Natural Science in Archaeology

Gold and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubia

Geoarchaeology of Ancient Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Sudanese Eastern

Bearbeitet von Dietrich Klemm, Rosemarie Klemm

1. Auflage 2013. Buch. xx, 649 . Hardcover ISBN 978 3 642 22507 9 Format (B x L): 17,8 x 25,4 cm

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1 Archaeological Chronology of Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt and Nubian ...... 1 1.1 “Earliest Hunters” Period ...... 3 1.2 Early Dynastic Period (“Two-Hand-Hammer” Period) . . . 4 1.3 Old and Middle Kingdoms ...... 6 1.4 New Kingdom (Eighteenth to Twentieth Dynasty) ...... 8 1.5 Ptolemaic Period (~300–30 BC)...... 12 1.6 Kingdoms of Kush and Meroë in Nubia (~700 BC – ~100 AD) ...... 15 1.7 Roman-Byzantine and Early Arab Periods ...... 15 2 Value of Gold in Ancient Egypt ...... 21 3 On the Regional Geology and Genesis of Gold Deposits in Egypt and Nubian Sudan ...... 29 3.1 Stratigraphy of the Eastern Deserts of Egypt and Northern Sudan ...... 32 3.2 Infrastructure ...... 32 3.3 Suprastructure ...... 34 3.4 Late to Post-Tectonic Intrusions ...... 36 3.5 Tectonic Control of Quartz-Gold Mineralisation ...... 37 3.6 Genesis of Gold Mineralisations in Egypt’s Eastern ...... 38 4 Analyses of Gold and Observations on Ancient Egyptian Gold Metallurgy ...... 41 5 Gold Production Sites and Gold Mining in Ancient Egypt ...... 51 5.1 Most Northern Group ...... 51 5.1.1 Wadi Dara (Old Kingdom Settlements and Mines) ...... 51 5.1.2 Wadi Dara (Early Arab Period) ...... 56 5.1.3 Umm Balad ...... 56 5.1.4 Wadi el-Urf (South of Gebel Mongul) ...... 64 5.2 Northern Central Group ...... 68 5.2.1 Ghozza ...... 68 5.2.2 Fatira (Abu Zawal) ...... 70 5.2.3 Abu Shehat ...... 78

xiii xiv Contents

5.2.4 Wadi Abiyad ...... 79 5.2.5 Abu Mureiwat ...... 79 5.2.6 Wadi Gasus ...... 84 5.2.7 Gold Processing Site at Bir Semna ...... 86 5.2.8 Semna ...... 89 5.2.9 Wadi Margh-West ...... 92 5.2.10 Wadi Margh-East ...... 94 5.2.11 Wadi Bahlog ...... 96 5.2.12 Kab Amiri ...... 100 5.2.13 Gidami ...... 101 5.2.14 Abu Gaharish ...... 107 5.2.15 Abu Gerida ...... 109 5.2.16 Hamama I ...... 110 5.2.17 Hamama II ...... 113 5.2.18 Processing Site Hamama-W ...... 114 5.2.19 Aradiya-East ...... 115 5.2.20 Wadi Sagia ...... 118 5.2.21 Abu Had ...... 119 5.2.22 El-Rebschi ...... 119 5.2.23 Wadi Atalla el-Mur ...... 120 5.2.24 Atalla ...... 120 5.2.25 Umm el-Zarqa I ...... 128 5.2.26 Umm Esh el-Zarqa II ...... 131 5.2.27 Wadi Sodmein ...... 132 5.2.28 Hammamat ...... 132 5.2.29 Umm Had-South ...... 132 5.2.30 Umm el-Fawakhir and El-Sid ...... 132 5.2.31 Bir Umm el-Fawakhir ...... 140 5.2.32 The Pharaonic Mining District in Wadi el-Sid . . . . . 141 5.3 Middle Central Group ...... 147 5.3.1 Umm Soleimat (also known as Hamuda) ...... 147 5.3.2 Wadi Karim ...... 148 5.3.3 Kab el-Abiad ...... 151 5.3.4 Terfawi ...... 151 5.3.5 Wadi Zeidun I ...... 151 5.3.6 Wadi Zeidun II ...... 152 5.3.7 Sharm el-Bahari ...... 152 5.3.8 El-Nur ...... 152 5.3.9 Umm Rus ...... 153 5.3.10 Wadi Raheiya ...... 158 5.3.11 Sigdit and Wadi Miyah ...... 159 5.3.12 Daghbag ...... 161 5.3.13 Talet (also: Tila) Gadalla ...... 168 5.3.14 Abu Muawad ...... 172 5.3.15 El-Hisinat ...... 174 5.3.16 Abu Dabab ...... 178 Contents xv

