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Did Emperor Moctezuma II's Head Injury and Subsequent Death Hasten

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Did Emperor Moctezuma II's Head Injury and Subsequent Death Hasten NEUROSURGICAL FOCUS Neurosurg Focus 39 (1):E2, 2015 Did Emperor Moctezuma II’s head injury and subsequent death hasten the fall of the Aztec nation? Gonzalo M. Sanchez, MD Tucson, Arizona This article analyzes the head injury of Emperor Moctezuma as one of those injuries that affected the course of history. The Emperor’s death arguably changed the fate of an entire nation and led to the destruction of the Aztec civilization. Moctezuma died in the evening hours of June 30, 1520, in his palace in the Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, while a prisoner of the Spanish conquistadors. The Emperor had been speaking to his people in an effort to persuade them to cease hostilities against Hernán Cortés, his Spanish soldiers, and Indian allies. Both Spanish and Indian contemporary sources document that he sustained a severe head injury when one of his own warriors hit him with a rock thrown from a sling. However, after the Conquest of Mexico some of the information collected by Spanish friars from Indian stories, songs, and pictorial representations raised the possibility that Moctezuma died of strangulation or stabbing at the hands of the Spaniards. There is even a suggestion of suicide. This issue remains unresolved and emotionally charged. The historical and clinical analysis of the events surrounding Moctezuma’s death indicates that the Emperor most likely died as a consequence of head injury. The author has attempted to present a neutral analysis but agrees with Benjamin Keen that neutrality may be unattainable, no matter how remote the subject of historical inquiry is from the present. http://thejns.org/doi/abs/10.3171/2015.4.FOCUS1593 KEY WORDS Moctezuma death; head injury; sling Y 1518 Moctezuma (variously spelled in the litera- had departed. Aware of various celestial events interpreted ture as Motezuma, Motecuhzoma or Montezuma) as ominous portents by Moctezuma and his magicians, the (Fig. 1), the famous last emperor of the powerful emperor had ordered a continuous watch of the east coast AztecB nation, had ruled that empire for 17 years. He was for signs of Queztalcoatl’s return. On May 15, 1518, Moct- known as an able commander and judge who achieved ezuma received news of large vessels seen off the Gulf greatness by major victories as head of both the army and coast and of landing parties of strange men. One year later the Aztec religion in an empire that stretched from the (April 1519), Cortés’ arrival to the coast coincided with the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico and as far south as predicted anniversary of Quetzalcoatl’s return. The em- present-day Guatemala. peror thus found himself in what he saw as a battle against When Hernán Cortés landed with his troops on April a supernatural foe.2 22, 1519, on the Gulf coast (at present day Veracruz), he On August 8th, 1519, Cortés and his army of Spanish was seen by Moctezuma as the previously vanquished god conquistadores began their invasion of Mexico from the Quetzalcoatl coming to reclaim his throne. Quetzalcoatl east coast. With lavish gifts Moctezuma unsuccessfully was an important Aztec god who opposed human sacrifice tried to prevent Cortés and his troops from advancing to- and was in direct conflict with the sun gods Tezcatlipoca wards his capital city of Tenochtitlan. Cortés made alli- (spiritual guardian of the Aztecs) and the warrior sun god ances with the Cempoalan peoples. With others, such as Huitzolopochtli (another manifestation of Tezcatlipoca), the Tlaxcalans and the Cholulans, he waged victorious who required continuous blood sacrifices. According to battles using firepower, steel weapons, horses, and war legend, Quetzalcoatl had promised to return on a certain dogs. These actions were nervously followed by Mocte- anniversary date to the east coast of Mexico, whence he zuma’s informants and reinforced the Emperor’s belief in SUBMITTED February 27, 2015. ACCEPTED April 2, 2015. INCLUDE WHEN CITING DOI: 10.3171/2015.4.FOCUS1593. DISCLOSURE The author reports no conflict of interest concerning the materials or methods used in this study or the findings specified in this paper. ©AANS, 2015 Neurosurg Focus Volume 39 • July 2015 1 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/27/21 02:31 PM UTC G. M. Sanchez 1520, in his palace in Tenochtitlan while being held as a prisoner of the Spanish. Both Spanish and Indian6 sources of the time docu- mented that Moctezuma received a severe head injury from a sling shot from those of his own people whom he was addressing in his attempt to persuade them to cease hostilities against Cortés and his Spanish soldiers and Indian allies. However, after the conquest, some of the information that Spanish friars collected from Indian stories, songs, and pictorial representations raised the pos- sibility that Moctezuma died of strangulation or stabbing at the hands of the Spaniards. There is even a suggestion of suicide. This issue remains unresolved and emotionally charged.15,16,26 