Introduction: President and Peacemaker

Home , Douglas Brinkley, Gerald Rafshoon, John Gunther Dean, Naseer Aruri, Nicholas Dawidoff, Peter Osnos

Notes

1 . Niels Lesniewski, “McCain Says Obama Is Worse than Carter,” Roll Call , January 21, 2014. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://blogs.rollcall.com/wgdb /mccain-calls-obama-worse-than-carter/; Reid Epstein, “Mitt Romney Uses Jimmy Carter as Campaign Weapon,” Politico, May 12, 2012. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.politico.com/news/stories/0512/76229.html ; Walter Russell Mead, “The Carter Syndrome,” Foreign Policy (2010): 58–64. The White House correspondent for The New York Times once wrote that President Barack Obama sought to emulate Bill Clinton, “Because, in the end, it’s better than being Jimmy Carter.” Peter Baker, “Education of a President,” New York Times Magazine, October 12, 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// www.nytimes.com/2010/10/17/magazine/17obama-t.html?_r=0. 2 . 30 Rock , 2006–13, NBC. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.nbc.com/30 -rock . 3 . For varying takes on Carter’s post-presidential activities, see Douglas Brinkley, The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter’s Journey Beyond the White House (New York: Penguin, 1998); Nicholas Dawidoff, “The Riddle of Jimmy Carter,” February 23, 2011, Rolling Stone. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-riddle-of-jimmy-carter -20110201; Joshua Muravchik, “Our Worst Ex-President,” Commentary Magazine 123, no. 2 (February 2007): 17–26. 4 . Lawrence Davidson, “Truman the Politician and the Establishment of Israel,” Journal of Palestine Studies 39, no. 4 (2010): 28–42. 5 . E f r a i m K a r s h , “ I s r a e l , ” i n The Cold War and the Middle East, ed. Yezid Sayigh and Avi Shlaim (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), 156–85. 6 . G e o r g e L e n c z o w s k i , American Presidents and the Middle East (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990), 157–211. 7 . R a s h i d K h a l i d i , Brokers of Deceit: How the US Has Undermined Peace in the Middle East (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013), xviii–xix. 8 . N a s e e r A r u r i , Dishonest Broker: The Role of the United States in Palestine and Israel (Boston: South End Press, 2003). 9 . Benny Morris, Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881–2001 , Revised ed. (New York: Vintage, 2001), 494–560; Charles Smith, 190 NOTES

Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 2nd ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1992), 240–78. 1 0 . L a w r e n c e W r i g h t , Thirteen Days in September: Carter, Begin, and Sadat at Camp David (New York: Knopf, 2014). 1 1 . K e n n e t h S t e i n , Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, 1999), 35–45, 187–259. 12 . Another difference is that Quandt’s analysis ends with the conclusion of the Egypt-Israel treaty, whereas this book extends into 1980. William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington: Brookings, 1986), xi–xii. 13 . Gary Orren, “The Salience of Public Attitudes on the Middle East,” in US Middle East Policy: The Domestic Setting , ed. Shai Feldman (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988), 33–36. 14 . Dan Caldwell, “The Demise of Deté nte and US Domestic Politics,” in The Fall of Dé tente: Soviet-American Relations during the Carter Years, ed. Odd Arne Westad (Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997), 95–117. 15 . In this, I borrow generally from the theory of Neoclassical Realism. See Gideon Rose, “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy,” World Politics 51, no. 1 (1998): 144–72. 16 . Burton Kaufman and Scott Kaufman, The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr. , 2nd ed. (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 2006), 250. 1 7 . J u l i a n Z e l i z e r , Jimmy Carter (New York: Times Books, 2010). 18 . Erwin Hargrove, Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988). 19 . Randall Balmer, Redeemer: The Life of Jimmy Carter (New York: Basic Books, 2013). 2 0 . J o h n D u m b r e l l , The Carter Presidency: A Re-evaluation (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993). 21 . “University of Notre Dame,” May 22, 1977, Public Papers of the Presidents: Jimmy Carter, 1977, Vol. I (Washington: GPO, 1978) (hereafter PPP: Carter), 954–62. 22 . Kenton Clymer, “Jimmy Carter, Human Rights, and Cambodia,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (2003): 245–78; Nicholas Evan Sarantakes, Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, The Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011); Itai Sneh, The Future Almost Arrived: How Jimmy Carter Failed to Change U.S. Foreign Policy (New York: Peter Lang, 2008); Richard Thornton, The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order (New York: Paragon House, 1991). Also see Thomas Maddux et al., “H-Diplo Roundtable Review of Nicholas Evan Sarantakes: ‘Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, The Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War,’” H-Diplo, Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://h-diplo.org/roundtables/PDF/Roundtable -XII-26.pdf . 23 . Yael Aronoff, “In Like a Lamb, Out Like a Lion: The Political Conversion of Jimmy Carter,” Political Science Quarterly 121, no. 3 (2006): 425–49; Betty Glad, An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, His Advisors, and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, NOTES 191

