Notes

Introduction: Pirates? The Politics of Plunder, 1550–1650

1 Heliodorus, Ethiopian Story, trans. Sir Walter Lamb (London: Everyman, 1961). 2 Jaques Lezra, ‘Pirating Reading: The Appearance of History in Measure for Measure’, English Literary History, 56 (1989), 255–92. 3 Anon., A True Relation of the Life and Death of Sir Andrew Barton, a Pirate and Rover on the seas (London: Printed for E. W., 1630). All references are to this edition, and are given as line numbers. 4 John Russell, The Story of Leith (London and Edinburgh: Thomas Nelson & Sons, 1922), p.203. 5 See R. L. Mackie, King James IV of Scotland: A Brief Survey of His Life and Times (Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd, 1958), pp.207–11. 6 See Athol Murray, ‘Robert Barton (d. 1540)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (OUP, 2004); http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/69898; Norman Macdougall, ‘Barton, Andrew (c. 1470–1511)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/1594. 7 Russell, The Story of Leith, pp.205–6. 8 R. L. Mackie, King James IV of Scotland, p.207; Russell, The Story of Leith, p.204. 9 Russell, The Story of Leith, p.204. On the use and history of letters of marque see Janice E. Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns: State-building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.22–6. 10 R. L. Mackie, King James IV of Scotland, pp.208–10. 11 Acta Dominorum Concilii, MS, Edinburgh, General Register House, vol. XXII, fol.112. 12 Epistolae Jacobi Quarti, Jacobi Quinti et Maria Regum Scotorum, eorumque tutorum et regni gubernatorum, ad Imperatores, Reges, Pontifices, Principes, civitates et alios ab anno 1505 ad annum 1545 (Edinburgh, 1722), I, pp.120–1. 13 Edward Hall, Henry VIII, ed. Charles Whibley, 2 vols (London: T. C. & E. C. Jack, 1904), I, 37. 14 Edward Hall, Henry VIII, p.38. 15 Mackie, King James IV of Scotland, p.210. 16 N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (New York and London: W. W. Norton & Co, 1997), pp.168–9. 17 Edward Hall, Henry VIII, p.38. 18 Edward Hall, Henry VIII, p.38. 19 Edward Hall, Henry VIII, p.39. 20 See Christopher Harding’s chapter in this volume, pp.20–38. 21 See Francis J. Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1857–8), 8 vols; Arthur Quiller-Couch, The Oxford Book of Ballads (Oxford: Clarendon, 1910); Thomas Percy, Reliques of Ancient English Poetry 3 vols, 4th edn (London: L. A. Lewis, 1839).

187 188 Notes

22 Child argued that ‘[t]he ballad (Henry Martin) must have sprung from the ashes of Andrew Barton, of which name Henry Martyn would be no extra- ordinary corruption’; Cecil Sharp considered that Henry Martin was the older ballad, and was probably recomposed as Andrew Barton in the reign of James I. 23 Henry Martin, in Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, IV, no. 250. 24 See Maurice Lee, The Road to Revolution: Scotland under Charles I, 1625–1637 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Kevin Sharpe, The Personal Rule of Charles I (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1992), pp.771–8. 25 Sharpe, The Personal Rule, p.775. 26 See Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, pp.347–63. 27 Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p.361. 28 Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, pp.361–2. 29 Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p.271. 30 J. Ashburnham to E. Nicholas, 26 October 1627; quoted by Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p.363: Roger Lockyer, Buckingham: The Life and Political Career of George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham 1592–1628 (London and New York: Longman, 1981), p.283. 31 See Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, pp.21–42. 32 Philip Gosse, The History of Piracy (New York: Longmans, Green & Co., 1932); David Cordingly, Under the Black Flag: The Romance and the Reality of Life among the Pirates (London: Random House, 1995); Life Among the Pirates: The Romance and the Reality (London: Abacus, 2003); Peter Earle, The Pirate Wars (London: Methuen, 2003); Jo Stanley, Bold in Her Breeches: Women Pirates Across the Ages (London: Pandora,1995); Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering. English privateering during the Spanish War, 1585–1603 (Cambridge: CUP, 1964); Trade, Plunder and Settlement. Maritime enterprise and the genesis of the British Empire 1480–1630 (Cambridge: CUP, 1991); David Delison Hebb, Piracy and the English Government 1616–1642 (Aldershot: Scolar 1994); Janice Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns; Kris E. Lane, Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas 1500–1750 (London and New York: Armonk, 1997); Sir Godfrey Fisher, Barbary Legend: War Trade and Piracy in North Africa 1415–1830 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957); Jacques Heers, The Barbary Corsairs Warfare in the Mediterranean 1480–1580 (London: Greenhill, 2003); Barbara Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities (Cambridge: CUP, 2003), pp.118–38; Daniel Vitkus, Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean (New York and Houndmills: Palgrave, 2003), pp.207–62; Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge: CUP, 1987); Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age (Boston: Beacon Press, 2004); Hans Turley, Rum, Sodomy, and the Lash: Piracy, Sexuality, and Masculine Identity (New York: New York University Press, 1999). 33 Thomson provides working definitions of these different categories. See Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns, pp.22–6, 44–6. 34 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns, p.44; Klein, ‘“We are not pirates”: Piracy and Navigation in The Luciads, p.110. Notes 189

35 See Jerry Brotton, Trading Territories: Mapping the Early Modern World (London: Reaktion, 1997). 36 For discussion see Jeffrey Knapp, An Empire Nowhere: England, America and Literature from Utopia to the Tempest (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1992); Richard Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp.149–92; Bruce McLeod, The Geography of Empire in English Literature (Cambridge: CUP, 1999), pp.11–31; Daniel Vitkus, Turning Turk, pp.1–24.

1‘Hostis Humani Generis’ – The Pirate as Outlaw in the Early Modern Law of the Sea

1 L. Oppenheim, International Law, ed. H. Lauterpacht, 2 vols, 7th edn (London: Longman, 1948), 1, p.559. Oppenheim further defines an interna- tional crime as one which ‘either every State can punish on seizure of the criminals, of whatever nationality they may be, or which every State has by the Law of Nations a duty to prevent’, p.307. 2 The present international rules relating to maritime piracy are codified in Articles 100–7 of the 1982 UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. See Article 100 for a statement of the duty on the part of States to cooperate to the fullest possible extent in the suppression of piracy. 3 The death sentence for such piratical conduct was finally removed by Section 36 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. 4 Judgement of Sir William Scott, in the case of Le Louis, Forest in the High Court of Admiralty, 15 December 1817 (1817) 2 Dods. 210; quoted from 3 British International Law Cases 691, pp.704–5. The language used in the judgement presents the pirate as a wanton terrorist, while the slave trader appears more like an entrepreneur engaging in ‘transac- tions’. 5 Hillier, for instance, writes that ‘a number of other offences have since joined piracy in being regarded as capable of subject to universal jurisdic- tion’, and proceeds to discuss slave trading, war crimes and crimes against humanity. See Tim Hillier, Sourcebook on Public International Law (London: Cavendish, 1998), p.281. 6 Attorney-General of the Government of Israel v Eichmann, judgement of the District Court of Jerusalem, 36 International Law Reports 5 (1961), paragraph 12. In support of its argument, the Jerusalem Court later cites the historical example of dealing with piracy as a precedent for such ‘universal jurisdiction’ (paragraph 13). 7 This follows from the definition of piracy under international law, as an offence committed on the high seas and thus outside national jurisdiction, which ended at the outer limit of the territorial sea (see Article 101 of the 1982 Law of the Sea Convention; for a statement on the customary interna- tional law of piracy, see Oppenheim, International Law, note 1 above, at pp.746–7). It should be noted that piracy might be differently defined as a matter of national law: for instance, under English law piracy also included acts of slave trading, and piracy committed within the area of the territorial sea. However, taking a broad legal view there has for a long time been a 190 Notes

core or classic understanding of piracy corresponding to the international legal sense, as an act perpetrated on the high seas and that is the sense of the term used in the discussion in this chapter. 8 Antonio Cassese, International Criminal Law (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), p.24. He makes the same argument in International Law (2nd edn: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004) p.15. I understand Cassese’s term ‘community value’ to convey a sense of deep-rooted and widely held moral imperative as compared to the more functionally motivated ‘joint interest’. 9 There are very few reported cases of criminal prosecutions of pirates in which courts have relied upon universal jurisdiction: see Alfred P. Rubin, The Law of Piracy (2nd edn, Ardsley, NY: Transnational Publishers, 1998), p.302; Eugene Kontorovich, ‘The Piracy Analogy: Modern Universal Jurisdiction’s Hollow Foundation’, Harvard International Law Journal, 45 (2004), 183–92. See also Lauren Benton, ‘Oceans of Law: The Legal Geography of the Seventeenth Century Seas’, Proceedings of the Seascapes, Littoral Cultures, and Trans-Oceanic Exchanges Conference, 12–15 Feb. 2003, Library of Congress, Washington DC, September 2005, www.historycooperative.org/proceedings/seascapes/ benton.html, at p.11. 10 Kontorovich, ‘The Piracy Analogy’, p.183. 11 Kontorovich, ‘The Piracy Analogy’, pp.210–11. 12 See, for example, Attorney-General of the Government of Israel v Eichmann. 13 See C. Kevin Marshall, ‘Putting Privateers in Their Place: the Applicability of the Marque and Reprisal Clause to Undeclared Wars’, University of Chicago Law Review 64 (1997), 953–4; Kenneth R. Andrews: Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering During the Spanish War 1585–1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964). 14 Kontorovich, ‘The Piracy Analogy’, pp.214–15. 15 See Janice E. Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.69–76. 16 US Constitution, Article 1, paragraph 8, the main point of which is to attribute the power to grant letters of marque and reprisal to Congress rather than the executive. 17 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, p.22. 18 Barbara Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires: Pirates, Renegadoes, and the English Nation’, ELH, 67 (2000) 45. 19 Grover Clark, ‘The English Practice with Regard to Reprisals by Private Persons’, American Journal of International Law, 27 (1933) 694. 20 See Donald A. Petrie, The Prize Game: Lawful Looting on the High Seas in the Days of the Fighting Sail (Annapolis MD: Naval Institute Press, 1999). 21 On legal arguments in relation to these commissions, see Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.7. 22 Andrews, ‘Elizabethan Privateering’, in Joyce Youings (ed.) Raleigh in Exeter 1985: Privateering and Colonisation in the Reign of Elizabeth I (Exeter: University of Exeter, 1985), p.5. See also Claire Jowitt’s Chapter 9, which mentions the use by Clinton Atkinson of letters of marque issued by Don Antonio in 1582. 23 Andrews, ‘Elizabethan Privateering’, p.13. Notes 191

24 Harry Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake: The Queen’s Pirate (Yale: Yale University Press, 2000), p.392. 25 According to Kelsey historians have invested ‘these sixteenth-century rascals with more dignity than their contemporaries were usually willing to give them’, Sir Francis Drake, p.11. 26 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.30. 27 Daniel Vitkus, ‘Venturing Heroes: Narrating Violent Commerce in Seventeenth-Century England’, Early Modern Studies Institute (EMSI) Con- ference Papers, April 2004, www.usc.edu/dept/LAS/history/emsi/papers, p.16. 28 See Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984); Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns; Vitkus, ‘Venturing Heroes’, p.16. 29 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p.394. For a detailed study of the representation of Drake and piracy in Lope de Vega’s poem, see: Barbara Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp.139–63. Mark Netzloff’s Chapter 8 in this volume examines further the uses to which Drake’s posthumous representations could be put in the service of English national identity (pp.137–50). 30 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p.395. 31 Stephen J. Greenblatt, Sir Walter Ralegh: The Renaissance Man and His Roles (Yale: Yale University Press, 1973), p.6. 32 Matthew Teorey, ‘Pirates and State-Sponsored Terrorism in Eighteenth- Century England’, vols 1, 2 (2003) Perspectives on Evil and Human Wickedness 53, 55. 33 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, pp.231–2. 34 G. E. Manwaring and W. G. Perin (eds) The Life and Works of Sir Henry Mainwaring, 2 vols (London: Navy Records Society, 1920–22), II, p.18. 35 See Peter Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbary (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1970); John B. Wolf, The Barbary Coast: Algiers Under the Turks 1500–1830 (New York: Norton, 1979); Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, pp.44–5, 110–13. 36 William Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, ed. Richard Proudfoot et al., The Arden Shakespeare Complete Works (London: Thompson, 1998) I, iii, 31–4. Fernand Braudel refers to Mediterranean piracy during this period as a ‘secondary form of war’ between Christianity and Islam in The Mediter- ranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, 2 vols (London: Collins, 1973), II, p.865. 37 See Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.11. 38 Hugo Grotius, De Iure Belli ac Pacis, 1625, Book III, Chapter II (New York: Oceana, 1964). 39 Alberico Gentili Hispanicis Advocationis, 1661, Book 1, Chapters IV and XXIII (New York: Oxford University Press, trans. Frank Frost Abbott, 1921). 40 Gentili’s approach thus allowed more easily the argument that Corsair seizures were piratical, so that title to property taken in that way could not be subsequently passed on by resale. 41 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, pp.110, 145. 42 See Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbary, pp.115–20. 192 Notes

43 Paul Baepler, ‘Introduction’, in Paul Baepler (ed.) White Slaves: Indian Masters: An Anthology of American Barbary Captivity Narratives (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999). It is estimated for example that there may have been 20,000 Christian captives in Algiers in the 1620s and 1630s. 44 Nabil Matar, Turks, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999). 45 See generally: Ellen G. Friedman, Spanish Captives in North Africa in the Early Modern Age (Madison: University of Wisconsin, 1983); Lauren Benton, Law and Colonial Cultures; Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 (New York and Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp.31–79. 46 Nabil Matar, ‘Introduction: England and Mediterranean Captivity, 1577–1704’, in Daniel Vitkus (ed.) Piracy, Slavery, and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001), p.14. See also Nabil Matar’s discussion of Muslim captivity by Christians in Chapter 3 of this volume. 47 The term ‘renegado’ was used in this context to indicate a pirate who had renounced European allegiance and converted to Islam. For discussion see Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires’, 50. 48 Earle, The Pirate Wars (London: Methuen, 2003), p.28. 49 Earle, The Pirate Wars, pp.28–9. 50 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.11. 51 See Ian Steele, The English Atlantic, 1675–1740: An Exploration of Communication and Community (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986). 52 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.3 et seq. 53 See the account provided by Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p.25. 54 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p.25. 55 Carey was related to the Queen and to the Lord Admiral; Seckford was Groom of the Chamber and Keeper of the Privy Purse. For a discussion of Lord Howard’s role as Lord Admiral, see Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p.23. 56 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.6. See also Franklin Jameson (ed.) Privateering and Piracy in the Colonial Period, Illustrative Documents (London: Macmillan, 1923). 57 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.9. 58 One argument used by Ralegh was that Guiana was English and not Spanish territory, following the cession of territory to the English Crown by native chieftains on his previous journey there in 1595. 59 Ralegh was sick and not present at San Thomé and his own account in his Apologie maintains that his orders were disobeyed. See Raleigh Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh (London: Penguin 2002), p.501. 60 See Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh, pp.506–7. For the view that Ralegh was trapped in a ‘no-win’ situation by the terms of James’ authorization for the expedition, see Greenblatt, Sir Walter Ralegh, pp.161–2. 61 Earle, The Pirate Wars, p.59, where he indicates that James’ navy had limited resources for operating beyond the English Channel in dealing with pirate fleets. 62 Earle, The Pirate Wars, p.57. 63 Andrews, ‘Elizabethan Privateering’, p.3. 64 C. L’Estrange Ewen, The Golden Chalice: A Documentated Narrative of an Elizabethan Pirate (privately printed, 1939), p.10; Earle, The Pirate Wars, pp.19–20. Notes 193

65 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, p.50. 66 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, p.50. 67 Christopher Hill, Liberty Against the Law: Some Seventeenth-Century Controversies (London: Penguin, 1996), p.117. 68 See the discussion in Claire Jowitt’s Chapter 9 in this volume. 69 Christopher Hill, Liberty Against the Law: Some Seventeenth-Century Controversies, p.115. 70 Evelyn Berckman, Victims of Piracy: the Admiralty County, 1575–1678 (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1979), pp.11–12. 71 See Jowitt, ‘Scaffold Performances’: such execution performances and textual representations of piracy ‘expose the disputed nature of the crime for which [the pirates] are condemned, where distinctions between outlaw and commissioned violence at sea appear arbitrary and compromised.’ (at p.168 of this volume). 72 See Philip Gosse, The History of Piracy (New York: Tudor, 1946), p.104. 73 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, pp.107–8. 74 Cicero, De Officiis, iii, 29 (ed. W. J. Woodhouse, London: Tutorial University Press, 1899). 75 See Georg Schwarzenberger, ‘The Problem of an International Criminal Law’, in Gerhard O. W. Mueller and Edward M. Wise (eds) International Criminal Law (New York: Fred B. Rothman, 1965). 76 Benton, ‘Oceans of Law’, p.1. 77 Trevelyan, Sir Walter Raleigh, pp.554–5. 78 Andrews, ‘Elizabethan Privateering’, p.15. 79 Hill, Liberty Against the Law, pp.121–2. 80 Fuchs argues that ‘the trajectory from privateer to pirate is somewhat of a state fantasy in the first place – the pirates are always already there, before the state uses them and also once it no longer has any use for them.’ See ‘Faithless Empires’, 46. 81 Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns, p.108. 82 See Richard van Dulmen, Theatre of Horror: Crime and Punishment in Early Modern Germany (Oxford: Polity Press, 1990). 83 See Kris E. Lane, Pillaging the Empire: Piracy in the Americas 1500–1750 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1998). 84 Vitkus, ‘Venturing Heroes’, p.4. 85 See, for example, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, On The Social Contract (1762), trans. Roger D. Masters and Judith R. Masters (New York: St Martin’s Press, 1978), p.50.