In order to consider the validity of Moctezuma’s death from a head injury, it is imperative to analyze the histori- cal as well as the scant clinical data. Similar attention is demanded of the analysis of theories of Moctezuma’s pos- sible execution by the Spaniards (not the main purview of this work). Where prior translations are not available, I have trans- lated the Spanish sources and have also added a minor re- vision to Patricia de Fuentes’7 translation of the chronicle of Fray Francisco de Aguilar and translated a sentence in Muñoz Camargo’s Historia de Tlaxcala. Evidence Review Historical Documentation Both versions of the story of Moctezuma’s death, whether at the hands of the Aztecs or the Spaniards, are cited in the following sources produced in the late 16th FIG. 1. “Moctezuma II” from de Solís, A. Istoria della conquista del and early 17th centuries: Messico, della popolazione, e de’ progressi nell’America Settentrionale On October 30, 1520, 4 months after Moctezuma’s conosciuta sotto nome di Nuova Spagna. Florence: Stamperia di S. A. death, the captain of the Spanish conquistadors, Hernán S. per G. F. Cecchi, 1699. Source: Typ 625.99.800, Houghton Library, Cortés,3 reported in his second Carta de Relación to Em- Harvard Source. Public domain. peror Charles V regarding the circumstances of Moctezu- ma’s addressing his subjects: the conquistadores’ stature as gods and the inevitability I had taken him out, and then he reached a breastwork which of their march into Tenochtlitlan. This led the Emperor to ran out beyond the fortress, and was about to speak to them, welcome the newcomers into Tenochtitlan on November 8, [when] he received a blow on his head from a stone; and the 1519. Moctezuma provided food and quarters for those he injury was so severe that he died three days later… believed to be the gods. As 5 months went by, acts of dis- Concordant and detailed accounts about this event are respect for the Aztec gods and the Spaniards’ abhorrence 10 of human sacrifice gradually turned the populace against given by witnesses to the event, Bernal Díaz del Castillo (Historia verdadera de la Conquista de la Nueva España, the Spaniards. By late May 1520, the Spaniards, feeling 1,7 extremely vulnerable, made the bold move of making 1568), Francisco de Aguilar. (Relación Breve de la Con- quista de Nueva España, 1565), and Bernardino Vázquez the Emperor their prisoner in his own palace, under the 27 pretext that Moctezuma had ordered the killing of some de Tapia (Relación de Méritos y Servicios del Conquis- Spanish soldiers. The Emperor’s humiliation and an al- tador Bernardino Vázquez de Tapia, 1542). From Bernal Diaz del Castillo, Spanish soldier and au- leged unprovoked attack and massacre of the Mexica no- 4 bility prompted a full-scale revolt by the Aztec warriors, thor, who participated in the conquest of Mexico: which inflicted heavy casualties on the Spanish. Montezuma was placed by a battlement of the roof with Fighting against overwhelming odds and with unrest many of us soldiers guarding him, and he began to speak to within his own camp, Cortés decided to withdraw from his people, with very affectionate expressions telling them the Aztec capital.6,23,25 He requested that Moctezuma ad- to desist from the war, and we would leave Mexico. Many dress his people, 3,12,18,19,27 so that they would allow the of the Mexican Chieftains and Captains knew him well and 23 at once ordered their people to be silent and not to discharge Spaniards to leave; Moctezuma reluctantly agreed. In the darts, stones or arrows, and four of them reached a spot Aztec ranks this was seen as betrayal, and the warriors where Moctezuma could speak to them, and they to him, and began hurling stones, spears and arrows at the Emperor with tears they said to him: “Oh Señor and our great Lord, (Fig. 2). Moctezuma died in the evening hours of June 30, how all your misfortune and injury of that of your children 2 Neurosurg Focus Volume 39 • July 2015 Unauthenticated | Downloaded 09/27/21 02:31 PM UTC Head injury cause of Moctezuma’s death FIG. 2. “The death of Moctezuma at the hands of his own people.” Unknown artist. The Library of Congress, The Conquest of Mexico Paintings, Painting 4. The farthest Aztec warrior on the left, lower row, is in the process of throwing a stone with his “temat- latl” (sling). Source: http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/exploring-the-early-americas/interactives/conquest-of-mexico-paintings/painting4/. Public domain. and relations afflict us, we make known to you that we have to rain stones, spears, arrows and darts. Therefore when already raised one of your kinsmen to be our Lord,” and there Moctezuma showed his face a little to speak—it was at eight he stated his name, that he was called Cuitlahuac, the Lord or nine o’clock in the morning—there came toward him from of Ixtapalapa, and moreover they said that the war must be among the flying stones one which was round as a ball, and carried through, and that they had vowed to their Idols not hit him on the forehead as he stood there between the other to relax it until we were all dead, and that they prayed every two, and he fell.
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