Desertification (UNCOD) Was Held Tee on Co-Ordination (ACC)

United Nations Environment Programme ISSN 0379-2455 erfification ControliBullet-M

A Bulletin of World Events in the Control of Deserts, Restoration of Degraded Lands and Reforestation

Numb?r12, 1985

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. .. S... • The United Nations Conference on (GC) and Administrative Commit- Desertification (UNCOD) was held tee on Co-ordination (ACC). in Nairobi from 29 August to 9 September 1977 • Immediately after approval of the Plan of Action, the Desertification This was the first worldwide effort Unit was established within the ever initiated to consider the global UNEP Office of the Environment problem and responsibilities posed Programme to serve the Executive by the spreading deserts. Director and ACC in carrying out their tasks in the implementation of • 95 States, 50 United l'4ations offices the Plan of Action. and bodies, 8 intergovernmental organizations and 65 non- • One of the main functions required governmental organizations by the Plan of Action from the participated. Desertification Unit was to prepare, compile, edit and publish at six- • The United Nations Conference on monthly intervals a newsletter Desertification prepared and adopt- giving information on programmes, ed a worldwide Plan of Action to results and problems related to the Combat Desertification (PACD) combat against desertification with 28 specific recommendations. around the world. • The Plan of Action was approved by Editors the United Nations General Assem- bly at its 27th session on 19 Decem- Gaafar Karrar, Acting Head ber 1977. Desertification Control Programme Activity Centre • Recommendation 23 of the Plan of Action invited all relevant United Daniel Stiles Nations bodies to support, in their Desertification Control respective fields, international Programme Activity Centre action to combat desertification and to make appropriate provisions and Stanislaw Sangweni allocations in their programmes. Desertification Control Programme Activity Centre • Recommendation 27 gave the responsibility for following up and co- Seifulaziz L. Milas ordinating the implementation of Information Service the Plan of Action to the United Na- tions Environment Programme Tibursi Lyimo (UNEP) with its Governing Council Information Service DesertI*flcati*on Control Bulleti*n J

United Nations Environment Programme No. 12 1985

Contents Page

Desertification of the world's rangelands J.A. Mabbuti

Deforestation, desertification and soil loss Prof MohamedKassas 12

Soil erosion problems in the USA James Risser 20

Desertification and dust monitoring in West Africa Grant Mc Tainsh 26

Eastern Africa's spreading wastelands Seif ulaz4z Milas and 34 Mesobework Asrat News of interest 41

News from UNEP 50

COVER PHOTOGRAPH

Ii is the loss of soil that is eroding this man sJulure, not drought. The Ethiopian highlands are in desperate need of large scale ter- racing and reforestation programmes to save the productive land that is left. (UiVEPICharles Stewart)

Desrti/icatiüii Cwurol Bulletin is an in- Articles published in Dcserti/kation Deseril/k'ation Control Bulletin is pub- ternational bulletin published at six- Control Bulleiin do not imply expres- lished in English. Enquiries should be monthly iniervals by the United Na- sion of any opinion on the part of addressed to: [ions Environment Programme UNEP concerning the legal status of (UNEP) to disseminate information any country, territory, city or area, or The Editor and knowledge on deserlilication its authorities, or concerning the Desert//ito lion Control Bl1eiin problems and to present news on the delimitation of its frontiers or UNEP progranimes, activities and achieve- boundaries. PO Box 30552 ments in the implementaion ofthe Nairobi, Kenya • Material not copyrighted may be re- Plan of Action to Combat Desertilica- printed with credit to Dewril/ication lion around the world (ontrol Bullctin, UNEP. Desertification of the world's rangelands

A Keynote addressgiven at the Second tnterna- ed connotations: namely empty of tion assessment. There are extreme tiônal Rangelands Congress at Adelaide, life', 'waterless' and 'unproductive'. deserts and moderate deserts in terms Autrtia, May 1984 The Congress proceedtngs The Plan of Action to Combat Deser- of aridity, cold deserts and hot deserts will be published later in 1985 by the Australian differentiated on the basis of Academy of Science under the title: tification used a definition which Rangeland—A Resource Under Siege'. strove to encompass some of this temperature, and even localized range of meanings: deserts due to lithology or salinity. was originally applied J.A. Mabbuli 'Desertification is the diminution Deserri/karion Universily of New South Wales or destruction of the biological by the French ecologist and forester Kensington, A usiralia potential of the land, and can lead Aubréville (1949) to the degradation of vegetation and soils in humid and ultimately to desert-like Nature and Impact of Desertilication subhumid tropical Africa as a result of conditions'. deforestation and indiscriminate burning and cropping. Many who accept In 1977 the United Nations convened A World Map of Desert jfication pro- a Conference on Desertif'ication, orga- duced for the 1977 Conference (FAO that man's intervention through land nized by the United Nations Environ- 1977a) carried a slightly more use commonly involves a displace- et a4 ment of ecosystems towards a more ment Programme in Nairobi. It was in revelatory definition: response to world concern aroused xeric phase would follow Aubréville in claiming that desertification is part particularly by the elTecs of drought 'Desertijication.' The intensification in the Sahel in the early 1970's. The or extension of desert conditions is of a universal trend. However a more restricted application was introduced United Nations Plan Action to a process leading to reduced biolog- of by those who used Combat Deserti/kation formulated by ical produclivity, with consequent deserrflcarion to the Desertification Conference and reduction in plant biomass, in the mean 'desert creep' or the encroach- later endorsed by the UN General As- land's carrying capacity for ment of the desert into formerly habitable lands. The symbol of the sembly (United Nations, 1978) asked livestock, in crop yields and human an ad- that there should be a review of prog- wellbeing'. palm tree disappearing under ress in the implementation of the Plan vancing sand dune is locally seven years after its inception. The Ex- This still leaves open the geographical warranted, but as a general view of ecutive Director oFUNEP, Dr. Tolba, terms of reference of the desertitica- desertiflcation it would be unduly re- reported to his Governing Council on the outcome of that review of progress (UNEP, 1984). 1 was involved with that review for two years, more particularly with assessing the present status and trend of desertification within the major dryland regions of the world, and it is on the results of that assessment that this talk is based.

First, I should make clear the terms of reference of that assessment and above all the meaning with which desertlfkation was employed. In a resurvey to gain evidence of change, one cannot depart too far from the definition on which the original estimates were based, and in that respect this later review was largely constrained by usages at the 1977 Conference. On a strictly etymological basis, desertification means the creation, intensification or extension of desert-like conditions. However desert has no agreed scientific The symbol of the palm tree disappearing under the advancing sand dune is locally warranted, meaning, certainly no strict climatic twias a general view of desertillcation it could lead to mistaken combatise strategies. definition. It carries at least three relat- Desertification Control Bulletin

strictive and could lead to mistaken drylands. through Feedback processes ble forbs and shrubs; or combative strategies, for example in such that desertilication could feed on - hummocks, small dunes or the Maginot Line of Green Belts' of itself. In 1977 these questions had to small gullies formed by acceler- trees planted to stop its advance. Con- be left open, and heavier rains in the ated wind or water erosion; or sislent with Aubréville's insistence on Sahel in the mid-1970s encouraged a - soil salinity causing reduction in desertification as a man-made view that the drought there had irrigated crop yields of 10-50%. phenomenon, environmental changes ended. Whatever the truth, it was Severe associated with desertilication tend agreed by the Conference that man - undesirable forbs and shrubs initially to be localized and often ex- was not an innocent victim of worsen- dominate the flora; pressive of a combination of three ing climate, indeed, the degree of his - sheet erosion by wind and water factors: seasonal dryness or drought causal involvement was some measure have largely denuded the land stress, excessive pressure of land use, of his potential for improving things. of vegetation, or large gullies and naturally vulnerable sites. Such are present; or loci of incipient degradation tend to In practical terms, this has meant that - salinity has reduced irrigated intensify, enlarge and link up. assessment of desertification can most crop yields of more than 50%. Overall, therefore, the extension of conveniently be made within the fra- desert-like conditions tends to be mework of the main forms of land use Very Severe achieved through a process of accre- in the drylands: namely as degradation - large shifting barren sand dunes tion from without, rather than of rain fed crop lands, deterioration of have formed; or through expansionary forces acting range lands, and waterloggi ng and - large, deep and numerous gul- from within the deserts. secondary salinization in irrigated lies are present; or lands. Desertificailon can also be in- - salt crusts have developed on Given the contemporary concern with dicated through overexploitation of almost impermeable irrigated the impact of aridity on man's liveli- major renewable natural resources, soils. hood systems, the Secretariat of the notably in the decrease in forest and UN Conference on Desertification woodland cover and in the depletion Very severe desertilication' category, decided to limit its application of the of surface and groundwater reserves. representing the extreme condition term desertification to the world's popularly thought of as drylands, namely the vulnerable areas Estimates for the 1977 desertification, is in most cases eco- of low and unreliable rainfall encom- Desertif icat ion Conference nomically irreversible, such that the passed mainly by the arid and semi- land will have been lost to production. arid climatic zones. It was considered No systematic world survey of the that, irrigated lands apart, the extreme status and trend of desertification was At the UN Conference on Desertifica- or hyperarid desert cores had little carried out for the 1977 Conference. tiOfl in 1977, no figures were present- potential productivity and therefore Such estimates as were produced were ed for the extent of lands Falling into stood to undergo little loss through a byproduct of the mapping of deser- the various classes of desertification. further desertification. Within the dry- tilication hazard for the World Map of The explanatory note to the World lands as defined, the relative severity Deserrificaiion. supplemented by Map of Deserlfficalion gives the areas of regional problems again led to an FAO experience in mapping soil subject to moderate or more severe emphasis on the warm tropical and degradation and by a review of the desertificailon hazard, based on map temperate deserts, to the exclusion of literature. They were summarized in evidence, as 3760 million ha, of which cold deserts in high latitudes. an Overview of Desertiftcauon present- 3373 mitlion ha were in the arid and ed to the Desertificaion Conference semi-arid zones. Dregne (1983) how- The UN Conference on Desertifica- (Secretariat of the UN Conference on ever has since published estimates of tion followed Aubréville in agreeing Desertilication, 1977) and in a map of areas desertitied using similar criteria that man's misuse of the land was a Status of Desertkallon in the Hot Arid to those offered at the Conference. He major factor causing widespread Regions (FAO and UNESCO, 1977). concluded that, ofa total of4lOO mil- desertification. In the mid-1970s They were largely the work of Harold lion ha of productive land in the arid there was considerable speculation Dregne, who has reproduced them in and semi-arid zones. 3272 million ha about the possibility of secular climatic his recent book, Desertt/ication of Arid or 80 per cent should be judged to be change, specifically that an expansion Lands (Dregne, 1983). moderately to very severely of the arid and semi-arid climatic desertified. In his continental zones might be in progress. There was The Map oft/ic Status of Deserrifi cation breakdown, Dregne noted that where- after all good evidence of earlier ex- in Hot Arid Regions depicted l'our as percentages of moderately deserti- pansions of desert conditions, in the classes of desertification, defined qual- fled lands were consistently high Sahel particularly, and changes in itatively on the basis of deterioration everywhere; what identified the Third world atmospheric circulation since of plant cover or degree of accelerated World drylands of Africa, Asia and the mid-I 950s seemed to some to be erosion as follows (FAO eral, 1977): South America was the extent of severely deserrijied lands, which consistent with a possible resurgence. SI ig lit Others stressed that man himself, amounted overall to 870 million ha or - little or no deterioration of plant 18.5 per cent ofall productive lands. through raising the surface albedo or cover or soil. increasing dust concentrations in the atmosphere, might have contributed Moderate For the rangelands, desertification to diminished rainfalls in the - significant increase in undesira class was equated by Dregne (1983)

2 Desertification of the world's rangelands

with range condition class as defined riously disadvantaged come out at 400 deforestation and destruction of by the US Soil Conservation Service. millions and 50 millions respectively. woody vegetation; Slight desertitication was equated with 01 these numbers, just over one fifth declining availability and quality of excellent to good range condition were identified with animal-based groundwater and surface-water class, moderate desertification with livelihood systems, that is mainly oc- supplies fair range condition class, severe cupying rangelands. desertification with poor range condi- Despite the emphasis placed by the lion class, whilst very severe desert ifi- Annual losses in production to be at- UN system on the social and economic cation was identified with land virtual- tributed to desertilication were put by consequences ofdesertification, socio- ly denuded of vegetation cover. On Dregne (1983) at US$26 billion (in economic indicators were found not to that basis, Dregne (1983) estimated 1977 figures), of which US$7.4 billion be systematically available. that 3072 million ha or 82 per cent of represented desertificaion in Information was sought at two levels: the 3750 million ha of rangelands in rangelands. Continuing annual losses at the country level through responses the arid and semi-arid regions were of land to desertification were put at to a Desertificatioi Questionnaire ad- moderately to very severely deserti- over 20 million ha, of which 17.7 mil- dressed to 91 affected countries and to tied (Fig. 1). This is comparable with lion ha were in rangelands. Finally, ten donor countries: and at the region- the area of 3600 million ha stated to the total cost of combatting desertifi- al level through commissioned region- be subject to range deterioration cation on productive drylands was set al assessments, mainly within the fra- through desertification in the over- at US$141 billion, with more than half mework of the UN Regional view presented to the desertilication of this cost (US$ 77.5 billion) account- Commissions. With the co-operation Conference (Secretariat of the UN ed for by the extensive rangelands. of the United Nations Sudano- Conference on Desertification, 1977). Sahelian Office, a special study was made of the critical Sudano-Sahelian Calculations of numbers of people af- Bases for tile N ew Assessment ione (Berry, 1983). In addition, some fected by desertification were made of the sources used at the 1977 Con- for the Desertification Conference. Of For the new review of progress, steps ference were updated, notably the a world population of approximately were taken to improve the data base Case Studies for Chile, Niger and 700 millions in dryland areas affected on the status and trend of Tunisia, and also some country by deserlification, it was concluded desertification, particularly with reports. An earlier study on Climate that about 600 millions were subject regard to the following indicators: and Desertijkation was updated to moderate desertification and slight- (Hare, 1983) and a report commis- ly less than 80 millions to severe encroachment and growth of dune sioned on demographic aspects of desertification. On an assumption that and sand sheets; desertification (Caidwell, one third of these might be in a posi- deterioration ofrangelands, unpublished). tion to avoid the worst consequences, deterioration of rainfed croplands: through high incomes or other waterlogging and salinization of ir- In terms of number of replies advantages, those moderately or Se- rigated lands: received, response to the Desert/ka- lion Quesiionnaire was better than 30% 63% Figure 1: 1984irnaes t' t e anticipated, but the information provided was commonly unsatisfactory and incomplete. In the event, niuch reliance had to be placed on regional assessments and the judge- 2556 ments of regional assessors. The information garnered so far, although an o '000 2000 improvement on that available in million ha 1977, still falls far short ofan adequate baseline picture of desertification in the mid-I 980s; at best it indicates the 82% 1977 estimate relative magnitude of the problem, the patterns and nature of its impacts, :•: and the operation of some of the main actors. Since we have no earlier baseline for comparison, conclusions as to 71 o desertifjcatjon trends must be based RangeFands mainly on assessment of the present 3700 million ha . dynamics of the Situation and on esti- o iixxi 2000 3000 milriori ha matesof likely future developments in what are seen to be the main con- Severe . Moderale Slight or no deserl.rficalon LJ deserirircaiior, desenilicairon tributory causes.

Reasons for this continuing lack of Exteni of moderate/v and sei'ere/v desertfied land in the worlds rangelands au-n rdisg to ihe 1977 e.Oimazes and the 1984 assessment. satisfactory information on desertification status and trend include: Desertificat ion Control Bulletin

- lack of national organizations re- Note 7 (UNESCO, 1979), replacing deser tilled' under the new assessment sponsible for gathering the neces- the map ofarid and semi-arid homocli- is 2000 million ha, compared with sary information; mates (Meigs, 1953) used as the basis 3270 million ha in 1977. This dif- - lack of basic information corre- for the 1977 Conference. The change ference is partly explained by the spond i ng to the dryland areas; hardly affected the limit of the dry- larger estimate of rangelands in 1977, - lack of a practiãal method of rapidly lands as earlier defined, but did draw but also reflects higher percentages of defining desertifkation status for some new internal boundaries, be- land claimed as being moderately specific areas. tween arid and hyperarid and arid and desertified in the 1977 estimates, both semi-arid zones. More significant was in the rainfed croplands and in the Concerning the first of these its complete inclusion of the subhu- rangelands, as will be discussed below. Co nslraints, countries were urged mid zones, against which a more ex- under the UN Plan of Action to tensive impact of desertification could For the rangelands, guidelines for the Combat Desertitication 10 establish a be considered. classification of desertification status central organization to co-ordinate the Summary Results of the New were provided in the Deserti/kaijon implementation of national plans Assessment Questionnaire as follows: This has rarely been done, and almos everywhere the concerns raised by Under the new assessment the area Moderate desertjfjcatjon continue to fall under considered as being at risk ofdesertifi- - significant reduction in cover several branches of government, ef- ca lion has been increased over that and deterioration in composi- fectively reducing the priority given to employed for the 1977 estimates, tion of pastures; desertification issues. With regard to from 4050 million ha to 4500 million - locally severely eroded; the last-listed constraint, FAO and ha. This has resulted from inclusion - would respond to manage- UNEP have been collaborating on a within the threatened area of the ment supported by improve- Pro visional Methodology fbr Assessment entire subhumid climatic zone as now ments and conservation mapped, which regional assessments and Mapping of'Deserti/Icai'ioa (FAQ measures; 1981) which has already hadanumber indicated as undergoing significant - loss of carrying capacity up to of tests. This should eventually serve desertification, notably in the rain fed 25% of earlier carrying valuable calibrative pilot studies, but croplands. This increase brings the capacity. is likely to prove too demanding to area considered to be at risk to 30 per provide broad regional assessment of cent of the Earth's land surface, and Severe the status of desertification within a has important implications for what is - very significant reduction in reasonable period, leaving a basic seen as the main threat oldesertitica- perennial vegetation cover problem still to be addressed. tion for the future. On the other hand, and widespread deterioration the area now considered as productive in composition of pastures; Two significant, exceptions to this lack land is diminished, to 2955 million ha - widespread severe erosion; of data on desertilication at country compared with 4100 million ha in - requiring major level were Australia and the United 1977. This mainly results from a improvements; States. In Australia, the Department major decrease in the area now consid- - loss of carrying capacity of Home Affairs and Environment has ered as rangeland, namely 2554 mil- 25-50% of earlier carrying lion ha compared with 3700 million ha published a report on Land Degrade-. capacity. lion in Australia as an outcome of a in 1977. This difference expresses an Collaborative Soil Conservation apparent change of definition. The Very Severe Study (Woods, 1983). its evaluations larger area for 1977 was apparently got - extensively denuded of relate to 1975-77 and it does not by assuming that all arid and semi-arid perennial shrubs and grasses define degradation in terms of lands apart from cropland were and subject to widespread desertification, but its statements on rangeland, including lands known to very severe accelerated land condition and its recommenda- be unusable for grazing because of erosion; lions on combative actions allow it to remoteness, difficult or unwatered - large areas irreclaimable be translated into those terms. terrain, or various types of economically; Deser- reservation, whereas the 1984 figures ij/ica lion in the United States— Status - loss of carrying capacity over are based on country returns and FAO and issues (Sabadell ci a!, 1982) was 50% of earlier carrying produced for the Bureau of Land statistics for extensive grazing land. capacity. Management and refers to conditions This decrease in the area considered as productive land is not greatly affect- in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Al- Losses in yield of up to 25 per centand ed by a concurrent increase in the area though addressed directly to the prob- above 25 per cent were similarly sug- of rainfed croplands now included, lem of desertification, it preceded the gested as criteria for moderate and from 224 million ha in 1977 to 570 Desert/flea tion Questionnaire and does severe desert ificalion respectively for million ha in the new assessment, in not directly answer the questions the rainfed croplands and irrigated the main through the inclusion of all posed by it. lands; however desertification is not subbumid croplands. The discrepancy as yet significantly reflected in crop between the two sets of figures is The map basis for the new assessment yields or stocking rates, and loss in spread over all dryland regions. of desertificalion was the UNESCO productivity has therefore proved Map of the World Distribution of' Arid The extent of productive land inapplicable as a desertification Regions published as MAB Technical designated at least 'moderately indicator. In the rangelands, as in

-IFAI Desertification of the world's rangelands

the earlier assessment, and for USSR Figure 2: the estimate is now 60 per cent compared with the previous 80 per cent. Sudarto-Sahelian On the other hand, the differences be- region 1IIP!;E tween the earlier and later estimated percentages are negligible for the Afri- can regions and small for South America. It may be significant that the :Ø reduced percentages relate to the re- E : t e n gions with the better information, in which case the percentages of moderately desertified rangeland may con- Mediteranean tinue to decline as our assessments Africa improve. For the Australian rangelands, where I placed those areas recommended under the Collabora- Western Asia tive SoiJ Conservation Study as requiring only improved management into the 'slight desertification' category, my resulting figure of 22 per cent of rangeland as being moderately desertitied is probably an underestimate. South .Asia The extent of the drylands estimated as severely desertified is 945 million ha or 30 per cent of all productive USSR in Asia land, and the overall proporton for the rangelands is similar, as shown in Fig. 1 and 2. This is significantly higher China and than the figure of 18.5 per cent ob- Mongolia tained in the 1977 estimates. As with the 1977 figures, the percentages of severely desertified lands emphasize the greater severity of the impact of Australia deserliuicatiori in the Third World re- Severe gions generally, including the desertificalion rangelands, where the percentage of Mediterranean severely desert ifled land generally ex- Europe ceeds 40 per cent, :ompared with less Moderate than 20 per cent in the free-market desertilical'on systems of the developed world and around 30 per cent in the centralized South Amenca economies. and Mexico desertification LI The new assessment indicates a world population for the drylands of 850 million, an increase of 150 millions 1110 Noh Amenca 3 O over the earlier figures explained largely by the inclusion of more closely settled subhumid areas, but in part also by natural increase. The rural component of about 500 millions is Exent of moderately andseve,etpdes'fltfiedfr2rtdin :herangekznd by rtiajor regions accorthng distributed between land-use catego- to the 1984 assesSmeflL ries as shown in Fig. 3. The new assessment gives even greater emphasis other land-use categories, estimates compared with the 82 per cent in the than before to the rainfed croplands as have had to be based on observed 1977 estimates. Much of this dis- the support of the bulk of the popula- eco logical degradation and the extent crepancy resides in the lowered esti- tions affected by moderate, and partic- of accelerated erosion. mates now given the developed ularly by severe desertification (172 countries, and to a lesser extent in millions and 92.5 millions The extent of the world's range lands those for the centralised economies respectively), compared with the ran- now estimated as being at least moder- (Fig. 2) for example, the figure of 40 gelands (50 and 25 millions) and the ately desertified is 1610 million ha or per cent for North American range- irrigated lands (58.5 and 18.5 63 per cent of the productive area, lands contrasts with the 80 per cent in millions). Desertification Control Bulletin

No new assessment is available of the annual losses of land and production million Figure 3: to desertification, nor of the costs of 260 260 combatting it. On the basis of costs given in the 1977 estimates, however, the effective increase in the stated 240 area of desertilied raitfed cropland, from 173 million ha in 1977 to 320 220 million ha in 1984, whilst at the same time decreasing the stated area of desertilied rangeland from 3070 mil- 200 lion ha to 1700 million ha, should be to increase the annual losses in pro- 180 175 duction by 30 per cent whilst lowering the costs ofcombatting desertilication by a Ihile under five per cent in 1977 160 dollars.