2009); Scott Kaufman, Plans Unraveled: The Foreign Policy of the Carter Administration (DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008); Gaddis Smith, Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years (New York: Hill and Wang, 1986). Also see Erwin Hargrove et al., “H-Diplo Roundtable Review of Betty Glad: ‘An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, His Advisers, and the Making of American Foreign Policy,’” H-Diplo, Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://h-diplo.org/roundtables /PDF/Roundtable-XII-6.pdf. 2 4 . R a y m o n d G a r t h o f f , Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet relations from Nixon to Reagan , Revised ed. (Washington: Brookings, 1994), 623–65. 25 . John Lewis Gaddis, Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War, Revised and expanded ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005), 345. 26 . David Skidmore, Reversing Course: Carter’s Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and the Failure of Reform (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1996). 2 7 . B r i a n A u t e n , Carter’s Conversion: The Hardening of America’s Defense Policy (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008). 28 . Nancy Mitchell, “The Cold War and Jimmy Carter,” in The Cambridge History of the Cold War: Volume 3: Endings., ed. Melvin Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 66–88. 2 9 . F r e d H a l l i d a y , The Making of the Second Cold War, 2nd ed. (London: Verso, 1986). 30 . Odd Arne Westad, “The Fall of Dé tente and the Turning Tides of History,” Westad, The Fall of D é tente , 3–33. 31 . Carol Saivetz, “Superpower Competition in the Middle East and the Collapse of D é tente,” Westad, The Fall of D é tente , 72–94. 32 . Carter made energy policy the centerpiece of his domestic program. He called it the “moral equivalent of war” and outlined goals for reducing American consumption, including slashing US oil imports by half. “The Energy Problem—Address to the Nation,” April 18, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 656–62. Also see Andrew Scott Cooper, The Oil Kings: How the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East (New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011), 107–68; David Painter, “Oil and the American Century,” The Journal of American History 99, no. 1 (2012): 24–39. 33 . Jerel Rosati, “Jimmy Carter, a Man Before His Time? The Emergence and Collapse of the First Post-Cold War Presidency,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 23, no. 3 (1993): 459–76; David Schmitz and Vanessa Walker, “Jimmy Carter and the Foreign Policy of Human Rights: The Development of a Post-Cold War Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 28, no. 1 (2004): 113–44. For critiques of Carter’s approach, see Jeanne Kirkpatrick, “Dictatorships and Double Standards,” Commentary Magazine 68, no. 5 (1979): 34–45; Joshua Muravchik, The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemmas of Human Rights Policy (Lanham, MD: Hamilton Press, 1986). 34 . William Stueck, “Placing Jimmy Carter’s Foreign Policy,” in The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era, ed. Gary Fink and Hugh Graham (Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 2001). 192 NOTES

35 . Douglas Brinkley, “The Rising Stock of Jimmy Carter: The ‘Hands On’ Legacy of Our Thirty-Ninth President,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (1996): 505–29; Robert Strong, Working in the World: Jimmy Carter and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000). 36 . Peter Hahn, Crisis and Crossfire: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 (Washington, DC: Potomac, 2005), 1, 7–8. Also see Rashid Khalidi, Sowing Crisis: The Cold War and American Dominance in the Middle East (Boston: Beacon Press, 2009); Douglas Little, American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East Since 1945 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003). Other writers contend American policy stems from cultural factors and engagement, as much as strategic interests. Matthew Jacobs, Imagining the Middle East: The Building of an American Foreign Policy, 1918–1967 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011); Melani McAlister, Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001). 37 . George Edwards III, “Exclusive Interview: President Jimmy Carter,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 38, no. 1 (2007): 3. 38 . Brzezinski and Quandt were both members of the group. Brookings Middle East Study Group, Toward Peace in the Middle East (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1975). 39 . Harold Saunders interview, November 24, 1993, ADST. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Saunders,%20Harold%20H.toc.pdf . 40 . Janice Terry, “The Carter Administration and the Palestinians,” in U.S. Policy on Palestine from Wilson to Clinton , ed. Michael Suleiman (Normal, IL: Association of Arab-American University Graduates, 1995), 163–74. 41 . Victor Nemchenok, “‘These People Have an Irrevocable Right to Self- Government’: United States Policy and the Palestinian Question, 1977– 1979,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 20, no. 4 (2009): 595–618. 42 . Jeremy Pressman, “Explaining the Carter Administration’s Israeli- Palestinian Solution,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 5 (2013): 1117–47. 43 . Darren McDonald, “Blessed Are the Policy Makers: Jimmy Carter’s Faith- Based Approach to the Arab–Israeli Conflict,” Diplomatic History . Advance Access published August 14, 2014, doi:10.1093/dh/dhu038. 4 4 . K h a l i d i , Brokers of Deceit: 4–7. Christison concurs. Kathleen Christison, Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), 157–94. 4 5 . T h o m a s B o r s t e l m a n n , The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012); Daniel Sargent, A Superpower Transformed: History, Strategy, and American Foreign Relations in the 1970s (New York: Oxford University Press, 2015). 46 . John Rielly, ed. American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1979 (Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1979), 4–5. 4 7 . C a r l B i v e n , Jimmy Carter’s Economy: Policy in an Age of Limits (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002). NOTES 193