2 The Problem of Piracy in Ireland, 1570–1630

1 K. R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering during the Spanish War 1585–1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964); C. M. Senior, A Nation of Pirates: English Piracy in its Heyday (Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1976). For a discussion of the wider legal context to English piracy see Chapter 1 by Christopher Harding in this volume, pp.20–38. 2 P. Earle, The Pirate Wars (London: Methuen, 2003), pp.32–3; C. M. Senior, ‘The Confederation of Deep-Sea Pirates: English Pirates in the Atlantic 1603–25’, in M. Mollat (ed.) Course et Piraterie: Etudes présentée à la 194 Notes

Commission Internationale d’Histoire Maritime à l’occasion de son XVe colloque international pendant le XIVe Congrès International des Sciences historiques, 2 vols (Paris: Institut de Recherche et d’Histoire des Textes Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1975), I, pp.334–5; M. Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), pp.256–7. 3 G. E. Mainwaring and W. E. Perrin (eds) The Life and Works of Sir Henry Mainwaring 2 vols (Navy Records Society, 1922), II, pp.15–16. 4 R. Dudley Edwards (ed.) ‘Letter-Book of Sir Arthur Chichester 1612–1614’, Analecta Hibernica, 8 (1938), 69, 112–13. See also J. McCavitt, Sir Arthur Chichester: Lord Deputy of Ireland 1605–1616 (Belfast: The Institute of Irish Studies, The Queen’s University of Belfast, 1998), pp.169–72. 5 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 113. 6 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 108. 7 See, for example A. K. Longfield, Anglo-Irish Trade in the Sixteenth Century (London: Routledge, 1929), pp.43–4. 8 See Earle, The Pirate Wars, pp.32–3; M. Rediker, Villains of All Nations: Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age (London: Verso, 2004). 9 Calendar of State Papers Ireland 1600, pp.446–7 (hereafter cited as CSPI); CSPI 1600–1601, pp.258–9. Grannia O’Malley was one of the most celebrated pirate leaders of the O’Malleys during the later sixteenth century. See A. Chambers, Granuaile: The Life and Times of Grace O’Malley c. 1530–1603 (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1979). 10 Rev. J. MacInnes, ‘West Highland Sea Power in the Middle Ages’, Transactions of the Gaelic Society of Inverness, 48 (1972–74), 530; O. Connellan (ed.) The Annals of Ireland, translated from the original Irish of the Four Masters (Dublin: Bryan Geraghty, 1846), p.561 for Scots activity along the west coast. 11 MacInnes, ‘West Highland Sea Power’, 539, 543–4; N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea. A Naval History of Great Britain: Volume One, 660–1649 (London: HarperCollins, 1997), p.290. 12 MacInnes, ‘West Highland Sea Power’, 548–9; CSPI 1615–25, pp.57–9, 132–6; Acts of the Privy Council 1615–16, pp.529–30, 632; J. H. Ohlmeyer, ‘“Civilizinge of those Rude Partes”: Colonization within Britain and Ireland, 1580s–1640s’ in N. Canny (ed.) The Origins of Empire: British Overseas Enterprise to the Close of the Seventeenth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), pp.128–30. 13 The Register of the Privy Council of Scotland 1613–1616, pp.758–60, 764–5, 769–70 for rebellion in the Isles. On the Macdonnells see George Hill, An Historical Account of the Macdonnells of Antrim (Belfast: Archer & Sons, 1873), pp.195–229; Micheline Kerney Walsh (ed.) ‘Destruction by Peace’: Hugh O Neill after Kinsale (Armagh: Cumann Seanchais Ard Mhacha, 1986), pp.366, 375–7; J. H. Ohlmeyer, Civil War and Restoration in the Three Stuart Kingdoms: The Career of Randal MacDonnell, marquis of Antrim, 1609–1683 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), pp.21–6, 167–8, 194–7 for privateering during the 1640s. 14 M. Lynch, Scotland: A New History (London: Pimlico, 1991), pp.241–2; K. M. Brown, Kingdom or Province? Scotland and the Regal Union, 1603–1715 Notes 195

(London: Macmillan, 1992), p.92; MacInnes, ‘West Highland Sea Power’, 552. 15 Acts of the Privy Council 1552–54, pp.222, 230, 236, 245; F. J. Levy, ‘The Strange Life and Death of Captain Henry Stranguishe’, Mariner’s Mirror, 48 (1962), 133–7. 16 CSPI 1588–92, p.192; D. Mathew, The Celtic Peoples and Renaissance Europe: A Study of the Celtic and Spanish Influences on Elizabethan History (London and New York: Sheed & Ward, 1933), pp.300, 303, 305. 17 CSPI 1588–92, p.190. 18 CSPI 1588–92, p.254; CSPI 1598–99, p.471. 19 This was the source of considerable tension between the Atlantic pirates and those who operated in the Mediterranean. Bishop, one of the leaders of the former, reportedly detested John Ward, one of the leaders of the latter, for ‘his associating with Turks at sea, his taking of Christians and selling them, with divers other outrages’. CSPI 1608–10, pp.279–80. Senior, Nation of Pirates, p.69 for Easton. Public Record Office Kew, H.C.A. 1/47, ff. 90–3v, 310–11; Kerney Walsh (ed.) ‘Destruction by Peace’, pp.278–9. For a discussion of piracy and patriotism see Chapter 9 by Claire Jowitt in this volume, pp.151–168. 20 Senior, Nation of Pirates, pp.7–11. And see the comments of Sir Ferdinando Gorges below. 21 Mainwaring and Perrin (eds) Life and Works of Sir Henry Mainwaring, II, pp.14–15, 40–1; R. Hakluyt, Discourse of Western Planting, (eds) D. B. Quinn and A. M. Quinn (Hakluyt Society, Extra Series, 45, 1993), pp.28–32, 120; Philip L. Barbour (ed.) The Complete Works of Captain John Smith (1580–1631) 3 vols (Chapel Hill and London: University of North Carolina Press, 1986), III, pp.238–9. 22 S. G. Ellis, Ireland in the Age of the Tudors 1447–1603: English Expansion and the End of Gaelic Rule (London: Longman, 1998), p.353 for depopulation; M. MacCarthy-Morrogh, The Munster Plantation: English Migration to Southern Ireland 1583–1641 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), pp.151–2. 23 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, ff.36–7, 194–4v. 24 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, ff.103–3v, 195. 25 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, f.94. 26 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, ff.188–8v. The matter was discussed on several occasions in Spain, but the Spanish were unwilling to break the peace with England. Kerney Walsh (ed.) ‘Destruction by Peace’, pp.115–17, 129, 153, 260–1, 362. 27 Senior, Nation of Pirates, p.54. Benefit of clergy in England was removed under the statue of 1536. G. R. Elton (ed.) The Tudor Constitution (2nd edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), p.159. Subsequent legisla- tion of the reign of Edward VI seems to have provoked doubt about its removal, and the issue was discussed by the common lawyers in 1605. But in England ‘there is no evidence … that benefit of clergy was ever actually allowed at Admiralty Sessions in the sixteenth-century’. M. J. Prichard and D. E. C. Yale (eds) Hale and Fleetwood on Admiralty Jurisdiction (London: Selden Society, 108, 1992), pp.ccviii–ccx. 28 CSPI 1603–1606, pp.382–3; R. Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts, 3 vols (London, 1909–16, rep. London: The Holland Press, 1963), I, p.101. 29 CSPI 1603–1606, pp.382–3. 196 Notes

30 CSPI 1608–10, pp.29, 71; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 62, 113; M. Oppenheim (ed.) The Naval Tracts of Sir William Monson, 5 vols (Navy Records Society, 1902–14), V, 292–3. 31 CSPI 1606–1608, pp.550–1; CSPI 1608–10, p.29. 32 CSPI 1603–1606, p.383. 33 CSPI 1608–10, p.42. 34 Senior, Nation of Pirates, pp.68–70; Mainwaring and Perrin (eds) Life and Works of Sir Henry Mainwaring, II, pp.9–10. 35 E. Hogan, Distinguished Irishmen of the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (London: Burns & Oates, 1894), p.395 ff. (I am indebted to Brian Jackson for this reference). Senior, Nation of Pirates, pp.49–50 for cosmopolitan crews. 36 CSPI 1608–10, p.277; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 136. 37 CSPI 1603–1606, p.383. In July 1610 Chichester informed Salisbury of a warning from one pirate captain that ‘they are resolved to prey upon the subject as well as the strangers’, if they did not receive a pardon. CSPI 1608–10, p.480. 38 CSPI 1608–10, p.42. 39 CSPI 1608–10, p.277. 40 CSPI 1611–14, p.302; Senior, ‘Confederation of Deep-Sea Pirates’, pp.333–5. 41 T. Heywood and W. Rowley, Fortune By Land and Sea ed. Herman Doh (New York: Garland, 1980), 1585–6. For a wider discussion of this play see Chapter 9 by Claire Jowitt in this volume, pp.151–168. 42 CSPI 1608–10, p.278; Senior, Nation of Pirates, pp.67–71. 43 Public Record Office Kew, H.C.A. 1/47, ff.177–8, examination of James Bell. John Smith noted intense factions among the pirates, Barbour (ed.) Complete Works, III, p.240. 44 CSPI 1611–14, p.99. 45 J. C. Appleby (ed.) A Calendar of Material relating to Ireland from the High Court of Admiralty Examinations 1536–1641 (Dublin: Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1992), pp.119–20, 123–5, 127–30; MacCarthy-Morrogh, Munster Plantation, pp.218–19; Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts, I, pp.101–7. 46 British Library, Cotton MS. Otho E VIII, f.368. 47 N. Canny, Making Ireland British 1580–1650 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp.150–1, 315. 48 J. C. Appleby, ‘Women and Piracy in Ireland: from Grainne O’Malley to Anne Bonny’, in Margaret MacCurtain and Mary O’Dowd (eds) Women in Early Modern Ireland (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991), pp.59–63. 49 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 62. 50 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, ff.36, 103–3v, 194–5; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 62. 51 CSPI 1603–1606, p.385. 52 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 62; British Library, Cotton MS. Otho E VIII, f.368. 53 Appleby (ed.) Calendar, p.139. 54 Public Record Office Kew, H. C. A. 1/47, ff.79v–83, 90–3v, 246–7; H. C. A. 13/98, ff.18v–19; MacCarthy-Morrogh, Munster Plantation, pp.155–6, 219–21; Lambeth Palace, Carew MS. 629, ff.119, 125–6. Notes 197

55 J. C. Appleby, ‘Settlers and Pirates in Early Seventeenth-Century Ireland: A Profile of Sir William Hull’, Studia Hibernica, 25 (1989/90) 82. 56 Lambeth Palace, Carew MS., 629, ff.177–8. 57 Appleby (ed.) Calendar, pp.119–20, 124–5; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 44. 58 Appleby (ed.) Calendar, pp.130–2; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 63–4. 59 Appleby (ed.) Calendar, p.138. During 1609 captain James Harvie sailed into Baltimore with 8000 crowns and a ring of gold. R. G. Marsden (ed.) Documents relating to the Law and Custom of the Sea, 2 vols (Navy Records Society, 1915–16), I, pp.382–3. 60 Public Record Office Kew, H.C.A. 1/48, ff.104–4v; Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 110; Appleby (ed.) Calendar, pp.122–3. 61 CSPI 1608–10, p.42. 62 British Library, Cotton MS. Otho E VIII, f.378. 63 Appleby (ed.) Calendar, pp.125–39. 64 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune By Land and Sea, 2185. For later behaviour see Rediker, Villains of All Nations, pp.71–3. 65 British Library, Harleian MS. 697, ff.36–6v; MacCarthy-Morrogh, Munster Plantation, pp.218–20; Public Record Office Kew, S.P. 14/48/103, Nottingham to Salisbury, 10 October 1609. 66 Public Record Office Kew, S.P. 14/65/16, Gorges to Salisbury, 5 July 1611. 67 Public Record Office Kew, S.P. 14/65/16, Gorges to Salisbury, 5 July 1611. 68 Oppenheim (ed.) Naval Tracts, IV, pp.107–9. 69 CSPI 1608–10, p.278. 70 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 120–1; CSPI 1625–32, pp.46, 623–4. 71 Historical Manuscripts Commission, Twelfth Report, I, pp.99, 101, 104–5. 72 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 120. According to one recent study, James was only able to send out ‘token’ missions against pirates. E. Milford, ‘The Navy at Peace: The Activities of the Early Jacobean Navy, 1603–1618’, Mariner’s Mirror, 76 (1990), 30–1. 73 Dudley Edwards, ‘Letter-Book’, 110; Senior, Nation of Pirates, pp.145–50. 74 B. Jennings (ed.) Wadding Papers 1614–38 (Dublin: Irish Manuscripts Commission, 1953), pp.101, 321; CSPI 1625–32, pp.576, 621–2, 645; J. C. Appleby, ‘The Defence of Ireland: A Naval Journal of 1627’, Analecta Hibernica, 37 (1998), 237–48. 75 CSPI 1608–10, p.100; Bagwell, Ireland under the Stuarts, I, pp.207–10.

3 Piracy and Captivity in the Early Modern Mediterranean: The Perspective from Barbary

1 Abu Bakr Albu Khasibi, Adwa’ ala Ibn Yajjabsh al-Tazi (Dar al-Bayda’: A. Albu Khasibi, 1972), p.146. 2 Andrewe Boorde, The First Boke of the Introduction of Knowledge, ed. F. J. Furnivall (London: Early English Text Society, 1870), p.213. 3 Ahmad Bu Sharab, ‘Mawarid al-Magharibi al-Muqimeen bi-lburtughal’, Majalat Kuliyat al-Adab w-al Ulum al-Insaniya, 19 (1994) 88. 4 Bu Sharab, Maghariba fi al-Burtughal (Rabat: Kuliyat al-Adab w-al Ulum al-Insaniya, 1996), pp.26–7. 198 Notes

5 Ibn abi Mahali, Isleet, National Library, Morocco, MS Kha Mim, 100, 18. 6 See the edition of the text by Muhammad Razzuq, Nasir al-din ala al-qawm al-kafirin (al-Dar al-Bayda’: Kuliyat al-Adab w-al Ulum al-Insaniya, 1987), and the translation and edition by P. S. Van Koningsveld, Q. Al-Samarrai, and G. A. Wiegers, The Supporter of Religion against the Infidels (Madrid: al-Majlis al-a’la lil-abhath al-ilmiya, 1997), p.30. 7 L. P. Harvey, ‘The Morisco who was Muley Zaidan’s Spanish Interpreter’, Miscelánea de Estudios Arabes y Hebraicos, 8 (1959) 78, from the autobiography of Ahmad bin Qasim. 8 See the list of names of various ‘yngles’ ship owners, Henri Lapeyre, Géographie de l’Espagne Morisque (Paris: S.E.V.P.E.N., 1959), pp.234–5. 9 SP 71/12/vol. 2/200. 10 Linda Colley, Captives (London: Jonathan Cape, 2002), p.86. 11 Carlo Ginzburg, The Cheese and the Worms, trans. John and Anne Tedeschi (Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1982), xvii. 12 Bu Sharab, Wathaiq wa dirasat (Rabat: Dar al-Aman, 1997), p.147; and Chapter 4 in Maghariba fi al-Burtughal. 13 A Hadith was fabricated in this period stating that Muhammad had been sent as a prophet to all people, including those who are black and red: Miquel Asin Palacios, ‘La Polemica antichristiana de Mohamed el Caisi’, Revue Hispanique, 21 (1909) 346 in 339–51. I do not find convincing the argrument that the red-skinned were not American Indians but Moroccans: Fatima Harrak, ‘Mawaly Isma’il’s ‘Jaysh al-‘Abid: Reassessment of a Military Experience’, in Slave Elites in the Middle East and Africa, ed. Miura Toru and John Edward Philips (London and New York: Kegan Paul International, 2000), pp.177–96. 14 Louis Cardaillac, ‘Le Probleme Morisque en Amerique’, Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez, 12 (1976) 289–90. 15 Álvar Núnˇez Cabeza de Vaca’s Relatión, trans. Martin A. Favata and José B. Fernández (Houston: University of Houston, 1993). 16 See also Boyer, ‘La Chiourme turque des Galeres de France de 1665–à 1687’, in Revue de l’Occident musulman et de la Mediterranee, 6 (1969) 72. 17 Abderrahmane El Moudden, ‘“The Sharif and the Padishah” Three letters from Murad III to ‘Abd al-Malik’, Hesperis Tamuda, 29 (1991) 113–25. 18 Ahmad bin Muhammad Al-Maqqari, Nafu ul-Tib, ed. Ihsan Abbas, 8 vols (Beirut: Dar Sadir, 1968), 6: pp.278–80. 19 Abu Ismail bin Awdah al-Mazari, Tulu’ Sa’d al-Su’d, 2 vols (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1990), 1: p.212. 20 Abd al-Qadir al-Mashrafi al-Jazairi, Bahjat al-Nadhir, ed. Muhammad bin Abd al-Karim (Beirut: Dar Maktabat al-Hayat, n.d.), pp.14–15. 21 Ibtihaj al-Qulub, Rabat, National Library, MS Kaf 363, fol.24. 22 Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Omar al-Udwani, Tarikh al-Udwani, ed. Abu al-Qasim Saadallah (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1996), pp.296–7. 23 Bruce Taylor, ‘The enemy within and without: an anatomy of fear on the Spanish Mediterranean littoral’, in William Naphy and Penny Roberts (eds) Fear in Early Modern Society (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1997), pp.78–99. 24 See for instance the cold-blooded murder of the jurist accompanying the Persian ambassador to Spain in 1604, Don Juan of Persia, trans. G. Le Strange Notes 199