Desertification Trends 140

Neither the 1977 estimates nor the 120 recent assessment is sufficiently accurate and time-related to provide a comparative basis for the determina- 100 tion of desertification trends in the world's rangelands, and those shown in Fig. 4 are based on an appreciation of the dynamics of the present situation drawn from the regional assessments. Generally, the outlook is poor. Accelerating desertification is typical of the rangelands of most developing regions, such as Africa south of the Sahara, tropical South America and parts of Asia. Significant improvements are confined to favourable environments in North America and Rainted Irrigated Europe and to areas covered by major craplands lands government projects in the centralised economies of USSR and China. Population not significantly r----i Population affected by Two categories of depletion of natural affected by desectiicaton L_J moderate desertificatiori resources associated with desertifica- Pøputation affected by tion in the rangelands are also shown severe desertification in Fig. 4. Deforestation and destruction of woody vegetation, in part R u,alpopulanons in OTCUS ajjeced kv moikrow and severe deserrifkcn,on under major kxnd- through overgrazing, fuelwood use categories ai'cording to the I984assessmeor gathering and burning, as perhaps the most dynamic manifestation of desertification. is continuing and world's rangelands shows common burning for agriculture, increasing indeed accelerating in much of the features, including the exposure of the soil surface to drylands of the developing world, accelerated crosion notably in Africa, Latin America and - deterioration in the quantity, quali- areas of South Asia, Depletion of ty and persistence of native - changes in soil surface-conditions, groundwater reserves is also pastures, generally associated with notably compaction through tram- important, particularly in Western a diminution of cover, but also pling by livestock, leading to dete- Asia, Mediterranean Africa and in the with invasion by woody shrubs of rioration in soil-plant-water rela- UnjtedStates in North America. low pastoral vaIue tionships and diminished germination, Impacts of Desertification on the - structural changes in the vegeta- World's Rangelands tion cover, notably the loss of - resulting accelerated wind and shrubs and trees, partly through water erosion of little-protected World-wide, the continuing or acceler- browsing but also through gather- soils, removal of topsoils and the ating course of desertification in the ing of luciwood and clearing and loss of nutrient and seed stores,

Is Desertification of the wor1ds raneIands

and eventually the exposure of barren, locally hard-setting sub- Fure 4: oc.ut & Groijnd-witer soils which resist revegetation R.QIor woodt.r *$OU$ - complementary processes of sand drifting and siltation, leading to further destruction of vegetation cover and commonly to deteriora- Sudano'Sahellan tion of surface and shallow region groundwater supplies. Africa South of The patterns of such changes vary Sudano-Sahelian with the movements and concentra- region tion of grazing animals, with seasonal 'TI conditions, and with the varying vul- nerability of the land itselL MedIterranean Africa Superimposed on these general trends are features specific to particular regions, in response to environmental Western Asia •S SS*. controls and particularly also to socioeconomic and related conditions. The rangelands Call into four main environmental types which are variously dis- South Asia tributed within the regional conipart- ments used in the recent assessment. Distinction between these environ-

mental rangeland types is useful when USSR in Asia considering trends of desertificat ion, underlying causes and future desertifi- car ion hazards. China and Mongolia Most extensive, and accounting for almost 50 per cent of ihe world's rangelands, are the mainly sandy

plainlands typified by much of the arid Australia 0 -0- zone within the Sudano-Sahelian region, by the drier western part of

Africa to the south, by the arid por- Mediterranean tions of Mediterranean Africa and Europe Western Asia, and by the arid lowlands of the western section of South

Asia, western China and Asiatic 't South America USSR, the Chaco and Caribbean plains in South America, and much of arid Mexico. Environmentally equiva- leni areas in the United States and the Mexico 0 sand dcscrts of the Australian arid zone tend to be less developed pastorally. These arid pasture lands mainly range from grass steppe to North America thorn scrub. Extending to the dry, limits of land use, they are subject to critical variations in rainfall and to accelerating desertification -00- desertitication status unchanged prolonged drought. Desertification in these areas has included the grazing continuing desertification desertitication Status improving out of valuable grasses and the destruction of woody shrubs, in part R egiona I trends in deernJkczt ion in rhe rQnge lands and in the depletion of forest and woodland cover and water reserves according to the 1984 assessment. through the gathering of woody vegetation for fuelwood. The dominant processes following degradation of the Much of the grazing is seasonal, tradi- pastures to rains. Under such tradi- pasture cover are accelerated wind tionally through extensive nomadism tional systems, control of the range- erosion and sand drifting, but water or transhumance, associated with the land may be achieved through tribal erosion is also important towards the exploitation of seasonal waters, salt ownership of watering points, with the more humid margins. licks etc. and the seasonal response of ownership of flocks on an extended

7 Desertification Control Bulletin

family basis. In many such areas, gra,- ing of these range lands was formerly linked with control by pastoralists ol migration and trade routes and oasis settlements, and sustained by important exchange relationships w i t h larni- ing peoples on the wetter margins. The socio-economic bases of rangc- land livelihood systems in these areas are currently undergoing important changes, to which desertilication has contributed. It was the critical impact of desertilication on rangelands of this At t type in the Sudano-Sahelian region in the early 1970s which aroused the response of the world community to the •:- —;: -

problem. At that time, there was a - breakdown of the pastoral livelihood systems over large areas, migration to towns and refugee centres, and volun- ____ • ' tary sedentarisation around permanent watering points, in many cases Grazing in hi/i aiid oplaniI ra isgela i/s has bei'ii a imuor /a. or in d'/oresratwti. Here, near linked with a switch to cropping. Ghaziin. Iran. il- aninivis are allowed to strip the hillside t'are ojailpiont lt'. soil erosion will follow. (FAO/H Hull) In these extensive sandy plainlands and upland meadows predominate tlement and extreme land hunger, deseri1ication continues and the situa- among the pastures, but grazing com- whereby grazing lands are constantly lion remains serious over wide areas, monly extends into and has been a under threat by the encroachment of but the drier parts of these rangelands major factor in the degradation of cropping. They include areas undergo- can no longer be regarded as the most mountain forests. ing rapid increase in rural populations, critical areas in terms ofdesertification and the situation has potential for very In the temperate zones, use of these hazard. In part this reflects the fact rapid desertification to a virtually irre- rangelands has traditionally been that desertification has already at- versible stage tained a severe status over large parts. linked with a declining element of Nevertheless, save where desertifica- transhumant grazing; in the lower hill tion was very severe, the sandy soils lands of the tropics it is commonly as- The third major type of range land con- can show significant recuperative sociated with subsistence rainfed sists of plains or plateaux with latosolic powers, as exemplified by the update cropping. In the Old World drylands soils, mainly under dry woodlands or of the Niger Case Study, which report- these range lands include the heart- tall shrublands. It occurs in shield ed partial recovery of many shrublands lands of pastoralism, and desertiflca- areas of central Africa, in southern with the improved rains of the middle tion here is of long standing and has less arid parts of the Sudano-Sahelian and late 1970s. The more severe risk resulted in extensive depauperate region, over much of the Indian of very severe and virtually irreversi- vegetation types. In subhumid and Deccan, in tropical Australia and in ble desertification lies towards the semi-arid central and eastern Africa South America in the Nordeste of semi-arid margins of these plainlands. south of the Sudano-Sahelian region, Brazil. Grazing in many of the Third closer to agricultural and urban heavy grazing by mixed herds of cattle World areas is linked with swidden settlements, where there is greater and small livestock in areas ofclose ag- systems of clearing agriculture. This human pressure on the land and ricultural settlement, together with rangeland type is vulnerable to severe where wind erosion is reinforced by man's destruction of woody sheet erosion by tropical rains, and accelerated water erosion, often on vegetation, has initiated severe water despite generally low gradients can vulnerable tropical soils. erosion under heavy tropical rainfalls, rapidly become severely desert ifled. and the northern Andean grazing The second environmental type of lands of South America show many The fourth rangeland type consists of rangeland comprises hill and upland comparable features. These range- temperate short-grass steppes or low ranges, accounting for 15-20 per cent lands include terrain which is naturally shrublands on relatively treeless semi- of the whole and important in the vulnerable to accelerated water ero- arid plainlands in North America, Horn of Africa in the Sudano-Sahelian sion following intense summer Argentina, and also in Kazakhstan in region, along the watershed of Africa rainfalls, often in association with the USSR and in Mongolia and adjacent to the south, in the semi-arid Mediter- deforestation of watersheds. They are northern China, where severe winters ranean lands of Africa and Western areas of potentially very severe and ir- pose an additional climatic hazard. Asia, in the western part of South reversible desertifleation, with conse- Parts of the southern Australian Asia, in the mountains of Asiatic quences which can extend to adjacent rangelands, albeit with a more temper- USSR and western China, Andean lowlands through flooding and ate climatic regime, may be grouped South America and in the North siltation. They are commonly closely here. This rangeland type includes im- American Rockies. Low shrublands associated with dense agricultural set- portant areas of commercial livestock Desertification of the world's ran lands production. The main form of physical sifying or encroaching on terrains and sponse to growing commercial mar- degradation following overgrazing is soils and into climaUc settings under kets for livestock will maintain pres- accelerated wind erosion of fine- which accelerated water erosion rein- sure on the long-desertified ranges, textured soils, but on sloping ground forces the impact of wind action. but is anticipated that by the year 2000 accelerated water erosion of duplex Where norriadism or transhurnant the most severe desertification in the soils supplements and commonly in- grazing has been practised in these world's rangelands will have shifted teracts with wind erosion. areas, additional problems will con- markedly to the semi-arid margins of tinue to arise from continuing the tropical range lands. Fig. 4 therefore shows five critical re- sedentarization, and everywhere gions of accelerating desertification: through the encroachment of rainfed Underlying Causes the Sudano-Sahelian region, parts of cropping. Further acceleration of Africa to the south, Western and desertification in these areas can be The causes that underlie this generally South Asia, and South America anticipated from the destruction of unsatisfactory and regionally critical including the northern Andean lands woody vegetation to meet the fuel- situation cannot be discussed in detail as well as the Nordeste in Brazil. wood requirements of growing here. However the recent regional as- settlements. Constraints such as stock sessments have identified a number of Outside these critical areas, most ran- diseases and land tenure make it un- general factors which have contributed gelands show a continuing steady likely that grazing pressures in these to the unfavourable trends. Prominent downward trend. In general there critical areas will be relieved through among these is continuing drought in seems to be little evidence of natural the opening up on new rangelands. In many parts of the world's drylands, recovery of severely desertified arid the temperate sectors of these and notably in Africa. The crisis in the rangelands, save in areas of better regions, as in Western Asia, further pastoral livelihood systems of the soils receiving run-on. Reclamation decline in transhumance and the re- Sahel in the early 1970s reflected the work in such range lands. generally un- feasible on economic grounds, has not so far had impressive results, save in a few favoured and more productive areas such as the upland rangelands of the USA, and in areas subject to major government programmes, as in the USSR. Extensive planting of shrubs in areas receiving less than 350 mm rainfall, for instance in north-central Chile and Libya, has had limited success, and experience suggests that future investment of this kind should be more selective, confined to the most favourable areas, and preferably integrated with total schemes for pastoral improvement, as in co-operative rangeland projects in Syria.

Continuing Desertification Hazard AK in the World's Rangelands

The rangelands of the world comprise the largest areas of desertified produc- In areas where pastoralists are becoming sealed and are taking up culiwation. the land is tive land, and desertification of range- beconiing subjeci to increa Ned wind and waler erosion, as here in Kenya s Baringo valley. (UNEP/Danie/ Stiles) lands is seen to be accelerating in five regions: in the Sudano-Sahelian susceptibility of arid rangelands to tributing to range land desertification region, in Africa to the south, in West- prolonged drought if they are under in Africa been strengthened by thi s se- ern Asia and South Asia and in South considerable grazing pressure. At the quence of dry years; equally, climatic America. These are mainly tropical Desertifjcaiion Conference in 1977, conditions for restorative programmes rangelands wherein the most critical better rains in the mid-1970s lent cre- have been unfavourable. The question areas are shown to be the upland and dence to a view that the episode of has again been raised, and remains hilly rangelands of mixed farming drought in the Sahel had ended, butin open, as to whether these and other communities, as in southern Africa, the following years seasonal rainfalls marginal drylands are experiencing a and the semi-arid margins of the drier in the region have almost without ex- long-term swing towards lower rain- plainlands, as in the Sahel-Sudan tran- ception been below average and badly falls that may call for corresponding sition in West Africa. These are areas distributed, whilst severe drought has shifts in patterns of land use and a revi- of close settlement and, rapidly grow- also extended southwards from the sion of expectations of productivity ing rural populations where increased Horn of Africa through almost the from their grazing lands. stocking levels can be anticipated. entire southern African continent. Furthermore, grazing is here inten- Not only has the climatic factor con- At the same time, and despite the Desertificat ion Control Bulletin

check of earlier droughts, there has urban and agricultural sectors. It is in most general terms, harnessing the been a general continuing growth in this context for example that a resources of satellite imagery and rural population in the rangelands of marked recent encroachment of other forms of remote sensing to pro- the developing countries, matched by rainfed cropping into the better pas- vide tiniely baseline estimates, sup an increase in livestock numbers in ture lands can be understood, as a reported by appropriate but simple sys- the areas worse-af"ected by sponse to new national policies of in- lems of data-gathering by sciernists on desertification. By 1980, for example, creased food production or of in- the ground and by governmental numbers of small livestock in the creased emphasis on export cash crops recording of production and other Sahelian range lands had already sur- as producers of foreign exchange, relevant informalion. The second is passed those of the pre-droughi years whereby valuable grazing lands have for a further continuance of the valua- of the late 1960s, and subsequent been lost and important traditional ex- ble and growing co-operation between years have been a steady continuing change relationships between pastoral social scienttsts and those from other annual increase in all livestock of up isis and Farmers broken down. At the relevant disciplines, carrying the un- to five per cent, exceeding even the international level, Third World dry- derstanding of desertification in range- growth in rural populations. Growing 'and countries have generally been lands beyond the scope of monitoring markets and marketing systems, unequal competitors in world trade, ecological degradation, towards that linked with rising meat consumption suffering from increasingly adverse better appreciation of rapidly changing by urban populations, are likely to terms of trade for their agricultural man-environment relationships and maintain this pressure of livestock products, from the inflationary rise in the underlying social and economic numbers on the grazing lands in many oil prices in the early 1970s, and from factors in which must reside the se- of the worse-affected dryland regions. continuing world economic recession. crets of successful programmes to Many of the causes of desertification combat desertification and of future New technological and commercial have their origins at these levels, and management systems to control its impacts on traditional pastoral systems to that extent desertification is in pact resurgence. have acted adversely to reinforce the a reflection of unequal economic de- effect of these increasing grazing pres- velopment and of inequality of access sures and to bring about to resource, at national and local REEF R F N C ES scales, linked with poverty and inade- desert ification. The potentially harm- Aubréville, A., 1949. Climats, Foréts. eiDesert(fl- ful consequences of the introduction quate infrastructure. Desertified cation do LA frique Tmpicafe. Socièlè d' Edi- of technology into rangelands without areas, and particularly desertified lions Géographiqucs, Maritimes Cl the support of appropriate manage- rangelands, generally show slow Coloniales, Paris. 255 pp. ment controls is well-exemplified by powers of ecological recovery and low Berry. L.. 1983. Assersme,if of Desert jflcaoo,i in the provision of permanent bore- economic returns and are unattractive the Sir aiw-Sahelian Region 1977-1984. waters in pastures that were formerly to national investment policies or to U oiled Nations Sudano-Sahelian Office, used only seasonally, or of stock-water international aid flows, both of which NewYork. 146 pp. supplies beyond the forage capacity of tend to be discouraged by the long Caidweti. IC.. unpubt%shed. Dsorrijka:ion; the rangelands that they serve. In re- period over which reclamatory mea- Demographic Eridence. 1973-1983. A Report sponse to growing urban markets, sures must be sustained. The record w the United Nadons Enrironinent new commercial forces have linked of restorative programmes in the Programme. 56 pp. inappropriately with traditional ani- world's rangelands over the last Dregne, HE., 1983. Deserificaiion of Arid tudes to livestock numbers as wealth, decade are accordingly disappointing. Lands. Advances in [)cserL and Arid Land prestige or drought-insurance, to ac- Technology and Development, Vol. 3. Flar- centuate further the recent inordinate Finally, many of the worst-affected wood Academic Publishers, New York. 242 increases in grazing pressure. Such rangeland areas of the Third World pp. forces have arisen just when the social have in the last decade been subjected lAO a n d UNEP. 1981. Pro ilsional Merhodo/ogr structures within which traditional to major social and economic disrup- for Deserti/k'ar,on Assessment and 14pppg management systems are embedded tion through political strife, warfare, FAO, Rome. 5743 pp are themselves undergoing change attendant refugee problems and exces- and breakdown through the moderni- sive out-migration, which have both FAO and UNESCO, 1977. Siaws of Desrtiflca- /1110 in //iO fbi And Rrgio,ia. UN CDnrereoce zation and mobilization of society. exacerbated the problem of desertifi- on Descrtificution, A/CONF. 74/31. New Whilst the skills of traditional pastoral cation and hampered actions to York. management are becoming increasing- combat it. ly acknowledged, to a growing extent FAQ, UNESCO and WMO, 1977u World Map traditional pastoral societies now oper- Conclusion if De.sertilicciuon ai a Scale qf l:25.000,000. E.p/aitaiory ;Voie. UN Conference on ate under conditions different from DesernEicalion. AI'CONF 7412. New York. those under which they evolved, and Two priority needs which my involve- II pp. under changing circumstances which ment in the recent assessment of are in part beyond their control. desertilication by the United Nations FAQ. UNESCO and WMO. 1977b. Stows of Environment Programme have im- Desrriificaiion in i/ic 1/or ..lrkJ Regions, Cl/mw- i.e Arid/tv Index S/tip and Experuneowl World At national levels, pastoral societies pressed upon me are particularly rele- Sc/ionic ujAridiri anti Drought Probability, of a have commonly lost their relative in- vant to this Congress. The first is an Sea/c' of I:25.I)(1O.OIW. Explanatory Note. UN fluence within the new national states urgent requirement For a means of Conference on Desertiuication. A/CONF. 74/31.New York. 14pp. of the drylands, where political and rapid assessment of desertification economic powers end to reside in the status in the range lands, even in the

10 Desertification of the world's rane1ands

I hire. F.K.. 1983. C/noun' and Desent/kcwon: .4 Secretariat of the U N ConI'erence on I tilted Natio, 1978. Uni ted Nations C'n/i'rent-e R/sedA,wA'si. World Climate Applications 1)csertil'icaiioii. 1977. Desertilkattan: its on Deaerti/n'atian 29 August— 9 September Programme WCF-44 WMO-UNEP, ('ciuses and Conrequeiwea. Perganiort. New 1977. Rvund-Llp. P/air of Action and Geneva. 149pp. York. 448 pp. Resrn/uitinrns. United Nations, New York. 43 pp. Meigs. F.. 1953. World disiribution of arid arid UN EP, 1984 General .'lssessment (jf Progress in semi-arid homoclimutes. Pp 203-9 in Renew the Impknrcnraiioii o/' the Plan a! -f ci ion Fur Woods, L.E., 1983. Land Degradation in oJ Resear'h an Arid Zone Hi.droiagy. Combat Desert/kaiiwr /t) ?-Il84. Report il Australia. Australian Government Publish- UNESCO Arid Zone Programme 1, Paris, the Evec'wivu' Director and Annex an Regional ingService. Canberra. 105 pp. 212 pp. .4 Sse$s!flenI/ / the Status and Trend af Dc'scriifiisnion. UNEP/GC. 1219. Nairobi, 5abideIl, i.E.. Risley, EM., Jorgenson. H.T. S8+23 pp. a n d Thornton. U.S. 119821. Desertiflcaruonrn the U,iiieilSitc's. Status and issues— Final. US UN ESCO, 1979. .tlap of the Wi,u'/c/Djstrjbujwn oJ' Bureau of Land Management, Washington. Arid Regions. MAP Technical Notes No. 7. 277 pp. UNESCO, Paris. 54 PP.

11 Deforestation, desert ificat I oi& and soil loss

Prof Mohammed Kassa temperate-zone forests are afflicted by release certain metal ions, e.g. Department of Botany industrial air pollution including acid aluminium. University of Cairo, Egypt precipitation: the tropical forests are subject to depletion through excessive These air- borne pollutants ofteti This article was first presentedas a cutting that is not compensated by travel over considerable distances, report to the Inter-Parlianientary Con- afforestation. Shifting cultivation is hence their transboundary extent. ference on the Environment held in perhaps "the greatest single cause of The need for urgent action is videly Nairobi. 26 Novenihcr deforestation" in the tropics (1). recognized. The Geneva Convention 1 December 1984. on Long-range Transboundary Air Imp-act ofatinospherie pollution Pollution was adopted by member (acid precipitation) The views expressed in this report are States of the United Nations Economic the personal views of the author and Commission for Europe in 1979: an In recent years, die-back has affected not necessarily those of any national associated Co-operative Programme notable areas of forest in western institution with which he is associated for Monitoring and Evaluation of the Europe and North America. By 1982 or those of the United Nations Envi- Long-range Transmission of Air Pol- more than 8 per cent of forests ronment Programme or the 1nter lutants in Europe (EMEP) is being (mostly coniferous) in the Federal Parliamentary Union. implemented. The overall objective is Republic of Germany (560,000 to reduce emissions of pollutants asso- hectares) were damaged: in 1983 a ciated with fossil fuel combustion: a survey showed that damage affected 30 per cent reduction is the short-term DEFORESTATION 34 per cent of the forests (2 and 3). (within the next lOyears) target. Widespread damage has also been Introduction reported from Czechoslovakia Deforestation (cutting and (500,000 hectares) and Poland con 'iers ion) Forests represent one of the principal (500,000 hectares) (4). Air natural formations (bionics) of the pollutants—photochemical oxidants Tropical forests and woodlands i'orm a world, the most complex in structure (ozone) alone or in combination with band of rich tree growth around the sulphur and nitrogen oxides—seeni to and richest in species composition equator. These forests, which range (genetic diversity). Forests ofall types be the trigger of this alarming process from dense and evergreen rain forests cover about 4,090 miUion hectares (5). to tropical woodlands of various (31 per cent of the world's land area). structures, are menaced with exces- They play two vital roles: they provide The mechanism and precise cause of sive cutting and sluggish programmes a variety of materials that mankind damage remain to be clearly of replacement. The recent FAO- needs, and they have an important identified, but it is generally arced Ii NEP Tropical Forest Resources As- ecological function in the overall oper- that air pollution is a major factor. sesnieiii (6) gives the following esti- ation and balance of the biosphere. Acid precipitation, caused by deposi- mates of area and rates of change: Forests are associated with humid cli- tion in rain of sulphuric and nitric mates (high rainfall), but a distinction acids which originate from sulphur The rate of deforestation is 10 times is made between tropical forests, and nitrogen oxides produced in fossil the rate of planting. The depletion of where nutrients are retaijied mainly fuel combustion, is commonly regard- tropical woodlands results from exces- within the biomass, leading to poor ed as a principal component of the sive population pressures and poor soil, and forests of the warni teniperate causative factors. Ozone, produced management of the forest-society climate, where nutrients are mostly in through photochemical reactions in- relationship. The two principal causes the soil. This means that removal of volving hydrocarbons and nitrogen of deforestation are shifting cultiva- forest cover in the tropics leaves oxides in the presence of sunlight, is tion (5.1 million hectares a year) and behind a habitat with soil vulnerable another likely factor. Other ecological clearing for agriculture, pasture. etc. to further loss. In contrast, the remov- stresses (climatic, historic, etc.) may (6.2 million hectares a year). Extrac- al of temperate forest leaves behind also be involved. The ecological tion of timber for industrial purposes fertile soil capable of supporting impact of acid precipitation may be is not considered a major factor in regeneration of the forest. much more pronounced in base-poor deforestation (7) (niostly acidic) soils that lack the buf- Historically, forests were subject to fering potential of base-rich (mostly Fuelwood is the principal source of cutting and were often menaced with alkaline, e.g. calcareous) soils. The energy for some 2,000 million people fire. But today these two geographic impact may have an indirect pathway in the third world. Fuelwood scarcity groups of forests are threatened by dif- through its chemical interactions with is perhaps the most visible effect of ferent environmental hazards. The soils, particularly reactions that deforestation in the tropics. The Tropi-