48 . Olav Nj ø lstad, “Shifting Priorities: The Persian Gulf in US Strategic Planning in the Carter Years,” Cold War History 4, no. 3 (2006): 21–55; Fiona Venn, The Oil Crisis (London: Routledge, 2002), 7–21. 49 . Julian Zelizer, “Conservatives, Carter, and the Politics of National Security,” in Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s , ed. Julian Zelizer and Bruce Schulman (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008). Also see, “How the Committee on the Present Danger Will Operate— What It Will Do, and What It Will Not Do,” November 11, 1976, Folder 2, Box 68, Paul Nitze Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (hereafter LOC). 5 0 . J o h n E h r m a n , The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs 1945–1994 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 97–136. 51 . Colin Shindler, “Likud and the Christian Dispensationalists: A Symbiotic Relationship,” Israel Studies 5, no. 1 (2000): 153–82. Also see Caitlin Carenen, The Fervent Embrace: Liberal Protestants, Evangelicals, and Israel (New York: New York University Press, 2012), 161–87. 52 . Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 468–69; Robert Freedman, “The Religious Right and the Carter Administration,” The Historical Journal 48, no. 1 (2005): 231–60. 53 . Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 207–38. 5 4 . A v i S h l a i m , The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London: W. W. Norton and Co., 2000), 353–54. 55 . “Our Foreign Relations,” Address to the Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, March 15, 1976, The Presidential Campaign 1976 : Jimmy Carter , I (Washington: GPO, 1978), 109–19. 56 . Jimmy Carter, Why Not The Best? (Nashville: Broadman, 1975), 145. 57 . Eytan Gilboa, American Public Opinion toward Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987), 320, 83. Emphases in original. 58 . Gabriel Almond, The American People and Foreign Policy (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950). 5 9 . J a m e s R o s e n a u , Public Opinion and Foreign Policy (New York: Random House, 1961). 60 . Ole R. Holsti, Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy , Revised ed. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004). 6 1 . A d a m B e r i n s k y , In Time of War: Understanding American Public Opinion from World War II to Iraq (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009). 62 . Matthew Baum and Tim Groeling, War Stories: The Causes and Consequences of Public Views of War (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010). 6 3 . M a x w e l l M c C o m b s , Setting the Agenda: The Mass Media and Public Opinion (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004), 1–2. In the words of Bernard Cohen, the press “may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.” Bernard Cohen, The Press and Foreign Policy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963), 13. 194 NOTES

64 . Montague Kern, Patricia Levering, and Ralph Levering, The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency, and Foreign Policy (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1983), 4–12, 195–204. 6 5 . M a r k R o z e l l , The Press and the Carter Presidency (London: Westview Press, 1989). 6 6 . C a r t e r , Diary , 526. 67 . Adriana Bosch, “Jimmy Carter: American Experience” (United States: PBS, 2002). Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience /films/carter/player/. 68 . George Edwards III, On Deaf Ears: The Limits of the Bully Pulpit (London: Yale University Press, 2003). 6 9 . R i c h a r d N e u s t a d t , Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents: The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan (New York: Free Press, 1990). 7 0 . S a m u e l K e r n e l l , Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership , 3rd ed. (Washington: CQ Press, 1997), 2. 71 . Russell Warren Howe and Sarah Hays Trott, The Power Peddlers: How Lobbyists Mold America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1977). 72 . John Mearsheimer and Stephen Walt, The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy (London: Penguin, 2008), 335, 55. 7 3 . M i t c h e l l B a r d , The Water’s Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 1991), 213. Aaron David Miller mostly agrees: Aaron David Miller, The Much Too Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 2008), 75–124. 74 . Stuart Eizenstat interview, May 11, 1978, Ethnic Groups and American Foreign Policy Oral History Project, Columbia University, New York (hereafter EGAFP), 4. 75 . “Election Reference Information: Jewish Voting Record (1916–2012),” Jewish Virtual Library (hereafter JVL). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www .jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/jewvote.html. 76 . “1977 Report on Jewish Vote,” n.a., n.d. [circa March 1977], Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [1],” Box 35, Jordan Files, Jimmy Carter Library, Atlanta, Georgia (hereafter JCL or NLC). 77 . “Antiboycott Regulations,” JVL. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www .jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/antiboy.html. 7 8 . B a r d , Water’s Edge and Beyond; Connie De Boer, “The Polls: Attitudes Toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Public Opinion Quarterly 47, no. 1 (1983): 121–31; Walter Russell Mead, “The New Israel and the Old: Why Gentile Americans Back the Jewish State,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 4 (2008): 28–46. 79 . William Dorman, “Media, Public Discourse, and U.S. Policy Toward the Middle East,” in The United States and the Middle East: A Search for New Perspectives , ed. Hooshang Amirahmadi (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993); Fouad Moughrabi, “American Public Opinion and the Palestine Question,” in Public Opinion and the Palestine Question , ed. Elia Zureik and Fouad Moughrabi (London: Croom Helm, 1987), 13–48; NOTES 195