5.3.17 Umm Samra ...... 178 5.3.18 Bokari ...... 179 5.3.19 Abu Qareiya ...... 190 5.4 Southern Central Group ...... 190 5.4.1 Umm Salatit ...... 190 5.4.2 Beza ...... 191 5.4.3 Umm Salim ...... 191 5.4.4 Abu Ashayir and Wadi Suwayqat ...... 192 5.4.5 Barramiya ...... 193 5.4.6 Atud ...... 203 5.4.7 Head of Wadi Atud ...... 211 5.4.8 Marsa Allam ...... 211 5.4.9 Wadi Umm Khariga ...... 211 5.4.10 Umm Quli ...... 211 5.4.11 Wadi Faraon ...... 212 5.4.12 Sukkari ...... 212 5.4.13 Umm Tundub ...... 220 5.4.14 Bir Ambaud ...... 220 5.4.15 Ambaud ...... 221 5.4.16 Kurduman ...... 221 5.4.17 Zabahiya ...... 222 5.4.18 Urf el-Fahid ...... 223 5.4.19 Wadi Umm Rashid ...... 224 5.4.20 Marwat (Abu Mureiwa) ...... 224 5.4.21 Umm Hugab ...... 224 5.4.22 Dungash ...... 228 5.4.23 Wadi Dalalil ...... 235 5.4.24 Samut ...... 238 5.4.25 Bir Samut ...... 247 5.4.26 Wadi Mueilha ...... 249 5.4.27 Hangaliya-West ...... 251 5.4.28 Hangaliya ...... 253 5.4.29 Umm Ud ...... 260 5.4.30 Wadi Ghadir ...... 262 5.4.31 Allawi (also Lawi) ...... 263 5.4.32 Dweig and Abu Rahayah ...... 263 5.4.33 Lewewi (also Umm Gamil) ...... 263 5.4.34 Hamash ...... 264 5.4.35 Hamash-North ...... 268 5.4.36 Higalig (also Hagalik) ...... 268 5.5 Southeastern Group ...... 270 5.5.1 Wadi Geili (also Geli) ...... 270 5.5.2 Wadi Dendekan ...... 272 5.5.3 Qualan (also Qulan) ...... 272 5.5.4 Abu Rahaiya ...... 273 5.5.5 Bitan ...... 273 xvi Contents

5.5.6 Umm Eleiga ...... 273 5.5.7 Hutit I and II (also Huzama or Rahaba) ...... 278 5.5.8 Urga Ryan ...... 282 5.5.9 Umm Kaliba (also Tundeba or Tunedba) ...... 284 5.5.10 Anbat ...... 284 5.5.11 Korbiai ...... 287 5.6 Southwestern Group ...... 288 5.6.1 Wadi el-Hudi ...... 288 5.6.2 Wadi el-Hudi, Site 3 ...... 293 5.7 Wadi Allaqi Region ...... 294 5.7.1 Hairiri ...... 295 5.7.2 Ashira-East ...... 300 5.7.3 Umm Ashira ...... 300 5.7.4 Umm Ashira-South ...... 301 5.7.5 Neguib ...... 302 5.7.6 Heimur ...... 302 5.7.7 Valley Block A ...... 308 5.7.8 “Ahmed Village” ...... 309 5.7.9 Umm Garaiyat ...... 312 5.7.10 Atshani ...... 317 5.7.11 Marahig (also Marahib) ...... 318 5.7.12 Marahig-East ...... 321 5.7.13 Wadi Murra ...... 321 5.7.14 Wadi Rylan ...... 322 5.7.15 Filat ...... 322 5.7.16 Seiga I ...... 322 5.7.17 Seiga II ...... 327 5.7.18 Shoshoba ...... 328 5.7.19 Umm Tuyur ...... 331 5.7.20 Betam ...... 333 5.7.21 Abu Fas ...... 335 5.7.22 Ungat ...... 337 5.7.23 Romit ...... 338 5.7.24 Umm Egat ...... 338 6 Gold Production Sites and Gold Mining in Nubia/Sudan . . . . 341 6.1 Group: The Red Sea Hills ...... 341 6.1.1 Shishaiteb or Shishutaib ...... 341 6.1.2 Shishaiteb-South ...... 341 6.1.3 Oyo ...... 345 6.1.4 Mikraff ...... 350 6.1.5 ...... 351 6.1.6 Ohaff ...... 352 6.1.7 Gebeit ...... 353 6.1.8 Gabatilo ...... 361 6.1.9 Nafirdeib (Lakobdog) ...... 362 Contents xvii