(New York and London: Harper & Brothers, 1926): ‘[…] some man of an insolent temper in the crowd, and lacking bowels of compassion, for there was no apparent provocation, struck out […] and killed him on the spot’, p.297. 25 According to the nineteenth-century historian, al-Zayyani, cited in Moulay Belhamissi, al-Jazair min khilal rihlat al-Maghariba (Jazair: al-Sharikah al-Wataninyah, 1979), p.188. 26 Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Wansharisi, Al-Mi’yar al-mu’arrab, ed. Muhammad Hajji, 12 vols (Beirut: Dar al-Gharb al-Islami, 1981), 2:118; 2:159; 2:198–200. Although he was writing about the captivity of Muslims in Spain, al-Wansharisi’s decisions guided Muslims in North Africa in the following centuries. See also al-Yusi who quoted the Malikite jurist al-Lakhmi that if a captive gave his word, even against his will, he should not escape, because such an action would negatively effect the welfare of other Muslim captives: Rasa’il Abi Ali al-Hasan bin Maso’ud al-Yusi, ed. Fatima Khalil al-Qibli, 2 vols (Dar al-Bayda’: Dar al-Thaqafa, 1981), 1: p.262. 27 P. S. Van Koningsveld and G. A. Wiegers, ‘Islam in Spain during the Early Sixteenth Century’, in Poetry, Politics and Polemics, ed. Otto Zwarjes et al. (Amsterdam: Atlanta, GA: 1996), p.147. 28 Mohamed Mezzine, ‘Les Relations entre les Places occupées et let localités de la région de Fès aux Xvéme Siècles, a partir de documents locaux inédites: Les Nawazil’, in Relaciones de la Península Ibérica con el Magreb Siglos XIII–XVI, ed. Mercedes García-Arenal and María J. Viguera (Madrid: Instituto Hispano Arabe de Cultura, 1988), p.522. 29 Lubnan fi ahd al Amir Fakhr al-Din al-Ma’ni al-Thani, ed. Asad Rustum and Fuad Afram al-Bustani (Beirut: Manshurat al-Jami’a al-Lubnaniya, 1969), p.222. 30 See my chapter on ‘Moors in British Captivity’, in Britain and Barbary, 1589–1689 (Gainseville: University Press of Florida, 2005). 31 See H. A. R. Gibb, ‘Islamic Biographical Literature’, in Historians of the Middle East, ed. Bernard Lewis and P. M. Holt (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1962). 32 Translated by David James in ‘The “Manual de Artilleria” of Ahmad al-Andalusi with Particular Reference to its Illustrations and their Sources’, in Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, 41 (1978), 237–59 (251). See also the article about the author by Muhammad ’Abdullah ’Annan, ‘Min turath al-adab al-andalusi al-murisqi: kitab al-’iz wal rifa’ wal manafi’ lil-mujahidin fi sabil Allah bil-madafi’, Revista del Instituto de Estudios Islámicos en Madrid, 16 (1971) 11–19. The title of the book is slightly different in each manuscript. 33 Ibn al-Qadi, Al-muntaqa al-maqsur, ed. Muhammad Razzuq, 2 vols (Rabat: Maktabat al-Masarif, 1986), 1: pp.347, 251. 34 Al-Fishtali, Manahil al-Safa, ed. Abd al-Karim Karim (Rabat: Matbat Wizarat al-Awqaf, 1972), pp.230–1. 35 Al-Qadiri, Nashr al-mathani, ed. Muhammad Hajji and Ahmad al-Tawfiq, 4 vols (Rabat: Maktabat al-Talib, 1978–1986), 1: p.216. 36 Kitab Nasir al-Din, ed. Koningsveld, Samarrai, and Wiegers, p.147. 37 Jamal Vanan, Nusus wa wathaiq fi tarikh al-Jazair al-hadith 1500–1830 (Algiers: n.p., n. d.), pp.144–5. 200 Notes

38 Abu Abdallah Muhammad bin Ayshun al-Sharat (d. 1697), Al-Rawd al-atir al-anfas bi-akhbar al-aalihin min ahl Fas, ed. Zahra’ al-Nazzam (Rabat: Kuliyat al-Adab w-al Ulum al-Insaniya, 1997), p.315. 39 Fawaid al jamma bi isnadi ‘ouloumi al-Oumma, ed. Colonel Justinard (Chartres: Durand, 1953), p.21. 40 See Ahmed Abdesselem, Les Historiens tunisiens (Qarhaj: Bayt al-Hikma, 1993), pp.149–53. 41 Nur al-Aramsh fi manaqib sidi Abi al-Ghaith al-Qashash, ed. Lutfi Issa and Hussein Bujarra (Tunis: Al-Maktaba al-Atiqa, 1998), p.158. Contrast this account with the one by Ibn al-Qadi, Al-Muntaqa al-maqsur, 1: p.7. 42 Nur al-Armash, pp.152–3. It is interesting that the manuscript of this text at the National Library of Tunis re-arranges the chapters, and opens with the one about the saint’s karamat to the captives, MS 3883 Tunis, 5v–7r. The episode about ransoming the captive was retold by Ibn al-Qadi who raised the sum to 3000 ounces of gold, Durrat al-Hijal, ed. Muhammad al-Ahmadi Abu al-Nur (Cairo: Dar al-Turath, 1970–71), pp.261–2. 43 Nur al-Aramsh, p.156. 44 The Adventures of Captain Alonso de Contreras, trans. Philip Dallas (New York: Paragon House, 1989), p.24; see also Salvatore Bono, Les Corsairs en Méditerranée, trans. Ahmad Somaï (Rabat: Editions de Porte, 1998), the chapter on ‘Les corsairs privé’ for other examples. 45 Rudt de Cottenberg, ‘Le baptème des Musulmans esclaves à Rome au xvii et xviii siècles’, Melanges de l’Ecole Francaise de Rome, 101 (1989) 9–181. 46 Cited in Bu Sharb, ‘Mawarid al-Magharibi al-muqimeen bi-l-burtughal’, Majalat Kuliyat al-Adab wa-al-Ulum al-Insaninya, 19 (1994) 96. 47 Quoted in C. R. Boxer, Mary and Misogyny (London: Duckworth, 1975), p.15. 48 Al-Fishtali, Manahil al-Safa, p.197. 49 Mohammad bin Yousuf al-Zayyani, Dalil al-hayraan wa anis al-sahraan fi akhbar madinat Wahran, ed. Al-Mahdi Abul-’abdali (Algiers: al-Sharikah al-Wataniyah, 1978), pp.150–1. 50 Al-Mazari, Tulu’ Sa’d a’s-Su’u’d, XXXXX p.231. Although al-Mazari may have taken the story from al-Zayyani, he added extra information to it. 51 Kenneth Parker, ‘Barbary in Early Modern England, 1550–1685’, in The Movement of People and Ideas between Britain and the Maghreb, ed. Abdeljelil Temimi and Mohamed Salah Omri (Zaghouan: Fondation Temimi, 2003), p.133. 52 Jorge de Henin, Wasf al-Mamalik al-Maghribiyya, trans. Abd al-Wahid Akmir (Al-Dar al-Bayda: Manshurat Markaz al-Dirasat al-Arabiya al-Ifriqiya, 1997), p.151. 53 There was some exception in the case of royalty: see the example discussed by Jaime Oliver Asin, Vida de Don Felipe de Africa, Principe de Fez y Marruecos (1566–1621) (Madrid: Instituto Miguel Asin, 1955). 54 See my discussion in Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Colombia University Press, 1999), pp.172–5. 55 ‘There was, however, never anything approaching segregation based on color’ in North Africa, Leon Carl Brown, ‘Color in Northern Africa’, in Color and Race, ed. John Hope Franklin (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1968), pp.88–204 (191). Notes 201

56 Muhammad bu Jindar, Muqadimmat al-fath min tarikh Ribat al-Fath (Rabat, 1345 AH), p.280. The sultan was Muhammad bin Abdallah. 57 James Clifford, ‘Travelling Cultures’, in Routes: Travel and Translation in the Late Twentieth Century (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1997), pp.18–19. 58 For the branding of Muslims, see Charles Andre Julien, L’Hisotire de L’Afrique du Nord, 2 vols (Paris: Payot, 1966), 2: p.280. 59 Ithaf ahl al-zaman, ed. Muhammad Shammam, 8 vols (Tunis: al-Dar al-Tunisiya lil-Nashr, 1989–90), 2: p.52.

4 Crusading Piracy? The Curious Case of the Spanish in the Channel, 1590–95

1 Anon., The miserable estate of the Citie of Paris at this present, with a true report of sundrie straunge visions, lately seene in the ayre vpon the coast of Britanie, both by Sea and lande (London: Thomas Nelson, 1590), p.7. The frontispiece of this text features two remarkable woodcuts of the celestial visions it relates. 2 The miserable estate, p.7. 3 See A. L. Rowse, Tudor Cornwall [1941] (Truro: Truran Books, 2005) pp.380–420. 4 Simon Harward, The Solace for the Souldier and Saylour (London: Thomas Orwin for Thomas Wight, 1592) sig. B. 1v. 5 On apocalyptic exegesis, see Frances Carey (ed.) The Apocalypse and the Shape of Things to Come (London: British Museum Press, 1999). 6 Harward, The Solace for the Souldier and Saylour, sig. C. 4v and sig. C. 1v. 7 ‘A Proclamation to be published in Cornewall, Deuonshire, Dorcetshire and Hampshire, for restitution of goods lately taken on the Seas from the Subiects of the king of Spayne by way of Reprisall’ (1591) in Humfrey Dyson (ed.) A Booke Containing All Svch Proclamations as were published During the Raigne of the late Queene Elizabeth (London: B. Norton and J. Bill, 1618) f.302. It is worth noting here that the first recorded use of the term ‘privateer’ in the OED is not until 1664. 8 ‘A Proclamation concerning the goods taken in the great Spanish Carraque brought into Dartmoth, 23. Septembris’ (1593) in Dyson, A Booke Containing All Svch Proclamations, f.311. 9 See Nabil Matar, Islam in Britain 1558–1685 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998). 10 See Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, pp.380–420. 11 See B. W. Dillie and G. D. Winius (eds) Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415–1580 (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1977). 12 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.400. 13 As a consequence, the slow fortification of Scilly began in 1593, mainly due to the petitions of Sir Francis Godolphin. See Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.402. 14 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.400. 15 For Lyly’s comments see Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 573 January 23 1590, ‘W. Lyly to Walsingham’ pp.337–8; for reference to the ‘Scots’ companies, see Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 491 November 19 1589, ‘O. Smith to Walsingham’, p.301. 202 Notes

16 Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 467 November 20 1590, ‘Sir Roger Williams’s Advice for France’, p.295. In a later letter, Williams points out that Blavet is ‘the best harbour in France for vessels of any burden’: Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 486 January 13 1591, ‘Sir Roger Williams’s Opinion on Brittany’, p.304. 17 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, pp.400–1. 18 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, pp.406–10. 19 These illustrations appear on the frontispieces of all of the printed texts that appear in this discussion and should be considered part of the wider genre of captivity narratives that tend to feature such pictures. Anon., The Honourable Actions of that most Famous and Valiant Englishman, Edward Glemham Esquire, latelie obtained against the Spaniards, and the Holy League, in Foure Sundrie Fightes (London: A. J. for William Barley, 1591). 20 John Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley of Naunts in Brittaine, from the Spanyards and Leaguers, with the releasement of 153. Galley slaues, that were in her: by Iohn Bilbrough, Prentice of London (London: for Richard Oliffe, 1591), p.1. The phrase ‘Turning Turk’ is explored in detail in Daniel Vitkus, ‘Turking Turk in Othello: The Conversion and Damnation of the Moor’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 48 (1997) 145–76. See also Chapter 5 by Mark Hutchings in this volume, pp.90–104. 21 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.2. 22 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.2. 23 These ‘Witnesses of the truth of this Matter’ are: John Wilkes of London, John Harley, William Ward, Richard Bavance, Richard Taylor, Laurence Adams and George Oliver. Beneath their names is written, ‘And vnder the great seale of Rochell.’ Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.10. 24 Anon., A Declaration of great troubles pretended against the Realme by a number of Seminarie Priests and Iesuits, sent, and very secretly dispersed in the same, to worke great Treasons vnder a false pretence of Religion, with a prouision very necessarie for remedie thereof (London: Christopher Barker, 1591), p.9. 25 Besides those mentioned below in n.27, see for example Bartholomej Georgijevic’s The ofspring of the house of Ottomanno, and officers pertaining to the greate Turkes Court … all Englished by Hugh Goughe (London: Thomas Marshe, 1569/70), also discussed in Matthew Dimmock, New Turkes: Dramatizing Islam and the Ottomans in Early Modern England (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2005), pp.81–2. See also Daniel Vitkus, Piracy, Slavery and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001). 26 Harward, The Solace for the Souldier and Saylour, sig. B. 1r. See Debra Higgs Strickland, Saracens, Demons and Jews: Making Monsters in Medieval Art (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2003). 27 Richard Hasleton, Strange and Wonderful Things Happened to Richard Hasleton … in His Ten Years’ Travails in Many Foreign Countries (London: A. J. for William Barley, 1595) and Edward Webbe, The Rare and most wonderfull things Edw. Webbe an Englishman borne, hath seene and passed in his trouble- some trauailes, in the Cities of Ierusalem, Damasko, Bethlehem and Galely: and in the landes of Iewrie … newly enlarged and corrected by the Author (London: for William Wright, 1590). 28 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.2. Notes 203

29 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.4. 30 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.9. 31 Anon., The Valiant and most laudable fight performed in the Straights, by the Centurion of London, against fiue Spanish Gallies. Who is safely returned this present Moneth of May (London: publisher unknown, 1591). 32 Anon., The True Report of a great Galley that was brought vnto Rochell, vpon the sixt of Februarie last (London: John Wolfe for William Wright, 1592) sig. A. 3v. 33 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 4r. 34 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 4v. 35 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 4v. 36 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 4v. See also Anon., The Explanation of the True and Lawfull Right and Tytle, of the Most Excellent Prince Anthonie, the first of that name, King of Portugall, concerning his warres, againste Phillip King of Castille, and againste his Subiectes and Adherentes, for the Recouerie of his Kingdome (Leiden: C. Plantyn, 1585). 37 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 5r. 38 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 5v. 39 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 5v. 40 See J. H. Elliot, Europe Divided, 1559–1598 (Glasgow: Fontana, 1968) pp.279–81. 41 Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 929 July 17 1591, ‘Barton to Burghley’, p.499. 42 See also Anon., A Fig for the Spaniard, or Spanish Spirits. Wherein are Liuelie Portraied the Damnable Deeds, Miserable Murders, and Monstrous Massacres of the Cursed Spaniard (London: John Wolfe, 1592) sig. B. 3r. 43 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 6r. 44 The True Report of a great Galley, sig. A. 5v. 45 SP 12/240. There is no signature and very little crossing out – this is undoubtedly a neat copy, intended for official consumption. There appears to be an imprint of a seal (perhaps a crown) on the bottom right of the page. In pencil has later been written ‘Eliz … Sept 1591’, but as the text itself is undated this seems likely to reflect the dated material on either side in the State Papers – the previous document is a letter from Thomas Sherley dated 29 September 1591. 46 Calendar of State Papers, Foreign, no. 869 April 2 1591, ‘Barton to Burghley’, p.467. 47 This campaign is wrongly dated to 1593 in Dimmock, p.167. All explicit ref- erence to Islam is removed from the Anglo-Ottoman Capitulations of 1580 as reproduced by Richard Hakluyt in his Principal Navigations (London, 1589). These omissions are also examined in Dimmock, New Turkes, pp.89–90. 48 See Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, pp.400–20. 49 Nabil Matar, Turks, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999) pp.20–1. 50 Amezola’s account is translated and reproduced in Robert Dickinson, ‘The Spanish Raid on Mount’s Bay in 1595’, Journal of the Royal Institution of Cornwall, vol. X, Part I (1986–7) pp.178–86 and Richard Carew’s account (apparently based upon the first-hand account of Sir Francis Godolphin) 204 Notes

can be found in his The Survey of Cornwall (London: S. S. for John Jaggard, 1602), pp.156r–8v. 51 Dickinson, ‘The Spanish Raid on Mount’s Bay in 1595’, p.181. See also Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, no. 33 July 25 1595, ‘Examinations of Englishmen, taken by the Spaniards, and landed in Mount Bay, out of the four galleys of Bluett, before Sir Fras. Godolphin and Thomas Saint Aubin’, p.79. 52 Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, no. 33 July 25 1595, ‘Examinations of Englishmen, taken by the Spaniards’, pp.78–80. The raid is also discussed in Dan Cruickshank, Invasion: Defending Britain from Attack (Basingstoke and Oxford: Boxtree, 2001), p.60. 53 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.403. 54 Carew, The Survey of Cornwall, p.156r. Two of these original pillars and an arch remain, just behind the pulpit, one of them still blackened by the fire of 1595. They, along with the surviving granite tower, were incorporated into the rebuilding of the church. 55 Dickinson, ‘The Spanish Raid on Mount’s Bay in 1595’, p.181. 56 Dickinson, ‘The Spanish Raid on Mount’s Bay in 1595’, p.181. 57 Greene’s Alphonsus features ‘Mahomet’ as an idol, a ‘brazen head’ that breathes forth ‘flakes of fire’ (IV.i.29). For more on this play, see Dimmock, New Turkes, pp.177–80. 58 Dickinson, ‘The Spanish Raid on Mount’s Bay in 1595’, p.181. 59 See Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.408. 60 Carew, The Survey of Cornwall, p.158r. 61 Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, p.406. 62 Carew, The Survey of Cornwall, p.158v. The actual prophesy, as recorded by Carew goes as follows: ‘Ewra teyre a war mearne Merlyn/Ara Lesky Pawle, Pensans ha Newlyn’ (p.159r). 63 See Philip Payton’s introduction to the Cornish Classics edition: Rowse, Tudor Cornwall, pp.1–6. 64 See Gulru Necipoglu, The Age of Sinan: Architectural Culture in the Ottoman Empire (London: Reaktion, 2005); Diarmid MacCulloch, Reformation: Europe’s House Divided 1490–1700 (London: Allen Lane, 2003), p.559. 65 Cruickshank, Invasion, p.60. 66 See Anon., A Declaration of the True Causes of the Great Troubles, Presupposed to be Intended Against the Realm of England (n.p: n.pub., 1592); Anon., The Holy Bull, And Crusado of Rome: First published by the Holy Father Gregory the xiii. and afterwards renewed and ratified by Sixtus the fift (London: J. Wolfe, 1588). 67 Described in Christopher Tyerman, England and the Crusades, 1095–1588 (London: University of Chicago Press, 1988) p.362. 68 The Holy Bull, And Crusado of Rome, p.8. 69 A Declaration of the True Causes of the Great Troubles, p.48. 70 See John Tolan, Saracens: Islam in the Medieval European Imagination (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 2002). 71 One example of an English ‘pirate … coming to serve the king [of Spain]’ can be found in the Calendar of State Papers, Domestic, no. 48 May 21 1597, ‘Capt. Watson to the Lord Admiral and Sec. Cecil’, p.417. 72 Bilbrough, The Taking of the Royall Galley, p.2. Notes 205