Edward Said, “The Formation of American Public Opinion on the Question of Palestine,” in The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination 1969–1994 (London: Vintage, 1994), 56–68. 80 . Mitchell Bard, “The Israeli and Arab Lobbies,” JVL (updated July 2012). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US -Israel/lobby.html . 8 1 . I . L . K e n e n , Israel’s Defense Line (Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1981), 66–91. 8 2 . K h a l i l M a r r a r , The Arab Lobby and US Foreign Policy: The Two-State Solution (London: Routledge, 2009), 84–119; and Michael Suleiman, “A History of Arab-American Political Participation,” in American Arabs and Political Participation, ed. Philippa Strum (Washington: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006), 2–25. Bard overstates the case, but the pro-Arab network has had greater success lobbying for economic and defense interests. Mitchell Bard, The Arab Lobby: The Invisible Alliance that Undermines America’s Interest in the Middle East (New York: HarperCollins, 2010). 83 . William Quandt, Commentator, Panel: “Carter, Reagan and the Middle East,” June 21, 2013, Annual Meeting of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations (hereafter SHAFR), Arlington, Virginia. 8 4 . C a r t e r , Diary , 289. 8 5 . I b i d . 86 . October 17, 1979, Carter, Diary , 363. 87 . William Quandt interview, n.d. [circa 1980], Folder 6, Box 17, Rowland Evans Papers, LOC. 88 . Hamilton Jordan interview, November 6, 1981, Carter Presidency Project (hereafter CPP), 52. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://web1.millercenter.org /poh/transcripts/ohp_1981_1106_jordan.pdf . 8 9 . I b i d . 90 . Arlene Lazarowitz, “Ethnic Influence and American Foreign Policy: American Jewish Leaders and President Jimmy Carter,” Shofar 29, no. 1 (2010): 119. 91 . Gerald Rafshoon interview, April 8, 1983, CPP, 66. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://web1.millercenter.org/poh/transcripts/ohp_1983_0408_rafshoon .pdf . 92 . Drummond Ayres, “Carter’s Cool Professional Aide: Joseph Lester Powell, Jr.,” The New York Times (hereafter NYT) , July 21, 1976. 93 . Eizenstat interview, EGAFP, 15; Robert Lipshutz interview, February 15, 1978, EGAFP, 12–13. 94 . Notes, “Discussion on Air Force 1 regarding PLO at UN reception,” March 17, 1977, Folder 5, Box 2, Stuart Eizenstat Papers (hereafter SEP), LOC. 95 . Robert Lipshutz interview, NARA Exit Interview Project, September 29, 1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/library /exitInt/Lipshutz.pdf . 96 . Dennis Hevesi, “Robert Lipshutz, Carter Aides, Dies at 88,” NYT , November 10, 2010. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/11/us /politics/11lipshutz.html?_r=0. 196 NOTES

97 . Shoon Kathleen Murray and Peter Howard, “Variation in White House Polling Operations: Carter to Clinton,” The Public Opinion Quarterly 66, no. 4 (2002): 527–58. 98 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 114. 99 . “The ‘Georgia Mafia,’” PBS.org. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.pbs .org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/general-article/georgia-mafia/. 100 . Arab League Summit resolution, October 28, 1974, United Nations: Question of Palestine (hereafter QOP). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://unispal.un.org /UNISPAL.NSF/0/63D9A930E2B428DF852572C0006D06B8 .

