon Pinson, Timothy Borman Brightwood Elementary Harold Evans - Townsend, guitar - New Albany, School students Georgia Mississippi Cerny Family Lawrence Mclver - Lee Russell Howard, Cobden, Illinois Fife & Drum Townsend, Georgia keyboards - New Albany, (tomato, pepper, grain, and Jesse Mae Hemphill, drum - Verti Mclver - Townsend, Mississippi beef cattle farming) Como, Mississippi Georgia Anthony Cerny Napolean Strickland, fife - Benjamin - Townsend, Delta Blues Betty Cerny Como, Mississippi Georgia Kent DuChaine, guitar - Eric Cerny Abe Young, drum - Como, Doretha Skipper - Birmingham, Alabama Josephine Cerny Mississippi Townsend, Georgia David "Honeyboy" Edwards,, Norbert Cerny Carletha Sullivan - guitar - Chicago, Illinois Richard Cerny R.L. Boyce, drum - Como, Townsend, Georgia Michael Frank, harmonica - Theresa Cerny Mississippi Elizabeth - Chicago, Illinois Thomas Cerny E.P. Burton, drum - Como, Townsend, Georgia Frank Frost, harmonica/

Mississippi Odessa Young - Townsend, piano - Clarksdale, Dahl Family Bernice Evans, drum - Georgia Mississippi

- Mineral Point, Wisconsin Senatobia, Mississippi Robert Jr. Lockwood, guitar (dairy farming and Otha Turner, fife - ^'Moving Star Hall Singers" Cleveland, Ohio gardening) Senatobia, Mississippi Benjamin Bligen - Johns Lonnie Pitchford, guitar - Pascalena Dahl Island, South Carolina Lexington, Mississippi Tony Dahl Work Chants Ruth Bligen - Johns Island, Gene Schwartz, bass guitar - Vickie Dahl "Railroad Maintenance South Carolina Cleveland, Ohio Workers" Janie Hunter - Johns Johnny Shines, guitar - Gustad Family Henry Caffe - Birmingham, Island, South Tuscaloosa, Alabama Volin, South Dakota Alabama Carolina Henry Townsend, guitar/ (hog and grain farming) Arthur James - Birmingham, Christina McNeil piano - St. Louis, Missouri Jeannie Gustad Alabama Johns Island, Elmore Williams, guitar/ Ordell "Bud" Gustad John Henry Mealing - South mouth sounds - Natchez, Paul Gustad Birmingham, Alabama Carolina Mississippi Shari Gustad Abraham Parker - Steve Gustad Birmingham, Alabama "Mamie Davis Blues Band" Gustad Cornelius Wright - Dale Cusic, drums - Birmingham, Alabama Greenville, Mississippi Hill Family Mamie Davis, vocals - Imlay City, Michigan David Savage - -Greenville, Greenville, Mississsippi (potato farming) Mississippi Albert Foe, bass guitar - Lynnette Hill Joseph Savage - Greenville, Greenville, Mississippi Russell Hill Mississippi Larry Blackwell, guitar - Greenville, Mississippi )

Shannon Hill Tyrone Hill

Holmquist Family Smolan, Kansas (wheat and beef cattle farming) Darrel Holmquist Marlysue Holmquist Mary Holmquist Thomas Holmquist

Jones Family Ainsworth, Nebraska

(hog, beef cattle and grain *Vv»> " farming) (dairy farming) lone Todd, quilter - Remus, Hutchinson, Kansas Brendon Jones John Tomesh Michigan Gordon McCann, guitar - Carol Jones Joseph Tomesh Springfield, Missouri David Jones Rose Tomesh Threshing Bob Andresen, guitar - Lois Jones Virginia Tomesh Ronald E. Miller, Genesoe, Duluth, Minnesota Illinois Gary Andresen, guitar - Logenbach Family Crafts Lora Lea Miller, Geneseo, Duluth, Minnesota Fremont, Ohio Wilma Brueggemeier, quilter Illinois (cucumber, sugar beet and - Norwood, Minnesota Russell L. Miller, Geneseo, Farm Songs and Stories cattle farming) Marian Day, cook - W. Illinois Chuck Suchy, singer/ Connie Logenbach Lebanon, Indiana James Daniel "J.D." Miller, songwriter - Mandan, Larry Logenbach William Day, wooden bowl Geneseo, Illinois North Dakota Mike Logenbach maker - W. Lebanon, Herb Wessel, Hampstead, Michael Cotter, storyteller - Indiana Austin, Minnesota Peters Family Deonna Green, quilter - Russell Wolfinger, Vallonia, Indiana Remus, Michigan Hagerstown, Maryland Brian and the Mississippi ( and beef cattle Paula Guhin, corn mural Henry Thomas, Washington, Valley Dutchmen farming artist - Aberdeen, South D.C. Brian Brueggen, band Larry Peters Dakota leader, concertina - Lavena Peters Elnora Henschen, quilter - Music Cashton, Wisconsin Peg Peters Norwood, Minnesota Old Time Fiddle Contest Wilhelm Oelke, drums/ Ralph Peters Gertrude Hornebrink, quilter Kenny Applebee, guitar - vocals - Coon Valley, - Waconia, Minnesota Rush Hill, Missouri Wisconsin Simanek Family Arnold Ische, rug"weaver - Amos Chase, fiddle - Louis Allen, tuba - Walker, Iowa Cologne, Minnesota Grantville, Kansas McFarland, Wisconsin (grain and beef cattle Lillian Ische, rug weaver - Dwight "Red" Lamb, fiddle/ Philip Brueggen, trumpet/ farming) Cologne, Minnesota button accordion - vocals - Cashton, Allen Simanek Harold Plate, whirligig Onawa, Iowa Wisconsin Arthur Simanek maker - Hedrich, Iowa Preston "Pete" McMahan, Don Burghardt, trumpet/ Dorothy Simanek Patricia Plate, whirligig fiddle - Harrisburg, trombone/vocals - Linda Simanek maker - Hedrich, Iowa Missouri Sturdevant, Wisconsin