Deforestation, desertification and soil loss

Region Forest area Rate of Rate of planting ater run-off from the upper mcflions of deforestation Himalayan watershed ... The cost hectares Millionsofhectares peryear of repairing flood damages in india below the I-limalayan watershed Tropical America 896 5.6 0.535 has recently averaged US $250 rnil- lion per year". Tropical Africa 703 3.7 0.126 0.438 Tropical Asia 336 2.0 Other examples from Colombia, Costa Rica, Haiti. Panama, and the 11.3 1.099 Total 1935 Philippines, may be quoted. Rehabili- tat ion of degraded tropical watersheds is among the priorities of global environ nie ii ta I nianagemen t. International trade

Apart l'rom wood products collected and consumed at home, forest products represent an important export item for many tropical countries: the trade value of forest timber exports is about 547 billion a year. Other forest products (latexes, gums, essential oils, medicines, nuts and ornaments) contribute to the export trade. Asia dominates the hardwood production in the tropics: the average annual world production of sawlogs and eneer logs (in 1976-1979) was 139.1 million cubic metres (80 million from tropical Asia, 42.4 million from tropical America and 16.7 million from tropical AI'rica). Between 1960 and 1980 production more than doubled, The rate of dejôre.ttaiion is ten tunes the rare ofireeplanting. (UNEP/DanteiStites) from 65 to 139 million cubic metres (a year). Most of the increased produc- cal Forest Reaouiue.s .4swsnien es- note that in two extremes of Forest tion was exported to Japan, Europe, timated that in 1980 there were some ecological conditions (tropical closed and North A merica. 1,291 million people (201 million in 1orets with high rates of plaiit growth, tropical Africa, 863 million in tropical and boreal coniferous forests) nu- Depletion of forests is changing the Asia and 227 million in Latin trients are maintained in the biomass global trade pattern, and exports are America) whose fuelwood require- and not in the soil. This situation sub- dramalicaLly subsiding, especially ments could not he sustained. The ecis soil systems to irreparable from tropical Africa: Ghana's 1981 tiumber projected for the year 2000 is damage as forest cover is removed. wood exports totalled 7 per cent of the 2,718 million. The cost olluclwood is 1964 level, Nigeria's only 1 per cent. escalating: the reiail price olFuclwood Forests have a regulatory role in water Thailand's log exports in 1981 were 8 in I3ombav more than tripled between flow (the hydrological cycle) and in at- per cent of their peak in the 1970s. the 971 and 1980: in Cameroon a cubic mospheric and climatic phenomena Philippines' 15 per cent. In addition, metre oI'Iuelwood cost $8 in 1976 and biogeochemical cycling of carbon, tropical forests are niajor sources of $44 in 1981; in Abidjan the price temperature relationships—albedo) useful genetic materials for soared from 526 per cubic metre in I 0) They reprcsenl a considerablc agriculture, medicine and other phar- 1976 to$250 in 1980 (8). stock of bioniass—in tropical rain maceutical products, a trade with forest up to 650 tonnes per hectare, potential sales values of billions of Ecological consequences of forest the highest l'or all natural ecosystems dollars des I ru ct ion (ii). The ecological "services" that The destruction of forests undermines l'orests provide are difficult to assess Recoin ineiided actions basic operations of the ecosystem and in terms of money. But Posiel (12) may thus cause irreversible changes. writes: Deterioration that is manifest and The most serious of these changes ap- widespread in warm temperate forests pears to be due to large-scale exposure "Flooding, droughts and siltation isapparentiv related to atmospheric of natural soil systems, leading to in- in many parts of the world are more pollution. The Multilateral Confer- creased erosion and, in turn, having severe because oldeforestatioit A ence on Catises and Prevention of an indirect impact on water resource hall' billion people in Bangladesh, Damage to Forests and Waters by Air development (9). We may, however, india, and pakistan are affected by Pollution in Europe (Munich, Federal

13 Desertification Control Bulletin

Republic of Germany. 24-27 June tages for human health and welfare in pasturelands, rain-fed farmlands and 1984) called for the application ol all parts of the world. irrigated agricultural lands, sand dune known technologies for the gradual re- stabilization, establishing large-scale duction of emissions of air pollutants, Desertification green belts, introducing soil and water especially sulphur and nitrogeil conservation systems in resource oxides, support for regional air pouu- Introduction management or reclaiming new ter- tion monitoring networks, and more ritories of arid and semi-arid lands, research on the ecology of Ibrest Extensive areas of productive lands are apt to be costly, while projects in- damage. are subject to ecological degradation volving irrigation schemes are partic- that reduces their productivity, and ularly expensive. Indeed, such pro- Afforestation programmes, for round- hence undermines the life-support jects are commonly non-competitive wood and fuelwood, need to be system of some 850 million people. by prevalent market values, compared stepped up as a means of meeting Manifestations of desertification with present rates of interest. Invest- human requirements and takirg pres- include: ment in land reclamation projects sure off species-rich forests and wood- commonly does not pay at all well lands that conserve upland sail and - Deteriorarion of rangelands, financially in the short term. catchmeni. At present the rate of - Degradation of rain-fed croplands; planting in tropical countries isa tenth - Waterlogging and salinization of ir- It may be remembered that agriculture the rate oldeforestation. rigated lands; in well-established farmland (e.g. - Deforestation and destruction of countries of western Europe) has Agricultural development could lake woody vegetation; become increasingly dependent on pressure off forest resources. Farming - Growth and encroachment of government subsidy. Government- crops for fuel (e.g. alcohol industry in mobile sand bodies subsidized ventures have social func- Brazil), agroforestry and community - Declining availability or quality of tions that relate to societal needs (in forestry (e.g. large-scale programmes water supplies (14). this case, satisfaction of basic needs in China) are options that are techni- for food). This shift towards social- cally feasible and economically viable, The 1984 UNEP global assessment of service activities rather than comrner- and their social acceptability needs to desertificat ion showed that it affects cially feasible ventures, has to do be promoted. some 3.5 biH ion hectares of productive mainly with the costs of capital invest- land: rangelands (3.1 billion ment in land reclamation projects, and Forest resources need to be managed hectares), rain-fed croplands (335 mil- only partly with the running expenses for sustained productivity. Available lion hectares) and irriga Led lands of farming. National policies (and poli- scientific knowledge could be applied (40 million hectares). Each year some cies of aid institutions) should recog- to enhance forest productivity and 21 million hectares are reduced to a nize this situation and develop prac- maintain quality. The productivity of state of near or complete economic tices of operation that accommodate it. Indian forests (0.33 tonnes per hectare uselessness. Six million hectares are per year) is low compared to the pro- lost to desertification peryear. It is evi- Inareporton financing the United Na- ductivity potential of forests in the dent that deserrification operates tions Plan of Action to Combat Deser- United States of America 0.2 tonnes Lhrough land use systems, and that it tjfication (United Nations document per hectare per year) (13). results from a combination of (a) the A/35/396), various estimates are natural fragility of the resource ecosy- given of the cost of restoring the pro- The Fuelwood shortage in the tropics stems in arid and semi-arid and subhu- ductivity of 100 per cent of the affected is a facet of the world energy crisis. mid territories, and (b) excessive irrigated farmlands, 70 per cent of the Three approaches are recommended: pressures of land use exceeding carry- affected rain-fed croplands and 50 per improved end-use technology such as ing capacity. Programmes for corn bat- cent of the affected rangelands. The charcoal manufacture and more effi- ing desertification combine curative average annual cost of such a pro- cient stoves, continued research on al- and preventive measures: rehabilita- gramme would be in excess of $2.4 ternative energy sources such as solar tion of degraded lands, introduction billion, to be sustained for 20 years. and niini-hydro, and creation of new of conservation measures, and adop- External assistance to desertification fuelwood resources. tion of ecologically sound systems of control was estimated at about $600 resource management. million annually, leaving a require- The disadvantages of a significant toss merit from additional sources of about of tropical forests are potentially high Economic issues $1 .8 billion annually. for developed and developing countries (availability of genetic resources Actions for combating desertitication It is evident that (a) available aid for agricultural iniprovemenis, for are inseparable from actions of sources fall woefully short, and (b) medical research and for the pharnia- resource development and manage- available domestic sources fail to ceutical and biotechnology ment in arid and semi-arid lands. It assign priority to anti-desertification industries). Joint priority action now should be realized, however, that anti- projects. Innovative means for financ- among developing countries and be- desert ification projects often entail ing such projects need to be explored. tween and among developed and le- gestation periods that are longer than Such means might well combine veloping countries would not only those normally involved in develop- grants with commercial loans—a com- help avoid the many disathantages ment schemes. Schemes that aim at bination which would soften the but could also yield important advan- checking land degradation in impact of the loans and, hopefully,

14 Deforestation, desertificaton and soil loss

may not be conducive to effective public participation. Settlement of nomads may not be the answer - except within the framework of trans- formations of land use systems, development of land resources and changes in land tenure systems. For community participation to be effective, societal instruments (legislation, institutions, means of mobilizing public support, etc.) may need to be developed. Edu- cation in its broad sense should be sup- portive of such enlightened development.

It is evident that active implementation of anti- desertification programmes is hindered by a complex of constraints. Government policies do not seem to accord high priority to such programmes, which indicates the meagre political weight of the communities that are directly affected by desertificatiori, and hence their inabili- ty to have their concerns set in their rightful position of priority. As desertification further undermines the life- support systems of such communities, they are further jeopardized or - . -,- - ...... "marginalized".

4- -.- - The Plan of Action to Combat Desertification •1 .e . * rV The United Nations Conference on Desert ification (Nairobi, 29 August to 9 September 1977) adopted a Plan of Action to Combat Desertification

Projects involiing lrngalon schemes yor reclam,ng dertt1ed lands, such as the Magala dam proftcl in with 26 recommendations. The Plan Pakistan, areparticu/arly expensive. (UVEP1P. Aimasy proceeds from three assumptions: (a) that combating desertification at field make investment in anti- public awareness programmes. Many level is primarily a national desertification programmes acceptable measures aimed at arresting desertifi- operation; (b) that desertification in national development plans. A cation failed to meet with the success hazards often transcend national 1982 United Nations Study describes which their sound technological, bases boundaries—hence the special impor- the feasibility of a public international promised because they lacked com- tance of regional collaborative action; corporation that would attract grants munity participation and support. and (c) that desertification calls for and other investment and use this This realization underlines the special global solidarity and world-wide combination to provide financing for importance of formulating and imple- actions. anti-desertification projects with non- menting government policies that pro- commercial rates of return. This con- vide appropriate mechanisms, incen- It is envisaged that the implementa- cept is worthy of further elaboration, tives and education programmes that tion of the Plan should be the re- and alternative options for such com- are needed for the acceptance and sponsibility of Governments through binations should be explored. implementation of measures at com- their national institutions. National munity level, their maintenance programmes pursue three principal Societal issues within improved and productive land objectives: (a) to arrest deserti- use systems, and eventually the ac- fication; (b) to establish ecologically Methods of land reclamation and com- quisition of momentum which will sound land use practices that ensure bating desertification that depend on lead to progress towards improved sustained productivity; and (c) to pro- labour may be more feasible than living conditions. vide for the social and economic ad- those depending on capital. This may vancement of the human communities require mobilization of community Demographic patterns, including concerned. For regional co-operative support, which could be achieved nomadism, that prevail in arid lands action the Plan endorses three princi- through effective national policies and and desertification-prone territories pal approaches: transnational

15 flesertification Control Bulletin projects, regional research and training — Priority to areas offering The programmes and activities centres, and elaboration and imple- the best chances for sub- of the United Nations family mentation of regional plans for com- stantial rehabilitation; of agencies need to be further bating desertification. At the interna- co-ordinated so as to contri- tional level the Plan explores pros- Governments of countries me- bute to the implementation of pects of mobilizing financial and naced by desertification the Plan, and UNEP has a cen- technical resources to aid the countries should give priority to: tral role to play in catalysing that face the hazards of desertification. and co-ordinating the imple- - Establishing National pro- mentation of the Plan at the in- The UNEP evaluation of progress in grammes to combat deserti- ternational level; the implementation of the Plan be- tication tween 1977 and 1983 concluded that it - Creating national machin- There is still a need to increase had had only limited success. Dregne ery for implementing it resources for assisting coun- (15) concludes - Designing programmes in tries menaced by deserti- harmony with existing fication, by channelling more "Land degradation continues social, cultural and ecologi- multilateral and bilateral aid to widely, 3ven though in places cal systems combating desertification, dunes are being stabilized, trees securing more generous contri- planted, and there is some success butions to the Special in reducing salinization of irrigated Regional co-operation is an ef- Account, ensuring more effec- land. Too little effort is directed to- fective means of increasing the live operation of the Consulta- wards field control of deserti- efficient use of financial and tive Group on Desertification fication. All of indirect contribu- technical resources; Control in mobilizing addition- tions to desertification control al resources, and implement- (education, research, training, in- Non-governmental organiza- ing measures for securing addi- creasing awareness, assessments, tions have an important role to tional and predictable financing etc.) will, presumably, assist in play in the implementation of of the anti-desertification combating desertification in the action-oriented projects: programmes. field at some time in the future. it appears certain, however, that there will be no dramatic improvement by the year 2000 unless there is far more focusing of efforts on field projects than at present".

To this we may add that s:rained political relations between neighbouring countries have often pre- 4_kk . vented collaboration in implementing regional projects.

.. - Recommended actions

In May 1984, the UNEP Governing Council after reviewing and debat- : ing the Executive Director's report jf' on the assessment of world-wide actions to combat desert ification since 1977, endorsed a decision including the following general guidelines for action:

The Plan of Action and the in- stitutional arrangements established by the United Nations General Assembly for follow- up remain valid;

The implementation of the Plan should be more focused on: - The most affected countries Non-go ri'rnmenlai v rgo ru:a I io n -N . E. I/i rfrI!ii rVii Er) jrii)i in the i mij in me, niaiwn ifiuiuii-orienIed - Field actions to arre5t projects, as demo niraIed here in India where the MilIion of Trees Club is 1w/ping inarg inal farmers to Cs- desertification iablish nurseries. (UNEP/Daniel Szils)

16 Deforestation, desertification and soil loss

forms of soil degradation, often related the Bay of Bengal each year (18). Soil loss to land use practices that overtax the Wind erosion moves much less system, include erosion, salinization material, although Saharan dust ac- Introduction and waterlogging and chemical counts for billions of tonnes per year degradation. (19). Soils are natural systems that evolve as climatic factors and biota act on the Soil erosion Brown (18) reviewed information on parent materials that form the surface national case-studies. Over a third of sediments of earth. The World Soils Erosion is the washing or blowing cropland areas in the United States Policy (UNEP, 1982) provides that: away of surface soil. It is a natural pro- lose more than 5 tonnes of topsoil per cess that is often greatly increased acre per year, with a total loss of 1.53 "in recognition of the fact that soil (accelerated erosion) due to land use billion tonnes a year. Indian croplands is a finite resource, and that con- procedures (shifting cultivation, lose some 4.7 billion tonnes a year. tinuously increasing demands are overgrazing, overcutting, etc.) that The USSR may be losing more topsoil being placed on this resource to reduce the protective cover of plant than any other country. Brown con- feed, clothe, house and provide growth. It is estimated that the mass cludes that the world is now losing an energy for a growing world popula- of material moved annually by all estimated 23 billion tonnes of soil tion and to provide worldwide rivers to the ocean (natural erosion) is from croplands in excess of new soil ecological balance, the Govern- about 9.3 billion tonnes, and that the formation. To set these figures in per- ments of the nations of the world actual volume of accelerated erosion spective he adds: agree to use their soils on the basis is about 24 billion tonnes (16). There of sound principles of resource are evident regional differences. "At the current rate of excessive management, to enhance soil Asian rivers contribute the largest erosion, this (soil) resource is productivity, to prevent soil erosion share, estimated at 14.53 billion being depleted at 0.7 per cent per and degradation, and to reduce loss tonnes year, followed by North year (7 per cent each decade). In of good farmland to non-farm America (1.78), South America effect the world is mining much of purposes." (1.09), Africa (0.48), Europe (0.30), its cropland ... Because of the short- and Australia (0.21) (17). Data com- sighted way one third to one half of Soils are subject to hazards of piled in 1980 by the Chinese Yellow the world's croplands are being degradation—physical, chemical or bi- River Conservancy Commission indi- managed, the soil on these lands ological changes that undermine the cate that that river carries 1.6 billion have been converted from a structure and functioning of the soil tonnes of soil to the ocean each year. renewable to a nonrenewable system, and may eventually lead to a The Ganges of India discharges a load resource". decLine in soil quality. The various of 1.5 billion to!rnes of deposits into

Because of poor land management, erosion is convening so ii from a renewable io a non-renewable resource. This hillside in Iran has lost all of its covering soil due to overgrazing. (TAO)

I . - • 1b

ell

17 Desertification Control Bulletin

Salinization and walerlogging dressed by the elements of the at promoting conservation of natural World Soils Policy; resources, and combating Excessive irrigation and Inc flicient The need to furnish assistance in overfishing, soil erosion and over- drainage may convert productive the implementation of a world exploitation of forests. The direct in- farmlands into saline and alkaline soil policy through the dissemina- volvement of people was very waste land. The history of agriculture tion of knowledge, publications, effective. Participation of young in Mesopotamia records massive missions, training courses and people in tree planting, nature conser- losses of farmland resulting from related means in individual vation and wildlife protection through salinization (20). Case-studies pre- countries; wildlife clubs in Kenya, Mauritius, sented to the United Nations Confer- The need to assist countries in Uganda, the United Republic of ence on Desertification reported on the development of policies, Tanzania, and Zambia provide positive widespread salinization and waterlog- regulations and institutions that examples. The Chipko Movement in ging in Australia, Iraq, Pakistan, will enable them to implement india is an example of the successful United States of America, and USSR national soils policies. mobilization of rural people, through (21, 22). World-wide it is estimated educative participation, for combating that the area now being abandoned is The plan highlights the: deforestation. The youth campaign for about equal to the area currently being environmental reform in Thailand led reclaimed and irrigated (23); between "Urgent need for a long-term com- to enactment of the National Environ- 30 per cent and 80 per cent of all lands mitment by international organiza- ment Quality Act in 1975. The 4-H under irrigation are subject to tions and Governments to support Clubs and Youth Conservation Crops salinization, alkalinization and research on mechanisms and effects in the United States of America, Boy waterlogging. Special problems of of soil degradation, on the develop- Scout, Rover Touring Clubs and saline intrusion are encountered in ment of improved practices, and on Youth Camps in Europe, Australia river deltas in Egypt, Greece, the farming systems for combating soil and New Zealand, the Blue and Green Netherlands, etc. erosion ..." [andi the long-term Patrols in USSR and many other simi- need to educate and train specialists lar youth groups all over the world FAO and UNESCO have prepared a and to develop soil conservation help to create interest and promote world map of salt-affected soils, and in programmes at universities and action. 1973 issued a source-book on saliniza- other institutions. tion in relation to irrigation and We have quoted examples of failure in drainage. FAO has also published a exploiting the resources of the reference book dealing with evalua- Conclusions biosphere. Correction of such short- tion of water quality for irrigation and comings can be enhanced through means of solving problems associated We have discussed three examples of popular participation in actions and by with salinization (24). environmental degradation that are a positive response to needs. Here often caused by excessive exploitation education and training (formal and Recommended actions of resource ecosystems. In each case non-formal) have a most important we note that the causative actions are role to play. National programmes, In 1984 the UNEP Governing Council local, while the consequences are utilizing various school and out- approved a plan of action for imple- much more widespread, attaining of-school mechanisms, need to be de- global proportions in many instances. veloped with the explicit purpose of menting the World Soils Policy, - including four major components to This means that corrective actions mobilizing public support for and par ticipation in sustainable development deal with: must be implemented by national authorities, though for actions to be and nature conservation. effective they may need to be co- Land and soil inventory and ordinated at the regional and interna- The mass media can perform a valua- assessment; tional levels. For each of the three ble education function by commu- Assistance to Governments of de- examples we recommended some ac- nicating environmental information veloping countries in the formula- tions for consideration. In this and popularizing the scientific basis tion of national soil policies; concluding section we may outline for the management of natural Promotion of conservation- some general recommendations that resources. Media programmes are ef- oriented land management sys- cover all issues. fective means of education when they tems for different environments; explain the process and the message. Improved international awareness National actions (Education and Television, which can give millions at all levels of land degradation public opinion) sight of places and ecological situa- and soil conservation. tions that they cannot hope to visit, The plan and its four components Participation enhances learning, and can do much to promote understand- accord "highest priority" to: participation in environmental actions ing of the problems of overtaxing (planning and management) has great natural systems. (a) The need to increase the aware- educational merit. A comprehensive ness of policy makers concerning programme of environmental educa- Correction of the imbalance between land use issues, and the awareness tion aimed at peasants, fishermen, society and nature can be enhanced of the public at large concerning forest workers and other rural groups through enlightened (and organized) the importance of the issues ad- was developed in Colombia. It aimed public opinion that can persuade