5 Acting Pirates: Converting A Christian Turned Turk

1 See for example Steven Mullaney, The Place of the Stage: License, Play, and Power in Renaissance England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988); Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1574–1642 3rd edn (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Meredith Anne Skura, Shakespeare the Actor and the Purposes of Playing (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993); and Louis Adrian Montrose, The Purpose of Playing: Shakespeare and the Cultural Politics of the Elizabethan Theatre (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996). 2 In addition to note 1 see for example Joseph Lenz, ‘Base Trade: Theater as Prostitution’, English Literary History, 60 (4) (Winter 1993), 833–55. The Rose theatre may well have been used as a bear-baiting arena as well as for plays, and Philip Henslowe famously had interests in both theatre and brothels. 3 For a detailed analysis of these regulations, see Lisa Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Brighton: The Harvester Press Ltd, 1983), pp.141–68. 4 Margaret Jane Kidnie (ed.) Philip Stubbes, ‘The Anatomie of Abuses’ (Tempe, Arizona: Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies, 2002), p.71. 5 On the signification of costume on stage see Peter Stallybrass, ‘Worn Worlds: Clothes and Identity on the Renaissance Stage’, in Margreta de Grazia, Maureen Quilligan and Peter Stallybrass (eds) Subject and Object in Renaissance Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.289–320; and Ann Rosalind Jones and Peter Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000). 6 See for example Stephen Greenblatt, Renaissance Self-Fashioning: From More to Shakespeare (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980), pp.193–221; Mark Thornton Burnett, ‘Tamburlaine: An Elizabethan Vagabond’, Studies in Philology, 84 (1987), 308–23; Thomas Cartelli, Marlowe, Shakespeare, and the Economy of Theatrical Experience (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), pp.71–88; Roger Sales, Christopher Marlowe (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1991), 57–9; Emily Bartels, Spectacles of Strangeness: Imperialism, Alienation, and Marlowe (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), pp.53–81; and Richard Wilson, ‘Visible Bullets: Tamburlaine the Great and Ivan the Terrible’, English Literary History, 62 (1995), 47–68. 7 See Peter Berek, ‘Locrine Revised, Selimus, and Early Responses to Tamburlaine’, Research Opportunities in Renaissance Drama, XXIII (1980), 33–54, and ‘Tamburlaine’s Weak Sons: Imitation as Interpretation Before 1593’, Renaissance Drama, n.s. XIII (1982), 55–82; and Maurice Charney, ‘The Voice of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine in Early Shakespeare’, Comparative Drama, XXXI (1997), 213–23. 8 The sheer scale of this ‘Turkish’ narrative is remarkable: of the 3000 plays written during the period 1567–1642 some 600 survive; of these more than one third refer to Turks or matters Ottoman. 9 See Kenneth Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering During the Spanish War, 1583–1603 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1964); D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England’s Sea Empire, 1550–1642 (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983); David Delison Hebb, Piracy and the English Government, 1616–1642 (London: Scolar Press, 1994); and Janice E. Thomson, 206 Notes

Mercenaries, Pirates, and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterratorial Violence in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). 10 The Levant Company’s success ensured that it had political clout, too, both during James’ reign and later. See Robert Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1650 [1993] (London: Verso, 2003), and Lee W. Eysturlid, ‘“Where Everything is Weighed in the Scales of Material Interest”: Anglo-Turkish Trade, Piracy, and Diplomacy in the Mediterranean During the Jacobean Period’, Journal of European Economic History, 22 (1993), 613–25. 11 See W. W. Greg (ed.) Henslowe Papers: Being Documents Supplementary to Henslowe’s Diary (London: A. H. Bullen, 1907), pp.66–85, and David Bradley, From Text to Performance in the Elizabethan Theatre: Preparing the Play for the Stage (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp.89–90. 12 See for example Lois Potter, ‘Pirates and “turning Turk” in Renaissance Drama’, in Jean-Pierre Macquerlot and Michèle Willems (eds) Travel and Drama in Shakespeare’s Time (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.124–40; Nabil Matar, Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge University Press, 1998), pp.54–61, and Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), pp.61–3; Barbara Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire: The New World, Islam, and European Identities (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), pp.124–5; Claire Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics 1589–1642: Real and Imagined Worlds (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), pp.157–75; Daniel Vitkus, Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean, 1570–1630 (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp.141–58; and Gerald MacLean, ‘On Turning Turk, or Trying to: National Identity in Robert Daborne’s A Christian Turn’d Turke’, Explorations in Renaissance Culture, 29(2) (Winter 2003), 225–52. 13 In 1615 Lithgow reported Ward to be living in a ‘faire Palace, beautified with rich Marble and Alabaster stones’; quoted in Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics, p.175. 14 Potter, ‘Pirates and “turning Turk” in Renaissance drama’, p.127; Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire, p.128. 15 Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire, p.124. 16 See Nabil Matar’s suggestion that this play operates as propaganda, con- demning pirates and Turks, in ‘The Renegade in the English Seventeenth- Century Imagination’, Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, 33 (1993), 489–505, 492–5, and Islam in Britain, pp.54–8. In Turks, Moors and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery, p.61, Matar remarks that A Christian Turned Turk ‘specifically demonized [Captain John] Ward’. Like a fellow dramatist who wrote a single play on Turks, John Mason (The Turk [1607]), Daborne later went into the Church. 17 Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics, p.157. 18 Paul Mulholland (ed.) The Roaring Girl (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987). 19 Daniel J. Vitkus (ed.) Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2000), p.151. All references to the play are to this edition. 20 Samuel Chew, The Crescent and the Rose: Islam and England During the Renaissance (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), p.532; Potter, ‘Pirates and “turning Turk” in Renaissance drama’, p.131. Notes 207

21 Matar, Islam in Britain, p.57; Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire, p.125, remarks that ‘although he might betray England, the text suggests, he cannot be allowed to survive his betrayal’. 22 See G. Starr, ‘Escape from Barbary: A Seventeenth Century Genre’, Huntington Library Quarterly, 29 (1965–6), 35–52; Margo Todd, ‘A Captive’s Story: Puritans, Pirates, and the Drama of Reconciliation’, The Seventeenth Century, XII (1997), 37–56; Roslyn Knutson, ‘Elizabethan Documents, Captivity Narratives, and the Market for Foreign History Plays’, English Literary Renaissance, 26 (1996), 75–110; Kenneth Parker (ed.) Early Modern Tales of Orient: A Critical Anthology (London: Routledge, 1999); and Daniel J. Vitkus (ed.) Piracy, Slavery, and Redemption: Barbary Captivity Narratives from Early Modern England (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001). 23 On conversion to Islam among European Christians see Matar, ‘“Turning Turk”: Conversion to Islam in English Renaissance Thought’, Durham University Journal, ns LV no.1 (January 1994), 33–41, and Islam in Britain, pp.15–19, and especially pp.34–49. 24 Gerald MacLean, ‘On Turning Turk, or Trying to’, 233–4, reads these lines ironically. Daniel Vitkus suggests that the play may have failed because it portrays ‘Ward … as sympathetic, even heroic’; Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England, p.232. 25 Richard Levin, ‘The Contemporary Perception of Marlowe’s Tamburlaine’, Medieval and Renaissance Drama in England, I (1984), 51–70. A further measure of the character’s fame was the occurrence of the name in baptismal registers; see Rick Bowers, ‘Tamburlaine in Ludlow’, Notes and Queries, 243 (1998), 361–3. 26 See Nick de Somogyi, Shakespeare’s Theatre of War (Aldershot: Ashgate, 1998), pp.11–53. 27 Similarly Fuchs, Mimesis and Empire, p.127, reads Purser and Clinton, two famous pirates ‘staged’ in Thomas Heywood and William Rowley’s Fortune by Land and Sea (c. 1607–09), as appropriating symbols of national author- ity, comparing their triumphs with the coronation of a monarch. On the stage appropriating state machinery of justice in another context, see Molly Easo Smith, ‘The Theater and the Scaffold: Death as Spectacle in The Spanish Tragedy’, Studies in English Literature, 1500–1900, 32 (1992), 217–32. 28 See Alain Grossrichard, The Sultan’s Court: European Fantasies of the East [1979] trans. Liz Heron (London: Verso, 1998). 29 See Avig der Levy (ed.) The Jews of the Ottoman Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994). 30 On doubling on the early modern stage, see for example David Bevington, From ‘Mankind’ to Marlowe: Growth of Structure in the Popular Drama of Tudor England (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1962), pp.104–13; A. C. Sprague, The Doubling of Parts in Shakespeare’s Plays (London: society for Theatre Research, 1966); William A. Ringler, Jr, ‘The Number of Actors in Shakespeare’s Early Plays’, in Gerald Eades Bentley (ed.) The Seventeenth Century Stage: a Collection of Critical Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1968), pp.110–34; Richard Fotheringham, ‘The Doubling of Roles on the Jacobean Stage’, Theatre Research International, 10 (1985), 18–32; T. J. King, Casting Shakespeare’s Plays: London Actors and their Roles, 1590–1642 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); and Alan C. Dessen, ‘Conceptual Casting in the Age of Shakespeare: Evidence from Mucedorus’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 43(1) (Spring 1992), 67–70. 208 Notes

31 See for example Ralph Berry, ‘Hamlet’s Doubles’, Shakespeare Quarterly, 37(2) (Summer 1986), 204–12, and John C. Meagher, Shakespeare’s Shakespeare: How the Plays Were Made (New York: Continuum, 1997). 32 Peter Thomson, On Actors and Acting (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 2000), pp.19–20. 33 Peter Hyland, ‘The Performance of Disguise’, Early Theatre, 5.1 (2002), 77–83; 79. Andrew Gurr kindly provided me with a copy of his unpublished paper, ‘Disguise and Doubling’. 34 Sprague, The Doubling of Parts in Shakespeare’s Plays, 14, distinguishes between ‘deficiency’ or ‘emergency’ doubling (i.e. doubling for practical purposes) and ‘virtuoso’ doubling, where there is a clearly designed interpretative rationale for a particular doubling. 35 Vitkus (ed.) Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England, p.154. 36 Bradley, From Text to Performance, p.238. 37 Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, p.48. 38 Eysturlid, ‘“Where Everything is Weighed in the Scales of Material Interest”’, pp.619, 621. 39 Eysturlid, ‘“Where Everything is Weighed in the Scales of Material Interest”’, p.620. 40 On Turkish attire and habits, and their appeal in early modern England, see Nabil Matar, ‘Renaissance England and the Turban’, in David Blanks (ed.) Images of the Other: Europe and the Muslim World before 1700 (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1997), pp.39–54. 41 Matar, Islam in Britain, p.15. 42 Vitkus (ed.) Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England, p.236. 43 Chew, The Crescent and the Rose, p.532. 44 See James Shapiro, Shakespeare and the Jews (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), especially pp.114–21. 45 See Michael Hattaway, Elizabethan Popular Theatre: Plays in Performance (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1982), pp.166–9. 46 Anthony B. Dawson, ‘Performance and Participation: Desdemona, Foucault, and the Actor’s Body’, in James C. Bulman (ed.) Shakespeare, Theory, and Performance (London: Routledge, 1996), pp.29–45, 43. 47 The text is ambiguous about when Ward dies, and indeed it may not have been clear in performance; Vitkus inserts a stage direction ‘[Dies.]’ at line 321. 48 Jones & Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory, p.183, stress the use and reuse of costume in the playhouse: ‘actors again and again took existing clothes and “translated” them’. 49 Matar, Islam in Britain, p.15.

6 ‘We are not pirates’: Piracy and Navigation in The Lusiads

1 See A General History of the Pyrates [1724/1728], ed. Manuel Schonhorn (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, 1999), pp.383–439. Following a long tra- dition, Schonhorn identifies the author of the General History as Daniel Defoe, but this attribution remains disputed. On Libertalia, see Marcus Rediker, ‘Libertalia: The Pirate’s Utopia’, David Cordingly (ed.) Pirates. An Notes 209

Illustrated History of Privateers, Buccaneers, and Pirates from the Sixteenth Century to the Present (London: Salamander, 1996), pp.124–39; and Hubert Deschamps, Les pirates à Madagascar aux XVIIe et XVIIIe siècles (Paris: Editions Berger–Levrault, 1972). Rediker treats Libertalia as fiction, Deschamps as fact. 2 On the maritime origins of early capitalism see Marcus Rediker, Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea: Merchant Seamen, Pirates, and the Anglo-American Maritime World, 1700–1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987). 3 Alan Villiers, The Indian Ocean (London: Museum Press Limited, 1952), p.176. 4 Villiers, The Indian Ocean, p.182. 5 Villiers, The Indian Ocean, pp.182–3. 6 Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker, The Many-Headed Hydra. Sailors, Slaves, Commoners, and the Hidden History of the Revolutionary Atlantic (Boston: Beacon, 2000), p.162. See also Rediker’s more recent study, Villains of all Nations. Atlantic Pirates in the Golden Age (Boston: Beacon, 2004). 7 See K. V. Krishna Ayyar, The Zamorins of Calicut (Calicut: Norman Printing Bureau, 1938), p.146. 8 For surveys of the social, cultural and economic history of the Indian Ocean (including the early modern period), see Auguste Toussaint, History of the Indian Ocean [1961], trans. June Guicharnaud (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1966); K. N. Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean. An Economic History from the Rise of Islam to 1750 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985); Kenneth McPherson, The Indian Ocean. A History of People and the Sea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993); and most recently Michael Pearson, The Indian Ocean (London: Routledge, 2003). See also Sanjay Subrahmanyam (ed.) Maritime India (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2004), a reprint of Holden Furber’s Rival Empires of Trade in the Orient, 1600–1800 (1976); Sinnapah Arasaratnam’s Maritime India in the Seventeenth Century (1994); and McPherson’s The Indian Ocean. 9 Sanjay Subrahmanyam, The Career and Legend of Vasco da Gama (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), p.112. 10 Ayyar, The Zamorins of Calicut, pp.153–7; R. P. Anand, Origin and Develop- ment of the Law of the Sea. History of International Law Revisited (The Hague et al.: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1983), p.49. 11 Offering a ceremonial gift was part of traditional Indian Ocean etiquette in a merchant-friendly port city such as Calicut. According to the only eye- witness account to survive from the voyage, da Gama’s gift fell far short of what would have been considered appropriate for a local potentate, con- taining no gold or silver but only ‘twelve pieces of lambel [striped cotton cloth], four scarlet hoods, six hats, four strings of coral, a case containing six wash-hand basins, a case of sugar, two casks of oil, and two of honey’. A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, 1497–1499, trans. and ed. E. G. Ravenstein (London: The Hakluyt Society, 1898), p.60. 12 Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, p.60. 13 Anand, Origin and Development of the Law of the Sea, pp.50–1; Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, pp.180–1. 14 O. K. Nambiar, The Kunjalis. Admirals of Calicut (London: Asia Publishing House, 1963), pp.33–4; Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, p.183. 210 Notes

15 Anand, Origin and Development of the Law of the Sea, p.53; Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, p.206. 16 Chaudhuri, Trade and Civilisation in the Indian Ocean, pp.14, 69; Subrahmanyam, Vasco da Gama, pp.109–12. 17 The Book of Ser Marco Polo, trans. and ed. Sir Henry Yule, 2 vols (London: John Murray, 1903), vol. 2, p.389. 18 The Travels of Ibn Battuta, A.D. 1325–1354, vol. 4, trans. C. Defrémery, B. R. Sanguinetti, and C. F. Beckingham (London: Hakluyt Society, 1994), p.865. 19 See G. R. Tibbetts, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean before the Coming of the Portuguese, being a translation of Kitab al-Fawa’id fi usul al-bahr wa’l- qawa’id of Ahmad b. Majid al-Najdi (London: The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 1971), p.202. 20 See also the discussion in Pearson, The Indian Ocean, pp.105–7, 126–7. 21 See James Warren, Iranun and Balangingi: Globalization, Maritime Raiding, and the Birth of Ethnicity (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2002). 22 Anand, Origin and Development of the Law of the Sea, p.115. See also the related discussion in Pearson, The Indian Ocean, pp.126–7. 23 On the concept of a ship’s ‘sufficiency’, see David W. Waters, The Art of Navigation in England in Elizabethan and Stuart Times, 3 vols (Greenwich: National Maritime Museum, sec. ed. 1978), vol. 1, pp.40–1. 24 All original quotes are taken from Luís de Camões, Os Lusíadas, ed., intr. and annot. Frank Pierce (Oxford: Clarendon, 1973). References are to canto, stanza and line numbers. 25 ‘Que quasi todo o mar têm destruído / Com roubos, com incêndios violen- tos’. All English translations of The Lusiads are taken from Luis Vaz de Camões, The Lusiads, trans. Landeg White (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1997). I quote Camões in English whenever the translation is close enough to the Portuguese in image and idiom. For comparison, the original lines are quoted in accompanying endnotes. 26 ‘cristãos sanguinolentos’. 27 ‘Não somos roubadores que, passando / Pelas fracas cidades descuidadas, / A ferro e a fogo as gentes vão matando, / Por roubar-lhe as fazendas cobiçadas’. 28 Available in a 1898 English translation (see note 11 above). 29 ‘gentes inquietas, / Que, os mares discorrendo ocidentais, / Vivem só de piráticas rapinas, / Sem Rei, nem leis humanas ou divinas.’ 30 See especially the early paper by Christopher Hill, ‘Radical Pirates?’, The Collected Essays of Christopher Hill, vol. 3 (Brighton: Harvester, 1986), 161–87; and the latest book by Marcus Rediker, Villains of all Nations. 31 ‘Porque, se eu de rapinas só vivesse, / Undívago ou da Patría desterrado, / Como crês que tão longe me viesse / Buscar assento incógnito e apartado?’ 32 ‘Mas antes descansar me deixaria / No nunca descansado e fero grémio / Da madre Tethys, qual pirata inico / Dos trabalhos alheios feito rico.’ 33 ‘Corrupto já e danado o mantimento’. 34 ‘Crês tu que já não foram lavantados / Contra o seu capitão, se os resistira, / Fazendo-se piratas, obrigados / De desesperação, de fome, de ira?’ 35 ‘Daquela portuguesa alta excelência / De lealdade firme e obediência.’ 36 The example is Aristotle’s, from The Art of Rhetoric. See the discussion of paradiastole by Quentin Skinner, ‘Moral Ambiguity and the Renaissance Art of Eloquence’, Essays in Criticism, 44, no. 4 (1994), pp.267–92. Notes 211