Dale Rippentrop, corn mural Kenneth Sidle, fiddle - • Milton "Tony" Jorgenson,

Sage-Chase and Voigt decorator - Mitchell, Newark, Ohio banjo - Coon Valley, Family South Dakota Lynn "Chirps" Smith, fiddle - Wisconsin Halliday, North Dakota Arthur Sayler, postrock Grayslake, Illinois (Mandan Indian gardening) cutter - Albert, Kansas Tom Weisgerber, fiddle - St. Country Travellers Louise Otter "Pretty Eagle" Arthur Sayler III, postrock Peter, Minnesota Lillie Anderson, bass - Sage cutter - Albert, Kansas Michele Blizzard, fiddle - Thompsonville, Illinois Bob "Moves Slowly" Sage- Beatrice Sayler, rug maker - Frazeyburg, Ohio Phyllis Davis, rhythm guitar/ Chase Albert, Kansas vocals - Benton, Illinois Ann Charity "Cornsilk" Voigt Cal Shultz, corn mural artist Midwestern Parlor Music Willard Davis, rhythm guitar Janet "Bird Woman" Voigt - Mitchell, South Dakota Styles - Benton, Illinois Strand, corn mural Art Galbraith, fiddle - guitar - » Dean Ernest Rhynes, lead Tomesh Family decorator - Mitchell, Springfield, Missouri Ina, Illinois Rice Lake, Wisconsin South Dakota Paul Keller, ragtime piano - Lloyd "Boot" Shew, fiddle - Nancy Roorda, euphonium - Indonesia Mile Ngalle, musician/ Thompsonville, Illinois Iowa City, Iowa dancer Sidney Logsdon, square Don Stine, conductor, Juma, musician East Kalimantan dance caller - Versailles, euphonium - Mt. Vernon, Jamaluddin, musician H. Zailani Idris, Regional Illinois Iowa Serang Dakko, musician Coordinator Judy Stine, alto horn - Mt. Ismail Madung, musician The Simanek Family Vernon, Iowa H. Damang, boat builder Kenyah Allen Simanek, trombone - Kevin Tiedemann, H. Muhammad Tahir, boat Pangun Jalung, dancer Walker, Iowa percussion - Lisbon, Iowa builder Peding Ajang, dancer Anton Simanek, tuba/ Robert Upmeyer, alto horn - Martawang La Pucu, weaver Buaq Aring, dancer baritone horn - Walker, Solon, Iowa Roslina Suaib, foodways Ngang Bilung, dancer Iowa Robert Warner, coronet - Peluhat Saring, dancer Arthur Simanek, accordion - Anamosa, Iowa "East Java Pelajam Udou, dancer Walker, Iowa A. M. Munardi - Regional Lawai Jalung, musician Conjunto Los Bribones Coordinator Pelenjau Ala, lamin builder - Eastern Iowa Brass Band Juan Herrera, Jr., drums Ajan Ding, lamin builder Barbara Biles, alto horn - Defiance, Ohio East Java - Madura Dau Kirung, beadworker Springville, Iowa Juan Herrera, Sr., bass guitar Hosnan P. Atromu, dancer Alina Ubang, weaver Todd Bransky, Uiba - Solon, - Defiance, Ohio Fauzi, dancer Agang Merang, blacksmith - dancer/musician Iowa Rudy Tijerina, Jr., guitar Masruna, Beth Brooks, percussion - Archboid, Ohio Merto, dancer/musician Modang Crawfordsville, Iowa Rudy Tijerina, Sr., "Supakra" Sudjibta, dancer/ Lehong Bujai, musician Norman Brooks, tuba - accordion/vocals - mask carver Jiu Ping Lei, musician Crawfordsville, Iowa Defiance, Ohio Marzuki, musician Djeng Hong, hudok dancer - Marzuki, musician Jerry Buxton, tuba - Iowa Robert Valle, guitar A.S. Y. Bayau Lung, hudok City, Iowa Defiance, Ohio Muhni, musician dancer musician Nancy Coles, coronet - Mt. Sahabuddin, Yonas Wang Beng, hudok Vernon, Iowa Swiss American Music Sutayyib, musician carver Renee Crisman, trombone - Martha Bernet, accordion/ Sutipno, musician Bit Beng, hudok dancer Solon, Iowa vocals - Monroe, Saleh, musician ~ David DeHoff, announcer - Wisconsin Sunarwi, musician South Sulawesi Marion, Iowa Betty Vetterli, accordion/ Suraji, musician Halilintar Lathief, Regional - Riskijah, foodways Joan DeHoff, coronet vocals - Monroe, Coordinator Marion, Iowa Wisconsin Hadiya, traditional medicine Lyle Hanna, bass trombone Hamsinah Bado, dancer Mt. Vernon, Iowa Moon Mullins and the East Java - Banyuwangi Hasnah Gassing, dancer Beth Hronek, coronet - Traditional Grass Astani, dancer Daeng Gassing musician/ ' Cedar Rapids, Iowa Paul "Moon" Mullins, fiddle/ Supinah, dancer dancer Fred Hucke, flugelhorn - vocals - Middletown, Adenan, musician Cedar Falls, Iowa Ohio

Susan Hucke, coronet - Gerald Evans, Jr., mandolin/

Cedar Falls, Iowa • vocals - Cincinatti, Ohio Melissa Karr, trombone - Glen Inman, bass - W. Iowa City, Iowa Carollton, Ohio Steve Kinney, coronet - William Joseph "Joe" Harper's Ferry, Iowa Mullins, banjo/vocals - Viola Koster, coronet - Hamilton, Ohio Marion, Iowa Charles Mark Rader, guitar/ Tim Lockwood, percussion vocals - Trenton, Ohio Mt. Vernon, Iowa Dennis Modracek, coronet - Farm Broadcasting Cedar Rapids, Iowa Rich Hawkins, KRVN - George Mullaly, baritone Lexington, Nebraska horn - Iowa City, Iowa Lee Kline, WHO - Des Harvey Nicholson, Moines, Iowa euphonium - Iowa City, Verlene Looker, KMA - Iowa Shenandoah, Iowa Richard Rockrohr, percussion - Mt. Vernon, Iowa Praminto Adi, musician Marwan, reog performer Numi Vicente Tkakimp Albino Figueroa, drum/turtle Basuki, musician Nardi, reog performer Atum, dancer shell/fisherman/net maker Sahuni, musician Saleh, reog performer Felipe Unkush Tsenkush, Apolinar Figueroa, drum/ Sukidi, musician Shodiq, reog performer storyteller/hunter/ turtle shell/basketmaker/ Sanali, musician Subroto, reog performer fisherman net maker Sumitro Hadi, musician Sunardi, reog performer Miguel Puwainchir, Juan Olivares, narrator/ Suparman, reog performer storyteller/hunter' researcher/fisherman EastJava - Ponorogo Kusnan, gamelan maker fisherman Peru Buwono, reog performer Misri, gamelan maker Jose Shimpu Marit-Saap, Taquite Harjokemun al Moloq, reog weaver/basketmaker Paula Quispe Cruz, dancer/

performer East Java - Tit ban Hilda Gomez, cook weaver Heri Suprayitno, reog Rukaiyah, batik dyer Antonieta Tiwiran Taish, Terencia Marca Willi, performer Tarsi, batik dyer cook dancer/weaver Margono, reog performer Jose Miguel Tsunki Alejandro Flores Huatta, Tempekat Yampanas, weaver/musician musician Alejandro Huatta Machaca, Land in Native weaver/musician Mexico Salvador Huatta Yucra, American Cultures Maya weaver/musician Petrona Intzin, weaver/ dyer Jesus Marca Quispe, weaver/ Alaska cook/ bread Maria Perez Peso, weaver musician Haida Bertrum "Bert" Tsavatawa. dyer/cook . Cipriano Machaca Quispe, Dolores Churchill, weaver/ painter Salvador Lunes Collazo, weaver/musician basketmaker Hershel Talashoema, medicine man Mariano Quispe Mamani, Holly Churchill, weaver/ storyteller J. Catalina Meza Guzman, weaver/musician basketmaker interpreter/translator Bolivia Zapotec Tlingit Jalq a Lacandon Cenorina Garcia, potter Austin Hammond, Apolinaria Mendoza, dancer/ Vincente K'in Paniagua, Alberta Martinez "ria-bert" storyteller/subsistence cook/weaver potter/farmer/arrowmaker Marcial, weaver/cook' Ernestine Hanlon, weaver Gerardo Mamani, costume Angela Marcial "ria-ranc" Esther Susan Shea, header/ maker/dancer Ikoods Mendoza, weaver/ storyteller Honorato Mamani, costume Teofila Palafox, weaver narrator/cook Mark Jacobs, subsistence maker/dancer Jr., Virginia Tamariz. weaver Flaviano Beltran, tanner/ Nathan Jackson, carver/ Juliana Rodriguez, dancer/ Alfredo Abasolo, fisherman/ leatherworker/farmer dancer/subsistence cook/weaver netmaker/dancer Pedro Rios Hernandez, Nora Marks Dauenhauer, Marcelo Cruz, costume Ricardo Carvajal, chirimia/ chirimia/basketmaker/ dancer/singer maker/dancer singer/fisherman/ dance master Steven Jackson, carver/ netmaker Arnulfo M. Ramos, chirimia/ dancer Tiwanaku 'Lino Degollado, dancer/ rope maker Cesar Callisaya Yurijra, netmaker Tsimshian dancer/cook/weaver Jack Hudson, carver/dancer/ Roberto Cruz Yupanqui, singer agriculture/dancer Martin Condori Callisaya, Arizona agriculture/dancer Hopi Tito Flores Nina, agriculture/ Fawn Garcia, potter dancer James "" Garcia, potter Bonifacia Quispe Fernandez, Marcus "Cooch" dancer/cook/weaver Coochwikvia, silversmith Patricia Uruchi Limachi, Patrick Joshvehma, carver/ dancer/cook/weaver katsina dolls/toys Elena Uruchi Quispe, Merle Calnimptewa, weaver/ dancer/cook/weaver belts Benita Ranos Uruchi, Ernie "Patusngwa-Ice" dancer/cook/weaver Andrews, weaver Pearl Kootswytewa, Ecuador basketmaker/coil Shuar