6.1.10 Rigag Sageib (Rigag Hindeb or Ragaghundab) ...... 363 6.1.11 Shikryai (also Serakoit) ...... 364 6.1.12 Romi ...... 367 6.1.13 Sheiteb ...... 367 6.1.14 Shanobkwan 1...... 368 6.1.15 Shanobkwan 2...... 368 6.1.16 Selobit 1 ...... 368 6.1.17 Selobit 2 ...... 369 6.1.18 Miradaab ...... 370 6.1.19 Khor Dat and Miteb ...... 370 6.1.20 Abidoidib ...... 370 6.1.21 Romeib ...... 370 6.2 Group: Wadi Amur-Ariab ...... 371 6.2.1 Tibiri ...... 371 6.2.2 Aliakateb ...... 372 6.2.3 Wadi Amur ...... 375 6.2.4 Hadanaib ...... 376 6.2.5 Igariri ...... 376 6.2.6 Hashai ...... 376 6.2.7 Nubt ...... 378 6.2.8 Ariab ...... 382 6.2.9 Mishalliet Gurad ...... 383 6.2.10 Ganait ...... 384 6.2.11 Derbeikwan ...... 386 6.3 Group: East of the Hamisana Suture ...... 387 6.3.1 Kamoli ...... 387 6.3.2 Wadi Rak and Bir Rak ...... 388 6.3.3 Camel 1 ...... 390 6.3.4 Camel 2 ...... 390 6.3.5 Uar (Alaar) ...... 392 6.3.6 Uar, New Kingdom Complex ...... 396 6.3.7 Hufra ...... 399 6.3.8 Onib ...... 400 6.3.9 Tabon-North ...... 412 6.3.10 Tabon-East ...... 412 6.3.11 Tabon-South ...... 415 6.3.12 Early Arab Village to the NE of Egait ...... 415 6.3.13 Egait- North ...... 416 6.3.14 Egait-South ...... 416 6.3.15 Adarmo-East ...... 416 6.3.16 Bir Kiaw ...... 419 6.3.17 Listi ...... 421 6.3.18 Shashuteb ...... 423 6.3.19 Eikwan 1 ...... 424 xviii Contents

6.3.20 Wadi Eikwan ...... 424 6.3.21 Eikwan 2 ...... 424 6.3.22 Eikwan 3 ...... 427 6.3.23 Eikwan 4 ...... 427 6.3.24 Eikwan-South ...... 430 6.3.25 Abu Mereim Salalob ...... 431 6.3.26 Techol ...... 432 6.3.27 Navarai ...... 438 6.4 Group West of the Hamisana Suture ...... 439 6.4.1 Derahib ...... 439 6.4.2 Miri ...... 447 6.4.3 Wadi Ward Miriyam ...... 447 6.4.4 Wadi Nafiryam ...... 455 6.4.5 Khor Nesari 1 ...... 459 6.4.6 Khor Nesari 2 ...... 459 6.4.7 Khor Nesari 3 ...... 459 6.4.8 Khor Nesari 4 ...... 460 6.4.9 Khor Nesari 5 ...... 460 6.4.10 Hamisana-North ...... 463 6.4.11 Hamisana Mine ...... 464 6.4.12 Khazim-City ...... 466 6.4.13 Large Mining Settlement ...... 468 6.4.14 Wadi Gabaideb ...... 468 6.4.15 Caravanserai ...... 472 6.4.16 Mining Settlements W of Khor Adarmo ...... 472 6.4.17 Settlements in the E-W oriented Wadi ...... 472 6.4.18 Settlements S of the E-W oriented Wadi ...... 472 6.4.19 Khor Adarmo Fort ...... 473 6.4.20 Wadi Eleij Area ...... 474 6.4.21 Sukai ...... 478 6.4.22 Abu Dueim ...... 481 6.4.23 Abirkateib ...... 486 6.4.24 Settlement S of Abirkateib ...... 488 6.4.25 Negeim ...... 489 6.5 Group Butena – Wadi Terfawi ...... 495 6.5.1 Abu Dalala ...... 495 6.5.2 Butena-North ...... 495 6.5.3 Butena ...... 496 6.5.4 Wadi Tabak ...... 496 6.5.5 Kabeseit ...... 502 6.5.6 Early Arab Settlements ...... 503 6.6 Group: Wadi Tawil to Eida Arib ...... 504 6.6.1 Wadi Tawil ...... 504 6.6.2 Bir Tawil ...... 504 6.6.3 Ismat Omar ...... 504 6.6.4 Abu Baraga ...... 504 6.6.5 Small Mining Settlement ...... 504 6.6.6 Abu Bard ...... 504 Contents xix