37 ‘da soberba Europe navegando, / Imos buscando as terras apartadas / Da Índia’. 38 Patricia Seed, Ceremonies of Possession in Europe’s Conquest of the New World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), p.14. 39 Roger C. Smith, Vanguard of Empire. Ships of Exploration in the Age of Columbus (New York: Oxford University Press, 1993), p.174. 40 ‘[N]ouas ylhas / nouas terras / nouos mares / nouos pouos: e o que mays he: nouo ceo: e nouas estrellas’. Pedro Nunes, Obras, vol. 1: Tratado da sphera [1537] (Lisbon: Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian, 2002), p.120. English trans- lation quoted from Seed, Ceremonies of Possession, p.100 (epigraph to chapter). The lines appear in the separate treatise Tratado em defensam da carta de marear which was included in the original edition of the Tratado da sphera com a Theorica do Sol e da Luna (Lisbon: Germão Galharde, 1537). On Nunes in general, see Pedro Nunes 1502–1578 (Lisbon: Biblioteca Nacional, 2002). 41 John Dee, Mathematicall Preaface to The Elements of Geometrie of the most auncient Philosopher Evclide of Megara (London: John Daye, 1570), sig. d.iiijv. 42 Iohn Minsheu, A Dictionarie in Spanish and English [London, 1599], facs. ed. (Málaga: Universidad de Málaga, 2000), entry ‘Sutiléza, or Subtiléza’. 43 Pedro de Medina, The Arte of Nauigation, trans. John Frampton (London: Thomas Dawson, 1581), fol.3v. My italics. Frampton’s translation follows the Spanish edition closely; the original version of the passage cited can be found in Pedro de Medina, Arte de nauegar (Valladolid: Francisco Fernandez de Cordova, 1545), sig. a.iii.r. On de Medina, see the introduction in A Navigator’s Universe: The Libro de Cosmographía of 1538 by Pedro de Medina, trans. and intr. Ursula Lamb (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp.1–30. 44 See Pearson, The Indian Ocean, p.3; and George F. Hourani, Arab Seafaring in the Indian Ocean in Ancient and Early Medieval Times [1951], rev. and exp. by John Carswell (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.105–10. For an early document describing the extensive trade routes in the western Indian Ocean and attendant navigational practices, see the first-century merchants’ manual The Periplus Maris Erythraei, intr., trans., and annot. Lionel Casson (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989). 45 See Tibbetts, Arab Navigation in the Indian Ocean. 46 See Die topographischen Capitel des indischen Seespiegels Mohît, trans. Maximilian Bitter, intr. Wilhelm Tomaschek (Vienna: K. K. Geographische Gesellschaft, 1897). 47 See João de Barros, Décadas (1552), quoted in Francis Maddison, ‘A Con- sequence of Discovery: Astronomical Navigation in Fifteenth-Century Portugal’, T. F. Earle and Stephen Parkinson (eds) Studies in Portuguese Discovery I (Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1992), pp.71–110: 71–2. The discus- sion reported by Barros is largely conjectural, but that does not mean it entirely misrepresents that type of encounter at sea. 48 He reported it was inferior to the quadrant but that may just as well indi- cate either wrong usage or that the transfer of navigational knowledge from one ocean to another (Cabral tested the kamal in the Atlantic) was more complex than contemporaries allowed. 49 See Maddison, ‘A Consequence of Discovery’, pp.73–4. For a brief and useful survey of sixteenth-century navigational techniques see J. H. Parry, 212 Notes

‘Pilotage and Navigation’, The Age of Reconnaissance. Discovery, Exploration and Settlement, 1450–1650 [1963] (London: Phoenix Press, 2000), pp.83–99. A fuller account is found in Waters, The Art of Navigation, vol. 1, Chapter 2, pp.39–77. Waters discusses the kamal on pp.53–4. 50 See A Journal of the First Voyage of Vasco da Gama, p.7n1. In relating this episode, the editor of the Journal relies on João de Barros, Décadas (1552). 51 McPherson, The Indian Ocean, p.138. 52 McPherson, The Indian Ocean, p.138. 53 ‘Verás as várias partes, que os insanos / Mares dividem, onde se apousentam / Várias Nações que mandam vários reis, / Vários costumes seus e várias leis.’ 54 Nabil Matar calls the poem ‘one of the most anti-Muslim epics in the national literature of Renaissance Europe’. Matar, Turks, Moors, and Englishmen in the Age of Discovery (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999), p.164. 55 McPherson, The Indian Ocean, p.189. 56 Martin Cortes, The Arte of Nauigation, trans. Richard Eden (London: Richard Jugge, 1561), sig. CC.i.r. My italics.

7 Virolet and Martia the Pirate’s Daughter: Gender and Genre in Fletcher and Massinger’s The Double Marriage

1 The Double Marriage must have been premiered before 5 July 1623, when one of its actors, Nicholas Tooley, was buried; most commentators agree on 1620–1. See G. E. Bentley, The Jacobean and Caroline Stage, 7 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1941–68), 3: p.331; Bertha Hensman, The Shares of Fletcher, Field and Massinger in Twelve Plays of the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon, Salzburg Studies in English Literature (Salzburg: Institut für Englishe Sprache, 1974), pp.189–93; Cyrus Hoy (ed.) The Double Marriage, in The Dramatic Works in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon, gen. ed. Fredson Bowers, vol. 9 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), p.97. 2 The Sea Voyage was licensed by the Master of the Revels, Sir Henry Herbert, on 22 June 1622. The Island Princess was performed at court on 26 December 1621 and it is generally thought to have been premiered between 1619 and 1621. See Fredson Bowers (ed.) The Sea Voyage, in Dramatic Works, vol. 9, p.3; Bentley, Jacobean and Caroline Stage, 3: pp.347–50. Most commentators agree that The Unnatural Combat dates from the mid-1620s. See Philip Edwards and Colin Gibson (eds) The Plays and Poems of Philip Massinger, 5 vols (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976), 3: pp.181–4; Claire Jowitt, ‘Piracy and Court Scandals in Massinger’s The Unnatural Combat’, Cahiers Elisabethains, 67 (2005), 33–41. There is some agreement that the extant text of Love’s Cure represents a Beaumont and Fletcher collaboration as it was reworked by Massinger, possibly after Fletcher’s death in 1625. See Bentley, Jacobean and Caroline Stage, 3: p.365; Cyrus Hoy, ‘The Shares of Fletcher and his Collaborators in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon (VI)’, Studies in Bibliography, 14 (1961), 46–69; George Walton Williams (ed.) Love’s Cure, in Dramatic Works in the Beaumont and Fletcher Canon, gen. ed. Bowers, vol. 3 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), pp.3–7. Notes 213

3 See Simon Shepherd, Amazons and Warrior Women: Varieties of Feminism in Seventeenth Century Drama (Brighton: Harvester, 1981), pp.84–7; Sandra Clark, ‘Hic Mulier, Haec Vir, and the Controversy over Masculine Women’, Studies in Philology, 82 (1985), 157–83. On The Sea Voyage see Gordon McMullan, The Politics of Unease in the Plays of John Fletcher (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1994), pp.235–54; Michael Hattaway, ‘“Seeing Things”: Amazons and Cannibals’, in Travel and Drama in Shakespeare’s Time, ed. Jean-Pierre Maquerlot and Michèle Willems (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.179–92; Claire Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics, 1589–1642 (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003), pp.196–213. 4 Part One of The Fair Maid of the West seems to have been written towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth I, while Part Two was probably written to accompany the revival of Part One c. 1631. See Bentley, Jacobean and Caroline Stage, 4: pp.568–71; Robert K. Turner (ed.) The Fair Maid of the West, Parts I and II (London: Edward Arnold, 1968), xi–xiv. 5 See Jean E. Howard, ‘An English Lass Among the Moors: Gender, Race, Sexuality and National Identity in Heywood’s The Fair Maid of the West’, in Women, ‘Race’, and Writing in the Early Modern Period (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), pp.101–17; Charles Crupi, ‘Subduing Bess Bridges: Ideological Shift in the Two Parts of The Fair Maid of the West’, Cahiers Elisabethains, 54 (1998), 75–87; Barbara Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires: Pirates, Renegadoes, and the English Nation’, English Literary History, 67 (2000), 45–69. 6 See Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics, esp. pp.140–90. Fuchs notes that piracy was ‘a constant source of tension and embarrassment for the Jacobean state’ (‘Faithless Empires’, p.45). 7 See, for instance, Shepherd, Amazons and Warrior Women, pp.179–201; Ira Clark, The Moral Art of Philip Massinger (London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1993), pp.191–204; Sandra Clark, The Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher: Sexual Themes and Dramatic Representation (London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994), pp.74–7, 125–6. 8 Paul Salzman, Literary Culture in Jacobean England: Reading 1621 (Houndmills: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), pp.101–3. 9 Hoy (ed.) The Double Marriage, 2.1.32, 2.1.67SD. All references are to this edition. 10 On The Double Marriage as tragicomedy see Eugene Waith, The Pattern of Tragicomedy in Beaumont and Fletcher (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952), pp.132–4; Suzanne Gossett, The Influence of the Jacobean Masque on the Plays of Beaumont and Fletcher (New York: Garland, 1988), pp.256–66. 11 For an account of the development of ‘the idea of women pirates’ see Jo Stanley (ed.) Bold in her Breeches: Women Pirates Across the Ages (London: Pandora, 1995). 12 See Mary O’Dowd, ‘Gráinne O’Malley [Grace] (fl. 1577–1597)’, in The Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004); Anne Chambers, Granuaile: The Life and Times of Grace O’Malley, c. 1530–1603, revised edn. (Dublin: Wolfhound Press, 1998). 13 Eugene Waith, ‘The Sources of The Double Marriage by Fletcher and Massinger’, Modern Language Notes, 64 (1949), 505–10. See also Hensman, Shares of Fletcher, Field and Massinger, pp.173–89. 214 Notes

14 For texts see The Elder Seneca: Declamations, trans. M. Winterbottom, Loeb Classical Library, 2 vols (London: William Heinemann, 1974), 1: pp.135–51 (‘The Pirate Chief’s Daughter’); 2: pp.317–45 (‘The Woman who was Tortured by the Tyrant for her Husband’s Sake’). 15 See 3.3.248–55. 16 Martia’s sexual preoccupation is clear in her plea to Virolet, ‘Receive me to your love, sir, and instruct me; | Receive me to your bed, and marry me’ (2.4.152–3). 17 The phrase ‘hal’d the Barke’ may indicate that Martia hoisted the boat’s sails, but ‘hal’d’ may also pun on hail (to call), often used in nautical con- texts. If so, Fletcher and Massinger are suggesting her unruly speech: she is not only physically active, but also disruptively noisy. 18 A comparison can be drawn with Love’s Cure, in which the excessively fem- inine and housewifely Lucio is told by Bobadilla ‘you have a better needle, I know, and might make better work, if you had grace to use it’ (1.2.17–18). 19 The Old Arcadia, ed. Katherine Duncan Jones (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp.24–5. As Lisa Jardine notes, the reworking of this passage in The New Arcadia is even more provocatively sexual; see Still Harping on Daughters: Women and Drama in the Age of Shakespeare (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1983), p.36. 20 Jardine, Still Harping on Daughters, p.29. 21 Kathryn Schwartz, Tough Love: Amazon Encounters in the English Renaissance (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 2000), p.5. 22 See Jacques Heers, The Barbary Corsairs: Warfare in the Mediterranean, 1480–1580, trans. Jonathan North (London: Greenhill, 2003), 232–6. 23 This moment also strongly recalls the Jacobean masque. See Gossett, Influence, who notes that ‘Martia is presenting herself, and the role she has chosen is that of the scornful conqueress’ (p.261). 24 See D’Orsay W. Pearson, ‘“Unkinde” Theseus: A Study in Renaissance Mythography’, English Literary Renaissance, 4 (1974), 276–98. 25 Like most of the Fletcher/Massinger collaborations, The Double Marriage was first published in the ‘Beaumont and Fletcher’ folio collections of 1647 and 1679. 26 See Anthony Parr (ed.) Three Renaissance Travel Plays (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995), p.22; McMullan, Politics of Unease, pp.197–256. Like The Tempest, The Unnatural Combat is preoccupied with the problematic relationship between father and daughter, acting out The Tempest’s latent sexual tensions in its portrayal of Malefort’s lust for his daughter Theocrine, and Theocrine’s rape by a man who was once a suitor to her own mother. 27 On parallels between The Double Marriage and The Tempest see David Norbrook ‘“What cares these roarers for the name of King”: Language and Utopia in The Tempest’, in The Politics of Tragicomedy: Shakespeare and After, ed. Gordon McMullan and Jonathan Hope (London: Routledge, 1992), pp.21–54 (p.35); McMullan, Politics of Unease, p.183; Kevin Pask, ‘Caliban’s Masque’, English Literary History, 70 (2003), 739–56 (p.741). 28 Stephen Orgel (ed.) The Tempest (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), 1.2.152–3. 29 Erasmus, Apophthegmes […] Now Translated into Englyshe by Nicolas Udall (London: Richard Grafton, 1542), 2C1r. Notes 215

30 ‘A Pyrate’, in Sir Thomas Overbury his Wife […] As Also New Newes, and Divers More Characters (London: Edward Griffin for Laurence L’Isle, 1616), H7r. 31 In this respect, The Double Marriage can again be compared with The Unnatural Combat, which in its early scenes creates unnerving parallels between Malefort, an admiral who boasts of the spoil he has taken through privateering, and his pirate son, Malefort Junior, who is eventually killed by Malefort. See Jowitt, ‘Piracy and Court Scandal’, 33–41. 32 Thomas Adams, ‘The Spirituall Navigator, Bound for the Holy Land’, in The Blacke Devil or the Apostate Together with The Wolfe Worrying The Lambes and The Spiritual Navigator, Bound For The Holy Land (London: William Jaggard, 1615), D2v. 33 See Verna A. Foster, ‘Sex Averted or Converted: Sexuality and Tragicomic Genre in the Plays of John Fletcher’, Studies in English Literature 32 (1992), 311–22.

8 Sir Francis Drake’s Ghost: Piracy, Cultural Memory, and Spectral Nationhood

1 Cheah, Spectral Nationality: Passages of Freedom from Kant to Postcolonial Literatures of Liberation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2003), p.1. 2 Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983; London: Verso, 1991). 3 For discussion, see my chapter ‘Forgetting the Ulster Plantation’ in England’s Internal Colonies: Class, Capital, and the Literature of Early Modern English Colonialism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp.171–99, as well as Philip Schwyzer, Literature, Nationalism, and Memory in Early Modern England and Wales (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2004). On theories of memory, see especially Kerwin Lee Klein, ‘On the Emergence of Memory in Historical Discourse,’ Representations, 69 (Winter 2000) 127–50, Pierre Nora (ed.) Realms of Memory: Rethinking the French Past, 3 vols, trans. Arthur Goldhammer (New York: Columbia University Press, 1996), and Paul Ricoeur, Memory, History, Forgetting, trans. Kathleen Blamey and David Pellauer (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 2004). 4 Quoted in W. T. Jewkes, ‘Sir Francis Drake Revived: From Letters to Legend,’ in Norman J. W. Thrower (ed.) Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, 1577–1580: Essays Commemorating the Quadricentennial of Drake’s Circum- navigation of the Earth (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), p.119. 5 The BBC had aired a program called ‘Drake’s Drum’ in August 1940, which might explain the guardsmen’s subsequent collective hallucination; see John Sugden, Sir Francis Drake (London: Barrie & Jenkins, 1990), p.323. 6 See Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger (eds) The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983). 7 The story of Drake at bowls has a long history, first appearing in Thomas Scott’s Second Part of Vox Populi (London: William Jones, 1624); see Harry Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake: The Queen’s Pirate (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), p.321. 8 On posthumous images of Drake, see Jewkes, ‘Sir Francis Drake Revived’; John Cummins, ‘“That Golden Knight”: Drake and his Reputation,’ History 216 Notes

Today, 46 (January 1996) 14–21; Christopher Hodgkins, ‘Stooping to Conquer: Heathen Idolatry and Protestant Humility in the Imperial Legend of Sir Francis Drake’, Studies in Philology, 94 (1997) 428–64. 9 Jewkes, ‘Sir Francis Drake Revived’, p.112. 10 See Benjamin P. Draper, ‘A Collection of Drake Bibliographic Items, 1569–1659’ in Thrower, Sir Francis Drake and the Famous Voyage, pp.173–206. 11 My point is influenced by Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari’s discussion of ‘minor literature’ in Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, trans. Dana Polan (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1986), esp. 16–27. 12 On ‘official nationalism’ see Anderson, Imagined Communities, pp.83–111. 13 David Lloyd, ‘Nationalisms Against the State’, in Lisa Lowe and David Lloyd (eds) The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital (Durham: Duke University Press, 1997), pp.173–97. 14 For a related discussion, see my chapter ‘A Nation of Pirates’ in England’s Internal Colonies, esp. pp.51–73. 15 William Shakespeare, 2 Henry IV, ed. A.R. Humphreys, Arden Shakespeare (London and New York: Routledge, 1989). 16 Henry Robarts, A most friendly farewell, Giuen by a welwiller to the right wor- shipful Sir Frauncis Drake knight (London: Walter Mantell and Thomas Lawe, 1585), sig. A2v. 17 The Elizabethan state also had an interest in barring published accounts of Drake’s voyages, which Spanish merchants could use as evidence in claim- ing remuneration. On efforts to prevent a literal ‘accounting’ of Drake’s profits, see Kelsey, pp.214–17. 18 See, for example, Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations Voyages Traffiques & Discoveries of the English Nation (1598–1600; London: J. M. Dent, 1927), 10 vols, pp.7:77–97. 19 Peele, A Farewell. Entituled to the famous and fortunate Generalls of our English forces: Sir Iohn Norris & Syr Frauncis Drake (London: I. C, 1589), sig. A3. 20 Haslop, Newes ovt of the Coast of Spaine (London: W. How, 1587), sigs. B2–B2v. 21 Quint, Epic and Empire: Politics and Generic Form from Virgil to Milton (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993), p.248. 22 Quint, Epic and Empire, p.249. 23 Quint, Epic and Empire, pp.76–83, 139–47. Other texts, by contrast, placed Drake in the framework of epic: see, for instance, William Goodyear’s trans- lation of Jean de Cartigny’s The voyage of the wandering Knight (London: Thomas East, 1581), a text dedicated to Drake. 24 Nerlich, Ideology of Adventure: Studies in Modern Consciousness, 1100–1750, Volume 1, trans. Ruth Crowley (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1987), p.116. 25 Nerlich, Ideology of Adventure, p.112. 26 Stevenson, Praise and Paradox: Merchants and Craftsmen in Elizabethan Popular Culture (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 27 Étienne Balibar, ‘Citizen Subject’, in Who Comes After the Subject, ed. Eduardo Cadava et al. (New York: Routledge, 1991), pp.33–57; John Michael Archer, Citizen Shakespeare: Freemen and Aliens in the Language of the Plays (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2005); Julia Reinhard Lupton, Citizen- Saints: Shakespeare and Political Theology (Chicago and London: University of Notes 217