1 The Limits of Candor (January–May 1977)

1 . Album, n.d., Folder: “Ask President Carter, The CBS Radio Network, March 5, 1977,” Box 2.325/F33, Walter Cronkite Papers, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin (hereafter WCP). 2 . “ A s k P r e s i d e n t C a r t e r , ” Saturday Night , March 12, 1977, NBC. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.nbc.com/saturday-night-live/video/ask-president -carter/n8649/. 3 . “Open diplomacy” can be defined as, “The democratic doctrine that both in the making of foreign policy and the negotiation and ratification of agreements in its pursuit, the public—universally peace-loving—should be as fully involved as possible.” G. R. Berridge and Lorna Lloyd, “The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Diplomacy” (Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), http:// www.palgraveconnect.com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137017611. 4 . William Quandt interview, n.d. [circa 1980], Folder 6, Box 17, Rowland Evans Papers (hereafter REP), LOC. 5 . UNSC S/RES/338, October 22, 1973, QOP. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/7FB7C26FCBE80A31852560C50065F878 . 6 . Document 415, Report by Kissinger to Nixon, n.d. [circa December 21, 1973], and Document 416, Memcon, Gromyko, Sukhodrev, Kissinger, and Rodman, December 22, 1973, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969– 1976, Volume XXVI: Arab- Israeli Dispute, 1974–1976 (Washington: GPO, 2012) (hereafter FRUS ), 1187–90, 1190–93. 7 . William Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab- Israeli Conflict since 1967 , 3rd ed. (Washington: Brookings, 2005), 138–73. 8 . Document 227, Memoranda of agreement, September 1, 1975, FRUS, 1969– 1976, XXVI, 828–32. 9 . Rep. Lee Hamilton (D-Ind.) was among those who believed the commit- ment did not prohibit American contact with the PLO, nor did Israel have a de facto veto over a change in American policy. Letter from Hamilton to Carter, May 23, 1977, Folder: “6/3/77 [1],” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 23, JCL; Letter from Hamilton to Vance, October 16, 1978, Folder: “Middle East: Palestine, 1977–1978,” Box 160, Lee Hamilton Papers, University of Indiana, Bloomington (hereafter LHP). NOTES 197

10 . Hermann Eilts interview, August 12, 1988, Association for Diplomatic Training and Studies Oral History Collection (hereafter ADST), LOC. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Eilts,%20 Herman.toc.pdf . 11 . UNSC S/RES/242, November 22, 1967, QOP. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// unispal.un.org/unispal.nsf/0/7D35E1F729DF491C85256EE700686136 . 12 . Harold Saunders, “U.S. Foreign Policy and Peace in the Middle East (November 12, 1975),” Walter Laqueur and Barry Rubin, eds., The Israel- Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict, 7th ed. (London: Penguin,2008), 203–6. 13 . Memcon, Hamilton, Rosenthal, Obey, Mikva, Habib, and Atherton, n.d. [circa March 1977], “CoDel Hamilton Trip to the Middle East,” Folder: “Middle East: Palestine, 1977–1978,” Box 160, LHP; Summary with attachments, “Transcript of Meeting between Members of the PLO and Members of the U.S. Congress,” Damascus, Syria, January 5, 1978, Folder: “Middle East 1977 to 1978,” Box 71, Jacob Javits Papers, State University of New York, Stony Brook (hereafter JJP); Letter, Carter to Abourezk, October 2, 1978, Palestine Liberation Organization Name File, JCL; Letter, Bolling to Carter, December 20, 1978, White House Central File (hereafter WHCF), Box ND-40, JCL. 14 . Notes on Brzezinski-Bolling meeting, September 6, 1977. The author extends deepest thanks to Professor Quandt, who shared this document. William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington: Brookings, 1986), 100–104. 15 . Kai Bird, The Good Spy: The Life and Death of Robert Ames (New York: Crown, 2014), 83–162. 16 . John Gunther Dean interview, Carter Library Oral History Project (hereafter CLOHP), September 6, 2000, 223, 238–40, JCL. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/library/oralhistory/clohproject /Initial_Interview_Part_One.pdf. 17 . Janice Terry, “The Carter Administration and the Palestinians,” in U.S. Policy on Palestine from Wilson to Clinton, ed. Michael Suleiman (Normal, IL: Association of Arab-American University Graduates, 1995), 167. 18 . Gunther Dean interview, CLOHP, 238–40. 19 . Document 5, Memo from Acting CIA Director Knoche to Brzezinski, February 8, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 25. 20 . Memo from Brzezinski, Gardner and Owen to Carter, “Foreign Policy Priorities November 3, 1976—May 1, 1977,” November 3, 1976, Folder: “Transition: Foreign Policy Priorities, 11/76,” Plains File, Box 41, JCL. 2 1 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 87. 2 2 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 23 . Memo from Vance to Carter, “A Suggested Carter Administration Agenda,” n.d. [circa October 24, 1976], Folder: “‘A Suggested Carter Administration Agenda,’ notes, background, and proposals,” Box 8, Cyrus and Grace Sloan Vance Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (hereafter Vance Papers). 198 NOTES

