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“FOR US the LIVING”: HOW AMERICA BURIED ITS WORLD WAR I OVERSEAS DEAD By “FOR US THE LIVING”: HOW AMERICA BURIED ITS WORLD WAR I OVERSEAS DEAD by Tracy Fisher A Dissertation Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of George Mason University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy History Committee: ___________________________________________ Director ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ ___________________________________________ Department Chairperson ___________________________________________ Program Director ___________________________________________ Dean, College of Humanities and Social Sciences Date: _____________________________________ Spring Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA “For Us the Living”: How America Buried Its World War I Overseas Dead A Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at George Mason University by Tracy Fisher Master of Arts George Mason University, 2006 Juris Doctor University of Minnesota, 2001 Master of Arts Georgetown University, 1996 Bachelor of Science University of Notre Dame, 1993 Director: Alison Landsberg, Professor Department of History Spring Semester 2016 George Mason University Fairfax, VA Acknowledgements I would like to thank all the members of my dissertation committee, including Dr. Alison Landsberg, Dr. Christopher Hamner, Dr. Michael O’Malley, and Dr. Meredith Lair. I am particularly grateful to my committee chair, Dr. Landsberg, whose thoughtful feedback, advice, and encouragement truly made this dissertation possible. ii Table of Contents Page Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1 ........................................................................................................................... 34 Chapter 2 ......................................................................................................................... 100 Chapter 3 ......................................................................................................................... 160 Chapter 4 ......................................................................................................................... 219 Chapter 5 ......................................................................................................................... 292 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 365 References ....................................................................................................................... 377 iii Abstract “FOR US THE LIVING”: HOW AMERICA BURIED ITS WORLD WAR I OVERSEAS DEAD Tracy Fisher, Ph.D. George Mason University, 2016 Dissertation Director: Dr. Alison Landsberg After the World War ended in 1918, a national political debate arose in the United States over where to bury the American war dead. Some Americans believed the country’s war dead should be left overseas in permanent cemeteries to create an enduring tie between the United States and Europe, while many others wanted the dead returned to the United States for burial. As months passed without a final decision on where and how the dead would be buried, the families of the war dead increasingly became forceful advocates for their own views and choices, both in public and in their individual correspondence with the War Department. This dissertation makes extensive use of the correspondence between the families of the dead and the War Department, including thousands of personal letters from families and replies from the Department directed to individual concerns. These letters demonstrate that as families wrote to the War Department to explain their views, make demands, provide instructions, or ask for help, iv their efforts substantially affected both the way that War Department policies about the war dead evolved and the amount of time and resources that the War Department dedicated to dealing with requests from families. This dissertation looks briefly at the public debate before focusing in detail on the issues raised by families as they decided where they wanted their dead buried. This dissertation is meant to recover the impassioned voices of Americans from all over the country and from all levels of society who lost a family member in the war and to trace the origins of America’s continuing policy of allowing families to determine where the war dead will be buried. v Introduction1 Even before the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) crossed the Atlantic in 1917, Americans understood that men would die in the World War, though no one knew just how many. Some Americans were old enough to remember the deaths of hundreds of thousands in the Civil War, and many knew that several thousand Americans had died in the Spanish-American and Philippine wars less than two decades before. Americans also understood that the federal government would play a major role in determining what became of the bodies of the war dead. After the Civil War, the government had funded efforts to consolidate the Union dead in central cemeteries and had cared for their graves ever since.2 More recently, the government had paid to exhume all the war dead in places like Cuba and the Philippines and, for the first time, had returned some of the dead to 1 The title of this dissertation comes from a speech that General John Pershing made at the United States cemetery at Romagne in the fall of 1919: “It is not for us to proclaim what they did, their silence speaks more eloquently than words, but it is for us to uphold the conception of duty, honor and country for which they fought and for which they died. It is for us the living to carry forward their purpose and make fruitful their sacrifice. And now, Dear Comrades, Farewell. Here, under the clear skies, on the green hillsides and amid the flowering fields of France, in the quiet hush of peace, we leave you forever in God’s keeping.” Donald Smythe, Pershing: General of the Armies (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1986), 259. 2 Edward Steere, The Graves Registration Service in World War II (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office 1951), 7; Robert M. Poole, On Hallowed Ground: The Story of Arlington National Cemetery (New York, NY: Walker & Co., 2009), 71; Gary Laderman, The Sacred Remains: American Attitudes Toward Death, 1799-1883 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1996), 118-22; G. Kurt Piehler, Remembering War the American Way (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Books, 1995), 50-51; Drew Gilpin Faust, This Republic of Suffering: Death and the American Civil War (New York, NY: Vintage Books, 2008), 236-37. 1 their families for burial.3 Shortly after America declared war in April of 1917, Secretary of War Newton Baker stated that the government would again return the bodies of those who died in Europe to the United States.4 A number of prominent Americans hoped to persuade the nation, and the families of those who died, to make a different choice about where to bury the war dead. General John Pershing, commander of the AEF, believed that the United States should leave the dead permanently overseas in battlefield cemeteries. He hoped the cemeteries would demonstrate America’s commitment to European security, serve as a permanent link between the United States and Europe, and perhaps keep America from returning to isolationism after the war.5 Other prominent Americans agreed with Pershing’s “internationalist” views, including former president Theodore Roosevelt, who argued for the dead to be left in Europe even after his youngest son, Quentin, was killed in the war.6 Initially, the families of the Americans who died in the war just wanted to know how their family members had died and whether their bodies had been found, identified, and buried. If families could not undertake the traditional rituals surrounding a death, at least for the immediate future, they wanted assurances that the government was tending 3 “To Be Brought Home for Burial,” Washington Post, September 19, 1900, 7; War Department, Annual Report [to Congress], 1898, Report of the Quartermaster-General, 399-400; Steere, The Graves Registration Service in World War II, 2, 10. 4 Congress, House, Committee on Foreign Affairs, [Removal of Remains of U.S. Troops from France (unpublished) [Part 1]], 66th Cong., 1st sess., 29 July 1919, 5, 34, 40-42; Piehler, Remembering War the American Way, 94; Gary Laderman, Rest in Peace: A Cultural History of Death and the Funeral Home in Twentieth-Century America (New York, NY: Oxford University Press, 2003), 48. 5 “Pershing Opposes Bringing Dead Home,” New York Times, August 1, 1919; G. Kurt Piehler, “The War Dead and the Gold Star: American Commemoration of the First World War,” in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 172. 6 “To Tend Quentin’s Grave,” New York Times, October 5, 1918, 18; Edmund Morris, Colonel Roosevelt (New York, NY: Random House, 2010), 538-39. 2 to those tasks. As Drew Gilpin Faust argues in This Republic of Suffering, families of war dead often want to know whether the dying knew of their impending deaths and whether the dead were buried with appropriate rituals—the kind of details that families would
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