E. Deforestation. desertification and soil loss

policy makers to take proper action. (ci) Regional programmes to deal cam. ,4rnlsiovol. XII (2) pp. 125-127. Legislative bodies and national paria- with international river basins: Arnbio,vol Xlii. No. 2, 984. 57 in Africa 6, FAO Forestry Paper No. 30, 1982. ments have a most important role in Tropical Forest Resource Assessment Pro- bringing this process to fruition. Parli- 48 in Europe ject report prepared by FAO in co-operation amentarians individually have a cru- 40 in Asia with UNEP. Rome, FAO, 1981. cial role to play in mobilizing their 36 in South America. FAOForestryPaperNo.38, 1982. constituency for effective participation Co-operation among riparian States Bowonder. B. (1983). Forest depletion: will enhance the sustainable and en vi- Some policy options. Res.ource Policy, vol. 9 in the formulation and implementa- (3), pp. 206-224. tion of community programmes for ra- ronmentally sound development of 10, Bolin, B. and R.B. Cook (ed.) (1983). The tional management of ecosystem the resources of river basins to the Mcior Biageoche.rrucal Cycles and their inter- resources. benefit of the partners. Failure to actions (chapters 6 and 7), SCOPE 21. 1. reconcile the interests of upstream Wiley. International actions (Global 11. Rodin, L.E. et al. (1975). Productivity of interdependence) and downstream users often creates the world's main ecosystems-in Froductivi- political frictions. v of World Ecosystems., National Academy Many of the issues enumerated apply of Science, USA, pp. 13-26. 11 Postel,S. (1984). Protecting forests. In State to resources shared by neighbouring Another major area of international co-operation relates to transboundary ofrIre World 1984, ed. L. Brown et a l, W.W countries, or located in developing Norton, pp. 74-94. countries that require international air pollution in Europe and North F-lyde, Wi-I. and F.J. Wells (1979). The aid. The World Conservation Strategy America. This is an environmental potential energy productivity of US forests, EnergySources, vol.3, pp.231-258. 0UCN-UNEP-WWF, 1980) calls for: hazard that is causing considerable damage to plant life, including forests Mabbuti, l.A. (1984). A new global assessment of the status and trends of deserti- International co-operative pro- and crops, and is a problem that can be ficaton. Enriroismental Cons rvQtjon, Vol. gram mes (combining legislation, solved only by co-ordinated interna- II, pp. 103-111 assistance and other action) to tional action. The Convention on 15, Dregne, H.E. (1984). Combating desrti- Long-range Transboundary Air fication: Evaluation of progress. Environ- concentrate on tropical forests, menialConservaiiwt. vol. II, pp.115-121. drylands, preservation of genetic Pollution, to which reference has 16. Judson, S. (1968). Erosion of the land. resources, and regional strategies been made above, provides an ap- Amar. Scientis.t volume 56, July-August, pp. propriate framework for such action. 356-361. for river basins; 17, Robinson, A.R. (1977). Relationship be- Funds provided by multilateral Parliamentarians have a special re- tween soil erosion and sediment delivery. and bilateral development assis- IAHSPublicaticinNo. 122. tance agencies (about $27 billion sponsibility in all these efforts, and IS. Brown, L. ed.) (1984) State of the World in 1976) should give priority to can contribute by supporting or /984 (chapter 4), W.W. Norton, pp. 53-73. addressing environmentally in- prompting timely action by their Morales, C. (1979). Saharan Dus4 SCOPE people and Governments. 14,). Wiley. duced poverty and ecologically Jacobson, T. and R.M. Adams (1958). Salt sound development of land and silt in ancient Mesopotamian resources (reforestation, restora- RE F ER EN C ES agriculture. Science, vol. 128, pp. 1251-1257. Mabbutt, J.A. and C. Floret (ed.) (1980). tion of degraded soils, efforts to UNESCO. combat desertification) Gwynne, M.D. ci al (1983). Tropical Forest Case Studies on Desertiflcaziori, Extent and Changes. Ac/v. Space Re. vol. 2, Bisws, MR. and A.K. Biswas (1980). International action to conserve pp. 8 1-89 Desert ificaOori, Pergamon Press. tropical forests especially in West NrwScientist,270c1ober1983 23, Floldgate, MW. and G.F. Whtte (ed), and East Africa, South and South- Federal Republic of Germany report to the (1977). Environmental Issues, SCOPE 10, J. east Asia, Central America and Multilateral Conference on Causes and Pre- Wiley. vention of Damage to Forests and Waters 24. Ayers, R.S. and D.W. Westcot (1976). Mexico. Parallel programmes by Air Pollution in Europe. Munich, 24-27 Water Quality forAgriculture, FAO. should aim at establishing fuel- June1984. wood plantations and industrial Pudlis, E. (1983). Poland's plight: Environ- plantations. ment damaged from air pollution and acid

19 Soil erosion problems in the USA

James Rjsser were enacted to provide financial monocultural cropping of corn, Director assistance to farmers who wanted to wheat, or soybeans. John S. Knight Fellowshipsfor protect their land. With government Journalists help, farmers began installing soil- The result was a sharp increase in US Standford University, USA conserving terraces on their land, rais- grain production, a boom in export ing crops in ways that utilized the sales, and a rise in farmer income. Presented at conftrence on Soil Protec- natural contours of the land to hold Some of the increased grain production in the European Cominun fly, soil in place, and growing trees along tion went to developing nations and Brussels. Belgium, November 13, 1984 field borders to act as windbreaks. helped in the fight against hunger. But Farmers practised crop rotation, alter- the vast majority of the new grain ex- 1985 marks the 50th anniversary of nating grain crops one year with hay or ports were commercial sales to indus- the soil conservation movement in grasses for grazing livestock the next trialized nations, with the principal the United States. This should be an year. benefit to the United States being the occasion for rejoicing and celebration, earning of foreign exchange to help because the American soil conserva- The new soil conservation efforts offset the balance of payments crisis tion effort has made an imaginative proved successful, and erosion caused brought on by the high price of import- and valuable contribution to protect- both by wind and water began to ed oil. But the new export boom was ing some of the world's finest decline. The US also entered a long short-lived, and in the late 1970s and farmland. period of relatively favourable early 1980s US grain exports fell. climate, which alleviated the Dust Farmers now are experiencing their Instead, 1985 is a time for questioning Bowl conditions and aided worst economic problems since the what has gone wrong, for assessing conservation. years of the Great Depression of the why the soil conservation movement 1930s. They have gone into debt for has fallen far short of doing all that its Changes land and machinery they purchased founders and its modern-day propo- during the export boom, and they nents had hoped for. The answers to However, in the early 1970s, things became tied to a high-volume produc- those questions will play a large role in changed. Beginning with the first large tion that brought them only marginal determining the future health of US sales of wheat to the Soviet Union, the profits but which they could not afford agricultural land and water resources US began emphasizing the exporting to abandon. and, in turn, the stability of a food pro- of grain—both as a means for dispos- duction system that has a large impact ing of continual surplus crops of wheat Row-crop farming on world food supplies. and corn and as a way to increase farmer income and improve the US That brings me to the major concern Serious soil conservation work began balance of trade. of this article—the alarming environ- in the United States in the mid-1930s mental impact that this intensive row- at the time of the Dust Bowl, when The direction of US agriculture crop farming of the 1970s had upon years of drought led to severe wind changed radically. Idled the farmland of the United States. The erosion in the southern plains region cropland—some 60 million acres of it new farming brought along with it of Texas. Oklahoma, and Kansas. The (about 24 million hectares) —was great increases in soil erosion. Land Dust Bowl conditions, combined with brought back into production. Earl no longer protected by the time-tested the economic depression of the time, Butz, then US secretary of agriculture, soil conservation methods began produced one of the great social and told farmers to plant all of their land, washing and blowing away. Topsoil by geographical movements in US from fence-row to fence-row. They re- the ton began eroding from cropland, history, as impoverished farmers sponded by converting their land to clogging roadside ditches, washing abandoned farming and moved to the maximum grain production. Soil con- into streams, and filling lakes and cities or joined the migration to the servation structures were destroyed so reservoirs. The eroding soil carried west in search of better farmland in that all land could be put into row with it chemicals and livestock wastes. California. crops. Terraces and rows of trees were removed because they kept valuable Soil scientists believe that It was the sight of gigantic clouds of land idle and because they got in the topsoil—the most fertile, organically precious topsoil billowing into the air way of the big new farm machinery rich upper level of the land—can and drifting eastward to fall on major that was being developed. And hilly, erode at rates of no more than five cities of the East Coast that aroused erosive, marginally usable land was tons per acre per year without eventu- citizens and led to the creation in 1935 ploughed and planted—some of it for ally losing its productivity. Any more of the US Soil Conservation Service. the first time. Crop rotations were than that, and the lost soil is not re- Federal soil conservation programmes abandoned, and farmers adopted placed by naturally generated new

20 Soil erosion problems in the USA

topsoil. In fact, on some fragile lands, In the US, the erosion rates are not local streams are becoming clogged the tolerable soil loss is much uniform. Much of the severe erosion with sediment, which leads to less—four, three, or two tons per acre is concentrated in certain areas. That flooding, breaking away of per year. would seem to make the task of con- streambanks, and further farmland trolling erosion somewhat easier, erosion. These Tennessee rivers drain Government studies now show that except for the fact that some of the into the major river of the central more than 40 per cent of US cropland worst erosion is in the country's most US—the Mississippi—which has is eroding at rates in excess of these important and intensively cultivated become heavily loaded with topsoil tolerable levels. That means that more farm areas. In the state of Iowa, for from the major farm states. than one-third of the cropland is at eximple, the leading corn producing risk of losing its long-term prod uctivi- state, the average erosion rate on cr0- In the Pacific Northwest, in the beauti- ty (desertification). Each year, some 3 pland is about 10 tons to the acre per ful rolling Palouse region of Washing- billion tons of soil washes and blows year—twice the allowable limit. When ton state, erosion rates have reached from all US cropland. When erosion Iowa was natural prairie and before it 50 and even 100 tons to the acre. That from pastureland, rangeland, and was ploughed and cultivated for crops, is one of the few areas where the ad- forest land is added in, total erosion is it has an average topsoil layer of about verse productivity effects of erosion more than 5 billion tons annually. have begun to be seen. Eroded hilltops Total US soil erosion now is greater and steep slopes have lost so much of Swi erosion can beome so severe tha lone varions in than in the worst years of the Dust rechnoloV can no longer keep pace. (F/tow: P. their topsoil that wheat yields have Bowl. Pie rscinskl) started to decline. That should be a warning for the future, to those who think agricultural innovations will allow crop yields to continue to increase despite erosion. In fact, the use of agricultural chemicals that came into common use following World War Il—the insecticides, fertilizers, and herbicides—has so far masked the effects of erosion in most farm regions of the US. While erosion may be rob- bing the land of its inherent productivity, crop yields have risen. The combination of chemicals and better grain seed has permitted farmers to ignore the dangerous aspects of erosion and the deteriorating natural fertility. But that may change. Disaster

The US Department of Agriculture estimated in one study that at current erosion rates, corn yields in the central Corn Belt states could fall by 30 per cent over the next 50 years. That would be a disaster, and some people think the estimate is far too high. One Agriculture Department researcher surveyed several studies of soil loss in the Corn Belt, and reported that they LV,JV J r % . found on the average that the loss of & one inch of topsoil reduced corn yields Soil erosion is not a problem in the lô inches. Today, because of intensive by about 6 per cent. The Worldwatch United States alone. A recent study by farming and erosion, the topsoil layer Institute study, cited earlier and en- the Worldwatch Institute finds that is only an average of 8 inches deep. titled "Soil Erosion: Quiet Crisis in half the world's cropland is losing to- Half the topsoil of Iowa has disap- the World Economy", points Out that psoil at a rate that undermines its peared in 100 years of farming. as erosion increases, so do food costs. productivity. The excessive loss of to- Farmers must apply more chemicals psoil from world cropland is calculated In the hilly regions of western to the land in order to compensate for by the Institute at about 25 billion Tennessee, once used primarily to the fertility loss caused by erosion and tons a year—a condition that could graze canle, soybeans and cotton now must spend more money for fuel be- lead eventually to reduced food pro- are gyown intensively and erosion has cause eroded soils are more compacted duction and higher food prices in na- increased on many farms to 20 tons and difficult to till. tions that can ill-afford either. per acre—four times the limit. Small

21 Desertification Control Bulletin

Whatever the estimates, nearly everyone agrees that soil erosion reduces the natural fertility of the land. The big question is whether we may some day enter a period of relatively rapid declines in crop yields be- KM cause innovations and technology no Mll longer can keep pace with the effects of erosion.

The other major impact of soil erosion, besides its possible damage to future crop production, is that it pollutes rivers, lakes and reservoirs. rl The federal Clean Water Act adopted in the mid-1970s mandates that pollu- 11 tion of public waterways be cleaned up so that the waters are restored to fisha- 0! ble and swimmable quality. Deadlines for meeting that goal have not been met, however, and the primary culprit is agriculture. Water pollution caused by inadequate sewage treatment or by discharges from industrial facilities has proven much easier to treat than the kind of widely dispersed, hard- to-identify pollution caused by soil erosion from American farms. Studies show that two-thirds of all US river basins are polluted because of farming activities. The eroded soil alone would Ir be bad enough, as it clogs small I.IJ I streams and fills reservoirs designed ; to conserve water supplies. But the damage is mutiplied by the presence Pollution ofsoils isanot her serwusproblem in she (iSA (UN Photo) of chemicals and animal wastes in the eroded soil, to the point that water pol- bling is the steady depletion of water investors with no real interest in agri- lution poses a threat to human health supplies—particularly in the High culture other than for what quick prof- and to fish and wildlife. The financial Plains states in the central and south- its it could bring them. US tax laws costs of water pollution caused by soil central part of the nation. These are and federal agricultural programmes erosion are enormous. For example, states that depend on the large under- make it financially advantageous for the federal government and several ground Ogallala Aquifer for irrigation them to do this. When the water runs states have recently embarked on a water. During the agricultural expan- out, they have been only too happy to long-range programme to clean up the sion of the early 1970s this land, pre- sell or to abandon the land, leaving it Chesapeake Bay, one of the world's viously used for cattle grazing and for to the ravages of nature. As part of richest estuaries and the source of dryland wheat production, was con- this process, millions of acres of pre- much of the fish, oyster, and crab verted to other types of crops that are viously uncultivated land were catch in the United States. The Bay more dependent on water. Great nurn- brought under the plough, in what is has become polluted with chemicals bers of wells were drilled, and the termed "sodbusting". Centre-pivot ir- that threaten aquatic life, and it has Ogallala Aquifer was tapped for irriga- rigators were installed, for example, been determined that a major cause of tion water. The result is that in a nearly desert-like area known as the pollution is erosion from farmland groundwater is being 'mined"—that the Nebraska Sandhills so that corn in the Susquehanna River watershed, is, used at a faster rate than the water could be raised as cattle feed. Because which flows into the Chesapeake Bay. is naturally recharged by nature. Por- the land is so fragile there, spells of This long overdue clean-up effort will tions of the aquifer are being depleted, dry weather and wind sometimes cost several billion dollars and in- and already farmers in Texas and Ok- cause massive soil erosion on this land volves many tricky legal and political lahoma are being forced to return to that prior to cultivation had been pro- questions in dealing with the polluters. dry land farming. The same thing is tected by grass and a thin layer of likely to happen in other states. topsoil. Unfortunately, the adverse effects of soil erosion on US agriculture are Semi-arid land development Another problem afflicts the Colorado compounded by several other envi- River basin and the San Joaquin ronmental problems connected with Some of this semi-arid land was devel- Valley of California, the latter being moden farming. One of the most trou- oped for irrigated farming by non-farm the major fruit and vegetable produc-

22 Soil erosion problems in the USA ing area of the US. Here, the intensive The combination of these ignore conservation and treat his land irrigation of the past few decades has forces—erosion, water pollution, in a negligent manner. started to turn water supplies salty. water depletion, farming on marginal This is caused by evaporation from lands, and conversion of farmland to The farmers themselves have been fields and by the leaching of minerals other uses—can become very caught in an economic squeeze that from the soil into return water flows. I destructive. The fact that the US is the makes it more profitable, at least in have seen fields of Cotton in the San world's biggest agricultural producer, the short run, to "mine" the land—to Joaquin Valley where the growth of and the fact that it is a nation able to extract maximum crop yields from it cotton plants has been stunted by the produce far more food than it can con- without regard to damage to the soil extremely saline irrigation water and sume itself, should blind no one to the and water. Most farmers are conserva- where the land is caked with white dangers that lie ahead. The condition tionists at heart, 1 have found, but saLt. Some of the less salt-tolerant of US soil and water resources is in they are business people first. In tight fruits and vegetables no longer can be decline, and American economic times, they will postpone grown on such land. The proposed agriculture—as it began to be practised conservation work in hopes of raising solutions—bringing more water in, in the early 1970s—is not environ- that year's profits. A healthier farm using it, piping the used water out mentally sustainable into the future. It economy would benefit conservation. through a complex network of drains seems far-fetched to think that an agri- and canals—would cost billions of culture as bounteous as that of the Some individual state governments dollars. And yet the United States could destroy itself, and have enacted their own conservation alternatives—cutting back on farming perhaps it never will. But the nation programmes, helping farmers with there, or eventually losing major fruit has embarked on a type of farming conservation work and requiring that and vegetable producing areas—are that undeniably is damaging the the farmeis reduce their erosion to ac- almost unthinkable. environment. The eventual conse- ceptable levels. But these efforts have quences still are unknown. been scattered and inadequate. At the federal level, budget deficits and poli- Urbanization Recognition of the soil erosion situa- tics have combined to prevent a con- lion in the US has come slowly, but certed attack on soil erosion. It is up to At about the same time that the US Congress to enact agricultural was beginning to see a large increase interest in it is at last beginning to legislation, including soil conservation in erosion and the other environmen- build. Until recently, firmer organiza- programmes, and it is up to the tal effects of agriculture that I have tions were reluctant to admit that a problem even existed. This was due, Department of Agriculture to carry described, it was learned through a them out. But the process has been federally-sponsored National Agricul- in part, to the independent nature of the American farmer—a legacy per- very slow. tural Lands Study that the US was haps of our frontier ethic—and to fear losing very large amounts of farmland Resources Conservation Act to urbanization and other of government regulation of the way land is used. development. The study found that In 1977, Congress responded to the about three million acres ofagricultur- Environmental organizations have mounting evidence about erosion by al land was being converted each year been shamefully slow in sensing that enacting the Resources Conservation to other uses. Of this, about one- soil erosion might become a major na- Act (RCA). This law required the Soil third—or one million acres annually- tional and worldwide concern. Erosion Conservation Service—an agency of was classified as "prime" farmland. is not as easy to detect as air pollution the Department of Agriculture—to Suburban housing developments, from cars or waste discharges from make an extensive survey of the soil shopping malls and freeways now factories, nor is erosion control as at- cover millions of acres of land that and water conditions of the US. The tractive a public issue as creation of a used to grow corn, wheat, soybeans, RCA law also ordered the Department national park or protection of a wilder- of Agriculture to submit a plan for a and other crops. ness area. But some of the environ- national soil and water conservation mental organizations now are begin- policy. The survey produced a great The conversion of good farmland ning to look at the farmland resource deal of valuable data. Some of the ero- takes fertile land out of production. In problem. sion figures I have cited today came addition, it puts added strain on the from that survey. But the RCA process less desirable and less productive land At the government level, federal con- still has not resulted in a national soil to take up the slack as the size of the servation programmes have existed and water conservation policy, even farmland base is reduced. As Los for 50 years. But they are voluntary; though it is now seven years since the Angeles grows, for example, citrus or- farmers are not forced to participate. law was adopted. There were many chards have been driven out and Over the past decade or so, the conser- delays, including some caused by the forced to relocate on the other side of vation programmes have been very changeover from the Carter adminis- the central valley on far less suitable poorly funded. They have not required trat ion to the Reagan administration land. The hastily replanted orchards that a farmer permanently maintain in 1981. have been subjected, during dry spells conservation structures that the to some of the most severe wind ero- government helped to pay for. Thus, a When President Reagan finally sub- sion ever seen in California and, in US farmer may obtain all the benefits mitted to Congress, at the end of wet spells, to damaging water erosion of price support guarantees, crop 1982, the final RCA report and his that removes topsoil and forms gullies. insurance, and other aid, but may recommendations, conservationists

23 DeserttIication Control Bulletin were deeply disappointed and Conservation tillage has some definite "conservation reserve", to pay farm- angered. The report clearly stated that advantages for farmers. It can reduce ers to retire erosive cropland from the present level of soil erosion was his fuel costs because he does not production. But neither proposal won unacceptable, and said it threatens make nearly so many trips through the final approval in Congress. future farmland productivity and field with his tractor and ploughing water purity. But at the same lime, the equipment. It also reduces his labour This year, the federal law that governs President said the nation could not requirements. The government likes all agricultural programmes will afford to do alflhat was needed. to advocate conservation tillage, be- expire, and Congress must pass a new cause it is much cheaper than giving law. The biggest hope of conservation- At the same time it was sending its farmers financial aid to install terraces ists now is that Congress will include a RCA report to Congress, the Reagan and other conservation structures. strong conservation programme in the administration was asking Congress to new farm Law. Public pressure is build- cut the funding of current conserva- But there are drawbacks, too, which ing to do something about erosion, tion programmes by 30 per cent. So the advocates of conservation tillage and an environmentally sound conser- far, Congress has refused to go along are not eager to admit. The crop vation effort would help win the votes with the recommended funding cuts, residues left on the land provide a fine of urban members of Congress that and there now is a developing tug- habitat for insects and particularly for are needed to enact any farm of-war between Congress and the weeds. Conservation tillage therefore legislation. So, hopes are high. White House on conservation matters. requires use of more chemicals than does conventional farming. The Many difficult problems remain to be chemical manufacturing corporations, solved, however. The US has never In 1983, Congress, at the request of whose sales have been suffering in come to grips with the question of the Reagan administration, adopted a recent years as the price of fertilizer, whether conservation programmes "Payment in Kind" law, which gave insectic ides and herbicides has risen, should continue to be voluntary on farmers surplus government grain in have embraced conservation tillage as the part of the farmer. Why shouldn't exchange for their agreement to take a way to improve their own sales and a farmer be forced to practise conser- some of their land out of production are actively promoting it. Also, vation in order to protect the land and that year. The purpose was to control Maureen Hinkle of the National water for future generations? At least, supplies and raise prices paid to US Audubon Society has pointed out that why shouldn't he be denied the right farmers for their grain, but it was weeds seem to be starting to develop a to price support guarantees and other hoped that soil conservation also resistance to the herbicides employed federal benefits, unless he practises would benefit if farmers would take in conservation tillage, just as many conservation on his land? Looking at their poorest land out of crop produc- insects have become immune to some it another way, why should the tion and put it into soil-conserving pesticides. government continue to subsidize uses. However, the conservation pro- farming practices that could eventually visions of the Payment in Kind pro- Conservation tillage probably has a destroy the land upon which the US gramrne were not widely enforced, place to play in farming, because it can and many food-deficient nations and one study showed that only 10 per help prevent erosion. But it should depend? The answers may seem cent of the idled land in the central not be viewed as a panacea, as a cure obvious, but such restrictions go grain states had been adequately pro- for the problem, as some are doing. against American traditions of inde- tected from erosion. Once again, con- On hilly, fragile soils, even conserva- pendence and unfettered use of one's servation potential was ignored. tion tillage will not be able to reduce land. erosion to acceptable rates. On such Conservation tillage land, chemical pollution of both The US also needs to examine its streams and underground water sup- grain export policy. Grain exports are The Reagan administration and Agri- plies may actually increase. Even a source of income for American culture Secretary John Block have where conservation tillage is farmers, a source of foreign exchange, adopted as their primary conservation appropriate, it should be combined and a source of food for the world, it method a type of farming known as with other time-tested conservation sounds cruel to even suggest that per- conservation tillage. The idea is to methods. There are no easy answers haps US grain exports should be reduce cultivation of the land, to dis- to the erosion problem, and it is sestricted, and I am not suggesting turb it less with ploughing, and to foolish to think that there are. that today. But, the US should exam- leave residues of the previous year's ine its export policy, and try to deter- crop on the land. This is designed to What will the US do? mine whether there is some maximum keep the land more covered and level of exports that can be safely protected, and thereby reduce the What will the US do about its erosion provided without putting undue strain chances for erosion to occur during Situation? In the last session of on US soil. If grain is exported at such windstorms or during heavy rains. Congress, two pieces of legislation a high level that marginal lands are put Where a farmer used to plough his were proposed. One would have with- into crop production, that soil erosion land clean before planting next year's held various federal benefits from increases and water supplies are crop, a farmer practising conservation farmers who engage in "sodbusting" depleted—all imperiling the soil and tillage will plant the new seeds right in of native grasslands and prairies with a water needed by those who come after among the stalks and debris left from high potential for erosion. The other us—then such an export policy would last year's harvest. would have established a be very shortsighted. At the moment,

FW Soil erosion problems in the USA we simply don't know what level ofex- health of US agriculture depends D. Roosevelt warned Americans 50 ports is safe. This is an issue that is upon it and ihe entire world has a years ago, when the soil conservation painful, politically and economically, stake in a sustainable American food movement began in the United to those both in government and in production system. The US must de- States, that a nation that tieglects its the private agricultural sector. velop a national policy on soil and soil endangers its own survival. That water conservation, just as it has done is a warning we should all heed today. All of these difficult questions must for the other great environmental be dealt with, not ducked. The future issues of our time. President Franklin

Desertification and dust monitoring in West Africa

By Grant McTainsh tion is real, and then once desertifica- well as for different regions within the School ofAustralian Environmental tion programmes are in progress, to West African savanna. Studies show that the programme is, or is not, Griffith University, Brisbane effective. The 1-larmattan wind and its dust Gueensland4 Iii. Australia The objective of the present paper is The Harmattan wind and its dust is a to outline a strategy for providing a distinctive feature of the climate of Introduction semi-quantitative and long term index West Africa. During the Harmattan of desertificat ion by measuring dust Season (October to May) dust-laden In the seven years since the United mobilisalion, transport and desposi- winds pass over West Africa in period- Nations Conference on Desertification tion in West Africa. This dust ic pulses or plumes reducing visibility, (UNCOD) produced the Plan of monitoring programme (McTainsh air temperatures and relative humidity Action to Combat Desertification 1985) could provide a record of deser- (Plate 1). The dust plumes appear to (PACD), progress in achieving the tification over the past 50 years and originate from the Bodele Depression goals of 1977 has generally been thus clearly demonstrate the increas- area near Faya Largeau in the Chad disappointing. Recent discussion in ing threat to Sahelian countries. In Basin (Fig. 1), although the Tenere Desertification Conirol and elsewhere addition, the dust monitoring pro- Desert may also be a source area has identified a number of reasons for gramme could provide an ongoing (Bertrand eiall979). Once entrained, this slow progress, including inade- source of data from which to evaluate the dust passes out over West Africa quate funding, reluctance of Govern- the success of desertification control and the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1). Mea- ments to give desertification a high programmes. These data could be col- surements in northern Nigeria priority, increasing rates of population lected for West Africa as a whole, as (McTainsh and Walker 1982) indicate growth, and continued drought conditions within Africa.