6.6.7 Abaraga ...... 505 6.6.8 Wadi Gagait ...... 506 6.6.9 Liseiwi 1 ...... 507 6.6.10 Liseiwi 2 ...... 509 6.6.11 Liseiwi 3 ...... 509 6.6.12 Liseiwi 4 ...... 509 6.6.13 Liseiwi 5 ...... 509 6.6.14 Liseiwi 6 ...... 510 6.6.15 Liseiwi 7 ...... 510 6.6.16 Liseiwi 8 ...... 513 6.6.17 Wadi Dom ...... 514 6.6.18 Tilat Abda ...... 517 6.6.19 Tanasheb ...... 519 6.6.20 Wadi Naba ...... 527 6.6.21 Nabitana ...... 528 6.6.22 Wadi Naba 1 ...... 528 6.6.23 Wadi Naba 2 ...... 530 6.6.24 Wadi Naba 3 ...... 530 6.6.25 Wadi Naba 4 ...... 531 6.6.26 Wadi Naba 5 ...... 532 6.6.27 Wadi Naba 6 ...... 536 6.6.28 Mine Nabi 1 ...... 536 6.6.29 Nabi 2 ...... 538 6.6.30 Eidaarib ...... 539 6.6.31 Wadi Idarib ...... 540 6.7 Group: Mosei – Omar Kabash ...... 543 6.7.1 Mosei ...... 543 6.7.2 Nabi (?) ...... 543 6.7.3 Fort Murrat ...... 544 6.7.4 Umm Nabardi ...... 544 6.7.5 Jebel Mundera ...... 548 6.7.6 Umm Fit Fit ...... 549 6.7.7 Rod El-Ushal ...... 549 6.7.8 Abu Siha ...... 549 6.7.9 Omar Kabash 1–19 ...... 551 6.8 Group: Nile Valley from Sarras to Abu Hashim ...... 556 6.8.1 Sarras ...... 556 6.8.2 Duweishat ...... 557 6.8.3 Umm Fahm 1 ...... 564 6.8.4 Umm Fahm 2 ...... 567 6.8.5 Umm Fahm 3 ...... 567 6.8.6 Umm Fahm 4 ...... 568 6.8.7 Umm Fahm 5 ...... 568 6.8.8 Gold Production along the Nile between Ginis and Sesebi ...... 568 6.8.9 Sai Island ...... 570 6.8.10 Ager ...... 572 6.8.11 Abu Sari ...... 572 xx Contents

6.8.12 New Kingdom Settlement ...... 573 6.8.13 Abu Sari-North ...... 575 6.8.14 Abu Sari-South ...... 575 6.8.15 Mines ...... 575 6.8.16 Tinari...... 576 6.8.17 Sokar Mine ...... 576 6.8.18 Tondi ...... 579 6.8.19 Kerma ...... 579 6.8.20 Gold Mining Sites between Gebel Barkal and Abu Hamed ...... 580 6.8.21 Medieval, Christian Cemeteries ...... 583 6.9 Bayuda Desert ...... 591 6.9.1 Umm Sareh ...... 598 6.9.2 Abu Sugha ...... 598 6.9.3 El-Higagiya ...... 598 6.9.4 Abu Khalag ...... 598

7 Sequential and Spatial Distribution of Gold Mining Sites in the Egyptian and Nubian Eastern Deserts ...... 601

Appendix ...... 623

Glossary ...... 629

References ...... 633

Index ...... 643