Chicago Press, 2005). Among earlier studies, see Patrick Collinson, ‘De Republica Anglorum: Or History with the Politics Put Back’ and ‘The Monarchical Republic of Queen Elizabeth I’, in Elizabethan Essays (London: Hambledon, 1994), pp.1–30, 31–57 and J. G. A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment: Florentine Political Thought and the Atlantic Republican Tradition (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1975). 28 On a related note, Deleuze and Guattari argue that a ‘collective’ value and function is a key characteristic of ‘minor literature’, Kafka: Toward a Minor Literature, p.17. 29 Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 8: p.194. 30 Mary Fuller, Voyages in Print: English Travel to America, 1576–1624 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.141–74. 31 Richard Helgerson, Forms of Nationhood: The Elizabethan Writing of England (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), pp.187, 175. 32 Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 1: p.19. 33 For an expanded discussion of this issue, see my England’s Internal Colonies, esp. pp.91–134. 34 Cheah, Spectral Nationality, p.12. 35 Among other sources on this topic, see Anne Barton, ‘Harking Back to Elizabeth: Ben Jonson and Caroline Nostalgia’, ELH, 48 (1981) 706–31. 36 D. R. Woolf, ‘Two Elizabeths? James I and the Late Queen’s Famous Memory’, Canadian Journal of History 20 (1985) 167–91; Curtis Perry, ‘The Citizen Politics of Nostalgia: Queen Elizabeth in Early Jacobean London’, Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, 23 (1993) 89–111, republished in The Making of Jacobean Culture: James I and the Renegotiation of Elizabethan Literary Practice (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1997), pp.153–87; John Watkins, Representing Elizabeth in Stuart England: Literature, History, Sovereignty (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2002). 37 Fuller, Voyages in Print, p.15. 38 Claire Jowitt, Voyage Drama and Gender Politics 1589–1642 (Manchester: Manchester UP, 2003), pp.61–103, 140–90. 39 Elizabeth Frye, ‘The Myth of Elizabeth I at Tilbury’, Sixteenth Century Journal, 23 (1992) 95–114. 40 Thomas Heywood, If You Know Not Me You Know Nobody Part II, ed. Madeleine Doran (Oxford: Malone Society Reprints, 1935). Unless otherwise noted, I have cited the expanded 1633 version of the Armada scenes throughout. On the differences between this edition and the 1606 quarto, see Doran’s introduction as well as Teresa Grant, ‘Drama Queen: Staging Elizabeth in If You Know Not Me You Know Nobody’, in The Myth of Elizabeth, ed. Susan Doran and Thomas S. Freeman (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp.120–42. 41 Ernest Renan, ‘What is a Nation?’ in Homi K. Bhabha (ed.) Nation and Narration (London and New York: Routledge, 1990), pp.8–22. Cf. Anderson’s discussion of Renan in Imagined Communities, pp.199–201. 42 On the forgetting of Drake during his own lifetime, see also Haslop, sigs. A3–A3v. 43 Fredric Jameson, ‘Marx’s Purloined Letter’, in Michael Sprinker (ed.) Ghostly Demarcations: A Symposium on Jacques Derrida’s Specters of Marx (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), p.60. 218 Notes

44 Jaques Derrida, Specters of Marx: The State of the Debt, the Work of Mourning, and the New International, trans. Peggy Kamuf (New York and London: Routledge, 1994), p.6. 45 Derrida, Specters of Marx, p.39. 46 Derrida, Specters of Marx, p.6. 47 Claire McEachern, The Poetics of English Nationhood, 1590–1612 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p.6. 48 Among references to Drake, see Michael Drayton, Poly-Olbion, 19:308–22 and William Browne, Britannia’s Pastorals, Book 2, Song 3, p.43; Book II, Song 4, p.69; Book III, Song 1, p.139; Book III, Song 1, p.152, in The Whole Works, ed. W. Carew Hazlitt (New York and Hildesheim: Georg Olms Verlag, 1970). 49 Michelle O’Callaghan, The ‘Shepheards Nation’: Jacobean Spenserians and Early Stuart Political Culture, 1612–1625 (Oxford: Clarendon, 2000), p.128. 50 O’Callaghan, The ‘Shepheards Nation’, p.112. 51 Thomas Cogswell, The Blessed Revolution: English Politics and the Coming of War, 1621–1624 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p.97. 52 David Norbrook, Poetry and Politics in the English Renaissance (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), p.198. 53 William Camden, The History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth Late Queen of England, ed. Wallace T. MacCaffrey (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p.209; William Davenant, The Dramatic Works of Sir William D’Avenant, vol. 4 (New York: Russell & Russell, 1964), pp.53, 55, 58, 65. 54 Karl Marx, Capital: A Critique of Political Economy, trans. David Fernbach (London: Penguin/New Left Review, 1981), p.3:448. For a relevant discus- sion, see Barbara Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires: Pirates, Renagadoes, and the English Nation’, ELH, 67 (2000) 45–69. 55 Browne, Britannia’s Pastorals Book 2, Song 4, pp.89–90. 56 Fuller, The Holy State, p.140. 57 Joan Pong Linton, The Romance of the New World: Gender and the Literary Formations of English Colonialism (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1998), p.45. William Camden was the first to posit a connection between Drake and the founding of the East India Company (History, p.301). 58 Brenner, Merchants and Revolution: Commercial Change, Political Conflict, and London’s Overseas Traders, 1550–1653 (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1993).

9 Scaffold Performances: The Politics of Pirate Execution

1 Atkinson Clinton and Thomas Walton, Clinton, Purser & Arnold, to their countreymen wheresoever (London: John Woolfe, 1583); Thomas Heywood and William Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, ed. Herman Doh (New York: Garland, 1980). 2 Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: the Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (London: Penguin, 1977), p.34. 3 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p.49. 4 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, pp.59–60. Notes 219

5 See Anna R. Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh and his readers in the Seventeenth Century (Basingstoke; Macmillan, 1997), pp.82–108. 6 C. L’Estrange Ewen, ‘Organised Piracy round England in the Sixteenth Century’, The Mariner’s Mirror, 35 (1949) 29–42 7 J. A. Sharpe, ‘“Last Dying Speeches”: Religion, ideology and public execu- tion in seventeenth-century England’, Past and Present, 107 (1985), 147–65. 8 Samuel Rowlands, Epilogue. Thus Hart to Dimond yields his place, from The Knave of Harts. Haile Fellow, well met (London; 1613), lines 13–18. 9 Leslie Hotson, ‘Pirates in Parchment’, The Atlantic Monthly (August 1927), 1–11, 2. 10 John Stow, A Survey of London, ed. Charles Lethbridge Kingsford (Oxford: Clarendon, 1908), 2 vols, II, Chapter 59. 11 John Stow, The Annales of England (London: 1605), p.1175. 12 Venetian breeches were well fitting and finished below the knee with points, the material was covered with panes (diamond-shaped openings) which made the lining visible. 13 Andrew Gurr, The Shakespearean Stage, 1574–1642 (Cambridge: CUP, 1980), p.13. 14 See Ann Rosalind Jones and Peter Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing and the Materials of Memory (Cambridge: CUP, 2000). 15 See C. M. Senior, A Nation of Pirates: English Piracy in its Heyday (New York: Crane, Russack & Co., 1976); Kenneth R. Andrews, ‘The expansion of English privateering and piracy in the Atlantic, c.1540–1625’, in Course et Piraterie, ed. Michel Mollat (Paris: Institut de Recherche et d’Histoire des Textes Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, 1975), 2 vols, I, pp.196–230, p.200; Peter Earle, The Pirate Wars (London: Methuen, 2003), p.22. 16 John C. Appleby, ‘War, Politics and Colonization, 1558–1625’, in The Origins of Empire, ed. Nicholas Canny (Oxford: OUP, 1998), pp.60–6. 17 See Appleby, ‘War, Politics and Colonization’, p.63; see also Kenneth R. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering: English Privateering during the Spanish War, 1585–1603, (Cambridge: CUP, 1964), pp.202–3. 18 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p.60. 19 See Anna Beer, ‘Textual Politics: The Execution of Sir Walter Ralegh’, Modern Philology, 94 (1996), 19–38. 20 Foucault, Discipline and Punish, p.67. 21 See Sharpe, ‘“Last dying speeches”’, 147–165; see also Tessa Watt, Cheap Print and Popular Piety 1550–1640 (Cambridge: CUP, 1991). 22 Peter Lake and Michael Questier, The Anti-Christ’s Lewd Hat: Protestants, Papists and Players in Post-Reformation England (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 2002). 23 Lake, The Anti-Christ’s Lewd Hat, xxi. 24 Lake, The Anti-Christ’s Lewd Hat, xxi. 25 Lake, The Anti-Christ’s Lewd Hat, xxi. 26 Edward Arber, A Transcript of the registers of the Company of Stationers of London, 1554–1640 A.D. (Gloucester, Massachusetts: P. Smith, 1967), 5 vols, II, p.197, 210b. See also Mark Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies: Class, Capital, and the Literature of Early Modern English Colonialism (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), pp.51–90. 220 Notes

27 Netzloff, England’s Internal Colonies, p.66. 28 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A2r. 29 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A2v. 30 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A2v. 31 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A2v. 32 See J. H. Elliot, Imperial Spain 1469–1716 (London: Penguin, 1963). On English interventions in the colonial activities of other European nation states see K. R. Andrews et al. (eds) The Westward Enterprise: English Activities in Ireland, the Atlantic and America, 1480–1650 (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1979); D. B. Quinn and A. N. Ryan, England’s Sea Empire, 1550–1642 (Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1983); Appleby ‘War, Politics and Colonization, 1558–1625’, pp.55–78. 33 See Pauline Croft, ‘Trading with the Enemy 1585–1604’, The Historical Journal, 32 (1989), 281–302. 34 On the influence of de las Casas’ text see Thomas Scanlan, Colonial Writing and the New World 1583–1671 (Cambridge: CUP, 1999), pp.8–32. 35 On English seafaring alliances with the Huguenots, see N. A. M. Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea: A Naval History of Britain 660–1649 (New York and London: Norton, 1997), pp.238–48. 36 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A3v. 37 G. Anstruther, The Seminary Priests, 4 vols (Ware and Great Wakering, 1968–1977), I, p.251. See Lake, The Anti-Christ’s Lewd Hat, p.219. 38 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, A4r. 39 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, Bv. 40 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, Bv. 41 Clinton, Purser & Arnold, B2r. 42 Rodger, The Safeguard of the Sea, p.244. 43 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, pp.202–3. 44 L’Estrange Ewen, ‘Organized Piracy’, 42. 45 See C. L’Estrange Ewen, ‘Pirates of Purbeck’, Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society, 71 (1949), 88–109. 46 On dating the play see Herman Doh, ‘Introduction’ in Fortune by Land and Sea, pp.32–7. 47 See Barbara Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires: Pirates, Renegadoes and the English Nation’, English Literary History, 67 (2000), 45–69, 52. 48 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, lines 2200, 2208. 49 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, lines 2245–7. 50 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, lines 2250–3. 51 Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing, p.204. 52 Jones and Stallybrass, Renaissance Clothing, p.196. 53 Anna Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh, p.88; British Library, MS Harley 6353, f.85v. 54 See Janice E. Thomson, Mercenaries, Pirates and Sovereigns: State-Building and Extraterritorial Violence in Early Modern Europe (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996). 55 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, lines 1682–5. 56 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, lines 1850–1. 57 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, line 1698. 58 Heywood and Rowley, Fortune by Land and Sea, line 1759. Notes 221

59 See Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, pp.22–31. 60 A Royal Proclamation By the King. A Proclamation against Pirates, Whitehall, 8 January 1609, in Three Turk Plays from Early Modern England, ed. Daniel Vitkus (New York; Columbia University Press, 2000), p.353; David Delison Hebb, Piracy and the English Government, 1616–1642 (Aldershot: Scolar, 1994), p.9. 61 Earle, The Pirate Wars, p.58; see also Chapter 2 of this volume by John C. Appleby, ‘The Problem of Piracy in Ireland 1570–1630’, pp.41–55. 62 See Rosalind Davies, ‘“The Great Day of Mart”: Returning to Texts at the Trial of Sir Walter Ralegh in 1603’, Renaissance Forum, 4 (1999), 12 pages; http://www.hull.ac.uk/renforum/v4no1/davies.htm 63 See William Stebbing, Sir Walter Raleigh. A Biography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1891), p.230. 64 The title ‘The Last of the Elizabethans’ was coined by Edward Thompson in 1935 and repeated by A. L. Rowse, Hugh Trevor-Roper and Stephen Coote. See Davies, ‘“The Great Day of Mart”’, 1. 65 On the different manuscript and printed versions of Ralegh’s speech see Beer, ‘Textual Politics: The Execution of Sir Walter Ralegh’, 19–38, 35. 66 Davies, ‘“The Great Day of Mart”’, 1. 67 Quoted by Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh, p.97. 68 See Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh, pp.97–104. 69 See R. H. Bowers, ‘Raleigh’s Last Speech: The “Elms” Document’, The Review of English Studies, 2, 7 (1951), 209–16. 70 Quoted by Beer, Textual Politics: The Execution of Sir Walter Ralegh’, 28. 71 Lewis Stukeley, To the Kings most Excellent Maiestie. The humble petition and information of Sir Lewis Stucley, Knight, Vice-admirall of Devon, touch- ing his owne behaviour in the charge committed unto him, for the bringing up of Sir Walter Raleigh, and the scandalous aspersions cast upon him for the same (London: Bonham Norton and John Bill, 1618); Francis Bacon, A Declaration of the Demeanor and Cariage of Sir Walter Raleigh, Knight, as well in his voyage, as in, and sithence his returne and of the true motiues and inducements which occasioned His Maiestie to proceed in doing iustice vpon him, as hath bene done (London: Bonham Norton and John Bill, 1618). See Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh, pp.96–7; Bowers, ‘Raleigh’s Last Speech’, 15. 72 Ralegh, Sir Walter Raleigh his Apologie for his voyage to Guiana (London: Humphrey Moseley, 1650), p.4. 73 See Fuchs, ‘Faithless Empires’, 45–69; Daniel Vitkus, Turning Turk: English Theater and the Multicultural Mediterranean (London and New York: Palgrave, 2003). 74 Ralegh, Sir Walter Raleigh his Apologie, p.25. 75 Francis Bacon, A Declaration, pp.20–2. 76 See Beer, Sir Walter Ralegh, p.84. 77 Bacon, A Declaration, pp.4–5. 78 Bacon, A Declaration, p.14. 79 Ralegh, Sir Walter Raleigh his Apologie, pp.25–6. 80 For details of this ‘Elizabethan’ reading of the scaffold speech see Beer, ‘Textual Politics: The Execution of Sir Walter Ralegh’, 29–30. 222 Notes

10 Of Pirates, Slaves, and Diplomats: Anglo-American Writing about the Maghrib in the Age of Empire

1 George Bush, The Life of Mohammed (1830; rpt. San Diego, CA: Book Tree, 2002), pp.196, 197. 2 See Nabil Matar, Islam in Britain, 1558–1685 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), Chapter 5, ‘Eschatology and the Saracens’, pp.153–83. For the use of prophecy in pre-Reformation anti-Islamic propa- ganda, see Kenneth M. Setton, Western Hostility to Islam and Prophecies of Turkish Doom (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1999). 3 I have used ‘English’ throughout when referring to writers and writings of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries since a key concern here is with the place of these writers and their works upon the develop- ment of a national literature that has most commonly been referred to as ‘English literature’, and reserved ‘British’ for the political and military forces from which the late eighteenth-century New World colonialists sought independence. 4 See MacLean, ‘Literature, Culture, and Society in Restoration England’, in Gerald MacLean (ed.) Culture and Society in the Stuart Restoration: Literature, Drama, History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.3–27, and The Rise of Oriental Travel: English Visitors to the Ottoman Empire, 1580–1720 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2004). 5 See MacLean, ‘On Turning Turk, or Trying to: National Identity in Robert Daborne’s “A Christian Turn’d Turke”,’ Explorations in Renaissance Culture, 29:2 (Winter, 2003), 225–52. 6 See MacLean, Time’s Witness: Historical Representation in English Poetry, 1603–1660 (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990), Chapter 2, ‘English Poetry and the Struggle for a National History’, pp.64–126. 7 Andrew Boorde, The Breviary of Healthe, for all maner of sicknesses and dis- eases the which may be in man or woman, doth followe. Expressing the obscure terms of Greke, Araby, Latyn, and Barbary, in to Englishe concernyng Phisicke and Chierurgerie (London: William Middleton, 1547; rpt. 1548, 1552, 1556, 1557, 1575, 1587, 1598). 8 Citing Polidore Virgil and Froissart, R. L. Playfair dates the earliest Anglo- Maghribian encounter to 1390, when a combined force of English and French soldiers set out to assist the Genoese against attacks from ‘Barbary corsairs’, The Scourge of Christendom (London: Smith, Elder, 1884), p.1. 9 Adam Anderson, An Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, From the Earliest Accounts to the Present time 2 vols (London: A. Millar et al., 1764), 1: 239. 10 Cited in Richard Hakluyt, The Principal Navigations, Voyages, Traffiques and Discoveries of the English Nation 8 vols (1589; rpt. London: Dent, 1907), 4: 21. 11 Anderson, Historical and Chronological Deduction, 1: 312. For Roberts’s obser- vations on the origins of the Levant Company in the Barbary trade, see Lewes Roberts, The Merchants Map of Commerce: Wherein the Universal Manner and Matter of Trade is Compendiously Handled (1638; rpt. London: R. Horne, 1671), pp.269–70. 12 Hakluyt, Principal Navigations, 4: 32–3, 33–35. See T. S. Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade (1959; rpt. Manchester: Manchester University Notes 223