Tamie Jean "T.J." Tootsie, Luisa Marta Tunki Kayap, dancer Hechinger Company, Landover, MD Contributing Heritage Cutlery, Inc., Bolivar, NY Forest, Field and Sea: Folklife in Jolly Time Popcorn, Sioux City, IA Indonesia Sponsors McGuire Funeral Service, National Arboretum, Washington, DC Washington, DC National Linen Service, Alexandria, VA National Linen Service, Alexandria, VA Plantworks, Davidsonville, MD Family Farming in the Heartlandfas Rolling Greens, Falls Church, Pier I Imports, Fort Worth, TX VA been made possible by the Smith- Russell Harrington Cutlery, South sonian Institution and the U.S. Depart- Bridge, MA Land in Native American Cultures Agriculture. ment of Sugar Association, Inc., Washington, DC American Sheep Industry Association, Tripps Bakers, Inc., Wheeling, WV Englewood, CO ' Cultures Land in Native American Tyson's Tree Service, Sterling, VA has co-sponsored the Smith- been by Uncle Ben's, Inc., Houston, TX sonian Institution's National Museum U.S. National Arboretum, of the American Indian, and made Washington, DC Special possible by the Smithsonian, the Inter- Utz Quality Foods, Inc v Hanover, PA American Foundation, the U.S. Em- Wilkins Coffee, Capitol Heights, MD bassy in Bolivia, the Ruth Mott Fund, Thanks Sealaska Heritage Foundation, the Roots ofRhythm and Blues: The Robert Government of Chiapas, Mexico, Insti- Johnson Era General Festival tuto Nacional Indigenista and Centra B& O Railroad Museum, Baltimore, MD Allied Builders Investigaciones Superi- de y Estudios Stephen C. LaVere Mary Cliff ores en Antropologia Social of Mexico, Folklore Society of Greater the Cultural Preservation Office of the Family Farming in the Heartland Washington Hopi Tribal Council, and American Action Al's Tire Co., Washington, DC Ron Hernandez Airlines of Quito, Ecuador. Aermotor Windmill Corporation, San Joyce Lamebull Angelo, TX Leon Leuppe Forest, Field and Sea: Folklife in Indo- Bacova Guild, Ltd., Bacova, VA Louisa Meruvia nesia has been made possible by the Ball Corporation, Muncie, IN Smithsonian Institution; the National Babson Brothers Company, We extend special thanks to all the Committee K.I.A.S. (Festival of Indo- Naperville, IL volunteers at this year's Festival. Only nesia); Garuda Indonesia Airways; The Botanical Gardens, with their assistance are we able to American President Lines; Regional Washington, DC present the programs of the 1991 of East East Kali- Governments Java, Cedar Works, Inc., Peebles, OH Festival ofAmerican Folklife. mantan and South Sulawesi; and Julius Curry Seed Company, Elk Point, SD Tahija. Network, Data Transmission Bluffton, Roots ofRhythm and Blues: The Robert Indiana branch office Johnson Era Roots ofRhythm and Blues: The Robert Ertl Company, Dyersville, IA Rebecca Barnes Johnson Era has been made possible Ford - New Holland Company, Howell Begle, Rhythm & Blues by the Smithsonian and a grant from Lancaster, PA Foundation the Institution's Special Exhibition Hoard's Dairyman Magazine, Fort Roland Freeman Fund and by a grant from the Music Atkinson, WI Maggie Holtzberg-Call Performance Trust Funds. John Deere Company, Columbus, Paul Kahn Ohio branch office Lauri Lawson Massey Ferguson Company, IA Jim O'Neil Nebraska Plastics, Cozad, NE Martin Paulson, Music Performance In Kind Northrup-King Company, Golden Trust Funds Valley, MN Judy Peyser, Center for Southern Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc., Folklore Contributions Johnston, IA Leroy Pierson Steel City Corporation, John Telfer General Festival Support Youngstown, OH John Waring Bell Haven Pharmacy, Alexandria, VA The Tomato Game, Immokalee, FL Dick Waterman Embassy High Dairy, Waldorf, MD Valmont Industries, Valley, NE Ndncy Wilson, Association of Everfresh Juice Co., Franklin Park, IL Van Wingerden of Culpepper, American Railroads Goodlaxson Manufacturers, Inc., - Stevensburg, VA Coldfax, IA Wisconsin Aluminum Foundry, Family Farming in the Heartland Hall Brothers Funeral Home; Inc., Manitowoc, WI v Jim Brier Washington, DC Woodpeckers Ltd. of Virginia, Robin Sproul, ABC Washington Monterey, VA Bureau Tina Bucuvalas Bud Kerr Don Q. Washington Pete Daniel, Smithsonian Institution, Doug Mackenzie Hugh Williams Division of Agriculture and Natural Julia McCaul Michael Yaki Resources Mary Ann McQuinn Maria Downs Douglass Miller U.S. Department of State Barbara Faust, Smithsonian Institution, Bill Mills Donald Camp Office of Horticulture Chris Molineaux Karl Fritz, U.S.I.A. Harley Good Bear Susan Nelson Barbara Harvey Martin Hamilton, University of Diane O'Connor Maryland Extension Service Jack Parnell Indonesian Embassy, Washington, DC Senator Tom Harkin Janet Poley Ambassador Abdul Rachman Ramly Larry Jones, Smithsonian Institution, Vic Powell Sjarief and Judy Achjadi Division of Agriculture and Natural Larry Quinn Makarim Wibisono Resources Larry Rana Giri Kartono Lee Majeski, University of Maryland Dennis Roth Raya Sumardi Extension Service Jim Schleyer I.G.A. Ngurah Suparta Ronald Miller Al Senter Senator Paul Simon Bob Sherman East Java Wayman Cobine Kelly Shipp Governor Sularso Herb Wessel Norton Strommen Bupati Soegondo Dalena White Shirley Traxler Bupati Drs. R. Gatot Soemani Jay Wilier Larry Wachs Bupati Drs. Djoewahiri Diana Winthrop Ray Waggoner Martoprawiro Hank Wyman Bupati Djuhansah Special thanks to the U.S. Department Clayton Yeutter Bupati Abdul Kadir ofAgriculture, Edward Madigan, Sec- Sekwilda Widodo Pribadi, S.H. retary: and the staff in the Heartland Forest, Field and Sea. The Folklife of states for their participation and guid- Indonesia South Sulawesi ance in providing state information Office of the Executive Committee, Governor Prof. Dr. H. A. Amiaiddin for the Family Farm program. Festival of Indonesia 1990-1991 Bupati Drs. A. Thamrin Mochtar Kusuma Atmadja Bupati Drs. H. Tadjuddin Noer Joe Antogini Rahmad Adenan Bupati Drs. A. Azis Umar Joan Arnoldi Supono Hadisujatmo Bupati Abbas Sabbi, S.H. Marti Asner Djoko Soejono Mayor Soewahyo Marlyn Aycock Erman Soehardjo Former Bupati Drs. HA. Burhanuddin Tim Badger Nani Woejani Bupati Drs. HA. Dauda Jim Benson Anggrek Kutin/Kartika Mayor Mirdin Kasim, S.H. Bruce Blanton Sahri Doug Bowers Festival of Indonesia 1990-1991, East Kalimantan Judith Bowers New York City Governor H.M. Ardans, S.H. Cameron Bruemmer Theodore Tanen Bupati H. Said Safran Gary Butler Maureen Aung-Twin Mike Combs Maggie Weintraub Valley Craftsmen, LTD. Baltimore, MD, Morley Cook Festival of Indonesia In Performance Samuel S. Robinson Steve Dewhurst Rachel Cooper Jane Dodds Micki Altiveros-Chomits John Duncan Friends of the Festival Committee Gene Ammarell

Esther L. Edwards Clare Wolfowitz James Danandjaya Robert Fones Eric Crystal Alan Fusonie Ministry of Education and Culture Tammy Dackworth