24 . Memcon, Carter, Mondale, Kissinger, Eagleburger, and Aaron, November 20, 1976, Folder: “Carter Presidency Transition Papers 1976–1977,” Box 8, Vance Papers. 25 . Intelligence Assessment, n.a., “Arab-Israeli Dispute,” January 18, 1977, NLC-17–111–6–2–2. 26 . Telegram 0206, Consulate Jerusalem to Secretary of State, “Is Peace Achievable? A View from Jerusalem,” February 10, 1977, File unit: “1977 Electronic Telegrams, 1/1/1977–12/31/1977,” Central Foreign Policy Files, Record Group 59, NARA. Retrieved May 10, 2015, www.archives.gov . 27 . Editorial, “How Mr. Carter Sees the World,” The Washington Post (hereafter WP), January 23, 1977; Editorial, “Mideast Moderation,” WP, January 10, 1977. Even conservative-leaning newspapers were cautiously optimistic. For example, Editorial, “Hopeful signs in the Middle East,” Chicago Tribune (hereafter CT ), December 27, 1976; Editorial, “A Moment of Optimism,” The Wall Street Journal (hereafter WSJ ), December 31, 1976. 28 . Henry Tanner, “Complex Issues of Mideast Pose Challenge to Carter,” NYT , December 31, 1976. 29 . Middle East, Presidential Review Memorandum, PRM/NSC 3, January 21, 1977, Item PD01538, Digital National Security Archive (hereafter DNSA). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://nsarchive.gwu.edu/publications/dnsa.html . 3 0 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle, 85–88. 31 . PRC, “Session on PRM/NSC 3: Middle East,” February 4, 1977, NLC-132– 25–1–3–3; “National Security Council Policy Decisions By Subject,” n.d. [circa September 1978], NLC-21–4–5–1–8. 32 . For records of Vance’s meetings in Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria, see Documents 6–15, FRUS , 1977–1980, VIII , 26–122. 33 . NSC meeting minutes, “Middle East,” February 23, 1977, NLC-15–31–4–4–4. 3 4 . I b i d . 35 . “Department of the Interior,” February 18, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977 , I , 197–205. 36 . Douglas Brinkley, “Out of the Loop,” New York Times Magazine, December 29, 2002. 37 . For Ball’s views, see George Ball, “How to Save Israel in Spite of Herself,” Foreign Affairs 55, no. 2 (1977): 453–71. Also see Paper, George Ball, “The Middle East and the Giraffe Question,” August 9, 1978, Folder: “8/9/78,” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 99, JCL. 38 . Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, February 2, 1977, NLC-10–1–2–1–6. 39 . Someone, presumably Brzezinski, has bracketed this portion of the memo and written a large exclamation point alongside it, apparently indicat- ing surprise at the assertion. Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, February 11, 1977, NLC-10–1–3–2–4. 40 . Don Oberdorfer, “Israel to Get Extra $285 Million in Aid; Plane Sales Barred,” WP , February 8, 1977. 41 . Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, February 9, 1977, NLC-10–1–2–32–2. NOTES 199

42 . Ibid., February 22, 1977, NLC-10–1–4–1–4. 43 . Memo from Caddell to Carter, “Initial Working Paper on Political Strategy,” December 10, 1976, Sidney Blumenthal, The Permanent Campaign , Revised ed. (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982), 44–75. 44 . Cambridge Survey Reports, “An Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States of America,” March 1977, Folder: “CSR: Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States, March, 1977,” Powell Donated, Box 15, JCL. 45 . “Warm Words from Jimmy Cardigan,” Time , February 14, 1977. 46 . “Ask President Carter” on CBS Radio, March 5, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 291–327. 47 . March 5, 1977, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 30–31. 48 . Hedrick Smith, “Congress and Carter: An Uneasy Adjustment,” NYT , February 18, 1977. 49 . Hedrick Smith telephone interview with author, November 3, 2011. 50 . CBS News transcript, March 7, 1977, Folder 5, Box 54, Eric Sevareid Papers (hereafter Sevareid Papers), LOC. 5 1 . Time/Yankelovich, Skelly, March 1977, iPOLL Databank, Roper Center for Public Opinion Research, University of Connecticut. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/ipoll/ipoll.html (hereafter Roper Center). 52 . Harris Survey, May 31–June 5, 1977, Roper Center. 53 . Roper Report 77–4, March 19–26, 1977, Roper Center. 5 4 . Time /Yankelovich, Skelly & White Poll, March 1977, Roper Center. 55 . “University of Notre Dame,” May 22, 1977, PPP: Carter 1977, I, 954–62. 56 . UK National Archives (hereafter UKNA): Public Record Office (hereafter PRO) PREM 16/1909, “USA. Internal situation; assumption of office by President Carter; new administration appointments; part 2,” Telegram from UK Embassy Washington (Ramsbotham) to FCO, “President Carter’s Foreign Policy Speech,” May 25, 1977. 57 . Carter met Israel’s Rabin on March 7–8, Egypt’s Sadat on April 4–5, Jordan’s King Hussein on April 25–26, Syrian President Hafez al-Assad on May 9, and Saudi King Fahd on May 24. Carter displayed particular effusiveness in welcoming Sadat to the White House: “It is hard to exaggerate our admi- ration for you and for your forceful moves toward peace.” Document 25, Memcon, April 4, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 166–76. 5 8 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 88. 59 . Document 3, PRC meeting minutes, February 4, 1977, FRUS , 1977–1980, VIII , 5–19. 6 0 . J o d y P o w e l l , The Other Side of the Story (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 56. Jordan also alludes to a sense of urgency, “as though we had been elected for four months instead of four years and had to accomplish everything right away.” Hamilton Jordan, Crisis: The Last Year of the Carter Presidency (New York: Berkley Books, 1982), 48. 6 1 . C y r u s V a n c e , Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 172. 200 NOTES