Press, 1968), pp.98, 118–20, 168–71; Susan Skilliter, William Harborne and the Trade with Turkey 1578–1582 (London: British Academy, 1977), p.23; and pp.107–8, for translations of the safe-conducts. 13 Rhoads Murphey, ‘Merchants, Nations and Free Agency: An Attempt at a Qualitative Characterization of Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1620–1640’, in Alastair Hamilton et al. (eds) Friends and Rivals in the East: Studies in Anglo-Dutch Relations in the Levant from the Seventeenth to the Early Nineteenth Century (Leiden: Brill, 2000), pp.25–58 (p.30). 14 Late Newes out of Barbary. In A Letter written of late from a Merchant there to a Gentl. not long since imployed into that countrie from his majestie (London: Arthur Jonson, 1613), preface. 15 J[ohn] B[utton], Algiers Voyage in a Journall or Briefe Reportary of all occurents hapning in the fleet of ships sent out by the King his most excellent Majestie, as well against the Pirates of Algiers, as others (London: B. Alsop, 1621), sig. A3v. 16 Playfair, Scourge, p.38. 17 See David Hebb, Piracy and the English Government, 1616–1642 (Aldershot: Scolar, 1994), pp.105–7, 79. 18 Edward Webbe, The Rare and most wonderfull things which Edw. Webbe an Englishman borne, hath seene and passed in his troublesome travailes, in the cities of Jerusalem, Damasko, Bethlehem and Galely: and in the landes of Jewrie, Egypt, Grecia, Russia, and Prester John (London: William Wright, 1590), sig. A4v. 19 Webbe, Rare and most wonderfull things, sig. Bv. 20 Webbe, Rare and most wonderful things, sigs. B5–C3v. 21 Webbe, Rare and most wonderful things, sig. D. 22 ‘Mr. Robert’s his Voyage to the Levant, with an Account of his sufferings amongst the Corsairs, their Villanous way of Living, and his Description of the Archipelago islands. Together with his Relation of Taking, and Retaking of Scio, in the year 1696’, in William Hacke (ed.) A Collection of Original Voyages (London: J. Knapton, 1699), p.13. 23 William Okeley, Eben-Ezer: Or, A Small Monument of Great Mercy (London: Nat. Ponder, 1675), Preface, sig. A8. 24 For an example of a seventeenth-century captive who assailed the Dutch, ‘a Low-Country people’ with ‘feign’d professions of Christianity’, rather than those professing ‘Mahumetisme’, see Emanuel D’Aranda, The History of Algiers And it’s Slavery with Many Remarkable Particularities of Africk. Written by Sieur Emanuel D’Aranda, Sometime a Slave there. Englished by John Davies of Kidwelly (London: John Starkey, 1666), sig. A2v. 25 Anon., The Arrivall and Intertainements of the Embassador, Alkaid Janrar Ben Abdella, with his Associate, Mr. Robert Blacke. From the High and Mighty Prince, Mulley Mahamed Sheque, Emperor of Morocco, King of Fesse, and Suss (London: J. Okes, 1637), p.3. 26 Peter Earle, Corsairs of Malta and Barbary (London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1970), p.1. 27 W. Montgomery Watt, The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe (1972; rpt. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1987), p.84. 28 See Royall Tyler, The Algerine Captive; Or, The Life and Adventures of Doctor Updike Underhill: Six Years a Prisoner among the Algerines (‘Published accord- ing to Act of Congress. Printed at Walpole, Newhampshire, By David 224 Notes

Carlisle, Jun. 1797’); John Foss, A Journal of the Captivity and Sufferings of John Foss; Several Years a Prisoner at Algiers (Second Edition ‘Published according to an Act of Congress. Newburyport, MA: Printed by Angier March’, [1798]). James Riley’s An Authentic Narrative of he loss of the American Brig Commerce, wrecked on the Western Coast of Africa, in the month of August 1815 (New York: For the Author, 1817) was reprinted twenty two times, making it one of Young America’s best-sellers. See Gordon Evans, ed., Sufferings in Africa (New York: Potter, 1965), H. G. Barnby, The Prisoners of Algiers: An Account of the Forgotten American-Algerian War, 1785–1797 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966), and Osman Bencherif, The Image of Algeria in Anglo-American Writings, 1785–1962 (Lanham, MA: University Press of America, 1997). 29 David Humphreys, Poems by Col. David Humphreys, Late Aid-de-Camp to His Excellency General Washington. Second Edition: With Several Additions (Philadelphia: Mathew Carey, 1789), p.iii. 30 David Humphreys, A Poem on the Happiness of America; Addressed to the Citizens of the United States (London: [n.pub.], 1786?]), pp.2–4. 31 Humphreys, Poem, p.44. 32 Humphreys, Poem, p.44. 33 Humphreys, Poem, p.37. 34 Humphreys, Poem, p.45. 35 Humphreys, Poem, p.45. 36 Humphreys, Poem, pp.45–6. 37 Humphreys, Poem, p.46. Daniel Morgan (1736–1802) was commissioned in 1776 to raise a brigade of sharpshooters in Virginia, and in 1781 led the cavalry regiment that won a decisive victory at the battle of Cowpens: see Robert Don Higginbottom, Daniel Morgan: Revolutionary Rifleman (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1961) and North Callahan, Daniel Morgan: Ranger of the Revolution (New York: Holt, 1961). Marie Joseph Paul Yves Roch Gilbert Du Motier, the Maquis de Lafayette (1757–1834) was a French statesman who traveled to the New World in 1777 to fight the British along- side George Washington. Much celebrated after the Revolutionary War, the number of towns bearing his name throughout the Mid-West may confirm the popular belief that he was eager to help populate the new nation. Friedrich Wilhelm Ludolf Gerhard Augustin, Baron von Stueben (1730–94), was a pro- fessional Prussian soldier who arrived in 1777 and introduced techniques of military training unknown to either the French or British armies at the time. His ‘Regulations for the Order and Discipline of the Troops of the United States’ formed the basis for the ‘blue book’ later adopted at the United States Military Academy, West Point. Henry Knox (1750–1806) was Washington’s Secretary of War. He proved brilliantly efficient at keeping the Revolutionary army supplied with artillery and other supplies, and helped found the United States Military Academy, West Point: see North Callahan, Henry Knox: George Washington’s General (New York: Rinehart, 1958). Other references can be found in Dumas Malone (ed.) Dictionary of American Biography (London: Oxford University Press and New York: Scribners, 1933). 38 Humphreys, Poem, p.49. 39 Humphreys, Poem, pp.49–50. 40 Humphreys, Poem, p.50. Notes 225

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Abd al-Karim Karim, 199n34 Anglo-French relations, 63, 65–7, 71,77, Abd al-Malik, Moroccan ruler, 61, 81–2, 152, 157–9, 222n8, 224n34 198n17 Anglo-Irish relations, 15, 42–5, 48, 51, Abd al-Qadir al-Mashrafi al-Jazairi, 61, 53–4, 120, 158 198n20 Anglo-Ottoman relations, 29, 60–1, Abderrahmane El Moudden, 198n17 71, 75, 82–4, 88, 91, 97, 170, 172, Abdesselem, Ahmed, 200n40 175–6, 203n47 Abu Abdallah Muhammad bin Anglo-Spanish relations, 12, 15, 25, Ayshun al-Sharat, 200n38 27–8, 37–8, 41, 44–7, 67, 71, 91, Abu Bakr Albu Khasibi, 197n1 116, 138, 144–8, 154–62, 166–8, Abu Ismail bin Awdah al-Mazari, 174–5, 192n58, 195n26, 201n8, 198n19 216n17 Adams, Thomas, 215n32 Spanish in the Channel, 1590–95, Admiralty Court, the, 33 74–89 Africa, 6, 15–16, 18, 48, 53, 56, 57, Anstruther, G., 220n37 61, 70, 108, 172, 177, 182–3 Antonio, Don, 81–82 Aghadir, 68 Appleby, J. C., 15, 109, 119, 163, Ahmad bin Muhammad Al-Maqqari, 196nn45, 48, 53, 197n55, 58–9, 61, 198n18 74, 219nn16–17, 221n61 Ahmad bin Muhammad bin al-Qadi, Arasaratnam, Sinnapah, 209n8 65 Arber, Edward, 219n26 Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Wansharisi, 62, Archer, John Michael, 142 199n26 Archer, John Michael, 216n27 al-Araish, 57 Armada, the, 12, 16, 45, 74, 76, 80, 82, Al-Fishtali, 199n34, 200n48 87–8, 138, 145–6, 160, 217n40 Al-Mazari, 61, 198n19, 200n50 Arnold, 156–60 al-Qadiri, Ahmad, 65, 199n35 Arwennack, 86 Al-Samarrai, Q., 198n6 Ashburnham, J., 188n30 al-Zayyani, 199n25, 200n50 Asin, Jaime Oliver, 200n53 Algeria, 15, 60, 67, 172, 182–3 Atkinson, C., 13, 18, 34, 151, 153–62, Algiers, 29, 66, 68, 174, 182–3 168, 190n22, 207n27, 218n1 Amazons, 17, 118, 120–9, 132–3, 167 Atlantic, 43, 46, 49, 55, 61 American national identity, 27, 67, Ayyar, Krishna K. V., 209nn7, 10 78–9, 86, 104, 137, 139, 165, 172, 178, 182, 191n29, 213n5 Bacon, Francis, 165–7, 221nn71, 75, Anand, R. P., 110, 209nn10, 13, 77–8 210nn15, 22 Baepler, Paul, 192n43 Anderson, Adam, 172–3, 222nn9, 11 Balibar, Étienne, 142, 216n27 Anderson, Benedict, 137, 215n2 Baltimore, 50, 52 Andrews, K. R., 25, 29, 188n32, Barbary states, 12–13, 29–31, 79, 88, 190nn22–3, 191nn28, 33, 172–4, 222n11 192nn53–5, 63, 193n78, 193n1, piracy and captivity in the early 205n9, 219nn15, 17, 220nn32, 59 modern Mediterranean, 56–73

236 Index 237

Barnby, H. G., 224n28 Bush, G., 222n1 Barrie, J. M., 13 Button, J., 174–5 Bartels, E., 205n6 Barton, Anne, 217n35 Cadiz, 57, 61 Barton, Sir Andrew, 4, 7–8, 10, 12, Calicut, 16, 105–9, 114–15 188n22 Callahan, North, 224n37 Battle of Flodden, 11 Camden, William, 218nn53, 57 Beckingham, C. F., 210n18 Canny, N., 194n12, 196n47 Beer, A. R., 219nn5, 19, 220n53, Captivity, 55, 94, 119, 171, 192n46, 221nn65, 67–8, 70–1, 76, 80 202n19 Bencherif, O., 224n28 Barbary captivity, 79, 88 Bentley, G. E., 212nn1–2, 213n4 of Maghribian ports, 172–8 Benton, L., 27, 31–2, 36, 190nn10, Muslim captivity, 15, 199n26 21, 191nn26, 37, 192nn45, 50, and piracy, in the early modern 52, 56–7, 193n76 Mediterranean, 56–73 Berckman, E., 193n70 Cardaillac, Louis, 198n14 Berek, P., 205n7 Carew, R., 204nn54, 60, 62 Berry, R., 208n31 Carey, F., 192n55 Bevington, D., 207n30 Carswell, John, 211n44 Bilbrough, J., 80, 82, 202nn20–2, 28, Cartelli, T., 205n6 203nn29–30, 204n72 Cassese, Antonio, 22, 190n8 bin Abi Diyaf, Ahmad, 73 Casson, Lionel, 211n44 bin Ghanim, Ahmad, 64 Catholicism, 14, 28, 44, 49, 67, Biscaner, 55 75–80, 87, 148, 157–8, 170, 174–7 ‘Black Legend’, 157 Chambers, Anne, 213n12 Boatswain, 121 Charles I – attitude to piracy, 11, 148 Boorde, A., 56, 197n2, 222n7 Charles I, 148 Bowers, F., 212n2 Chaudhuri, K. N., 209n8, 210n16 Bowers, R. H., 221n69 Cheah, Pheng, 137, 143, 215n1, Bowers, Rick, 207n25 217n34 Boxer, C. R., 200n47 Chew, S., 93, 102, 206n20, 208n43 Boyer, 198n16 Chichester, Sir Arthur, 42, 47–8, 55, Bradley, D., 99, 206n11, 208n36 196n37 Braudel, Fernand, 191n36 Child, F. J., 187n21, 188n22 Brazil, 57, 114 China, 108, 110 Brenner, R., 150, 206n10, 208n37, Circumcision, 102, 176 218n58 Clark, Grover, 190n19 British Isles, 33, 42, 44, 55 Clark, I., 213n7 Britishness, 14, 28, 33–5, 42, 44, 73, Clark, S., 213n7 137–8, 179, 222n3, 224n37, Clifford, James, 201n57 225n41 Cogswell, Thomas, 218n51 Brome, William, 7 Colley, L., 57, 198n10 Brotton, Jerry, 189n35 Collinson, Patrick, 217n27 Brown, K. M., 194n14 Colonisation, 34 Browne, William, 139, 149, 218nn48, Columbus, Christopher, 107 55 Constantinople, 83, 91 Bu Sharab, A., 57, 197nn3–4, Conversion, 16, 30, 65, 70, 79, 91–4, 198n12 97–102, 202n20, 207n23 Burnett, M. T., 205n6 Cordingly, D., 188n32, 208n1 238 Index

Corsairs, 12–15, 60–3, 109, 172, Doran, Susan, 217n40 175–179, 191n40, 223n22 Drake, Sir Francis, 17, 38, 26–8, 45, infidel corsairs and European 85, 138–9, 141–2, 146, 148–51, renegades, 29–31 154, 159, 161, 163, 191n29, Cortes, Martin, 212n56 215nn7–8, 216nn17, 23 Counter-Reformation, 170 Draper, Benjamin P., 216n10 Criminality, 15, 20–6, 31, 34–8, 46–7, Drayton, Claire, 218n48 52, 107, 152–5, 189n1, 190n9 Drayton, Michael, 139, 147 Croft, P., 220n33 Dryden, John, 18, 170–1 Cross-dressing, 97 Dunluce Castle, 44 Cruickshank, D., 87, 204nn52, 65 Cummins, John, 215n8 Earle, P., 31, 188n32, 191nn35, 42, 192nn48–9, 61–2, 64, 193n2, D’Aranda, E., 223n24 194n8, 221n61, 223n26 da Gama, Vasco, 105, 108, 111–12, East India Company, 149 114–15, 209n11 Eden, Richard, 116 Daborne, Robert, 3, 6, 92–3, 95, 101, Edwards, Philip, 212n2 103, 120, 206n12 Edwards, R. Dudley, 196nn30, 36, Davenant, W., 149 49–50, 52, 197nn57–8, 60, 70, 72 Davidson, Thomas, 138 Egypt, 60, 64, 109 Davies, Rosalind, 221nn62, 64, 66 Elizabeth I – attitude to piracy, 44, Dawson, A. B., 208n46 123, 144–6, 213n4, 217nn36, 40 de Amezola, Don Carlos, 203n50 Elizabeth, 91–2, 150, 159 de Barros, João, 114, 211n47 Elliot, J. H., 203n40 de Camões, Luís Vaz, 105, 110, 115–16 Ellis, S. G., 195n22 de Cartigny, Jean, 216n23 Empire, 7–19, 20–38, 41–57, 63, 65, 70 de Cottenberg, Rudt, 200n45 Anglo-American writing about the de Grazia, Margreta, 205n5 Maghrib in the Age of Empire, de Henin, Jorge, 200n52 169–86 de Medina, Pedro, 114, 211n43 British Empire, 14, 149 de Somogyi, Nick, 207n26 European empire, 60–1, 71, 73 de Vaca, Cabeza, 60 Holy Roman Empire, 7 de Vega, Lope, 191n29 Ottoman Empire, 14, 29, 82, 91, 97 Dee, John, 113, 211n41 Spanish empire, 28 Defrémery, C., 210n18 Young American attitudes to the Dekker, Thomas, 60, 93, 96 Maghrib, 178–84 Deleuze, Gilles, 216n11, 217n28 England, 4, 8, 11, 13–14, 27, 33, 41, Dent, J. M., 142 44–5, 52, 71, 76–7, 81–3, 85, 86, Derrida, Jaques, 147, 218nn44–6 145, 157, 168, 173 Deschamps, H., 209n1 English Channel, 74, 110 Dessen, A. C., 207n30 English law, 21, 36, 47, 189n7 Dickinson, R., 87, 203n50, 204nn51, Englishness, 91, 94–5, 99, 102, 55–6, 58 119–20, 138–50, 154–9, 167 Dillie, B. W., 201n11 English writings on the Maghrib, Dimmock, M., 15–16, 171, 184, 204n57 172–8 Diplomatic Relations, 7, 69, 91, 157, and Moroccan society and 171 civilization, 70 Doh, Herman, 220n46 and Spanish in the Channel, Domestic policy – English, 14 1590–95, 74–89 Index 239