Claude Gifford Dr. Buddhisantoso Jijis Chadran Marcus Gross Dewi Indrawati Hermine Dreyfuss Ron Hall Dloyana Kusumah Anthony Day Eartha Harriet Alan Feinstein Kathryn Hill Yavasan Dana Bhakti Kesejahteraan Kathy Foley Bob Hoover Sosial Marti Fujita Linwood Jones Roy Hamilton Dennis Kaplan U.S. Embassy, Jakarta Sri Hastanto Sally Katt Ambassador John Monjo Tim Jessup Michael Kelly Demaris Kirshshofer Halilintar Latief Renske Heringa Gregorio Luke Zailani Idris Theodore MacDonald Asri Kaniu Enrique Mayer Amna Kusumo Louis Minard Sardono W. Kusumo Sidney Mintz •Isabella Linser Christian Monis A. M. Munardi Walter Morris David Noziglia , Javier Moscoso Judy Mitoma Rita Murillo Mark Perlman June Nash Anna Rice Patricia Ortiz Mena de Gonzalez Widiyanto S. Putro Garrido J. Richards Carlos Ostermeier Ann Saxon Louis Painted Pony Siradjuddin Philip Parkerson Bernard Sellato William K. Perrin Eugene Smith Maria Teresa Pomar Anderson Sutton Marion Ritchie-Vance Narulita Sastromiharto Charles A. Reilly Patti Seery Anita Rincon Paul Taylor Fatima Rodriguez Toby Volkman Manuel Rodriguez Philip Yampolsky Teri Rofkar Teresa Rojas Rabiela Land in Native American Cultures Chris Rollins Fernando Alborta Mendez Alberto Salamanca Prado Allen Catherine Calvin R. Sperlin Roy Bailey Raymond H. Thompson Jose Barreiro Deborah Tuck Edmmund H. Benner Marta Turok Charles M. Berk - Antonio Ugarte Roy Bryce-Laporte Rosi LIrriolagoitia Robert I. Callahan Irene Vasquez Valle Maria Teresa Campero Stephen G. Velter Eduardo Castillo Noel Vietmeyer Mercedes Cerdio Freddy Yepes Jose Luis Coutino Lopez Mary Jane Yonkers Ambassador Jorge Crespo Velasco Arturo Warman Mac Chapin David Whisnant Roberto Da Matta Norman Whitten Floriberto Diaz Gomez Herbert Didrickson Andres Fabregas Barbara Faust Enriqueta Fernandez Holly Forbes Adolfo A. Franco Christina Frankemont Ambassador Robert Gelbard Susie Glusker Kevin Benito Healy Charlotte Heth Bill Holm Bob Johnson Duane Johnson David Katzeek Charles Kleymeyer Emilio Izquierdo Marie Laws Rev. Jose Loits Meulemans Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Friday, June 28 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. ^r\ Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol ^3?

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia

Music Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Stage 11:00

11:30- Opening Ceremony

12:00 Brian Home and the Office Mississippi Fife & Drum Robert Farm Family Vallej Farm Songs 12:30 - Band Johnson History Remembered Dutchmen: and Games Polka Music Heartland Mcintosh Noonday County Conjunto Lo; 1:00 Meal Shouiers & Piano Bribones Live Radio Moving Star Workshop Mexican Hall Singers; American \\ ith Verlene Spirituals Si Music Looker, KMA Czech Dance Feather 1:30 l \ ... Chuck 1 Live Radio Stripping Suchey and with Rich Party Women Sing Michael Hawkins, Robert Jr. the Blues Cotter: KRVN U k kw< h )d 2:00 Farm Songs 12-String Canning Blues and Sti iries Guitar with Fruits Moon Midwestern Learning Children's Mullins and 2:30 Acc< irdion about Farm Matenal as the Tradi- Styles Animals Root Music tional Grass Ohio Blue- Henry H< ime grass, "Mule" Office 3:00 Townsend: Live Radio Cit) Country Rhythm and with Rich Blues Blues: Midwestern flaw kins. Its Living KRVN 3:30 Fiddle Styles Cooking Creating a Legacy Family Quilt with Corn

( hanging Johnny Brian and Roles of 4:00 Shines: the Missis Women Delta Blues Songs that Pace Work sippi Valley Dutchmen: 4:30 Polka Music Choosing and Planting Making seeds Sausage Mamie Davis Comparative Conjunto Los Blues Band: Slide 5:00 Bribones: Delta Blues Technique Mexican American Music 5:30 5:30 Dance Special Demonstrations Party: Threshing - 12:00-12:30. 3:00-3:30 Midwestern Milking the Cow - 4:00-4 30gg Fiddlers Ongoing Demonstrations 7:00 Wooden Bowl Making • Whirligig Making • Com Mural Decorating • Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- wegian Fmbroidery • Feather Brush Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Painting • Crocheting • Fence , Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Corn Braiding Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Saturday, June 29 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage, g-. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol v§>

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Land in Native Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia American Cultures

Music Narrative/ Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Children's Long- Rain- Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Area house forest Stage Areas 11:00 Chuck Live Radio Suchey and with Verlene Fife & Drum Songs that Michael Looker, KMA Gandrung Madurese Band Pace Work Cotter: Social 11:30- Family Cake Farm Songs Dance Cooking Recipe and Stories

\|< n .11 Making Moving Star Hay Mullins and 12:00 Hall The the Tradi- Singers: "Crossroads Home Office Grass: Sea Island Myth tional Ohio Spirituals Family Oral Bluegrass Topeng Dayak Music 12:30 History Mask & Dance Conjunto Farm Humor Projects Dance 12-Bar, Los Bri- Children's 8-Bar, bones: Heartland Material as No-Bar Mexican Noonday 1:00- Root Music Blues American Meal Music Storytelling; Boat- Michael building/ Cotter Sulawesi Learn Fishing Learning Robert Music & Indonesian 1:30- Jr. about Seeds Lockwood: Live Radio Dance Batik 12-String Vocal Styles with Rich "Blues Guitar Hawkins, Dayak Crafts KRVN 2:00 Midwestern Children's Rhythm . Making Fiddle Gamelan and Blues: Sauerkraut Reyog Johnny Contest Workshop Topeng Living Its Procession Styles Shines: (Meet at the Dance I.CgJl \ Tomato 2:30 Delta Blues < attle Pendopo) Judging and Packing Showing

Mcintosh Children's Home Office County Material as 3:00 Root Music Gandrung Sulawesi Shouters: Live Radio Social Cooking Shout with Rich Dance Spirituals & Brian Hawkins, Mandan Dance and the KRVN Baking 3:30 Songs that Mississippi Indian Play Work Bread Legends Indonesian Henry Pace Valley Games "Mule" Dutchmen: Wisconsin Caring for Townsend: Sulawesi Polka Music the Land Pan- 4:00 City/Country Music & Blues Chuck Festival Bottleneck Dance Suchey and Workshop Slide Tech- Michael Silk Weaving nique Fife & Drum Cotter: Midwestern Norwegian 4:30 Band Farm Songs Christmas Dayak Music and Stories Accordion Styles Dinner Make Your & Dance Own Moon Topeng/ Mamie Davis Shadow- Mullins and Gamelan 5:00 Blues Band Puppet Sea Island the Tradi- Workshop Delta Blues Spirituals tional Grass Ohio Bluegrass 5:30 Demonstrations 5:30 Dance Special - Party: Threshing 12:00-12:30, 3:00-3:30 - Brian and Milking the Cow 4:00-4:30 the Missis- Demonstrations sippi Ongoing Valley Wooden Bowl Making • Whirligig 7:00 Dutchmen Making • Corn Mural Decorating • Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Painting • Crocheting • Fence Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Corn Braiding Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Sunday, June 30 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage, g-. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol v5

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Johnson Era

11:00

11:30- Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Monday, July 1 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol ^5

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia

Music Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Stage 11:00 Con junto Live Radio The Johnson Los Bri- with Verlene Fife & Drum Era bones: Looker, KMA Baking Band \k'\u ,in 11:30- Day: American Fruit Music Cobbler Children's Harvest: Mcintosh Material as Image and County Root Music Reality 12:00 Midwestern Home Shouters: Fiddle Office Shout Styles Spirituals .S; Farm Dance Songs 12:30 and Guitar Styles Brian Games and the Farm Help Mississippi Pie

Valley Making I 1:00- Blues Song Swap Dutchmen: Polka Music Record Pan-Festival Moon Keeping Creating Workshop: Mullins Fife & Drum a Family 1:30 and the Live Radio Quilt Henry Traditional Grass: with Rich "Mule" Ohio Hawkins, Townsend: Bluegrass KRVN 2:00 City/Country Pie Blues Women Sing Chuck the Blues Suchey and Children's Making II Michael Chores Czech Cotter: Feather 2:30 Reverend Farm Songs Leon Pinson; Stripping and Stories Spiritual- Quilting Party Gospel Songs that Con junto Home* Piano Pace Work Los Bri- Office^ 3:00 bones: Live Radio Mexican with Rich Moving Star American Hawkins, HaU Singers: Music KRVN Pie Mandan Sea Island 3:30 Making III Indian Spirituals Blues Brian \r Legends Composition and the Fences and Mississippi Borders Valley 4:00 Dutchmen: Fife & Drum Polka Music Band Piano Moon Mullins Workshop Rural Clubs Pie and the 4:30- and Organi- Judging Traditional with Grass: zations Verlene Ohio Looker Bluegrass 5:00 Johnny Shines: Songs that Chuck 5* Delta Blues Pace Work Suchey: i Farm Songs 5:30- Special Demonstrations Dance Threshing - 12:00-12:30, 3:00-3:30 Party: Milking the Cow - 4:00-4 30 ' Blues Special Ongoing Demonstrations 7:00 Wooden Bowl Making * Whirligig Making • Corn Mural Decorating • Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Painting • Crocheting • Fence Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Corn Braiding Madison Drive

a — Zapot Land in Native Tlingit & D ^ Haida Enramada "otte: Festival American Cultures oo %T Rainforest