It is proposed here that some of the problems experienced in the impli- mentation of PACD. (in particular, inadequate funding and reluctant Governments) could in the future be significantly reduced if UNEP and related agencies have access to hard data on the spread of desertification. Literature on desertification (e.g. I Deserijficarion Control) abounds with estimates of, for example, the percentage increase in land area affected by desertification, or the millions of people whose livelihoods are directly threatened by desertilication, but more accurate, tangible and quantitative data derived from actual field measurements are needed to clearly

demonstrate the threat of ..) nv desertification. Decision makers I ... within developing countries must bal- -'I • ance the costs and benefits ofdesertification control programmes against other important development - I 1.. programmes, therefore before they will commit themselves to expensive and long term desertification control programmes it is reasonable that they (i-. Norfhi-r,i .'igril LJTIiI! Fig. I) should require hard data to initially as- Plate 1:4 duIy day in Kano certain that the threat of desertitica-

Desertificat ion and dust monitoring in West Africa

ATLA NT/C CHAD BASiN OCEAN 200 EAU

Lake Chad IOU 25 -35%

0 500 1000km I I I

40°W 300 20° 10° 00 lO Fig. 1: TheHarmattan Wind and its dust.

that both the rate of dust deposition and/or natural influence, almost in- from wind erosion during the Sahelian and the particle-size of the deposited variably involves the depletion or drought, however, during the wet dust, decrease with distance removal of the protective vegetation season a lush grass cover conceals any downwind. Also, once deposited, the cover, leaving soils vulnerable to wind appearance of soil degradation. The dust is then vulnerable to remobilisa- and water erosion resulting in soil most significant effect of this remobili- tion by wind, particularly in poorly degradation with a consequent de- sation appears to be the removal of the vegetated areas. crease in soil productivity. finer silts and clays from within this soil layer, which is apparent from a Studies of the dust component within In the semi-arid West African savanna comparison of the particle-size curve Atlantic Ocean sediments off the aeolian (or wind) processes are partic- of the remobifised top layer with that West African coast (e.g. Bowles, ularly efTeclive in soil degiadation and of the underlying soil (Fig. 2). The 1975) suggest that dust processes there are generally two kinds of aeo- principal difference between the two have been operating at varying rates at han processes: firstly, dune sand soil layers is that absence of the minor least over the last 600,000 years. mobihisation, a process which can be silt mode (15-40 mm) in the remobil- Furthermore, recent results from dramatically illustrated using photo- ised soil layer. Furthermore, compari- studies in northern Nigeria graphs of encroaching sand dunes son with a typical Harmattan dust (McTainsh 1984) suggest that some (Plate 2), and secondly, dust mobilisa- particle-size curve suggests that the savanna soils are largely the product lion which involves the entrainment silt mode is dust-derived. Therefore, of Harmattan dust deposition during by wind of the finer fractions of soils it appears that an important effect of the Quaternary past. There is evidence (silts and clays) in dust storms (Plate dune sand mobilisat ion is the entrain- to suggest that during past arid phases 3). Dust mobilisation also occurs ment and loss of the dust component. the Sahara Desert extended hundreds during dune sand mobilisation but it is of kilometres south of its present bor- less easily demonstrated and has re- While this dust component is a rela- ders producing both dune sand and ceived much less attention. tively minor part of the total dune soil, dust rnobilisation in the Sahel areas, a its presence significantly increases the situation perhaps not unlike that Examination of a dune sand profile structural stability, soil moisture stor- which existed during the Sahelian within the Sahel savanna area of age capacity and the chemical fertility Drought and persists at least northern Nigeria (Fig. 2) demons- of these. dune sand soils and conse- sporadically, to the present. trates that dust mobilisation is perhaps quently its removal during drought is the most important degrading effect of an important degradational process. Dust as an index of desertification soil erosion by wind. The soil profile has a 5 cm deep top layer which is pale The dust monitoring programme pro- A basic premise of the present deser- coloured and low in organic humus posed here can provide a measure of tification monitoring programme is which contrasts with the underlying the rates of dust mobilisation, trans- that desertification, whether by man red soil. This top soil layer results port and deposition at locations

27 Desertfication Control Bulletin

-'•.

• • • •' --h. - -. : i - - J '' & . -, - . 'IA&.. . a - • •_ ,,, - .... J. ,. .. - - - -

- •4 '

• . - -- • I • ;-. ;• a. •1 -

- p - Ia Ap A b •# ' -

$4 • -- .- 411 4. •• .- & •, ,,• - . -*-• - - I -

sk - ' i • 0 - fra.- 4_ • - . -&• ', - . - Plate 2: Dune sand mobrluarion —an acollan process characteristic of de5ertifIcation within The Sahe! throughout West Africa and over the emission, which was measured at The 1-larmaitan aeolian system—a Atlantic Ocean. These rates can then Barbados, was tentatively attributed model for desert ification monitoring be used as an index of the stability of to the accelerated wind erosion of soils, controlled largely by vegetation soils within the West African savanna In order that dust measurements can cover, both of which are critical mani- regions during the Sahelian Drought be related directly to desertification at festations ofdesertification. (i.e. desertification). However, the a particular location the Harmattan dust plumes monitored by Prospero wind is viewed as an aeolian system Since the Sahelian Drought and Nees at Barbados displayed a comprising three dust process zones, (1968-1973) several research propos- marked seasonality, with maximum each of which may have inputs, Out- als have been put forward to monitor dust concentrations during June to puts and throughputs of dust. In desertification by using dust emission August (summer) of each year, Figure 3 the symbols of Forrester from Africa as an index (Rapp 1974, whereas Harmattan dust has an equal- (1970) are used to show the main Rapp 1976, Rapp & Heilden 1979; Ly marked seasonal occurrence during types of dust processes which may be Morales 1979). A Workshop on Saha- the months of October to May operating in, for example, Zone II. ran Dust was also held in 1977 "to (winter). It is difficult to see, review the present state of the art and therefore, a relationship between this Zone 1—the Central Chad Basin make recommendations for future re- summer dust monitored over the Entrainment Zone (Fig. 4 search and monitoring" (Morales Atlantic and deserlification within the 1977, pS), but despite these impor- Sahel. In fact, there is a considerable It is within this zone that most of the tant recent developments, the princi- body of evidence that the summer dust entrainment occurs. The sedi- pal constraint upon the establishment dust comes from regions to the north ments of the Bodele IJepression may of a dust monitoring programme is the of the Sahara. be entrained into aeclian suspension limited knowledge of dust entrain- by the migration of dune sands across ment transport and deposition pro- This example demonstrates the need these dry lake beds under the in- cesses in Africa. A case in point is the for a holistic approach to dust monitor- tluence of strong winds during the recent study by Prospero and Nees ing for desertifiation purposes and a Harmattan Season. This process is (1977) who found a marked increase convenient model for such an ap- referred to here as primary entrainment in dust emission from Africa during proach is the model of the Harniattan (Ep in Fig. 3). 1972-1974, the last years of the Sahe- acolian system proposed by McTainsh han Drought and this increase in dust and Walker (1982).

Desertification and dust monitoring in West Africa

Zone 11—the West African Deposition Zone (Fig. 4)

—0 As the dust plumes pass over this zone, deposition of dust is the dominant process. (referred to as primary -ç deposition, Dp in Fig. 3), however 25 once deposited, dust remobilisation (or secondary entrainment, Es) can - CI HGrmuttCn 1 occur, depending upon vegetation 20 DtisI UnderIin cover, soil moisture levels, and wind I. Sal speeds. Some of this dust may be rede- \\ posited locally (secondary deposilion, •J 15 Ds) while the rest remains in the 20 plume (Tp). The rate of dust stabilisa- I— I tion at any location with Zone Ii is Ui therefore a product of the balance be- Cr LLI / I —25cm Lween dust outputs from the plume r (primary and secondary deposition) and dust inputs (secondary I entrainment).

--- \ I -. ..-•.- Zone 111—Atlantic Ocean . 1 I Deposition Zone (Fig. 4)

7 6 547 3 2 24 7 5€ 31 63 125 250 50U Once over the Atlantic Ocean, deposi- PARTICLE -SIZE tion and transport are the dominant processes. Fg. 2: Effect.c of wind erosion upon rhepartick-scecharoteristws ofa dune soil in northern Nigeria.

TP T ZONE IC

— — — — a • - . .

T - Trorispor'r within plume.

E — Primary Entrainment.

E - Secondary Entrainment.

Op - Primary Deposition.

Ds — Secondary Deposition,

Fig, 3: Harmauanthosprocess :ones and monitor!ng siFe.

29 Desertification Control Bulletin

1(1' Ic 0

20N I I IoFoya Lcrgeou

Cayenne FRENCH

O 500 1000 km -_ f DUST I-LAZE FREQUENCIEISt (f, or ili No of Obserostporrs HAIMATTAN DUST PROCESS ZONES ZONE I -Chad Basin Entrainment Zone • Established Dust Moniloririg • 25-35% ZONE II -West African Deposition Zone SiteS [5-25%

ZONE Ui—AtLantic Ocean Deposition Zone 0- It,% 0 Possible New Sites LI' 5-10%

r5f,,,, A,,..k,.,-,...,- roco

Fig. 4: Types ofdusrprocesses operating in the Saht'ISavanna.

In summary, within each dust process The relationship between dust pro- should, however, be feasible to inte- zone a mixture of three dust processes cesses and desertification described grate the measurements at the estab- may occur: dust entrainment, trans- here is made more complex by the in- lished sites with those at the new sites. port and deposition. The entrainment dependent influence of changing processes represent an input into the windspeed upon dust processes. it is At each location, measurements aeolian system, the deposition pro- possible, for example, for an increase could be made of dust deposition cesses are an output from the system wind speed over a few seasons to pro- (primary and secondary), dust en- and transport represents a throughput duce an increase in the dust through- trainment (primary and secondary) within the system (Fig. 3). put from Zones I and II in the same and dust transport. These dust mea- manner as an increase in surements could then be related to Expressed in desertificaion terms if desert ification, however, if windspeed measurements or observations of the the quantity of dust carried by each of measurements are made in Zone I and two main environmental factors con- the three processes can be measured Zone II it should be feasible to isolate Irolling dust processes, namely vege- through time within the savanna areas its effects from those of tation cover, a product of of Zone 11, this wouki provide an desertification. desert ification, and windspeed. Wind- index of environmental degradation speed data should be available from or desertification. For example, Outlined below is a strategy for local meteorological sites or airports, removal of vegetation in Zones 1 and monitoring the dust processes il- whereas vegetation cover measure- IL will increase both primary and lustrated in Fig, 3 at a network of sites ments or observations could be related secondary entrainment processes, but throughout the West African savanna. to dust processes at a site. Additional it is likely to increase secondary en- meteorologicai parameters such as trainment within Zone II to a greater Dust monitoring techniques solar radiation and visibility can also extent than primary entrainment in provide independent measures of the Zone I, because the dust source areas A number of dust sites could be set up intensity of dust plumes. in Zone I already lie within the Sahara within each of the dust process zones Desert which seldom has substantial (Fig. 4). Some of these sites are al- Finally, and most importantly, all of vegetation cover. Therefore, removal ready in operation including Barbados the above measurements can be relat- of vegetation associated with desertifi- (Prospero 1968), Cayenne ('Prospero ed to data on dust plume intensities, cation is likely to increase the quantity ci at, 1981), and Kano (McTainsh directions and speeds obtained from of dust emanating from West Africa 1982) while in the past other sites satellite imagery, as proposed by Rapp which could be monitored, but more have operated in the Cape Verde is- (1974) and Rappand Hellden (1979). importantly the devegetated areas of lands (Jaenicke and Schutz 1978) and Zone II could become a major dust elsewhere in North and West Africa source area. (d'Almeida and Jaenicke 1985). It

30 Desertification and dust monitoring in West Africa

Dust collect ion and measurement 2. Atmospheric Turbidity measurements at Cape Verde Islands techniques Measurements and over the Atlantic Ocean using a Volz II type sun photometer In selecting the most appropriate col- in Zone LI the onset of dusty condi- (Jaenicke and Schutz 1978, Jaenicke, lection and measurement techniques tions is manifest by reduced visibility 1979). This approach allows much for the new sites emphasis is upon and increased dispersion of solar greater measurement accuracy and measurement accuracy, equipment radiation. Measurements of both sensitivity than the methods of Mc- cost, ease of maintenance, suitability these meteorological parameters can Tainsh (1982) in Nigeria, and as such to local conditions and compatibility provide an indirect measure of dust is appropriate to the much lower dust with methods at established sites. aerosol concentration. In northern aerosol concentrations experience Nigeria, McTainsh (1980) over the Atlantic. With better Two general measurement techniques demonstrated a relationship between communication, however, the data are proposed to measure dust entrain- dust deposition, solar radiation and arising from these different measurement and transport: dust aerosol sam- visibility. Therefore, it should be rela- ments can be compatible. pling and indirect measures of at- tively easy to define a relationship be- mospheric turbidity. tween dust aerosol concentration, Historical turbidity data from meteo- solar radiation, and visibility. rological sites will provide only a total 1. Dust aerosol sampling techniques estimate of dust in transport, being Atmospheric turbidity measurements deposited and entrained. However, Dust aerosol sampling can be carried more detailed data could be produced out using an air pump with replaceable have the disadvantage that they do not collect a dust sample, which can be by positioning one solar radiation cloth or paper filter cartridge. The recorder at ground level and a second filter pump method measures dust later analysed, but they do have three important advantages: firstly, turbidity at tOrn above ground level, as with the aerosol concentration in terms of Filter Pump Samplers. mass of dust collected per volume of data are already available from meteo- air pumped. The main practical con- rological stations in the form of stan- straint upon its use is the availability dard visibility and solar radiation 3. Dust Deposition Measurements of an electric power supply, but this measurements. Therefore, once a should not be a problem at the sites relationship is defined between dust Techniques for collecting dust and proposed. The filter pump method is aerosol concentration and both solar measuring dust deposition were dis- already widely used at the Atlantic radiation and visibility, past meteo- cussed at the Gothenburg Workshop Ocean sites of Barbados, Cape Verde rological records of solar radiation and on Saharan Dust, but most of these islands (Glaccum and Prospero, visibility can provide a much longer were developed for air pollution 1980) and at Cayenne, French Guiana term record of dust entrainment and monitoring in temperate environ- (Prospero, Glaccum and Nees, 1981). transport for virtually no extra cost; ments and are not very useful for secondly, atmospheric turbidity mea- measuring larger-sized mineral parti- The positioning of the filter pump surements using Campbell-Stokes cles in tropical environments. samplers in Zone Ii is critical for sunshine recorders can be used to determining which of the two expand a network of sites into remote The dust deposition trap used by Mc- processes, dust entrainment and locations where standard meteorologi- Tainsh (1982) in northern Nigeria transport, are being measured. For cal data are not available. This tech- consists of a painted metal basin con- example, one filter pump sampler, set nique is both inexpensive and does taining distilled water and exposing a up at around lOrn above ground level, not require an electricity supply. water surface area of 0.27m 2 for the will collect a composite sample (C) trapping of deposited dust. Wet traps comprising dust in suspended trans- Feasibility experiments carried out at are not common in humid climates, port (T), plus dust being deposited Kano (McTainsh, 1982) where cloud perhaps because rainfall can caue (0). A second filter pump Im above cover is low during the Harmattan them to overflow, but this is not a ground level, will also collect a compo- Season demonstrate that the burn- problem in northern Nigeria as no rain site sample (C) including dust being trace on the sunshine recorder card falls during the Harmattan season. entrained (E), plus dust being pro vides a measure of the intensity of deposited (D+D,) (Fig, 3). To mea- solar radiation as well as length of the The use of an appropriate regular measure the quantity of dust being trans- day. Therefore, if the sunshine recor- surement period is critical if deposi- ported or entrained it is necessary to der card is weighed before and after tion results are to be correlated be- separate these measurements from exposure, the weight loss of the card tween different sites. A weekly deposi- the deposition measurements (to be provides a quantitative expression of tion measurement period was found described later) in the following the dispersion of solar radiation by to be most appropriate for northern manner. The quantily of dust in trans- dust. The sunshine recorder method Nigeria as it allowed time for sufficient port in Zone 11 is calculated as follows: of measuring dust-induced solar radia- dust to accumulate to reduce collection dispersion has been further tion errors and to allow enough dust T,=C refined by Jaenicke and Schutz 1978, for laboratory analysis. iaenicke and Kasten 1978 and Helmes While the quantity of dust being en- and iaenjcke 1985. At least two deposition traps should trained in Zone II is: be set up at a sile, the first at around Jaenicke and co-workers also conduct- lOm above ground level to measure E.=C,—(D+D) ed a series of atmospheric turbidity primary deposition (Dr), the second

31 ertification Control Bulletin

Dust mobihsation by a coiweelion storm in northern Nigeria. but small dust sample sizes can pose practical analytical problems. The use of a Coulter Counter (Walker el al, 1974; McTainsh and Walker, 1982) capable of analysing samples down to O.Olg has significantly increased the utility of particle-size as an environmental indicator. Other sedimentolog- ical characteristics which can be mea- $ sured using standard techniques include mineralogy (light and heavy), quartz roundness and surface characteristics, geochemical composition, plus the presence and types of diatoms and phytoliths.

Administration

The desertification monitoring pro- gram me outlined here has several distinctive features which combine to make it a viable proposition whether viewed from a practical or a research viewpoint. A critical feature which sets this programme apart from most other desert ification programmes, is that it would be a low cost operation because equipment required is both cheap to purchase and simple to use and maintain. Personnel costs could be minimal as the intention is to attract at ground level to mea.ure primary plus secondary deposition (D).

The choice of an appropriate dust monitoring site is criticat to avoid dust contributions from unwanted sources, such as, dust remobilised within urban areas by traffic movement on unsealed roads. Monitoring Sites should be located in a rural setting, as remote as possible from man-induced dust sources. + Laboratory Analysis of Dust .4 A principal requirement of the direct collection methods proposed here is j------that they collect a representative - — sample of dust associated with a partic- t. - •-• i#h ular process (e.g. entrainment, transport and deposition) over a particular measurement period. The objectives -H of the laboratory analysis of these samples are two-fold. Firstly, the character -c ,- - of the dust provides additional mdc- -- pendent evidence of the kind of aeo- han (and desertification) processes operating and/or secondly it reflects the source areas of the dust. - -..'- Pf 3/i Da.sairw lca non on a ck'ar day Dust particle-size is a particularly sensitive indicator ofaeolian processes

32 Desertificat ion and dust monitoring in West Africa interest within universities, with only REFERENCES Nigeria. Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Macquarie limited numbers of technical person- University, Sydney, Australia. nel required. If the three dust monitor- DAlmeida, G.A. and Jaenicke, R., 1985. Sah- ran dusi transport. JournalofGeophysicalRe- McTainsh, G.H., 1985. A dust monitoring pro- ing sites already operational were will- search (in press). gramme for desertifteation control in West ing to joint the programme and if Africa. Environmental Conservation. (in former sites were reestablished, costs Arrhenius, G., 1959. Sedmentation on the press). ocean floor. In: Researches in Geochemistry. could be further reduced. Placed New York, Wiley. Mclainsh, O.H. and Walker, P1-I., 1982. within the context of the difficulties Nature and distribution of Hisrmstlan dust. experienced by UNEP in raising Bertrand, J., Cerf, A. and Domergue, J.K., Zeil.schr(ftfur Geomorphologie, 26,4. 417435. money over the past seven years. the 1979. Repartition in space and time of dust low-cost feature of this programme is haze south of the Sahara. W.M.D. 538, Morales, C. (Ed.) 1977. Seharan Dusr: 409-415, Mobilisation, Transport, Deposition. Review critical. and recommendations from a workshop, Bowles, F.A., 1975. Paleoclimatic significance Oothenburg, Sweden, April, 1977. Ecologi- A second important feature of this of quartz/illite variations in cores from the cal Research Committee of the Swedish programme is that administration of Eastern Equatorial North Atlantic. Quarter. Natural Science Research Council, pp. 24. naryResearch, 5,225-235. the programme could be quite low Prospero, 3M., 1966- Atmospheric dust studies key, as the approach taken here is not Forresler, J.E., 1970. Industrial I)ynamks. M I T on Barbados. Bulletin AmericanMereorologicel to establish a large new programme, Press, Cambridge Mass. USA. Societv,49, 645-652. rather to channel existing personnel and resources in a new direction, by Glaccum, R.A. and Prospero, 3M.. 1980. Saha- Prospero, 3M.. Glaccum, R.A. and Nees, R.T., ran aerosols over the tropical North Atlantic 1981. Atmospheric transport of soil dust drawing the attention of established - Mineralogy. Marine Geology. 37, 295-321. from Africa to South America. Nature, 289, dust researchers to the possible broad- 570-572. er implications (i.e. desertification) of Jaenicke, R., 1979- Monitoring and critical their research. Within the context of review of the estimated source strength of Prcjspero,).M. and Nees, R.T., 1977. Dust con- mineral dual from the Sahara. In: Morales centrations in the atmosphere of the equato- recent statements in Deserhfication (ed). Saharan Dust: Mob ilisasion. Transport rial North Atlantic: Possible relationship to Control in which a significant propor- and Deposmon, SCON., the Sahelian Drought. Science, 196, tion of expenditure on desertification 1196-1198, programmes in past years has been of Jaenicke. R. and Schutz, L., 1978. Comprehen- an "infrastructurat" nature, then the sive study of physical and chemical proper- Rapp, A., 1974. A review of desertization in lies of the surface aerosols in the Cape Verde Africa: Water, vegetation and man. Secreta- light administration feature of the pro- Islands region. Journal of Geophysical riat for International Ecology. Sweden posed programme may have consid- Resarch.83, 3585-3598. (SIES). Report No.!, 76 pp. erable merit Jaenicke, R,, Kasten. F., 1978- Estimalion of at- Rapp, A., 1976. Needs of environmental mospheric lurbidity from the burned traces monitoring for desert encroachment In conclusion, the proposed dust of the Campbell-Stokes sunshine recorder. control. In: (Editors) Rapp, A. Le Houerou, monitoring programme could provide App!. Optics. 17,2617-2621. H.N., Lundholm, B. Ecological Bulletin No. a much needed and low cost source of 24, 231-236. valuable hard data on past, present Helmes, L. and Jaenicke, R., 1985. Experimen- and future trends of desertification tal verification of the determination of at- Rapp. A. and Hellden. C.C., 1979. Research on mospheric turbidity from sunshine environmental monitoring methods for land within West Africa. recorders. Journal of Climatology and Apphird use planning in African dry lands. Rapporser Meteorology, in press. oth Notisci. 42, 90-106. Lund Universitts Naturgeografska Institution. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS McTuinah, 0.1-I., 1980. Harmaitan dust deposition in northern Nigeria. Nature, 286, Walker, PH., Woodyer, K.D. and Hutka, J., Thanks to Mike Morlimore of Bayero 587-588, 1974. Particle-size measurements by Coulter - University, Kano, for the soil particle-size analy Counter of very small deposits and low sus- sis data. Mclainsh, G.H., 1982. Flarmattan dust, aeolian pended sediment concentrations in streams. mantles and dune sands of central northern Journal ofSedimentary Petrology, 44,673-679.