Erasmus, 214n29 Ghosts, 137–50 Ethiopia, 175 Gibb, H. A. R., 199n31 Europe, 29, 87, 107–9, 175 Gibson, Colin, 212n2 Eysturlid, L. W., 206n10, 208nn38–9 Gilbert, 154 Ginzburg, Carlo, 198n11 Favata, Martin A., 198n15 Gismund, 94–6, 100 Female captives, 68, 127 Goa, 109, 175 Female pirates, 118, 120–3, 133 Gosse, P., 188n32, 193n72 Female sexuality, 119 Gossett, S., 213n10, 214n23 Ferdinand, 54, 59, 94–6 Great Britain, 178, 180 Fernández, José B., 198n15 Greenblatt, Stephen J., 28, 191n31, Fisher, G., 188n32 192n60, 205n6 Fitzgeffrey, C., 139, 144, 146–7 Greene, Robert, 86, 204n57 Fletcher, F., 118, 121, 127, 129, Greg, W. W., 206n11 133–4, 148, 214n17 Grenville, Sir Richard, 142, 144, Fletcher, John, 118, 213n13 146–7 Foreign policy – English, 18–19, Grossrichard, Alain, 207n28 27, 91, 119, 139, 164, 166, 172, Grotius, Hugo, 30, 191n38 185 Guattari, Félix, 216n11, 217n28 Foss, J., 224n28 Guiana, 33, 151, 164, 168 Foster, Verna A., 215n33 Gunner, 121, 131 Foucault, M., 18, 151–2, 155, Gurr, A., 205n1, 219n13 218nn2–4, 18 France, 4, 7, 11, 41, 65, 66, 70, 84, 82, Hacke, William, 223n22 88 Hakluyt, R., 142–3, 173, 195n21, Free trade, 18, 171, 174, 180 203n47, 216n18, 217nn29, 32, Freeman, Thomas S., 217n40 222nn10, 12 Friedman, Ellen G., 192n45 Hall, E., 6–8, 187nn13–14, 17–19 Frye, Elizabeth, 217n39 Harding, Christopher, 14–15, 91, Frye, Susan, 145 187n20, 193n1 Fuchs, B., 25, 92, 160, 188n32, Harvey, L. P., 198n7 190n18, 191n29, 192n47, Harward, S., 201nn4, 6, 202n26 193n80, 207n27, 220n47, Hasleton, Richard, 79, 202n27 221n73, 206nn12, 15 Haslop, H., 216n20, 217n42 Fuller, Mary, 143–4, 149–50, 217n30, Hattaway, M., 208n45 37, 218n56 Hawkins, 85, 154 Furber, Holden, 209n8 Hazlitt, W. Carew, 218n48 Furnivall, F. J., 197n2 Hebb, D. D., 188n32, 205n9, 221n60, 223n17 Gaelic Ireland, 43, 109 Heers, J., 188n32, 214n22 Gender behaviour, 4, 11, 15, 17, 90, Helgerson, R., 189n36, 217n31 118–34 Heliodorus, 187n1 Genoa, 57, 175 Henry III, King, 76 Genre, 13, 17, 60, 92, 118–34, 120, Henry IV, King, 173 140–1, 155, 202n19 Henry VIII – attitude to piracy, 7, 9, Gentili, Alberico, 30, 191nn39–40 11, 140 Georgijevic, Bartholomej, 202n25 Henry VIII, King, 7, 9, 11 Gesellschaft, Geographische K. K., Hensman, Bertha, 212n1 211n46 Herbert, Sir Henry, 212n2 240 Index

Heywood, T., 18, 49, 120, 123, 126, Jameson, Fredric, 147, 217n43 139, 145–6, 149, 151, 196n41, Jardine, L., 126, 205n3, 214n20 197n64, 207n27, 217n40, 218n1, Jennings, B., 197n74 220nn48–50, 55–8 Jerusalem, 22, 175 Hill, C., 34–5, 37, 193nn67, 69, Jewkes, W. T., 138, 215n4, 215nn8–9 210n30 Jews, 16, 46, 92, 97 Hill, George, 193n79, 194n13 Jingoism, 138 Hillier, Tim, 189n5 Joao de Nova, 108 Hobsbawm, Eric, 215n6 Jones, A. R., 205n5, 208n48, 219n14, Hogan, E., 196n35 220nn51–2 Holland, Henry, 28 Jones, Katherine Duncan, 214n19 Holt, P. M., 199n31 Jonson, Arthur, 223n14 ‘Holy War’, 16, 80, 87–8, 177 Jowitt, C.,17, 35, 93, 97, 119, 145, Hostis humani generis, 14, 20–38 190n22, 193nn68, 71, 195n19, Hotson, Leslie, 219n9 206nn12, 17, 212n2, 217n38, Hourani, G. F., 211n44 213n6, 215n31 Howard, Jean E., 10, 12, 213n5 Julien, Charles Andre, 201n58 Hoy, 213n9 Humphreys, D., 19, 178–85, Kelsey, H., 26–8, 191nn24–5, 29–30, 224nn29–40, 42 215n7, 216n17 Hutchings, Mark, 16, 31, 77, 80, Kevin Marshall, C., 190n13 202n20 Kidnie, Margaret Jane, 205n4 Hyland, P., 98, 208n33 King, T. J., 207n30 Klein, Bernhard, 14, 16–17 Ibn abi Mahali, 57, 198n5 Klein, Kerwin Lee, 215n3 Ibn al-Qadi, 199n33 Knapp, J., 189n36 Ibn Ghanim, 65 Knutson, R., 207n22 Ibn Majid, Ahmad, 114 Kontorovich, E., 23, 190nn9, 10–11, Imperialism, 17–19, 25, 28, 44, 57, 14 60, 71, 110–11, 113–17, 138, 143–4, 149, 171–2, 185 L’Estrange Ewen, C., 192n64, 219n6, India, 6, 16, 109 220nn44–5 Indian Ocean, 16–17, 105, 111, Lake, P., 18, 151, 155, 219nn22–5 114–15, 209n18, 209n11, 211n44 Lane, K. E., 188n32, 193n83 pirates of, 106–10 Law of Nations, 21–2, 189n1 International Law, 20–2, 189n7 Law of the sea, 20–38, 189nn2, 7 Ireland, 13, 15, 42–3, 50, 53–5 Le Strange, G., 198nn24–5 Islam, 16, 56, 60–4, 69–71, 86, 91, 97, Lee, M., 188n24 101, 115, 169–71, 177–8, 191n36, Legal definitions of piracy, 14–15 192n47, 203n47, 207n23 Lenz, J., 205n2 Islamdom, 71 Letters of marque, 6–7, 24–5, 32, 154, 161–2, 165, 187n9, 190nn16, 22 James I and VI, King, 11, 44, 54, 118 Letters of reprisal, 6, 25–6 James III, King, 6 Levin, R., 95, 207n25 James IV, King, 4, 6, 9–10 Levy, Avig der, 207n29 James I and VI – attitude to piracy, Levy, F. J., 195n15 11, 34, 36, 44, 54, 118, 144, 163, Lewis, Bernard, 199n31 188n22, 217n36 Lezra, Jaques, 187n2 Jameson, Franklin, 192n56 Linebaugh, P., 209n6 Index 241

Linton, J. P., 218n57 Mezzine, Mohamed, 199n28 Lisbon, 105, 107 Middleton, Thomas, 93, 96, 175 Lithgow, William, 206n13 Millar, A., 222n9 Lloyd, David, 139, 216n13 Minsheu, Iohn, 211n42 London, 97, 153 Mohammad bin Yousuf al-Zayyani, Longfield, A. K., 194n7 200n49 Lord High Admiral, 12, 32, 153 Mollat, M., 193n2 Lupton, Julia Reinhard, 142, 216n27 Montgomery Watt, W., 223n27 Lyly, W., 201n15 Montrose, L. A., 205n1 Lynch, M., 194n14 Morocco, 15, 56–7, 60, 64–6, 69–70, 173–4 MacCarthy-Morrogh, M., 195n22 Mozambique, 110–11 MacInnes, Rev. J., 194nn10–12 Muhammad bin Muhammad bin Mackie, R. L., 7, 187nn5, 8, 10, 15 Omar al-Udwani, 62, 198n22 MacLean, G., 18–19, 206n12, 207n24, Muhammad bu Jindar, 201n56 222nn4–6 Muhammad, Prophet, 70 Maddison, Francis, 211n49 Mulholland, Paul, 206n18 Magharibi, 71 Mullaney, S., 205n1 Maghrib, 63, 178 Munro, Lucy, 17, 98 Mainwaring, G. E., 42, 191n34, Munster, 42, 45–6, 48, 50, 52 194n3, 195n21 Murad III, Ottoman Sultan, 61 Malabar, 109, 115 Murphey, Rhoads, 173, 223n13 Male sexuality, 120, 122–3, 126, 133, Murray, Athol, 187n6 145 Mustapha, Jean Armand, 70 Maquerlot, Jean-Pierre, 213n3 Markham, Gervase, 144, 146–7 Nambiar, O. K., 209n14 Marlowe, Christopher, 95 National Identity, 19, 27, 67, 78–9, Marsden, R. G., 197n59 86, 104, 137, 165, 172, 178, 182, Marshalsea Prison, 153 191n29, 206n12, 213n5 Martin, Henry, 188n23 Nationhood, 137–50 Marx, Karl, 218n54 Naval history, 187n16, 194n11, 220n35 Massinger, Philip, 118, 121, 127, 129, Navigation, 16–17, 28–9, 34, 211n48, 133–4, 213n13, 214n17 211–12n49 Matar, N., 15, 30, 78, 84, 87, 108, and piracy, in The Lusiads, 105–17 170, 178, 181, 192nn44, 46, Necipoglu, Gulru, 204n64 201n9, 203n49, 206nn12, 16, Nerlich, M., 141, 216nn24–5 207nn21, 23, 208nn41, 49, Netzloff, M., 17, 151, 156, 191n29, 212n54, 222n2 219nn26–7 Mathew, D., 195n16 New World, the, 25, 28, 60, 116, 159, McEachern, Claire, 147, 218n47 222n3, 224n37 McLeod, B., 189n36 Nicholas, E., 188n30 McPherson, K., 115, 209n8, Nichols, P., 148 212nn51–2, 55 Norbrook, David, 148, 214n27, Mediterranean, 41, 52, 61, 92, 97, 218n52 109, 115, 175, 180 Noyes, Alfred, 138 Merchants, 6–12, 24, 26–9, 32, 38, 51, 65, 78, 94–9, 103, 107–9, 115, O’Callaghan, Michelle, 147, 143, 157, 171–4, 182, 209n11, 218nn49–50 211n44, 216n17 O’Dowd, Mary, 213n12 242 Index

O’Malley, Grannia, 43–4, 194n9 Purser, 13, 18, 49, 151–62, 168, Ohlmeyer, J. H., 194n12 207n27 Okeley, W., 223n23 Oppenheim, L., 21, 189nn1, 7 Questier, Michael, 155, 219n22 Oppenheim, M., 197n68 Quilligan, Maureen, 205n5 Orgel, Stephen, 214n28 Quinn, D. B., 205n9, 220n32 Oriental travel, 170 Quint, David, 141, 216nn21–3 Ottoman empire, the, 29, 82, 91, 97 Outlaws, 13–15, 107, 161–3, 166, 168, Ralegh, W., 18, 32–3, 36, 38, 148–9, 193n71 151–2, 154–5, 162–8, 192nn58–9, pirates as, in the early modern law 221nn65, 72, 79 of the sea, 20–38 Ranger, Terence, 215n6 Overbury, Thomas, 131 Ravenstein, E. G., 209n11 Razzuq, Muhammad, 198n5 Parker, K., 69, 200n51, 207n22 Red Sea, 108–9, 175 Parr, Anthony, 214n26 Rediker, M., 188n32, 194n8, 208n1, Parry, J. H., 211n49 209nn2, 6, 210n30 Payton, Philip, 204n63 Reformation, the, 47, 75, 170, 222n2 Pearson, D’Orsay W., 214n24 Renan, Ernest, 146, 217n41 Pearson, M., 209n8, 210n20, Renegades, 13, 16–17, 29–31, 75, 79, 211n44 86, 92–4, 119, 175, 206n16 Peele, G., 139–41, 216n19 Restoration, the, 170, 222n4 Penzance, 84, 86 Reynolds, Thomas, 148 Perin, W. G., 191n34 Ricoeur, Paul, 215n3 Perrin, W. E., 194n3, 195n21 Riley, James, 224n28 Perry, Curtis, 144 Ringler, W. A., Jr, 207n30 Petrie, Donald A., 190n20 Robarts, H., 139, 141, 146, 149, Philip II, 157, 159 216n16 Piracy – definitions of, 1–38 Robert Don Higginbottom, 223n22, Pirates as criminals, 20–6, 31, 34–8, 224n37 46–7, 52, 107, 152–5, 189n1, Roberts, Lewes, 222n11 190n9 Rodger, N. A. M., 7, 187nn16, 26–9, Pirates as heroic figures, 13, 27, 37, 220nn35, 42 75, 79, 94–7, 105–12, 117, 138, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 193n85 142, 146, 155, 161, 182, 185, Rowlands, Samuel, 153, 219n8 207n24 Rowley, W., 18, 49, 120, 151, 196n41, Pirates as legal defendants, 31–5 197n64, 207n27, 218n1, Pirates – fictional, 65 220nn48–50, 55–8 Playfair, R. L., 223n16 Rowse, A. L., 86, 201nn3, 10, 13–14, Pocock, J. G. A., 217n27 202nn17–18, 203n48, 204nn53, Polo, Marco, 109 59, 61 Portugal, 6, 13–14, 41, 56, 56–7, 61, Rubin, A. P., 190n9 69, 76, 81–2, 88, 105, 107, 109, Russell, J., 187nn4, 7, 9 110, 113 Ryan, A. N., 205n9, 220n32 Potter, L., 206nn12, 14 Rymer, Thomas, 173 Privateering – definitions of, 24–9 Prize law, 25 Sales, R., 205n6 Protestantism, 14, 28, 45, 75–81, Salzman, P., 119, 213n8 158–9, 170, 174, 177, 184 Sanguinetti, B. R., 210n18 Index 243

Scaffold speeches, 18, 35, 97, 151–68, Tamburlaine, 95 193n71, 221n80 Taylor, Bruce, 198n23 Scanlan, T., 220n34 Teorey, Matthew, 28, 191n32 Schonhorn, Manuel, 208n1 Thompson, Edward, 221n64 Schwartz, K., 126, 214n21 Thomson, J., E., 14, 35, 37, Schwarzenberger, Georg, 193n75 188nn31–3, 189n34, 190nn15, Schwyzer, Philip, 215n3 17, 191nn35, 41, 193n65–6, 73, Scotland, 4, 8, 11, 43–4, 77 81, 205n9, 220n54 Scott, Sir William, 189n4 Thomson, P., 98, 208n32 Scott, Thomas, 148, 215n7 Thrower, N. J. W., 215n4 Seed, P., 211n38 Tibault Suxbridge, 50 Senior, C. M., 193nn1–2, 195nn20, Tibbetts, G. R., 210n19, 211n45 27, 219n15 Todd, M., 207n22 Setton, Kenneth M., 222n2 Tolan, J., 204n70 Shakespeare, William, 3, 29, 38, 122, Trade, 4, 9, 13, 18, 25, 29, 34, 37–8, 128, 139, 154, 191n36, 216n15 41, 44, 47, 50–7, 71, 91, 99, Shapiro, J., 208n44 106–10, 133, 143, 154, 171–82, Sharpe, Dr Lionel, 151–2, 155, 165 189n4, 211n44, 222n11, 223n13 Sharpe, J. A., 18, 219nn7, 21 captivity and diplomacy, 172–8 Sharpe, K., 11, 188n25 Travel Writing, 3, 170 Shepherd, S., 213n3, 213n7 Trevelyan, R., 36, 192nn59–60, Sidi Ali Çelebi, 114 193n77 ‘Silver Oare’, 160 Tripoli, 29, 68 Skilliter, Susan, 223n12 Tunis, 29, 57, 68, 98, 100, 103 Skinner, Quentin, 210n36 Tunisia, 15, 60 Skura, M. A., 205n1 Turkey, 30, 57, 60 Slavery and slave trade, 16, 30, 37, 56, Turley, H., 188n32 63, 69, 71, 78, 83, 176 Turner, Robert K., 213n4 Smith, M. E., 207n27 ‘Turning Turk’, 31, 92, 100–4, 165, Smith, R. C., 211n39 202n20, 206n12, 207n24 Spain, 11–14, 27, 34, 37, 41, 46–7, 52, Tyerman, C., 205n67 56–7, 61, 65–6, 75, 82, 84, 87–8, Tyler, R., 19, 223n28 91, 148, 151, 153, 159, 162–4, Tyrants, 17, 65, 119–21, 131, 133, 175 180 Sprague, A. C., 207n30, 208n35 Stallybrass, P., 205n5, 208n48, Ulster, 42, 44 219n14, 220nn51–2 United States, 13, 18–19, 24, 61, 106, Stanley, J., 188n32, 213n11 178–85 Starr, G., 207n22 Utopia, 106–7, 208n1, 214n27 Stebbing, William, 221n63 Steele, Ian, 192n51 Van Koningsveld, P. S., 198n6, Stevenson, Laura, 141, 216n26 199n27 Stow, J., 219nn10–11 van Dulmen, Richard, 193n82 Stubbes, Philip, 90 Vanan, Jamal, 199n37 Stukeley, Lewis, 221n71 Villiers, A., 106, 209nn3–5 Stukeley, Thomas, 140 Vitkus, Daniel, J., 27, 37, 188n32, Subrahmanyam, S., 209nn8–9, 14, 189n36, 191n27, 193n84, 210nn15–16 202n25, 206n12, 206n19, Sugden, J., 215n5 207n24, 208nn35, 42 244 Index

Waith, E., 121, 213nn10, 13 Wexford, 47–8, 52 Walton, T., 18, 151, 218n1 Wiegers, G. A., 198n6, 199n27, 222n12 Wapping, 152–3 Willems, Michèle, 213n3 Ward, John, 195n19, 206n13 Williams, George Walton, 212n2 Warfare at sea, 24–6, 27–30, 37 Williams, Sir Roger, 202n16 Warren, James, 110, 210n21 Wilson, R., 205n6 Waters, David W., 210n23 Winius, G. D., 201n11 Watkins, John, 144 Winterbottom, M., 214n14 Watt, T., 219n21 Wolf, John B., 191n35 Webbe, E., 202n27, 223nn18–21 Woolf, D. R., 144, 217n36