- Shuar& . n pla z Site Ach Map ^^>0 Medicine o o I l^' Lancandon

Family Farming in the Heartland -v

Old Time Music Threshing Demonstration Farm Stage Machinery M Area Machine Repair Shop

Fence Quilting and Corn Palace Building Needlework Demonstration

Mandan Indian Agriculture Preparing the Soil & Choosing Seeds © Information Raising Narrative M \ Livestock Cro s () First Aid P Stage ' Pen (J) Restrooms Marketing and Livestock Barn — Harvesting — Q Beverage Concession

|J) Food Concession Jefferson Drive ©Accessible to Mobility Impaired Gamelan Making Forest, Field Sea: Hopi and Crafts Peformance Folklife in Indonesia O Crafts Hopi Administration Dictionaryl :

Museum The National Mall Sales Shop ©

Music Stage (Audio Loop) Metro (Smithsonian)

Arabbers

Narrative Stage M© ©

Roots of Rhythm . and Blues: The Robert Johnson Era-

Sadder African Art GaUery Museum

Madison Drive

Gameian Mak ing Forest, Field and Sea: ;® / peformance^ ~g~ / "—Ss" ^ Folklife in Indonesia Crafts Land in Native Tlingit & Haida lnr;' mada Pottery V \T~7 Hopi Administration Festival American Cultures Area ^rr,,Dictionary | Textile Crafts oo %.. leaving Suka Kollus Rainforest Longhouse '"*-- Area Plaza Boat 1 , , Narrative/Cooking Shuar & r- p — / / / Shed An hu Demonstration Site Map Medicine /Pendopo / Children's K~7\ ,-, 5T>0< '0^ <-( / nUjalq'a ^-tVj,& Area Enraniadfl , D Q O D 'Lancandon \J © \V Sage |/\| jamua H o Hchiapas J I Tiwanaku Arabbers -®- o Family Farming in the Heartland Red Press ^ Cross Volunteers CD Old Time Music Threshing Demonstration Museum National Mall Farm Stage The Sales Shop Machinery B Area Machine Repair Shop

Fence Quilting and Corn Palace Building Needlework Demonstration

Mandan Indian ^7\ Arabbers Music Stage \p> Agriculture Wood ( Audio Loop) Preparing the Crafts Metro Soil & Choosing Foodways and (Snmlisi.ni.ui i s-71 Seeds Home Office Information Aral il u-is 2

Sackler African An Gallery Museum Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Thursday, 4 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. July ^_^ Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol \}[p

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Land in Native Johnson Era Family Fanning in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia American Cultures

Music Narrative/ Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Children's Long- Rain- Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Area house forest Stage Areas 11:00 Vetterli and Be met: Swiss Amen Dairy Gandrung Fife & Drum Blues can Music Farming Regional Social Dayak 11:30- Band Composition Dance I >essep Music & Specialty Dance Midwestern Moving Star Songs that Parlor Style Butter and 12:00 Hall Singers: Eggs Sup- Pace Work l [ome Spirituals plementing Topeng i tffio Mask Farm Make Your Dance im i »me < twn ( a luntrj Home Madurese Johnny 12:30 Travellers: Shad m Blues Remedies Cooking Shines: Puppet Harmonica Square Delta Blues I )ance Musk ! leartland

Picnic I 1:00 Live Radio with Lee Reyog Jamu: I [enry Procession Music in Kline WHO Mule' Herbal Community/ l tes Butler Townsend; Preparation Music as Eastern Moines, Making City/Country 1:30 Commodity Iowa Brass U iwa and Blues Band Yodel ing

Sulawesi 1 r\ I ndo- Dayak Music & nesian Crafts 2:00 Dance Musk -N. Songs that Heartland I Mi:- I Blues Song Pace Wi irk Punic U Swap Midwestern Stories about Parlor Style Storytelling Boat- Children 2:30- Musii with G and rung building \lk hael Social Cotter Children's Dance Learn Home Material as Simanek Indonesian Dave Office Root Music ! jnnly Batik 3:00- "Honeyboy" Instrument Czech Polka Heritage Edwards: Music Making ( Jardening Delta Blues Vetterli and Topeng Learning Bernet: Gamelan 3:30 about Swiss Anjeri Cooking Workshop Vocal Styles Seeds can Music \V< irking with Corn with Wood, Mamie Davis Sulawesi Metal, Blues Band: Cooking 4:00 Eastern and Stone Play Delta Blues Iowa Brass Indonesian

I ,.iM|i Band suLiw < :si Guitar Styles Musk St 4:30 Rural Ethnic Dance Communi- \ egetable ties Country Canning Blues Travellers Dayak 5:00- Special Square Music & The Johnson Reyog Dance I »an< e Era Procession Musk

5:30 Special Demonstrations Ongoing Demonstrations

> Threshing - 12:00-12 30, 3:00-3 30 East Java — Toping Mask Carving • Milking the Cow -4:00-4:30 Reyog Headdress Making • Tuban Batik & Weaving • Gamelan Making • Jamu Ongoing Demonstrations Herbal Preparation Wooden Bowl Making • Whirligig South Sulawesi — Boat Building • • • Making Com Mural Decorating Drum Making • Silk Weaving Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- East Kalimantan — Longhouse Deo i wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush rative Painting • Kenyan Bead Work • Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Rattan Weaving • Mask Carving • Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Kenyah Blacksmithing Painting • Crocheting • Fence Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Com Braiding -

Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Friday, July 5 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol ^S

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Land in Native Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia American Cultures

Music Narrative/ Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Children^ Long- Rain- Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Area house forest Plaza Stage Areas 11:00 Simanek Pan-Festival

Mi i\ ing si. ii Family: Workshop: Hall Singers: Songs that Czech Polka Topeng/ Tlingit Highland Talking Make Your Music Mandan t ..iiiK'Lm Sulawesi - Sea Island Pace Work Threshing Own Storytelling Vocals/ 11:30 Family Workshop Cooking Spirituals Shadow Shuar Recipe Puppet Cooking Country Children's Travellers: - The "Cross- 12:00 Material as Square The Rural Taquile nda> 1:00 Iowa Brass Reyog Tlingit Hopi with Lee Meal Band Procession Ceremonial Cooking Reverend Kline, WHO Robert Crafts Des Moines, Leon Pinson Johnson Re- Topeng Iowa Tomato Spiritual- membered Dance Styles 1:30- Gospel Piano Packing Play Ikood & Vetterli and Indonesian Tlingit Bernet: Gandrung Games Fishing Swiss Ameri- Social can Music Rainforest Dance Instrument 2:00- 'Women Swedish Blues Song Workshop Swap Sing iliL- Sausage- Madurese Blues Making Cooking Midwestern Caring for Pan-Festival Farm Songs Parlor Style the Land Learn Workshop: 2:30 Music and Games Indonesian Instrument Topeng Batik Making/ Mask Johnny Ikood Ii Pi a in i I UIK' Dance Shines: Cooking Workshop Office KciH .ill Delta Blues 3:00- Country Rural Longho use Basketry & Travellers: Community Weaving Pan -Festival Square Celebrations Workshop Dance Music Workshop Quilt Dyeing 3:30- Dave Czech Blues Baked Piecing Workshop 'Honeyboy" Sulawesi Gandrung Edwards: Harmonica Goods Lacandon & Changing Music & Delta Blues Dance Shuar Crafts Roles of Ikood Women Music & 4:00 Eastern Iowa Try Indone- Dance/ Brass Band sian Music 8i SE Alaska Blues Blacksmiths Zapotec Mamie Davis Dance Salutation Composi- Crafts Blues Band: Reyog Dance/ tion 4:30- Delta Blues Procession Totem Pole Selling the Canning Carving Crop Meat

Midwestern Mayan Dayak Music Healing 5:00 Blues Compara- Parlor Style Gandrung & Dance Ceremony Special tive Slide Technique Social 1 >an< (