62 . “Visit of Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin of Israel,” March 7, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 329–31. 6 3 . Y i t z h a k R a b i n , The Rabin Memoirs, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California, 1996), 292–300. 64 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Carter Causes Stir by Seeming to Back Israel on Borders,” NYT , March 8, 1977. 65 . Don Irwin, “Carter Welcomes Rabin—Words Stir Controversy,” LAT , March 8, 1977. 66 . Don Oberdorfer, “Carter View on Borders Buoys Rabin,” WP , March 8, 1977. 67 . “Carter for Defensible Borders,” Near East Report (hereafter NER ), 21, no. 10 (March 9, 1977): 37. 68 . Document 18, Memcon between Carter and Rabin, March 7, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 132–45. 69 . Notes, “Discussion on Air Force 1,” March 17, 1977, Folder 5, Box 2, SEP. 7 0 . R a b i n , Memoirs , 292–300. 71 . Document 20, Memcon between Carter and Rabin, March 8, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 148–56. 7 2 . R a b i n , Memoirs , 292–300. 73 . Don Oberdorfer, “Rabin Concludes Talks With Carter, Shows No Sign of Changing Policy,” WP , March 9, 1977. This report said “defensible borders” were “endorsed by Carter” despite subsequent clarifications. 7 4 . R a b i n , Memoirs , 296. Carter told Rabin: “You have noticed, and I will con- tinue to adhere to this position, that I will not say different things in public than I say in private.” Document 20, Memcon between Carter and Rabin, March 8, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 148–56. 75 . “The President’s News Conference,” March 9, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977 , I, 340–48; Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 287–88; Quandt, Camp David , 47–49. 7 6 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 287–88. 77 . “Clinton, Massachusetts,” March 16, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 382–402. 78 . “The Presidents’ News Conference,” May 12, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 860– 70; “University of Notre Dame,” May 22, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I, 954–62. 7 9 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 91. 8 0 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 81 . Notes of meeting with Dinitz, March 16, 1977, Folder 5, Box 2, SEP. 82 . John Osborne, “Carter on Show,” The New Republic , April 2, 1977. 83 . Saunders interview, ADST. 8 4 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 85 . Arab League Summit resolution, October 28, 1974, QOP. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/63D9A930E2B428DF852572 C0006D06B8 . 86 . Document 227, Sadat’s speech before the PNC, March 12, 1977, International Documents on Palestine, 1977 (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1979), 345–46. 87 . Document 206, Declaration by PNC, March 22, 1977, Israel’s Foreign Relations, Selected Documents (hereafter IFRSD), Vol. 3: 1974–1977. Retrieved May 10, NOTES 201