33 Eastern Africa's spreading wastelands

Se,julaziz MUas and prevalent farming methods are made- Africa, from Ethiopia to Lesotho, and Mesobework Asrat quate for the region's fragile, easily severe prolonged drought is a quasi- eroded soils, erratic rainfall patterns periodic phenomenon. Northern and almost non-existent irrigation. Ethiopia, for instance, has had several The wastelands are spreading in eas- The situation is made worse by other disastrous droughts over the past cen- tern Africa, with millions of the re- interacting factors; the world's highest tury and the Akamba of eastern gion's people facing starvation in the rates of population growth, rapid Kenya recall the drought years of the Worst drought of this century. Eight urbanization, fuelwood shortages and 1890's which may have halved their million of them are in Ethiopia, and continuing desertification. Their ef- population. They survived another millions others in Mozambique. In fects are intensified by the region's such drought in the 1930's by labour several other countries of the region, economic crisis and rapidly deteriorat- migration and food aid. food reserves are rapidly diminishing ing market terms: In 1982 Africa's agri- or are already depleted - and there is cultural exports could buy only half While a great deal is known about the no end in sight. Not only the people the volume of manufactured goods physical aspects of drought we cannot are affected, but the land as well, with and petroleum products that they forecast the onset of a drought, its implications for the future of dimin- could pay for in 1978. magnitude or its duration. Never the- ishing productivity. less there are practical measures Droughi, Demography and Famine which could be taken to mitigate the The food crisis has been triggered by worst effects of drought. For instance, prolonged drought, but the drought Drought is only part of the problem, improved national meteorological ser- is only part of a much bigger problem and a temporary one, but it threatens vices and application of meteorological in which drought has exacerbated the to have a permanent effect through ac- knowledge which can lead to better results of expanding population pres- celerating other problems of soil ero- use of water available from rainfall sures and accelerating soil degradation sion and desertification. While and irrigation (WMO, 1983). Drought that in combination with inappropriate drought is largely a natural control planning and appropriate land- food pricing policies, rural neglect and phenomenon, social responses and use planning are also important. If external economic pressures, caused poor land use practices greatly amplify under normal climatic conditions per-capita food production to drop by its impacts (ECA, 1983). When ecosystems are used at or near their over 11 percent between 1970 and 1980 severe drought is combined with land long-term capacity, they and the socie- - before the full impact of the present misuse the result is often permanent ties they sustain will suffer severely in drought was felt. Jand deterioration and loss of times of sub-normal rainfall (Berry. productivity. That is, desertification. 1984). The United Nations Environment Desertification, in turn, intensifies The real cause of famine and economic Programme (UNEP) says that much the effects of drought. There are many collapse is increasingly evident—soil of the problem is due to a growing examples in Ethiopia, northern and erosion—loss of the thin layer of top- imbalance between population, eastern Kenya, central Tanzania, soil that is the basis of agricultural resources, development and Lesotho and Zimbabwe. production. Throughout the region environment. Rapid population this is a major and rapidly growing growth is exacerbating the existing Droughts are a "recurring" climatic problem. Northern Ethiopia with its problems of imbalance between phenomenon, in Africa they have oc- ravaged hillsides may be a worst case human numbers and available arable cured throughout the available histori- scenario, but similar scenes are ap- land, deforestation, poor land-use sys- cal record of climate (Nicholson, pearing in Kenya and Tanzania, in tems and inappropriate farming meth- 1978) and are certain to recur in the Mozambique and Zimbabwe. ods - all among the major problems future. The ability to forecast accurate- leading to food crises and desert ifica- ly the occurance of future drought on When drought occurs, particularly in tion in eastern Africa. the basis of periodic or quasi-periodic croplands or rangelands which are al- behaviour has not been demonstrated ready overcultivated or overgrazed, it The basic problems are similar - drought is at best quasi-periodic leads to further reduction or elimina- throughout the region, whether in and extrapolation of cycles for fore- tion of the land's essential vegetative Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania or casting has not been successful. cover, leaving it bare and vulnerable Mozambique: technical crisis, devel- to wind and water erosion. Erosion opment crisis, and economic crisis, all High variabi'iy of rainfall is a fact of strips away the thin layer of top-soil, superimposed on each other. The life in the semi-arid zones of eastern destroying the land's fertility and its

34 Eastern Africa's spreading wastelands

Several Low and Middle Income Countries Affected by JJesertification

Population Projection by Countries Affected by Desertitication

Population (millions) TFR1 0 NP/capita Percentage of women 1980 2000 2025 1982 1982 child-bearing age using contraceptive methods Burundi 4 7 14 6.5 280 - Ethiopia+ 31 57 110 6.5 140 - Kenya 17 40 83 8.0 390 7 Lesotho 1 2 4 5.8 510 5 Malawi 6 12 23 1.8 210 - Mozambique 12 24 45 6.5 - - Rwanda 5 11 22 8.3 260 - Somalia 4 7 12 6.5 290 - Tanzania 19 36 67 6.5 280 - Uganda 13 25 47 7.0 230 - Zimbabwe 7 16 34 8.0 850 15

'TFR-lotal fertility rate based on 1984 World Bank estimates and projections

+ Ethiopia's receni census indicates a 1984 population of42 million with par capita ENP of$1 14.

In monofsub-Saharan Africa 4n/kan1/y less than 5 percent ofeligibile v.omen use contraceptive method&

potential to support its human and most of its people. But food produc- human pressures to fragile ecosystems animal populations. lion is often constrained by limited and leading to accelerated land arable land. Some estimates say as degradation. When the rains return, particularly much as 80 per cent has serious fertili- the torrential rains common to much ty limitations. There are other problems such as of tropical Africa, soil erosion is aridity which limit the area of usuable accelerated. Most of the water runs Demographic factors—population land, intensifying the pressures on off, tearing away the topsoil at an ever growth and distribution—play a key available farm and grazing lands. faster rate. Drought, land role in land degradation in the region. Large areas of eastern Africa are too degradation, soil erosion and Many areas are subject to intensive arid and the soils too poor for sustaina- flooding, are all part of a vicious circle population pressures, while others are ble cultivation. and one that is turning farmland into only sparsely settled. But low popula- desert at rapidly increasing rates. tion densities are usually found in the Mining the cropland arid zones, high mountain areas and In eastern Africa the main causes of moist tropical forests—areas with low The situation is deteriorating. The soil degradation and desertificatiori potential for agricultural population of eastern Africa has are well-known: overcultivation, oyer- production—particularly in view of doubled in the past 25 years. At the grazing and deforestation. But while the low technological level and limited present rate of increase it will double the reasons are known they are not so financial means of the subsistence again shortly after the end of the easily corrected. Efforts to do so must farmer. The existence of disease vec- century. These high rates of popula- contend with severe demographic, tors such as the tse-tse fly and malaria tion growth have led to "mining" cr0- economic and social ConsEraints. mosquito also effectively constrain plands through overcultivation with- human habitation of large areas even out adequate inputs or crop rotation One key reason is that there are many where other conditions are good. and expanding the cultivated areas, di- more people to feed. in most of eas- minishing available rangelands and tern Africa, populations are growing The result is often concentration of a forest cover. at rates of 3.1 to over 4.0 per cent a large part of the population in the year. But farming methods and land limited proportion of the land suitable With rapid population growth and the use have not improved. The popula- for crop production. When popula- use of increasing amounts of land for tion of the region has more than tion size is small and stable this ar- cash cropping rather than subsistence doubled in the past three decades and rangement may work reasonably well. agriculture, the subsistence farmers in many areas pressures on arable land But in recent decades, unprecented in- are putting more pressure on the re- have already reached disaster levels. creases in population size have led to maining land. In traditional shifting excessive pressures on arable land and agriculture exhausted land was left Agriculture is the economic backbone to spill-over into increasingly marginal idle for years to regain its productivity. of eastern Africa, and subsistence agri- areas—pasture and forest lands, and This is often no longer possible. Now culture provides the livelihood of steep slopes, applying excessive there are too many people and not

35 flesertification Control Bulletin

ing capacity - that is, the number of people or animals that a gwen unit of land can support on a sustained basis at a given level of inputs and technology.

Carrying capacity can be increased by raising the level of technology and inputs applied by using fertilizers, pesticides, improved crop mixes and conservation measures - and many commercial farmers in Kenya's highlands have done so. But that requires capital and for the average subsistence farmer it is often not available.

Land for subsistence farming is also in short supply. According to 1981 projections, the Nyanza region, the country's largest high-potential far m- ng area is expected to run out of additional land for subsistence farming by 1995 (Kisumu District, 1983; South

- • Nyanza, 1987; Siaya, 1995). In most of •" T the province it has already happened as it has in Central Province, one of the other two main high-potential farming areas. AIA

Now Kenya's severe shortage of arable land is forcing farmers to move into marginal lands unsuitable for rainfed cultivation, the eastern escarp- In northern Er/nopia she hillsides have been ravishedbysoi1eroson. (UNEP/Charles Stewart) ment's steep slopes and the arid drought-prone rangelands of the east enough land to afford these long fal- In northern Ethiopia the population and north. The results are familiar - lows which are being progressively di- has more than doubled over the past severe soil erosion and rapid loss of minished or eliminated with often dis- three decades. In the meantime some productivity. When drought comes, as astrous results for land productivity. 40,000 km2 of farmland has been it eventually does, the process is almost irreversibly degraded into what accelerated. It is the same process as In effect, over 80 per cent of Africa's could be described as stone deserts. in central Tanzania and the semi-arid available farmland has already lost a Agricultural production has suffered regions of southern and central significant part of its fertility to these near-collapse and efforts to keep up Mozambique, and the results have pressures and the process is still going producation by bringing new land been similar. Where drought has inter- on. There is good reason to believe under cultivation - 60 degree slopes vened it has brought social and ecolog- that the proportion is particularly high and the like - have led to ecological ical disaster. in eastern Africa. The situation is es- disaster. pecially serious with respect to rainfed UNEP's General Assessment of Prog- croplands which provide the liveli- Kenya has a population of over 19 ress in the implementation of the Plan hood of most of the people and tend to million, increasing at some four per of Action to Combat Desert itication be the most vulnerable to population cent a year. Over the years 1948-1977 predicts that deterioration of rainfed and other pressures. the population grew by an estimated croplands will worsen over the next 15 170 per cent. In 1978 it was estimated years (UNEP/G.C.12/9, 1984). This The results of all this are seen at 14.86 million and there was an acute problem is already particularly serious throughout the region: in northern shortage of arable land. In 1984 it in eastern Africa and existing high Ethiopia, subsistence farmers trying passed the 19 million mark, and by the rates of population growth are rapidly to cultivate land that cannot support year 2000 it will be over 34 million. increasing the pressures on rainfed them adequately even when there is croplands throughout the region. enough rain; cultivation of sub- Only 17 per cent of Kenya's land area marginal lands along Kenya's eastern is suitable for rainfed cultivation and According to the FAO/UNFPA study escarpments, and the semi-arid plains most of that is already being used. Ac- of Land Resources for Future surrounding the fertile, well-watered, cording to the FAO/UNFPA survey Populations, most of the countries of but increasingly overpopulated high- of food producing potential, the popu- eastern Africa will be unable to grow land areas of central Tanzania. lation is already above the [and's carry - enough food for their populations by

36 as tern Africa's spreading wastelands

pressures, increases in livestock populations and consequent overgrazing (Berry, 1984). The same is true in central Tanzania where in the Gogo country around Dodoma (the proposed new capital) livestock density is reported to be about 1.9 hectares/stock là! 4 unit, while a UNDP/SF livestock pro- r_*, -. ject in Dodoma estimates the mini- - mum safe density at 2.5 ha/stock unit. Similar problems are to be found Apo - in rangeland areas of Ethiopia, Mozambique and elsewhere in the region.

A4; Population pressures on rainfed cr0- Onh I 7pi-r rnr a! Kenia Ia!Jd urea suirabieIo, raaa 1 iIIia1iva and 'nod a/ I!jaI i OirL'a.I !tdfl! p lands and increasing encroachment used. (UNEP/Duue! Stiles) of cultivators on adjacent rangelands are diminishing the areas of available the year 2000 at their present low tion growth will continue up to the grazing lands and intensifying over- levels of farm inputs. In fact, by 1975 year 2000 and beyond, these pressures stocking and overgrazing in various much of the region was already incapa- can only be reduced by increasing and areas (Berry, 1984). U is a widespread ble of feeding its population on a sus- maintaining the productivity of the problem in semi-arid areas of mined basis at the existing low levels available cropland. This can be done Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho and Tanza- of farming. through increased inputs in the form nia among others. of improved technology, better land- By the year 2000 Kenya, for instance, use systems, more appropriate crop The pastoral populations are also in- will be able to feed only 17 percent of mixes, increased use of fertilizer and creasing - in some areas such as its population from its own land using basic chemicals, and appropriate con- northern Kenya they are increasing at low inputs and unable to produce ade- servation measures. unprecedented rates - along with the quate food for its entire population numbers of their livestock, as they re- even at an intermediate level of These solutions indicate a way to cope quire more animals to support their inputs. At low input levels Ethiopia with the pressures on croplands over growing numbers (UNESCO 1983). would be able to produce 36 percent of the next two decades. For the longer As a result, overgrazing is intensifying its food Somalia, 34 percent; Uganda, term up to 2025 and beyond a great and desertification is reaching critical 45 percent; Malawi, 61 percent; deal will depend on efforts to address dimensions in parts of Kenya's north- Swaziland, 89 percent; Zimbabwe, 95 the problem of rapid population ern and eastern rangelands, and in the percent, At the other end of the scale, growth within the context of available semi-arid regions of Ethiopia, the figures for Burundi and Rwanda resources, development and Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and are respectively 10 percent and eight environmern. If eastern Africa is to be Zimbabwe. percent. Burundi would be unable to able to support its population as pro- feed its population in the year 2000 at jected for 2025 (50-200 percent in- an intermediate level of inputs and creases in population size) it will have The onset of the current prolonged Rwanda at even a high level olinputs. to achieve substantially higher levels drought found livestock populations of farming and slow the current rapid in much of the region at higher levels These figures imply drastic increases loss of land productivity. than the rangelands could carry on a in pressure on the land with destruc- sustainable basis. This has led to the tive results. Crop production can be The vanishing rangelands loss of large numbers of livestock and increased in the short term by expand- to accelerated desertification of large ing the cultivated areas, overcultivat- Eastern Africa from Ethiopia to areas of rangeland, as the cattle de- ing arable lands, diminishing or elim- Lesotho is suffering from a general- stroy the land's vegetative cover inating fallow periods, and cuhivating ized deterioration of its rangelands. before finally starving to death. 'marginal' land unsuitable for tilling. There is moderate to severe deteriora- In the medium and long term, tion of rangelands in Ethiopia, Kenya, Deforestation however, the result is often less of Somalia and Uganda, while in Djibouti productivity, and more of land degra- the problem is particularly severe Deforestation is an important factor in dation and accelerating desertific-alion. (Berry, 1984). There is also moderate desertification in eastern Africa. to severe rangeland deterioration in Forest cover is decreasing rapidly due Solutions the semi-arid regions of Tanzania and mainly to clearing for settlement and M oza m bi q ue. crops, extraction of timber for com- The solutions are clear: if deterioration mercial and domestic use, and remov- of arable land is to be halted or slowed In Kenya and Uganda there is evi- al for fuel and charcoal production par- the pressures leading to its deteriora- dence to show that this is caused pri- ticularly around settlements and lion must be reduced. As rapid popula- marily by increased population urban areas.

37 Desertification Control Bulletin

In much of the region actual popula- fuel for tobacco and tea production. In on arable land has led to subsistence tion density already exceeds sustaina- Mozambique, Tanzania and Zim- farmers extending cultivation into ble density in terms of fuciwood babwe large areas have been cleared forested areas or fragile mountain supply. Fuelwood is being Cut much for planting tobacco and even larger zones (UNEP/UNESCO/ECA, faster than it is being replaced and the areas for fuel with which to cure the 1984). The encroachment of cultiva- supply - and forest cover - are rapid- tobacco crop. In Zimbabwe, for tion on these vulnerable lands has led ly diminishing. This is reflected in the instance, about 70,000 hectares of to accelerated soil erosion making the fact that in Tanzania firewood has new land are cleared annually for people and the land even more vul- become so scarce that the average cultivaLion, with an additional 75,000 nerable to future droughts. household spends 2 50-300 working to 100,000 hectares being cleared for days per year gathering its fuelwood fuelwood needs. Deforestation is one aspect of amore supply (McNamara, 1984). Similar or complex picture of overexploitation worse situations are found in Tobacco growing in particular has led and destruction of natural resources. Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho and to widespread destruction of forests In much of Africa it is closely linked Somalia, among others. In some areas and to situations where farmers now with such other aspects as overgrazing of Lesotho, Northern Ethiopia and have to travel as far as 30-3 5 kms to and overcultivation. For instance, in- central Tanzania, fuelwood supplies collect enough wood for fuel to cure creased pressures on arable lands tend have already run out, and people are their tobacco crops. The critical need to be reflected in encroachment of forced to use animal dung and crop to earn foreign exchange ensures that cultivation on forests and rangelands. residue for cooking fuel. this deforestation will continue But it This in turn leads to intensified over- cannot continue indefinitely unless ef- grazing and deforestation as grazing In addition to domestic fuel fective steps are taken to ensure that areas are diminished, forests are requirements, cash cropping and the these forests are replaced. cleared and soil erosion increases. As pressure to earn foreign exchange play a result of these factors, vast tracts of an important role in deforestation and The incidence of deforestation re- land are being transformed into "dust desertification in eastern Africa. In sulting from fuelwood requirements bowls", losing their productivity and Mozambique, forests are being over- and in association with subsistence impoverishing their population. exploited to provide much needed for- and commercial farming is growing eign exchange. In several areas of the throughout eastern Africa. The Soil erosion region extensive deforestation is impact of drought, together with taking place to supply the necessary steadily increasing population pressure Of the four main causes of

Oi'erswcking leads to ove,grazmg and senous trampling of the earth by sharp hooves, both of whichresdtin soderoson. (ZINEP/DanleiStiles)

. ... a

.11 Eastern Africa's spreading wastelands desertification, three of them - But 1000 million tons of that lost top The Government of Zimbabwe has deforestation, overcultivation and soil come from Ethiopia alone. There embarked on a rural afforestation pro- overgrazing - pose the principal are indications that Ethiopia, Kenya gramme to produce fuelwood poles in threat to the livelihood of the peoples and Tanzania alone may be losing as the communal lands. Some 24 million of eastern Africa. All of them lead to much topsoil per year as the whole of seedlings will be raised annually for soil erosion and the rates of soil ero- North America. sale to rural dwellers who want to es- sion in this region are among the high- tablish their own woodlots. est in the world, and soil is a non- In most of these cases there is a renewable resource. For nature to common thread - the factor of In Ethiopia most of the country's rural form a layer of top-soil thick enough deforestation. Once the forest cover is population is organized into 28,000 to support plant life takes thousands gone, these often fragile soils become Peasants' Associations which have of years, but through human misuse it vulnerable to rapid destruction by been given responsibility for reclaim- can be destroyed in a few decades - wind and Water erosion. ing eroded land and for efforts to halt or a few years - and once eroded its soil erosion. In the badly eroded loss is permanent. That is highlands, over the past several years, desertiftcation. Combating desertilkation in eastern the Peasants' Associations with sup- Africa port from the UN World Food The key problem is soil erosion The Programme, have built some 700,000 continent's precious top-soil is being Several Governments in eastern kms of elaborate terraces to halt soil lost at almost incredible rates. Some Africa are manifesting an increasing erosion and planted an estimated 500 experts say that any erosion rate awareness of the problem of desert ifi- million tree seedlings. Hillside farmers above 50 tons per km2 is "unusual". cation and its implications for the are being moved to new land and hill- Others say that 10 tons per hectare is future of their countries. EthiQpia, sides are being closed to grazing. barely "acceptabi&', but in much of Kenya, and Tanzania,for instance, are Africa soil erosion rates are very much placing great emphasis on strengthen- The Ethiopian Government, with sup- higher. Ethiopia, for instance, has an ing public participation in affore station port from the World Food Programme overall average annual rate of soil loss and soil and water conservation (Food for Work) and the Federal of 830 metric tons per km 2 but the cul- projects. More thought is also being Republic of Germany, is implement- tivated areas of the highland.s feature given to problems of rapid population ing 19 catchment rehabilitation rates of 2000 tons per km 2 and up, and growth and population distribution, projects, afforesing key water catch- in some parts of the Sudano-Sahelian both of which are important factors ment areas in six regions of northern region - the band of countries across directly or indirectly affecting the and eastern Ethiopia. In the long term Africa below the Sahara from Senegal spread ofdesertification. this is expected to revitalize hydrolog- to Kenya - local soil erosion figures ical cycles and diminish soil erosion. as high as 4500 tons per km 2 per year In several countries projects aimed at are not unknown. controlling deforestation are planned A particularly promising effort, the or being implemented, In Ethiopia, Sirinka Catchment Rehabilitation In Ethiopia where an estimated 1000 for instance, current projects include Pilot Project, an integrated land-use million tons of top soil are lost each the establishment of nearly 9,000 hec- project in northern Wollo region, year, as compared to some 1500 mil- tares of fuelwood plantations near the aims at restoring land productivity lion in the United States (Brown, L. towns of Debre Berhan and Nazareth. without resettling the population. et. af. 1984), which has several times UNSO, which channels assistance This highly successful project with an Ethiopia's area oIcropland, observers from UNEP and UNDP to the Sudan- area of 533 km 2 was scheduled to be describe hillside telds that have been Sahelian region, is particularly inter- extended to an additional 4500 km 2 if eroded down to bedrock in less than ested in agro-forestry and several funding could be found. two decades. This has led to high schemes based on complementary levels of soil degradation and desertifi- forestry and agricultural activities cation over large areas of Ethiopia's have been set up in the region. In its Four Year Plan for 1979-1983 northern highlands. It has destroyed (Kenya, Government of, 1979) the the productivity of the land, brought InLesotho, the Government with out- Kenya Government acknowledged famine to the people and resulted in side assistance has implemented that there was "inadequate environ- plans to resettle 1.5 million people in woodlot projects leading to the plan t- mental control and land misuse re- the lowlands hundreds of kilometres ing of nearly 3,000 hectares of wood- sulting in desertification, soil erosion away. lots in the densely populated western and associated economic problems". lowlands where the demand for fuel- Subsequently, Kenya has made a sus- There are many other examples wood is most acute. In Mozambique, tained effort to reduce the rate ofdefo- throughout the arid, semi-arid and where annual fuelwood consumption restation and to enlist public participa- subhumid regions of eastern Africa. is estimated at 12 million m 3, the tion at the local level in afforestation In Kenya, for instance, a study of soil Government has supported establish- and soil and water conservation erosion shows that the value of annual ment of "green belts" near the major activities. Restrictions have been top-soil loss exceeds the country's urban centres to provide fuelwood placed on tree clearing and charcoal gross national product. At a conserva- and timber. To date, nearly 70,000 making and support given to the tive estimate the world is losing some hectares of woodlots have been plant- "Green Belt" tree planting campaign 25,000 million tons of topsoil a year. ed near Maputo, Beira and Nampula. organized by local NGOs.