5:30 Special Demonstrations Ongoing Demonstrations Ongoing Exhibition Threshing - 12:00-12:30, 3:00-3:30 East Java — Topeng Mask Carving • In conjunction with the Quincentenary- Reyog Headdress Making • Tuban Batik Festival program, an exhibition, "Tradi- & Weaving • Gamelan Making • Jamu: tional Native American Textiles from Ongoing Demonstrations Herbal Preparation Bolivia,'' can be seen at the S. Dillon Wooden • Whirligig Bowl Making South Sulawesi — Boat Building • Ripley Center, June 28-July 7, 10:00 a.m. Making • Corn Mural Decorating • Drum Making • Silk Weaving to 5:30 p.m. Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- East Kalimantan — Longhouse Deco- 5:30 wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush Dance rative Painting • Kenyah Bead Work • Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Party Rattan Weaving • Mask Carving • Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox (Jalq'a, Kenyah Blacksmithing Taquile, Painting • Crocheting • Fence Tiwanaku) Making • Machinery Repairing • 7:00 Mandan Basket Making • Corn Braiding Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Saturday, July 6 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. ^-. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol vl»

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia

Music Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Stage 11:00

Songs that Fife & Drum Pace Work Neighbors Band Eastern Iowa American 11:30 Brass Band Indian Cooking with Corn

Guitar Styles 12:00 - Moving Star Hall Singers: Grain: Seed Home Office Sea Island to Market Midwestern Spirituals Parlor Style Creating a 12:30 Music Family Quilt Vocal Styles Children's Material as The Impor- Heanland Vetterli and Root Music Bernet tance of Noonday 1:00 Swiss Farm Radio Meal American Reverend Music Blues Leon Pinson Storytelling Harmonica Country Spiritual- with 1:30 Travellers Keeping the Gospel Piano Michael Square Farm in the Cotter Dance Music Family

Fife & Drum 2:00-1 1 lenry "Mule" Band Italian Townsend: Supper

i ii\ . Country Cattle Blues Learning Eastern Iowa Judging and about Farm 2:30 Children's Brass Band showing Animals Material as Blues Song Root Music swap Home Office

3:00 Vetterli and Rural Gathei Bernet: ing Places Swiss American Tomato Women Sing Swedish Musk Canning 3:30 >hnn\ the Blues Baked J< Preparation Shines Goods Delta Blues Midwestern Quilting Parlor Style 4:00 Lonnie Pitchford: Songs that Robert Pace Work 4:30 Johnson Weather Blues pons Country Re Vegetable Travellers: Canning Square 5t00 - Mamie Davi: Dance Music Blues as Blues Band: Dance Music Delta Blues

5:30 Special Demonstrations Threshing - 12:00-12:30, 3:00-3:30

Ongoing Demonstrations 7:00 Wooden Bowl Making • Whirligig Making • Corn Mural Decorating • Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Painting • Crocheting • Fence Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Com Braiding Schedules are subject to change. Check signs in each program area for specific information. Sign language interpreters will be available for Sunday, July 7 selected programs. Check the schedule and signs at each stage. ^-. Programs that will be interpreted are marked with the symbol vS?

Roots of Rhythm and Blues: The Robert Forest, Field and Sea: Land in Native Johnson Era Family Farming in the Heartland Folklife in Indonesia American Cultures

Music Narrative/ Main Narrative Music Narrative Food- Learning and Children's Long- Rain- Stage Stage Stage Stage ways Center Dance Area house forest Stage Areas 11:00

Moving Star Midwestern Rural Clubs Reyog The Johnson. Hall Singers: Parlor Style and Organi- Family I'nxc.ssii m Era Sulawesi 11:30 Spirituals Music Cookie Cooking Recipes

Reverend Songs that 12:00 - Leon Pinson; Importance Pace Work Country Sulawesi Spiritual of Farm Home Office Travellers Music & Gospel Radio Square Dance Piano Dance Music Heritage Dayak 12:30 Gardening Music & Guitar Styles Dance Fife & Drum Swedish Topeng/ Band Verterli and Hogs Christmas Gamelan Bernet: Workshop * 1:00 Dinner Swiss Ameri- Children's can Music Material as Instrument Root Music Learn Making Fun with Indonesian Madurese 1:30 Popcorn Gandrung Rural Music Batik Cooking Henry SociaJ Settings "Mule" Eastern Iowa Dance Townsend: Brass Band 2:00- City/Country Making Blues Blues Bread Harmonica Making Do": Dayak Crafts Recycling on Michael Butter Children's Dave - Reyog 2:30 Cotter: the Farm Making and "Honeyboy" Procession Gamelan Farm Stories Edwards: Yodeling Workshop Children's Delta Blues (Meet at the Material as Indonesian Home Office Pendopo) Root Music Spices 3:00 Midwestern Marketing Parlor Style Networks Johnny Music Shines: Storytelling Sulawesi Canning Delta Blues with Music & Make Your Hunting & 3:30 Piano Relish Michael Dance Own Subsistence Workshop Cotter Shadow Partnership Puppet on the Eastern Family Farm 4:00 Mamie Davis Iowa Brass Gandrung Blues Band: Band Reyog social Dance Delta Blues Women Sing the Blues 4:30 Cooking Farm Family with Left- History 1 1\ ers Lonnie Country Pitchford: Tra\ ellers Dayak Topeng Meet, the 5:00 Robert Blues as Square Music & Mask Dance Artists Johnson Dance Dance Dance Blues Music Music

5:30 Special Demonstrations Ongoing Demonstrations - Dance Threshing 12:00-12:30, 3:00-3:30 East Java — Topeng Mask Carving • Party: Milking the Cow - 4:00-4:30 Reyog Headdress Making • Tuban Batik Blues & Weaving • Gamelan Making • Jamu: Special Ongoing Demonstrations Herbal Preparation 7:00- Wooden Bowl Making • Whirligig South Sulawesi — Boat Building • Making • Mural Decorating • Com Drum Making • Silk Weaving Quilting • Rag Rug Weaving • Nor- East Kalimantan — Longhouse Deco- wegian Embroidery • Feather Brush rative Painting • Kenyah Bead Work • Making • Rug Knitting • Swedish Rattan Weaving • Mask Carving • Wedding Crown Making • Mailbox Kenyah Blacksmithing Painting • Crocheting • Fence Making • Machinery Repairing • Mandan Basket Making • Com Braiding Interns: Lynette Chewning, William Kendrick Festival Staff Food Concessions Coordinator- Heidi Thoren Program Book Sales Coordinator- Isabel Dickson Public Information: Mary Combs Intern: Kira Harris

Director, Office ofFolklife Programs: McKenny, Helen Monteil, Esther Rhythm And Blues: Richard Kurin Peres The Robert Johnson Era Festival Director: Diana Parker Sound Crew. Andrew Finkle, Barney Program Curators: Worth Long, Ralph Administrative Officer: Barbara Venable, Kim Frame, John Rinzler Strickland Mielczarek Program Coordinator: Arlene Program Book Editor: Peter Seitel Festival Services Manager- Claudia Reiniger

Sign Editor: Thomas Vennum, Jr. Telliho Program Assistant: Rosemary Leonard Designer: Joan Wolbier Fiscal Assistants: Kyung Hee Stubli, Festival Aide: Maurice Jackson Assistant Designers: Carol Barton, Heather Bittner Presenters: Lawrence Cohn, Susan Jennifer Nicholson Clerk/Typists.- Minu Tahmassebi, Fan Jenkins, Ann Lockwood, Barry Lee Desig>! Intent: Laurie A. Manos Oleson Pearson, Kate Rinzler, Candy Calligrapher: Susan Auerhan Assistant to the Festival Director- Shines, Jeff Titon, Malcolm Walls Publication Review: Arlene Reiniger Francesca McLean Technical Coordinator: Pete Reiniger Special Events Coordinator: Yulette Land in Native American Cultures Associate Technical Coordinator: George Curator: Olivia Cadaval Connie Lane Participant Coordinator. Cilista Coordinator: Vivien T. Y. Chen Technical Specialist- Linley Logan Eberle Program Assistants.- Celia Heil, Lidya

Technical Crew Chiefs.- Jeannette Assistant Participant Coordinators-. L. Montes, Dora Rios Buck, Holly Wright, Charlie Wehr Gina Fuentes, Christine Meyering, Festival Aide: Dennis R. Fox, Jr. Carpenters: Bill Foster, Gregory Stotz Janine Smith Interns: Carmina Augudo, Maria Technical Crew- Teresa Ballard, Intern: Laura Willson Crespo, Ilsia Dalila Mercedes,