39 Deertification Control Bulletin

Kenya, in particular among the coun- Conclusions Nicholson. S.E. (1978). Climatic Variations tries of the region, has shown a grow- in ilie Sahel and other African regions ing awareness of the implications of The combination of unprecedented during We past five centuries. Journal of AralEnrimnrnanis 1:3-24. population pressure on its natural population growth and accelerating resources, a key factor in loss of land productivity to soil erosion UNECA (1983). Some Social and Economic desertiflcation, and has demonstrated and desertification is increasingly a Aspects of the tmpactsalClimatic variabili. a strong interesi in slowing its rate of threat to the long-term survival of ty and Drought in Africa: A Discussion Paper. ECA/ENV/13, December 1983. population growth. Activities towards several countries of eastern Africa. It Nairobi. this end are carried out through family is a threat that can he contained, but planning services offered through the to achieve this much more must be o. UNEP/UNESCO/ECA (1984). Joint public health services anu -'ugh an done to raise the level of farming, to UNEPIUNESCO/ECA Mission toKalahari Region - Botawana. Lesotho. NGO, the Family Planninb Associa- increase and maintain the productivity Moambique, Tanzania and Zimbabwe - tion of Kenya. The level of success in of croplands, to improve rangeland June 9 - July 3, 1984. Report and this area, however, has been limited. management and to rehabilitate for- Recommendations. ests and vital watersheds. Halting the On 14-16 September 1984 the Tanzan- spread of the wastelands in eastern 7. UNEP/O.C.12/9, 1984. Report of the Ex. eculive Director. General Assessment of ian Government organized a National Africa will require, above all, better Progress in the Implementation of the Plan Seminar on Tree Planting at Shinyanga management of natural resources of Action to Combat Desertificatiort. in central Tanzania, a region with taking into account the certainty that Nairobi. severe desertification problems. The drought will come again. S. UNESCO (1983). Integrated Project on seminar, opened by President Nye- Arid Lands (IPAL). Technical Paper rere and attended by over 400 national REFER ENCES No.A.4, UNESCO, Nairobi. leaders from the top levels of the country's political and government Berry, Leonard (1984). Assessment of 9. Brown, L. ci. at (1984). State of the World structures, aimed at formulation of a Desertification in the Sudano-Sahelian 1984. World Watch Institute, New York. Region 1978-1984, United Nations Envi- national afforestation programme at ronment Programme, Nairobi. JO. WMO (1983). Report of the Expert Group the national, regional, district, village Meeting on the Climatic Situation and and household levels. The seminar Harrison. Paul (1984). "Land and People: Drought in Africa, Geneva 6-7 October, was seen as a clear indication of the A New Framework for the Food Security 1983, WCP-61, World Meteorological Tanzanian Government's concern Equauon", CeresVol 17, No.2. OrganizaliDn, C,enevs. with the country's desertification MeNamara, Robert S. (1984). The Popula- problems and its resolve to tackle lion Problem: Time Bomb or Myth. Foreign them. AJfau-.t, Vol.6, No, 5.3-24.

40 News of interest

used is predominantly mesquite Mesquite Fencing Units Forestry and Nomadic (Prosopis chi/ensith, although now Pastoralism Project native species are being raised from lo- A simple, replicable technique for cally collected seed for trial plantings. providing protective fencing and she I- In all cases emphasis is placed on com- This project is being implemented by terbelts has been underway in Nile munity involvement and participation Province of northern Sudan for the Green Deserts Ltd. of the United in decision making. Local people are Kingdom under the supervision of last 10 years. The system is based on employed to plant, protect and irrigate the thinning of mesquite shelierbelts Project Manager Steven Bristow. The trees with water drawn from wells, project is based at Ed Darner on the to provide a sustained yield of small and in some areas fencing made from diameter poles and brushwood with- Nile River some 300 km ENE of branches cut from the mesquite shel- out prejudicing their function as Khartoum, in Nile Province, Sudan. terbelts by the river are used to protect Most project activities are undertaken shelterbelts. This project has used the trees. such thinnings to construct fencing in the Bayuda Desert to the west of Ed units that are cheap and easily Darner, in an area of less than 150mm annual rainfall, although there has Apart from the sites with paid labour, transportable, are made entirely from locally grown materials and are pro- been total rain failure for three to five there are many individuals, families, duced by local unskilled labour. So years in most parts. and communities now growing trees by their homes. These trees are far, after 6 months use, they have The aims of the project are to promote provided by the project for those who proved to be durable and effective at community forestry in Nile Province, request them, and the people con- excluding livestock providing the and Jebel Hasaniya in particular, as a cerned are thereafter visited periodi- fences are inspected regularly. The means of changing established pat- cally to discuss any problems that units are also more acceptable than barbed wire to the local population, terns of land use in an attempt to slow have arisen. Some families have now and are generally more acceptable in down or even reverse the expansion started to raise vegetables and sorg- of desert areas and the movement of hum next to the trees. the landscape. nomadic pastoralists from the desert to a more or less permanent life on the Some research into the growth of They are constructed as follows: 12-16 stems are cut 200cm long and fringes of the agricultural reverine native trees is being carried out, and communities where pressure on advice and practical demonstrations 2-3.5 cm in diameter. They need not resources is already at an unprecedent- given to schools who wish to set up be particularly straight, and seldom ed level. The project also works to tree nurseries. A more efficient char- are, and should retain plenty of side foster an awareness of the reasons for, coal stove has been introduced to the shoots. These stems are then laid out and problems associated with, river community, and ways ofirnprov- in a 2m square lattice, with half of the desertification, and the possibility of ing general awareness of the problems stems vertical and half horizontal. The improving the situation through edu- and results of tree cutting and over- stems are interwoven and tied together with rope made from leaves of the cation in schools, through research, grazing are continually being sought. and through discussion and practical Dom Palm (Hyp'haene thebaica). work with all interested parties. Partic- Five project sites have been estab- When the framework is complete any ular emphasis is placed on the prob- lished to create woodlot plantations, large holes are filled by weaving small lems associated with overstocking and principally of mesquite (Prosopis thorny branches into the lattice. The overgrazing. chilensi&, but indigenous species are more thorns the better, although this also being tested (Balanijes aegyplica, can cause problems for the fence makers. The finished units can be Methods: A cacia a/hula and A. Tortilhis SSP. radc//ana). Most of the wood lots are stacked ready for transport. Each unit Community woodlots have been es- being fenced using mesquite, de- has little structural strength on its tablished in a number of areas in the scribed below, and watering is done own, but when tied to a supporting Hasaniya Mountains, at sites selected using paid labour. Survival rate of the stake in the ground it becomes a for- both for socio-economic as well as sil- trees planted up to the end of 1984 midable barrier to animals and people vjcultural reasons. All sites are located ranges from 100% to 71%, a remarka- alike. If animals are seen to browse on in wadis where water will flow when ble achievement when one considers the fencing, used sump oil can be rain eventually falls (although in that the area receives little or no rain painted on as a deterrent. some areas none has been recorded and is heavily grazed by livestock. for several years), and micro- There is a high degree of involvement catchments have been constructed to and support by the local population, trap water after rain. The tree species the key to success.

41 esertification Control Bulletin

Cost: An integrated approach to and nutrients are scarce and energy is expensive: Total cost per unit plus stake: L'S 3.64 desert development - harness renewable energy (US$ 1.46). Cost to fence I feddan (I resources that are abundant in the acre): L'S 473 (US$ 189.20) excluding In September 1978, an international desert and develop technologies transport and erection costs. Workshop on "Applications of Science useful in desert environments; and Technology for Desert Develop- - identify and demonstrate desert This is less than a quarter of the cost ment" supported by the United States community development strate- of a barbed wire fence for materials National Science Foundation con- gies that are feasible with local alone. The concept of "Grow your vened in Cairo under the auspices of resources, are socially acceptable, own fences" is both ecologically the American University in Cairo protect the natural environment, sound and cost effective. (AUC). and enhance human life; and - disseminate the resu]t& through During the workshop, a consulting demonstration sites, consulting, group composed of some of the major training and actual experience for speakers, and coordinated by Dr. Adli farmers, students, technicians, Bishay, Director of the Workshop, scientists, businessmen and policy met to consider a proposal for the es- makers. tablishment of a "Desert Develop- ment Demonstration and Training" The AUC Desert Development Pro- programme at the American Universi- gramme proceeds through four major ty in Cairo. activities: In its final session, the members of - Data collection and facility the Workshop, unanimously support- development ing the recommended programme for - Multidisciplinary applied research environmentally and sociologically ac- on alternative integrated ap- ceptable desert development, request- proaches i.e: appropriate ed that the American University in agriculture, appropriate technology Cairo continue to provide leadership and appropriate communities in the development of this - Diffusion of information and programme, and urged the support of knowledge through demon- the government of Egypt, the govern- stration, training, documentation ment of the United States and national and technical communications and international institutions. - Adoption, modification and devel- Following the recommendations of opment in cooperation with relevant institutions and ministries. the Cairo Workshop, a "Desert Devel- opment Demonstration and Training" Measurable progress can be achieved (DDDT) programme was officially if the concept of the integrated blend initiated in January 1979 by the Presi- and balance of indigenous methods dent of the AUC. Dr. Bishay was with modern technology is consistent- given responsibility for the develop- ly a part of all related activities. Al- ment of the programme. though these concepts are now inter- nationally recognized as being essen- Goals and objectives tial to successful development projects, they have never been syste- The major goal of the programme is to matically and collectively applied in undertake applied research into desert cases. alternative, integrated approaches to arid land agricultural and community Implementation of the programme development, it also seeks to develop To help implement the DDDT and demonstrate economically viable Programme, the government of systems that can be used by governe- Egypt, through the Ministry of Land ment and private enterprise in creating Reclamation, in November 1979 al- new desert communities that offer an located 500 acres in the "Lntelaq" area improved "quality of life" and there- of South Tabrir at a distance of about fore attract families from cities and 140 kilometers northwest of Cairo and villages. about 40 kilometers west of Behira, in the Nile Delta. The site was serviced In order to achieve these goals, the ob- by a semiportable sprinkler irrigation jectives of the project are to: system also donated by the Ministry. - search for technologies appropriate Furthermore, the Ministry of Devel- for desert agriculture where water opment and New Communities has

42 News of interest provided DDDT with 200 acres in - A desert development approach hybrid systems (solar, wind and Sadat City, a new city being built on based on appropriate horticulture, biogas) for the different desert ag- the desert road, hallway between irrigation and management now in ricultural and household activities Cairo and Alexandria. its second phase (1983-1986) (pumping, irrigation, heating, (after the termination of the first desalination, and passive solar In addition to initial set-up costs and phase (1980-1983). Various citrus architecture). continuous support provided by the species including grapefruit, University, the programme is funded orange, tangerine, lemon and The socioeconomic aspects of the by a substantial number of national lime, have been grafted in the S. above three alternative approaches is and international agencies and wealthy Tahrir Nursery with different given special attention with the socioe- individuals. citrus rootstocks resistant or toler- conomic research programme for ant to the "Quick Decline" desert development (1983-1985). Following is a short review of some of disease. The successful corn bina- the present activities based on the Lions (seven rootstocks and 20 spe- Diffusion AUC Integrated Approach to Desert cies or variety) were transplanted Development in a new orchard in 1984 and are ir- The component of diffusion is made rigated by a newly installed drip up of the following three procedures: Data collection and facility irrigation system. Some traditional development: Since its initiation, vegetable crops such as peas, have - Demonstration: During the past data collection, testing and monitoring proven to be particularly adaptable five years, appropriate irrigation have been conducted at the two sites for desert cultivation. Onion sets techniques such as drop, biwall, of the AUC Desert Development were produced successfully last side-roll sprinkler, and bubbler Programme. This included soil, water, season and are currently being irrigation, were tested and solar and wind characteristics and test- used for cultivating an onion crop. demonstrated. The latter system ing of potential crops under such Furthermore, certain high value was manufactured in Egypt using conditions. It also included monitoring vegetable crops suitable for Egyptian materials and under the of four types of solar cells (10 KWp export, such as asparagus, broccoli supervision of the AUC scientists. photovoltaic), three types of solars and sweet corn, have been tested The Ministry of Land Reclamation pumps (3KWp) and solar passive ar- and proved to be successful under is planning to replicate this tech- chitecture (AUC headquarters the desert environment. nique on a 500 feddan area (a building). feddan is 4,200 square meters). Facilities added during 1982-1983 - An alternative approach, based on included a cattle shed, expansion of fodder/cattle/biogas, which was The use of solar pumping has been sheep shed, addition of a deep well initiated in 1983 and has become a demonstrated successfully in Sadat with diesel pump, and introduction of major activity. This programme City using alter natipg current (AC) side-roll sprinkler, drip and biwall irri- will utilize renewable energy and and direct current (DC) as well as sub- gation systems at the S. Tahir site. Facilities under construction at the Sadat City site include a soil testing laboratory, a plant tissue culture laboratory and a desert library.

Applied research in desert deve lop- ment systems: The following "Alternative Integrated Approaches" encompassing biological, technological and comm unity aspects of desert development have been adopted:

- A "Desert Farming Systems" approach for improving productivity of sandy soils, now in its second phase (1983-1985). A major addition in this applied research is the use of zero or minimum tillage in the second phase as an a'ternative to ploughing under green manure in the first phase. Both phases, however, include sheep (fattening and animal manure utilization), fr; crop rotations under desert environment, and windbreaks and One of the irrigation techniques being used by the DDD T of the American University in Cairo to reclaim multipurpose trees as part of the the desert. Desert Farming System.

43 Desertificat ion Control BulIe!in tnersible and deep well pumps. The AUC building at Sadat City proved to be a very successful demonstration in the use of old technologies (Coptic and islamic styles of domes, vaults and courtyards using adobe bricks) in conjunction with modern technologies (solar protovoltaic and solar thermal). This unique combination is frequently visited by groups organized by ministries of new communities and electricity as well asa number of international agencies.

Preliminary studies are currently being made to design demonstration housing units for single and multiple o - families as well as a dairy and meat pilot project (using solar, wind and biogas hybrids) for the possible repli- cation by farmers and agrobusiness in remote desert areas. Sokjr'nergyforpwnping ca(etis b'ing :ecd a i .Sadut C'iv an important and integral part of a members of the "Desert Community The possibility of propagation of corn, newly approved project. A number Unit" will analyze past and present ex- sorghum and alfalfa for seed produc- of meetings are being held to con- periences from the social, economic tion is currently being investigated. It sider different courses in the areas and architectural points of view and is anticipated that, when successful, of Desert Technology and use the results of the analysis to estab- business companies may adopt the ap- Development, Renewable Energy lish socioeconomic research frame- propriate techniques and replicate Technology and Socioeconomic works for current as well as planned bi- them on a large scale using neigh- Aspects of desert development ological and technological projects bouring farms for production and which can be offered to students within the programme. possibly renting some of the AUC from different ministries and facilities and know-how for seed companies with activities in these The design and construction of ap- preparation and treatment operations. areas. The experience from these propriate desert housing is another im- training courses should make it portant objective. Such an effort re- - Documentation and technical possible for the University to initi- quires a multidisciplinary team ap- communication: The "Desert L ate a degree programme in the area proach to design and construction in- brary" at Sadat City is now being of Desert Technology and volving engineers, architects, developed. This library is collect- Development. sociologists, planners and potential ing the latest audio-visual equip- inhabitants. Here, the themes of at- ment and international references Desert corn munities tractiveness and "self-sufficiency" in the areas of "Desert Technology dominate; climatic conditions, and Development," "Renewable A major, long range goal of the Desert culture, and local traditions are also Energy," and "Community As- Development Programme is to devel- important inputs. An attempt must be pects" of desert lands. op and demonstrate economically made to draw as much as possible viable systems that can be used by upon traditional Islamic and Coptic In addition to the interactions with dif- government and private enterprise in styles and adapt them to such modern ferent Egyptian universities and rele- creating desert communities in Egypt. applications as solar energy, as well as vant ministries, more contacts and These communities must offer to revive and improve upon tech- agreements are taking place with attractive, quality living conditions to niques that will enable the inhabitants American and European universities encourage migration from overcrowd- themselves to do their own building such as the University of Arizona. the ed cities and villages to desert areas. construction. University of North Carolina. the Uni- The DDDT "Desert Community versity of London (Wye College), etc. unil" will seek to identify desert com- The true measure of success of the munity development strategies that A U C integrated approach to desert de- - Training On-site training of stu- are compatible with local resources, velopment is to reach the optimum dents from the AUC (Science and are socially acceptable, protect the combination of technical, agricultural Engineering) and Alexandria Uni- natural environment and enhance and socioeconomic practices which versity (Agriculture) has taken human life. It will disseminate its find- would attract Egyptians who are cur- place during the summer and in ings through demonstration sites, rently living in overpopulated areas to some cases continued during the consulting, training and actual on- participate in the formation of new whole academic year. farm experience where the farmers desert communities where they would Furthermore, training is consid- will take a major role. enjoy a substantially better quality of ered to be initiated in 1984-1985 as With this long range goal in mind, life.

44 News of interest

INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP laboratory studies, remote sensing As a rule, all expenses of participants ON SA ND TR AN SPORT AND techniques and mathematical models, are borne by the home institutions. DESERTIFICATION IN ARID the rate of sand movement around However, a limited number of finan- LANDS Khartoum—Sudan 18-29 human settlements, water resources cial grants are available for people November 1985 and productive areas. The Workshop from developing countries. Preference will also investigate critically and con- will be given, however, to those con- The International Centre for Theoreti- structively the effectiveness of exist- tributing to the poster sessions and cal Physics (Trieste, italy) and the ing approaches to sand fixation and who obtain at least partial travel sup- School of Mathematical Sciences will endeavour to explore new and port from local sources. (University of Khartoum, Sudan) will realistic methods to curb sand organize an International Research encroachment. Participants can obtain further infor- Workshop on "Sand Transport and mation from: Desertification in Arid Lands", to be Participation held in Khartoum, Sudan during the International Centre for Theoretical period 18-29 November 1985. It will The Workshop is open to research Physicslnternational Workshop on be directed by F. El-Baz workers from all countries of the Sand Transport and Desertification (International Development ITEK world that are members of the United P.O. Box 58I-34100Trieste, Italy. Optical Systems, Lexington, Nations, IAEA or UNESCO. Partici- Massachusetts, USA) and M.H.A. pants should preferably have coniplet- (Telephones: 224281-6; Cable: Hassan (School of Mathematical ed several years of research after a CENTRATOM; Telex: 460392 Sciences, Univerity of K hartoum, first degree and must have a working ICTP I) Sudan). The Workshop is co- knowledge of the English language. sponsored by the Canadian Interna- tional Development Agency (CIDA), UNESCO, The United Nations Uni- versity (UNU), the OPEC Fund for International Development and the National Council for Research of Sudan. The Desertification Control Programme Activity Centre (formerly Desertification Branch) of UNEP is providing five travel grants to participants from developing countries.

- Purpose and nature

-- .- - In many countries throughout the - —'.- world, and especially in the African - — - Sahelian countries, the physical process involving the transportation and deposition of sand by wind is a serious hazard to human settlements, agricultural lands, communications and water resources. In North and Central I • -- Africa, for example, several villages, oases, roads and railway lines are invaded by mobile sand. Near the banks of the Nile in Egypt and North- ern Sudan, vast quantities of wind- blown sand are deposited annually into farniing areas and also into the river.

The Workshop will deal with several ;T1r.d case studies of "Sand transportation and deposition by wind", selected Ir from certain regions in Sudan and in other countries where drifting sand is seriously affecting fertile soil. Based on these case studies, the general pur- S - pose of the Workshop will beto identi- -

fy common factors contributing to the Wind blown sand from the Nub,an Leceri is adrancing across valuahle iigri iir. ;Jelcur A rn. flow of sand and to determine, northern Sudan. (UNESCO/H ufl Lamprei) through the applications of field and

45 Desertjflatjpn Comm! Bulletin

mental period of three years, the pro- Industrial groups which participated Fertilizing the desert: a ject has been extended until 1987. in the project, by developing their revolutionary technique own soil conditioning formulas, are from Belgium In addition to this successful experi- Labofina (the Petrofina research ment in Egypt, the same positive re- group), S.B.A. (Carbochimique and sults were recorded in China, where Recticef(P.R.B.). To fertilize a desert, the very first only Labofina products were used. thing of course is to have enough The same products proved equally Another application water available. But irrigation alone, successful in Malaysia and in without any other method of Indonesia. The process developed in the Soil fertilization, will never produce the Physics laboratory in Gbent has been desired results. For any water that is The fundamental research aspect of used for another purpose too, i.e. added to desert soil will either seep the projeci was sponsored by the Na- fixing and fertilizing coal down immediately, well below the tional Fund for Scientific Research residue—whole mountains of roots of plants, and will not give the (FNRS-NFWO) and the applied re- dust—left over from the combustion the humidity they need, or else will search aspect by the Institute for the of coal in electric stations. evaporate on the surface as a result of Promotion of Research for industry heat and often violent winds. This dust has the same characteristics and Agriculture (IRSIA-IWONL). as desert sand: grains of sand or grains

- A technique had to be found therefore .1 to prevent water seeping down or evaporating. I A new technology 4r At the Faculty of Agronomics of

G hent University, new technology 1. • I . -...- has been developed based on the use op of elements which condition the soil. They are polymers which, if applied on the surface in very small quantities (+or-0.2 %), give the soil the requi- site properties. The effect is obtained by a system of pulverization which protects the water in the soil. This pul- Vk verization increases the water- retention capacity of sandy soil and - . substantially diminishes the rate of ., evaporation on the surface. As a result ' J4 elt - .. • lit far less water is needed and plants are able to develop. Aggregation of sand The dry. sand .wii hi! Thre reazmi'nr particles, through their fine, porous structures, results in improved water-retention.

To achieve a substantial reduction in water evaporation, various formulas may be used, depending on requirements. Their corn position depends on the hydrophile or hydrophobic properties of the soil.

There is scope also for formulas which are partly hydrophile and soil- oriented, and partly hydrophobic and air-oriented.

Testing of the new technology has been going on since 1981, within the framework of an EEC project involving the Department of Soil Physics of Ghent University, directed by Profes- sor Dc Boodt, as well as the Academy of Sciences of Egypt. The tests proved successful and, after an initial experi- T/iesoIand wgearion after treatment.

46 News of interest of coal-dust do not hold the roots of Israel's Ben-Gurion The institute was established in 1976 plants and are easily shifted by wind. to cultivate the Negev and to apply Vast amounts of coal-dust, of which University assists world scientific techniques to halting the only part could be recycled to be made hunger problems with worldwide spread of desert, one-third into cement, were causing a serious of the Earth's land surface. The Blaus- environmental problem. An interest- new Blaustein tein Institute's successes to date in- ing solution is to apply the same plant- International Center for clude growing crops in special desert ing technique that have been devel- greenhouses which protect the plants oped for desert soil. Desert Studies *

The polymers, which are large 00 synthetic molecules, "stick" the dust particles together just as they do grains of sand, while allowing water 16 and light to penetrate the soil, in 4 which vegetable life can then develop.