Somalith Bounmalith, Sunny Housing Coordinator: Maria Parisi Olukayode Kolade, Jeffrey J. Brown, Pheth Chanthapanya, Social Coordinator: Johari Rashad Leinaweaver, Anna Montoya, Oswaldo Fajardo, Jose Garcia, Foodways Coordinator: James Michelle Spiegal Andras Goldinger, Chris Insley, Deutsch Fellows: Feng Wei, Laura Larco Butch Ivey, Chris Jerde, Katie Lee, Information/Accessibility Coord'iuat< >r Regional Coordinators: Jose Luis Scott Logan, Terry Meniefield, Todd Diana N'Diaye Krafft, Oaxaca, Mexico; Pilar Savitch, Melinda Sims, Alf Walle, Interns: Ernestine Sandoval, Katie Larreamendi de Moscoso, Ecuador; Ted Watkins Mize Elisa Ramirez, Oaxaca, Mexico; Tech n ical Crew Clerk/Typists: Cecilia Sign language Interpreters: Candas Oswaldo Rivera Sundt, Andes; Coats, Sherry Lynn Baker' Barnes, Diana Mele-Beaudoin, Beatriz Torres, Chiapas, Mexico Electricians: Gary Johanssen, Darrell Roberta Pracher, Hank Young Presenters: Jacinto Arias, Veronica DeMarr, Monte Leadman Volunteer Coordinator- Camille Inez Cereceda, Andrew Connors, Plumbers: Jimmy Dickerson, Sid Assistant Volunteer Coordinator- Amy Richard Dauenhauer, Kevin Benito Hardy Hansen Healy, Tomas Huanca, Leigh Supply Coordinator: Anne Martin Chief Volunteers: Willette Carlton, Jenkins, Alan Kolata, Merwin Assistant Supply Coordinator- Pricilla Flowers, Marilyn Gaston, Kooyahoema, Jose Luis Krafft, Pilar Marianne Balog Johari Rashad, Neville Waters Larreamendi de Moscoso, Gabriel logistics Coordinator: Polly Adema Sm ithson ia n/Folkways Recordings Martinez, Saul Millan V, Elisa Sound Coordinators: Tim Kidwell, Director: Anthony Seeger Ramirez, Manuel Rios Morales, Tom Linthicum Documentation Coordinator: Jeff Oswaldo Rivera Sundt, Maria Sound Technicians: Eric Annis, Steve Place Williams, Rosita Worl, Irene Edwards, Don Fetterman, Steve Assistant Documentation Coordinator: Zimmerman de la Torre, Elayne Fisher, Mark Fitzgerald, Dan Lori Taylor Zorn Gainey, Tom Gartland, Gary Interns: Ed Forgotson, Leslie Spitz- Interpreters: Laura Larco, Luis Tassara Jackson, Gregg Lamping, Dean Edson, Alex Sweda Fieldworkers: Veronica Cereceda, Langwell, Jens McVoy, John Video Documentation: John Paulson Nora M. Dauenhauer, Celso Fiallo, Reynolds Photographers: Richard Hofmeister, Alejandro Flores, Barbara Fraust, Stage Managers. Jeff Anthony, Beth Eric Long, Dane Penland, Richard Enrique Gonzalez, Ellen Hays, Curren, Miles Herter, John Kemper, Strauss, Hugh Talman, Jeff Tinsley, Tomas Huanca, Juan Jaen, Leigh Susan Levitas, Sue Manos, Al Rick Vargas Jenkins, Merwin Kooyahoema, Robbie Littlefield, Gabriel Martinez, Assistant Program Coordinator: Saul Millan V., MiguelPuwainchir, Katrinka Ebbe Julio Quispe, Manuel Rios Morales, Fieldworkers- Rachel Cooper, Zailani Oswaldo Rivera Sundt, Priscilla Idris, Dewi Indrawati, Dloyana Schulte Kusumah, Sardono W. Kusumo, Research Consultants: Beatriz Torres, Halilintar Latief, Deddy Luthan, Roxanna Adams, Jacinto Arias, A.M. Munardi, Philip Yampolsky Barry Bergey, Jose Manuel Del Val, Interns: Suzan Harada, Dewi Reynold Denny, Rayna Green, Indrawati, Anton Winthrop-Sakai Kevin Benito Healy, Susie Jones, Segal Alan Kolata, Emory Sekaquaptewa, Presenters: Rachel Cooper, Virginia Esther Shea, Carlos Velez-Ibanez, Gorlinsky, Mukhlis, Darmawan M. William Wallace, Rosita Worl, Irene Rahman, Pamela Rogers-Aguiniga,

Zimmermann de la Torre, Elayne Patti Seery, Herwasono Soedjito, S. Zorn Suprapto, Philip Yampolsky, Tinuk Computer Consultants: Todd A. Yampolsky Ballinger, Mary Black, Arnold A. Bosserman, Kenneth Hill Family Farming in the Heartland Translators: Ileana Adam, Celia Heil, Program Curator: Betty J. Belanus Alicia Partnoy, Horacio Quintanilla, Program Coordinator: Barbara Lau Dora Rios, Charles Roberts Assistant Program Coordinator: Doris Dietrich "Traditional Native American Textiles Festival Aide: Christine Norling from Bolivia " Exhibition Intent: Susan Ratcliffe Curators: Veronica Cereceda, Gabriel USDA Coordinator: Sue Nelson Martinez USDA Assistant: Esther Edwards Designer: Carol Hardy Fieldworkers: Phyllis Brockmeyer, Design Assistant: Gloria Alan David Brose, Tim Cooley, Mark

Intern: Era J. Schrepfer Esping, LeeEllen Friedland, Janet Gilmore, Judy Heffernan, Lisa Collaborating Institutions: American Heffernan, Marjorie Hunt, Melanie Airlines of Ecuador, American LaBorwit, James P. Leary, Marsha Embassy in Bolivia, American McDowell, Bill Moore, John Embassy in Ecuador, Botanical Reynolds, Larry Rutter, Lydia Sage- Garden, University of California, Chase, Dorothy Shonsey, Mike Casa de las Artesanias del Estado Shonsey, Catherine Swanson, de Chiapas, Centro de Norberta Tijerina, Charlie Walden, Investigaciones y Estudios Peter Wehr Superiores en Antropologia Social, Research Associates.- Jane Adams, Colorado State University, Cultural Eleanor Arnold, Barry Bergey, Ray Presentation Office, Hopi Tribal Brassieur, Jenny Chin, Lynn Ireland, Council, Direccion Integral de la Gordon Kellenberger, Tim Lloyd, Familia (DIF) de Chiapas, Mexico, Carl Magnuson, Richard March, Phil

Embassy of Bolivia, Embassy of Nusbaum, Steve Ohm, J. Sanford Ecuador, Embassy of Mexico, Fruit Rikoon, Howard Sacks and Spice Park of Miami, Instituto Presenters: Eleanor Arnold, Barry Chiapaneco de Cultura, Instituto Bergey, David Brose, Charley Nacional de Arqueologia de Camp, Mike Combs, LeeEllen Bolivia, Instituto Nacional Friedland, Judy Heffernan, Marjorie Indigenista de Mexico, National Hunt, Melanie LaBorwit, James P.

Academy of Sciences, Pet Farm Leary, Marsha McDowell, J. Sanford Park of Reston, Virginia, Semilla, Rikoon, Howard Sacks, Lydia Sage- Smithsonian Green Houses, U.S. Chase, Mike Shonsey, Catherine Department of Agriculture Swanson, Jennifer Thisson, Charlie Walden Forest, Field and Sea: Folklife in Indonesia Program Curator Richard Kennedy Program Coordinators: Uaporn Ang Robinson, Sal Murgiyanto " Smithsonian Bureau and Office Support

Office of the Secretary Office of Membership and Development Office of the Undersecretary Office of Congressional Relations Office of- International Relations Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of Special Events Public Service Office of Telecommunications Office of Elementary & Secondary Education Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of Public Affairs Finance and Administration Visitor Information & Associates' Communications Management Reception Center Division, Office of Information Resource Management Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of Design & Constaiction Research Duplicating Branch Office of Fellowships and Grants Health Services Division Office of Quincentenary Programs Mail Service Center National Zoological Park Museum Shops Office of Human Resources Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of Planning and Budget Museums Office of Plant Services Accessibility Program Office of Printing and Photographic American Indian Program, National Services Museum of American History Office of Contracts and Property African American Culture Program, Management National Museum of Office of Protection Services American Histpry Security Services Division Office of Exhibits Central Travel Services Office Office of Horticulture Office of Accounting and Financial Division of Agriculture and Natural Services Resources, National Museum of Office of Risk Management American History Office of Sponsored Projects

Office of the Assistant Secretaryfor Office of the General Counsel External Affairs Office of the Inspector General Related Exhibitions at the Smithsonian

Traditional Native American Textilesjrom Bolivia, S. Dillon Ripley Center,

June 28 - July 7.

Beyond theJava Sea, National Museum of Natural History, through July 15.

Indonesian Village Worlds, National Museum of Natural History, through July 17.

Nusantara: Lands and Peoples ofIndonesia, National Museum of American History, through December.

Court Arts ofIndonesia, Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, through Sept. 2.

r No Postage Official Business Necessary Penalty for Private Use $300 If Mailed in The United States

Business Reply Mail First Class Permit No. 12915 Washington, D.C.

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Smithsonian Institution

Office of Folklife Programs 2600 L'Enfant Plaza Washington, D.C. 20560

® Printed on recycled paper .

You can hear the world'1 on Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings

and make the Folklife Festival last all year

OVER TWO THOUSAND FOLKWAYS TITLES ON CASSETTE OVER FIFTY SMITHSONIAN/FOLKWAYS TITLES ON CD

Folkways and Smithsonian/Folk- YOU CAN HEAR INDONESIAN YOU CAN HEAR BLUES ways are two of the ways the Office MUSIC ON ALL-NEW, DIGITAL MASTERS ON REISSUES of Folklife Programs supports the RECORDINGS Leadbelly and Woody Guthrie Folk- continuity and integrity of tradi- Songs Before the Dawn. Gandrung ways: The Original Vision (SF 40001) tional artists and cultures. Folk- Banyuwangi (SF 40055) Leadbelly Leadbelly Sings Folk Songs -ways Records, founded by Moses Music From the Outskirts ofJakarta: (SF 40010) Asch in 1947, was acquired by the Gambang Kromong (SF 40056) Elizabeth Cotten Freight Train and Smithsonian Institution in 1987 to Indonesian Popular Music Kroricong, Other North Carolina Folk Songs and ensure that all the recordings re-- Dandut, & Langgam Jawa (SF 40057) Tunes (SF 40009) main available as a service to Brownie McGhee and Sonny Terry scholars, musicians, and the gen- Brownie McGhee and Sonny Terry Sing

eral public. All 2,000 titles, captur- (SF 40011) ing the world's music, spoken word, Lightning Hopkins Lightning and sounds, are available on Folk- Hopkins (SF 40019) ways cassettes. The Smithsonian/ Big Bill Broonzy Big Bill Broonzy Folkways label wasfounded in Sings Folk Songs (SF 40023) 1988for reissues and hew record- Reverend Gary Davis Pure Religion ings on CD and cassette. and Bad Company (SF 40035)

For a catalogue all Folkways free of YOU CAN HEAR LAST cassettes and Smithsonian/Folkways SUMMER'S PERFORMANCES OF releases, fill in the card below, fax MUSICS OF STRUGGLE 202/287-3699, or telephone 202/ (produced in collaboration with Sony 287-3262. Music, Inc.)

World Music of Struggle: We Shall Overcome (Columbia 47850)

~l All the new Smithsonian/Folkways issues, in addition to many other Folkways YOU CAN HEAR THE MUSIC titles are available in the Museum Shops sales area at the Festival site. Many are OF PREVIOUS FESTIVALS also distributed through Rounder Records. If you are unable to find Folkways Musics of the Soviet Union (SF 40002) records at your local record store, write for a free catalogue and order forms to: Puerto Rican Music in Hawaii: Kachi Smithsonian/Folkways Recordings, Office of Folklife Programs Kachi Sound (SF 40014) 955 L'Enfant Plaza, Suite 2600, Washington, D.C., 20560 Hawaiian Drum Dance Chants: Sounds ofPoiver in Time (SF 40015) Please send me a catalogue of Folkways Records. I would like information on the following kinds of recordings: Musics of Hawaii (SF 40016 cassette only)

Look for these and many other re- cordings in the Festival Musuem Name sales area near the music stage, ask at your local record store, or (for Address the SF numbers) order by phone from 1-800-443-4727. Smithsonian Quincentenary Coordinator Contributing Institution Celia Heil Sponsors Media Specialist: Guha Shankar Secretary: Robert McC. Adams Assistant Archivist: Lori Taylor Family Farming in the Heartland Undersecretary: Carmen Turner Assistants to the Director: Yulette has been made possible with the Assistant Secretaryfor Public George, Maria Parisi support of the U.S. Department Service: James Early Special Assistant: Rosemary of Agriculture. Assistant Secretaryfor Research Leonard Forest. Field Sea. Robert Hoffmann Folkways Assistant: Chris Jerde and Folklife in Indonesia is part of the Festival Assistant Secretaryfor Museums Clerk. Typists: Lidya Montes, Tom Freudenheim Minu Tahmassebi of Indonesia 1990-1991 and has been made possible with the Assistant Secretaryfor External Folklife Advisory Council Roger support of Affairs: Thomas Lovejoy Abrahams, Richard Bauman, Yayasan Nusantara Assistant Secretary fir Institu- Henry Glassie, Rayna Green, Jaya, Garuda Indonesia Airlines and tional Initiatives: Alice Green John Gwaltney, Charlotte American President Lines. Burnette Heth, Adrienne Kaeppler, land in Native American Cul- Assistant Secretaryfor Finance Ban Karp, Bernice Reagon, tures, co-sponsored by the and Administration: Nancy John Tchen, Carlos Velez- Smithsonian Institution's National Suttenfield Ibariez Museum of the American Indian, Assistant Secretary Emeritus: has been made possible with the Ralph Rinzler National Park support of the Inter-American Foundation; the U.S. Embassy of Office of Service Bolivia; the Ruth Mott Fund; Folklife Programs Secretary of the Interior: Manuel Sealaska Heritage Foundation;

Director: Richard Kurin Lujan, Jr. the Government ol Chiapas. Administrative Officer Barbara Director: James M. Ridenour Mexico; Institute Nacional Indi- Strickland Regional Director. National genista of Mexico; Centra de In- Festival Director Diana Parker Capital Region. Robert G. vestigaciones y Estudios Superi- Director. Smithsonian Folkways Stanton ores en Antropologia Social; the Recordings: Anthony Seeger Deputy Regional Director. Hopi Tribal Council; and Ameri- Senior Folklorist: Peter Seitel National Capital Region can Airlines of Quito, Ecuador. Senior Ethnomusicologist: Ronald Wrye This program is an activity of the

Thomas Vennnm, Jr. Associate Regional Director. Smithsonian Quincentenary Pro- Director, Quincentenary Proj- Public Affairs. Sandra A. grams. The Institution's Quin- ects: Olivia Cadaval Alley centennial commemoration of Program Analyst: Richard Chief ( 'nited States Park. Police. tlie voyages of Columbus to the Kennedy Lynn Herring Americas focuses on the cultural,

Folklorists: Betty Belanus, Vivian Assistant Chief. I 'nited States historical and scientific implica-

Chen, Diana N'Diaye Park Police: Robert E. tions of the pan-Hemispheric Research Associates. Marjorie Langston encounter that will continue to Hunt. Ed O'Reilly, Frank ( ( unmander. Special Forces. be of global impor- Proschan, Nicholas Spitzer Maj. Carl R. Holmberg tance for centuries to Technical Coordinators: Pete Superintendent. National Capi- come.

Reiniger, Reaves Fred tal Parks - Central: Arnold M. Roots of Rhythm and Blues: Nahwooksy, Jr. Goldstein The RobertJohnson Era has been Program Specialist. Arlene Chief, Maintenance. National made possible with the support Reiniger Capital Parks - Central: oi Music Performance Trust Festival Services Manager William I. Newman, Jr. Funds and the Smithsonian Claudia Telliho Site Manager. National Mall: Institution's Special Exhibition Designer Joan Wolbier Robert Fudge Fund. Archivist: Jeffrey Place Employees of the National Capi- Folkways Program Specialist tal Region and the United Dudley Connell States Park Police