Today already, in the industrial area of '-. Ghent, large amounts of coal •'r • residue-25 % of the tonnage used—are covered with greenery, especially poplars, which are growing normally. 4- !

That surely is confirmation of the fact 44 that the amazing process discovered by Professor De Boodt is bound to prove valuable in many different fields.

n eijIoase .jgr ilsure at Israel iraa L i ers iv of the Neii•

Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, from both the desert's harsh heat and Israel's only university in the desert, cold; using the desert sun and brackish will be sharing its expertise in arid water to grow protein-rich algae for lands thanks to a major grant from the food in drought-stricken regions; and Jacob and Hilda Blaustein Foundation reviving ancient methods of desert ag- in Baltimore, Maryland. The grant es- riculture using runoff water from tablishes the Blaustein International winter flash floods. Center for Desert Studies at Ben- Gurion University's Jacob Blaustein International programmes already in Institute for Desert Research at Sde place include instructing Arizona's Boker in the heart of the Negev desert. Navajo lndians in the techniques of runoff water agriculture. According to BGU President Shiomo Gazit, "The International Centre will Of special interest in a fuel-conscious be devoted to helping the Jacob Blaus- world is the Blaustein Institute's tein lnstitute for Desert Research, al- adobe house. Using innovative meth- ready in existence, cultivate interna- ods of passive and solar heating, the tional scientific programmes in desert house is cool in summer, warm in development. The Centre will concen- winter, with an annual fuel bill of $20. trate on outreach through exchange programmes, international conferences and seminars atSde Boker."

Work will begin shortly on the Blaus- tein International Centre's classrooms, dorms, workshops and offices. Construction will apply the principles of desert architecture dever- oped at the Blaustein Institute.

47 Desertification Control Bulletin

EEB Resolution on Soil Considering that the deterioration of concerns into other Community poli- the soil can be characterized as cies such as agriculture, industry and Protection Policy in the follows: transport. European Community - Pollution of soil by toxic sub- Considering that there exist several Because of relatively high rainfall over stances from energy production, EC directives, aimed at amongst other most of Europe, this region is not industrial activities, agriculture, things soil protection, which are inade- noted for significant areas affected by waste disposal and other human quately implemented by some of the desertification. Desertification, activities; Member-States; nevertheless, is becoming a serious problem in many parts of Europe - Destruction of soil as a living Considering furthermore that the Eu- through other causes: pollution of system and soil structure by ropean Commission—as Guardian of soils, destructive land uses and soil agriculture, mining, use of land for the Treaty—is not sufficiently active erosion. All of these lower the biologi- housing and transport and other in controlling their implementation; cal productivity of soils, which is, in human activities; part, how the United Nations Confer- Considering finally that some human ence on Desertification defined - Erosion of soil from the rapid activities and some policies of the desertification. The ultimate end pro- change in farming systems, disap- Member-States and the European duct of these processes, particular to pearance of good forestry practices Community degrade the quality of soil industrialized countries, if allowed to and inadequate management of in many developing countries and continue, would be barren lands every abandoned land causing insuffi- thus the agriculture and the very sur- bit as devoid of life as the central cient vegetation cover. vival of large parts of the population in Sahara Desert. Recognizing this these countries. threat, the European Environmental Further considering that conse- Bureau organized a meeting on soil quences of this deterioration are: Recalling several existing internation- protection policy in the European al efforts calling for urgent and Communities, held 12-14 November - Serious loss of soil for food produc- energetic action to safeguard the 1984 in Brussels. The following is the tion and forestry; world's soils, most essential resources main body of the resolution which for the survival of mankind: the Euro- emerged from that meeting: - Severe Landslides in mountainous pean Soil Charter (1972), the United areas; Nations Conference on Desertifica Lion CONCERNED ABOUT THE IN- (1977) and its subsequent Plan of CREASING DETERiORATION OF - Loss of groundwater for drinking Action, the World Conservation THE SOIL IN ALL MEMBER- water supply; Strategy (1980), the UN World Char- STATES OF THE COMMUNITY ter for Nature (1980). the World Soils AND ELSEWHERE - Increased accumulation of harmful Charter (1982), the World Soils substances in the food chains; Policy (1982) and the proposed Plan Considering that soil is a highly com- of Action (1984) for its implementa- plex and sensitive part of the environ- - lncreasing loss of plant and animal tion at national, regional and interna- ment composed of mineral and organ- species on which the ecu-systems tional level. ic elements, water, air and organisms depend. and showing great diversity in compo- Calls upon the governments of the sition geographically; Believing that deterioration of the soil Members-States and the European is amongst other things due to lack of Community. Aware that biological, physical and detailed knowledge of the complex chemical processes in the soil in- soil properties and functions with as a to develop and adopt a compre- fluence vegetation and the water cycle consequence the lack of recognition of hensive and integral soil protec- and thus are at the basis of the main the importance of the soil especially in tion policy, aimed at the preven- food resources for man and animals. the long term; tion of further deterioration of Further aware that these natural the soil and at recovery of deteri- functions, and other functions of the Considering that most of the Member- orated soil, as far as possible, soil as genetic resource, carrier of States and the European Commission human activities, source of raw mate- have not yet developed a comprehen- to develop adequate instruments rials and water are of vital importance sive and integrated soil protection to implement this policy; for the social and economic well being policy; considering further that those of today's and tomorrow's society, Member-States who do have some In doing so the following premises legal instruments to protect the soil must be taken as the guiding Considering however that past and ex- have made only limited use of these principles: isting use of soil functions and other instruments, so far; human activities poses a serious - The soil must retain its ability to threat to the quality of the soil and in Considering the 3rd action programme perform a wide variety of functions the long run is counterproductive and on the environment of the European adequately; threatens its ability to perform its Communities which explicitly stipu- functions adequately; lates an integration of environmental The effects of human activities

M. News of interest

which influence soil quality must Miss W. Campbell-Purdie At a time when drought and famine in be investigated and taken into con- the Horn ofAirica has givenadreadful sideration before decisions on Miss Wendy Campbell-Purdie, who urgency to the need for long-terni, those activities are made; died in Athens on January 20 at the stable food-growing programmes in age of 59, had been working on reaffo- the area, the pioneering projects of - Clean air and water policies must restation projects in North Africa and Miss Campbell-Purdie and those like not lead to pollution of the soil; round the Mediterranean for the last her have an added value and 25 years. relevance - Soil quality standards have to be developed primarily from an Born in New Zealand of pioneer stock, The Times, 2 February 185. ecological point of view, bearing in Miss Campbell-Purdie found her vo- mind the need for sustainable cation in her late twenties, literally productivity; breaking new ground in tree-planting schemes aimed at halting and then Summarized in the annex to this reso- pushing back the advance of desert lution are specific demands for soil land in North Africa, setting up what protection policies from the Member- she hoped would become a "Green States and the European Community. Front". She wanted to create a belt of trees round the Sahara, within the shelter of which food crops could he grown, and the overall effect of which could perhaps be to create a micro- climate which would stimulate local rainfall and "make the desert bloom".

At first she worked virtually alone, devoting her own small income to ex- perimental plantations in the pre- Sahara, first in Morocco, then in Algeria. As the success of these schemes became apparent, govern ments, international agencies, and charities such as War on Want showed an interest in backing further work, and thus the Bou Saada project was born.

Just outside Bou Saada, a small town in Algeria wedged between the Atlas foothills and the Sahara desert, Miss Campbell-Purdie and a fluctuating team of local workers—a subsidiary aim of her scheme was to provide sorely needed employment in the area—planted nearly a hundred thou- sand trees.

Two years ago, after several years spent in attending conferences, lecturing, showing films of her schemes, and setting up charities to further the work, Miss Campbell- Purdie settled in Greece. She was in discussion with the Greek government about tree-planting schemes in the Peloponnese when she became fatally ill.

49 News from UNEP

Desertification Control tional symposium it should be ap- In March 1985 the manager of the Arid plied in a number of selected coun- Lands Information Centre of the Office Programme Activity tries alTected by desertilication. of Arid Lands Studies, University of Arizona, visited UNEP for two weeks Centre (DESPAC) The methodology should be applied to advise DESPAC on steps that need to within the context of the establish- be taken to establish an efficient infor- In response to decision 12/10 of ment of national Geographic Infor- mation system. UNEP's 12th Governing Council on mation System (G1S) in the coun- desertification, May 1984, the Desertili- tries which participate in the DESPAC's documents library currently cation Branch has been re-organized programme. The national G1S will contains approximately 4000 items, part into a Programme Activity Centre. The contain a great range of environmen- of which are reference materialsand the new organization will confer more au- (al and socio-economic data in the rest are available for distribution on tonomy on the desertiflcation unit and country geo-referenced by grid or po- request. DESPAC hopes to obtain more allow it more flexibility and responsive- lygon structures, This data will be items of interest relating to desertifica- ness in its actions to mobilize the stored in the Global Resources In- tion and on a continuous basis update combat against desertiflcation. ventory Database (GRID) of an annotated bibliographic database UNEP's Global Environment which it plans to create this year. In Monitoring System (GEMS) and addition, databases relating to directo- Desert if icat ion will be available for use in training of ries of institutions and organizations, Assessment Mapping and analysis by nationals of the par- sources of expertise and funding, corn- ticipating countries. peridia of acuvities by the UN system, and Database NGOs and countries, and compilations DESPAC will make use of the na- of various antidesertification methods Two experts' meetings were held, one tional G1S databases and data gath- and technologies will be created and 3-6 December 1984 at FAQ headquar- ered by the ecological monitoring stored for easy retrieval in a computer- ters in Rome and the other 11-14 March methodology' to create national ized databank. This information will be 1985 at UNEP headquarters in Nairobi, desertification databases, initially disseminated in the form of published to review the status of the development stored with UNEP. These databases directories, listings, printed bibliograp- of the FAO/UNEP methodology for the will be available for use by Govern- hies and through the DeserrifIcaiionCon- assessment and mapping of ments and other concerned bodies in try! Bulletin. S o m e materials will also be desertification. In addition, the topic of formulating policy and national plans available on request. the establishment of a desertification of action for combaling database within UNEP was discussed. desertitication. When national capa- DESPAC plans to become a centre for bilities allow, the data can be trans- information which can be used by The two meetings resulted in the follow ferred to databases within the respec- Governments, international ing recommendations for action: tive countries. organizations, NGOs. UN agencies. and individuals in the combat against The methodology contained in the A World Atlas of Thematic Maps on deserlilica lion. FAO/1JNEP publication Provisional Desertification Control Prgramrne Methodology/or Assessment and Map- Activity Centre (DESPAC) and Annotated Directory of ping of Desertiflcaion (1984) should GEMS of LiNE? hope to develop na- Institutions and be tested and evaluated in detail in tiona I capabilities in building up na tu- one country pilot case study. The ral resource and desertification Organizations Concerned methodology should be refined in databases within the context of the the light of practical field and data Geographic Information System with Desertification analysis experience. methodology. These databases will be used by national planners and The Plan of Action to Combat Desertifi- An international symposium should decision-makers in formulating the cation recommended that an annotated be held following the conclusion of policy and plans for rational and sus- directory be compiled of institutions the national pilot case study to tainable development. Sustainable and organizations concerned with deser- review and evaluate the results of development can only be achieved if tiflc'ation activities. DESPAC is current- the refinement of the methodology. land degradation is prevented. ly compiling such an annotated UN system, Government repre- directory. Previously published directo- sentatives and representatives of Desertification ries have been collected and studied other organizations and institutions Information System involved in land resources monitoring and assessment will be invited to Eculogicat monitoring methodology makes attend. The Desertificalion Control PAC is use of satellite remote sensing imagery, sys- dedicated to improving its information. tematic aerial survey and ground truth After the methodology has been documentation and data collecting, or- checks to collect environmental data. refined and evaluated at the interna- ganizing and dissemination capabilities.

50 News from UNEP

and some 900 questionnaires have been r sent out in English, French and Spanish around the world to identified institu- P lions requesting further information concerning their organization and activities. DESPAC hopes to have a provisional version of the directory ready for distribution by early next year. This document will then be disseminated to the respondants of the questionnaire and to other relevant bodies and individuals for review and comment in the hope of soliciting additional information. The directory will then be revised and prepared for final publication and dissemination. The directory will be stored in a computer database (see item on the Desertification Infor- mation Service for updating and retrieval). Seeds of Despair

On 4 March 1985 Central tndependent Television (CITY) presented a cheque for £25,000 to the Disasters Emergency Committee Fund to help the victims of famine in Ethiopia. This money was raised by the film "Seeds of Despair", which first alterted the world to the famine in Ethiopia when it was transmit- ted on the liv network in Great Britain ,1 on 17 July of last year. The Disasters Emergency Committee took the oppor- tunity ofthe film's showing to announce the opening of their Ethiopia Famine 4 ; Fund, which hassince then raised several million pounds for assistance in Ethiopia.

CITV offered "Seeds of Despair" to countries overseas as soon as it was available and it has been sold to seven- teen Countries, including the U.S.K, Ak4Q4 France, Swizterland and New Zealand. 1",~ It has been given to other developing ccuntries free of charge—including Et- hiopia itself—so that people can see what is happening. The profits of the film were earmarked for the Ethiopia Famne Fund. A wriin of ci roughtond deserNficalion in riorthc'rn bt/oopia. (UN/John Iiaac)

CITY film-maker Charles Stewart, who people suffering from malnutrition. To capable of supporting its population. made the film, was in Ethiopia in July make the story "news", journalists lied Overpopulation and bad land-use prac- 1984 because he was working on anoth- the problem into the chronic anti- tices have gone on for so long in the re- er film for UNEP on desertification. He governement war going on in the gions affected that much of the former has been working on this film since Wollo, iigre and Asmara regions. Sto- rich soil has been washed or blown mid-1983. A question that can be asked ries said that there was a drought going away, tsposing jagged rocks or unfertile is. "Why did television ignore the disas- on, yes, but that Starvation was caused sub-soils to the surface. Seeds planted ter for so long?' Once the Cliv film by the rebels preventing government in this type of ground are not likely to was seen, BEC sent a team immediately relief operations. The entire situation produce bumper crops, with or without which was soon followed by an influx of was turned into an East-West conflici, rain. other television crews, journalists and which seems to be more news-worthy various fact-finding missions. than human suffering and land The long term answer to the pToblem degradation lies not with famine relief, but with ef- Part of the answer is that up until that lective desertilication control measures. time the main news from the famine af- The real story in Ethiopia, however, is fected areas carried a strongly political desertification. With or without the slant. A creeping drought and lmine drought, many parts of Ethiopia are in are not headline news, nor isthe sight of trouble because the land is no longer

51 Desertification Control Bulletin

First Ad Hoc Meeting of areas oltraining, identifiedgaps in train- to evaluate the status and rate of deser- ing on desertification and agreed on ap- tification while the estimates of risk and the IAWGD propriate measures to be taken by mem- hazard were obtained using the bers of the groups to fulfill objectives parametric methods recommended in for desertitication control training. A In conformance with a recommendation the Methodology. work programme was also agreed to made as a result of last year's Governing concerning the establishment of region- Council, the inter-Agency Working From the quantified class scales of the al networks of sand dune stabilization in Group on Desertificaiion will hold ad desertification indicators (aspects of hoc meetings on specific topics as and Africa and for research and training in vegetation cover, wind erosion, water Asia. when the need arises. The regularly erosion, salinization, soil crusting and scheduled meetings will be reduced compaction and reduction in soil organ- from two tooneayear. The meeting did not have sufficient in- ic rnauer) the status of desertiticaijon formation to be able to propose a clear for the study area was mapped for 1972 programme of work for the establish- and 1979. Comparing the changes over The first ad hoc meeting was held 11-15 ment of an afforestation network in seven years a rate of desertiuication was March 1985 in Paris at UNESCO head- Latin America. More information and calculated for each of the defined mor- quarters and was attended by represen- discussions will result from the Expert phodynamic units. Desertification lives of ECA, FAO, UNSO. WMO and Consultations on the Role of Forestry hazard is arrived at by adding human UNESCO and was chaired by UNEP. in Combating Desertification to be held and livestock population pressures to The purpose of the meeting was to dis- in Mexico in June 1985. the combined effects of all of the aspects cuss training programmes in desertilica- of desertificat ion which determine tion control and the estabhshmentofre- Testing the FAO/UNEP stat us. gional networks of sand dune Provisional Methodology stabilization, afforestaion and research The dissertation presents maps of the and training as called for in UNEP In a doctoral dissertation ITom the uni- status of desertiflcaiion (1979), rate of Governing Council decision 12110 of deserlification (1972-1979) and hazard May 1984. versity of Ghent entitled Study of Desertiflcation Based upon LANIDSAT of desertificacion (1979) for each of the Imagery (North Kordofan-Sudan)". morphodynamic units in the study area, Each agency prepared and presented a Dr. Muslafa El Hag applied the with indicators of which desertification background paper concerning their on- FAO/UNEP Provisional Methodology processes (and degrees of severity) are going training programmes related to for Assessment and Mapping of most responsible for change. desertification control and current ac- Desertiuication. tivities related to sand dune lixation and Dr. El Hag's work is a pioneering effort research and training regional •The data used in applying the M ethodol- in desertiflcation assessment and map- networks. Based on these contributions ogy were obtained from reports of previ- ping and it will be of great use to FAO the meeting examined the training ous fieldwork and from LANDSAT and UNEP in evaluating and testing the programmes, defined some of the key satellite imagery. These data were used validity of the provisional methodology.

52 Press Visit to the BPSAAP

As part ot the information dissernina- The project components involved soil The project developed slowly and it had uon funciion of DESPAC, a staff and water conservation, crop develop- its problems, said Dr. Lewis, but be- member accompanied New York Times ment using water harvesting cause it functioned through Govern- journalist Sheila Rule to visil ihe World techniques, livestock and range ment ministries and was integrated with Bank/Government of Kenya funded development, tree nurseries, water district development plans, and because Baringo Pilot Semi-Arid Area Project development, land adjudication, the local people are involved in it, the (BPSAAP) in the dry Baringo District resource surveys, education and the on- chances of it continuing on its own in of Kenya. The purpose of the trip was to struction of access tracks. Working the future are much greater than if the explain and present concrete examples through a steering committee made up project was directed and funded from of desertilication, and at the same time of local community leaders, chaired by the outside- A second phase of the pro- demonstrate activities that can be un- the District Commissioner, the project ject is envisaged. dertaken to prevent and control worked closely with the local population desertification. These observations in the planning and implementation of would then form the basis for an article the various activities. to be published in the New York Times.

Dr. Jeffrey Lewis, World Bank project officer, and Kenyan staff explained the various land degradation problems and activities being carried out to ameliorate the Situation in on-site visits. The project started in 1980 and the lirst phase was completed at the time of the visit in early 1985.

The BPSAAP project area covers 4600 - 4l' km 2 in the Rift Valley Province, centred on Lake Baringo. Soil erosion has been a major problem in this area for many 1. years, and the 200 tons of sill washed into the lake every year keeps the lake perpetually brown in colour. Overgraz- ing by sheep, goats and cattle is the major cause of the erosion, and huge, ugly rills and gullys are common on hill slopes and around the permanent settlements. If soil erosion and defores- - ''•'• tation continue at current rates the area will be largely a desert by the end of the century. There is still considerable tree 4 and bush cover and, with proper land- Sheilo Rule of T/, New I ork ion on' I)i. fe//ni /i'wn of tire i-i-or/il J.amt in the flrtn.o use management, the area has the Valley. {VNEP/Daniel Stiles) potential for the sustained food production needs of the population. Without good land-use the hills will end up looking like those in Tigre and Wollo pro- vinces ofEthiopia— barren.

The main objective of the project was "to establish the field tested basis for the rehabilitation and development of the semi-arid areas of Baringo". It was intended that this should involve the "evolution and development of effective and replicable systems for pioject planning and implementation in arid and semi-arid areas". Several different kinds of activities, each working with the relevant Kenyan ministry, were devised in an integrated approach to rural development. - --

53 Photographs for Audience black-and-white in the bulletin cannot Desertfjcat,on ControlBul let/n be guaranteed. Covers The bulletin addresses a large audience which includes decision makers, All line drawings and photographs The Editor of Desert(fication Control planners, administrators, specialists should be numbered in one sequence Bulletin is seeking photographs for and technicians of countries facing to correspond to their point of refer- consideration as bulletin covers. All desertification problems, as well as all ence in the text, and their descriptions submissions should be addressed to: others interested in arresting the should be listed on a separate page. spread of desertification. The Editor Footnotes and references Desertification Control Bulletin Language UNEP P.O. Box 30552 Footnotes and references should be Nairobi, Kenya The bulletin is published in English. listed on separate pages at the end of All manuscripts for publication must the manuscript. Footnotes should be Technical requirements be in English. kept to an absolute minimum. Refer- ences should be strictly relevant to Photographs must be colour transpa- Manuscript preparation the article and should also be kept to a rencies of subjects related directly to minimum. The style of references desertification, land, animals, human Manuscripts should be clearly type- should follow the format common for beings, structures affected by written with double spacing and wide scientific and technical publications: desertification, control of deserti- margins, on one side of the page only. the last name(s) of the author(s) fication, reclamation of desertified The title of the manuscript, with the (each) followed by his initials, year of lands, etc. Submissions must be of author's name and address, should be publication, title, publisher (or high quality to be enlarged to accom- given in the upper half of the first journal), serial number and number modate a square. page, and the number of words in the of pages. main text should appear in the upper- Captions right corner. Subsequent pages Other requirements should have only the author's name A brief caption must accompany each in the upper-right corner. Desertification Control Bulletin pub- photograph giving a description of the lishes original articles which have not subject, place and country, date of Metric system appeared in other publications. photograph and name and address of However, reprints providing the photographer. Al] measurements should be in the possibility of exchange of views and metric system. developments of basic importance in Copyright desertification control among the de- Tables veloping regions of the world or trans- It is assumed that all submissions are lations from languages of limited audi- the original of the photographer and Each table should be typed on a separ- ences are not ruled out. Short reviews all the rights are owned by the ate page, should have a title and introducing recently published books photographer. Desertification Control should be numbered to correspond to in the subjects relevant to deserti- Bulletin gives full credit to photogra- its point in the text. Only essential fication and of interest to the readers phers for the covers selected, but tables should be included and all of the bulletin are also accepted. does not provide remuneration. should be identified as to source. Medium-length articles of about 3,000 words are preferred, while arti- Desert ijication Control Bulletin invites Illustrations cles longer than 4,500 words are not articles from the world's scientists accepted. and specialists interested in the prob- Line drawings of any kind should lems arising from or associated with each be on a separate page, drawn in A reasonable fee is paid for articles the spread of desertification. black china ink and double or larger accepted for publication, and 25 re- than the size to appear in the bulletin. prints are provided to the authors. Desertfication Control Bulletin is an in- They should never be pasted in the ternational bulletin published at six- text. They should be as clear and as monthly intervals by the United Na- simple as possible. tions Environment Programme (UNEP) to disseminate information Photographs in the bulletin are printed and knowledge on desertification black-and-white. For satisfactory problems and to present news on the results, high quality black-and-white programmes, activities and achieve- prints 18 x 24 cm (8 x 10 in) on glossy ments in the implementation of the paper are essential. Dia-positive slides Plan of Action to Combat of high quality may be accepted; Desertification. however, their quality when printed

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