2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook2/ Pages/206%20Declaration%20by%20the%20Palestinian%20National%20 Counci.aspx. 88 . “The Palestinian Homeland” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin , vol. 3, no. 7 (May 15, 1977), 3, Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut, Lebanon (hereafter IPS). 89 . Document 74, Radio interview with Rabin, March 17, 1977, International Documents on Palestine, 1977 , 173. 90 . Document 205, Radio interview with Rabin, March 20, 1977, IFRSD: 1974–1977. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook2/Pages/205%20Interview%20with%20 Prime%20Minister%20Rabin%20on%20Israel.aspx . 91 . Memo from Eizenstat to Carter, “United Nations Reception,” March 16, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 9 2 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 288. 93 . Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (New York: Times Books, 1995), 397–98. 9 4 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 53. 95 . Jimmy Carter interview, CPP, 56. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://web1 .millercenter.org/poh/transcripts/ohp_1982_1129_carter.pdf. 96 . David Broder column, “Back to Carter’s Basics,” WP , March 13, 1977. 97 . CBS News transcript, March 11, 1977, Folder 5, Box 54, Sevareid Papers. 98 . “Carter/United Nations Speech/Foreign Policy,” “CBS Evening News,” March 17, 1977, Vanderbilt Television News Archive (hereafter VTNA) 250946. 99 . James Reston column, “The Open Mouth Policy,” NYT , March 16, 1977. 100 . Hedrick Smith, “Carter’s Public Diplomacy Causing Questions and Complications,” NYT , March 15, 1977. 101 . C. L. Sulzberger column, “Madness in the Method,” NYT , March 13, 1977. 102 . Joseph Kraft column, “Muddling the Mideast,” WP , March 20, 1977. 103 . UKNA: PRO FCO 82/766, “Visit by Cyrus Vance, US Secretary of State, to UK, 31 March–1 April 1977,” Telegram from UK Embassy Washington (Ramsbotham) to FCO, “Visit of Mr. Vance,” March 25, 1977. 104 . “The President’s News Conference,” May 26, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I, 1016–25. 105 . James Weinberg, “Report on March 23, 1977 Meeting at the White House,” Folder 1, Box 13, Edward Sanders Papers, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio (hereafter Sanders Papers). 1 0 6 . I b i d . 1 0 7 . I b i d . 108 . Mark Siegel telephone interview with author, July 21, 2011. 109 . “Discussion Paper for the PRC Meeting on the Middle East—April 19, 1977,” n.a., Folder: “Meetings—PRC 13: 4/19/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Subject, Box 24, JCL. Emphasis added. 110 . Summary and conclusions, PRC Meeting, “Middle East,” April 19, 1977, Folder: “Meetings—PRC 13: 4/19/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Subject, Box 24, JCL. Emphasis added. 202 NOTES

111 . Amos Perlmutter, “Cleavage in Israel,” Foreign Policy, no. 27 (1977): 109–35. 112 . Intelligence Memorandum, n.a. (CIA), “The Israeli Election and Its Impact on Peace Negotiations,” February 1977. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www .foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1977-02-01.pdf. 113 . Mark Tessler, “The Political Right in Israel: Its Origins, Growth, and Prospects,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15, no. 2 (1986): 12–55. 114 . Samuel Lewis interview, August 9, 1998, ADST. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Lewis,%20Samuel%20W.toc.pdf . 1 1 5 . R a b i n , Memoirs , 300. 116 . Document 35, Telegram from State Department (Christopher) to Vance in Geneva, May 18, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 265–66. 117 . Tad Szulc, “How Carter Fouled the Israeli Elections,” New York, June 6, 1977. 118 . “The Likud Party: Platform (March 1977),” Laqueur and Rubin, eds., Israel- Arab Reader , 206–7. 1 1 9 . R a s h i d K h a l i d i , Under Siege: P.L.O. Decisionmaking During the 1982 War (New York: Columbia University Press, 1986), 7. 120 . “Editorial on Likud Victory,” WAFA, May 19, 1977, IPS. 121 . “Editorial on Begin Declaration Regarding West Bank,” WAFA, May 20, 1977, IPS. 122 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “Israeli Elections,” May 18, 1977, Folder: “Israel 4–6/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 34, JCL. 1 2 3 . I b i d . E m p h a s e s a d d e d . 124 . Memo from Caddell to Carter and Brzezinski, “Survey Results from Israel,” May 19, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Israeli Public Opinion, 5/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 1 2 5 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle, 95–96. 126 . Memo from Lipshutz to Carter, “Israel Election and Related Matters,” May 23, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 4–6/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 34, JCL. 1 2 7 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 296. 128 . For example: Memo from Community Relations Committee of the Jewish Federation Council of Greater Los Angeles, June 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 129 . Memo from Weinberg and Amitay to AIPAC members, “Action Memorandum,” May 25, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 1 3 0 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 57. 131 . “The President’s News Conference,” May 26, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, I , 1016–25. 132 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “UN Resolutions on the Middle East,” June 3, 1977, Folder: “Middle East/Panama, [2/2–6/30/77],” Mondale Donated, Box 206, JCL. 133 . Jimmy Carter interview (I), June 4, 1991, Folder 8, Box 63, SEP. 134 . “Presidential Job Approval Center,” Gallup. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// www.gallup.com/poll/124922/Presidential-Job-Approval-Center.aspx . 135 . Harris Survey, March 1–7, 1977, Roper Center. 136 . Ibid., May 31–June 5, 1977, Roper Center. NOTES 203

2 “The Need for a Political Plan” (May–July 1977)

1 . Memo with attachments from Jordan to Carter, “Politics and Foreign Policy,” June 29, 1977, Folder: “Foreign Policy/Domestic Politics Memo, HJ Memo, 7/77,” Box 34A, Jordan Files, JCL. 2 . Aaron David Miller, The Much Too Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for Arab-Israeli Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 2008), 163. 3 . Carter interview (I), SEP. 4 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 96. 5 . William Quandt, Camp David : Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), 69. For example, AIPAC’s Amitay issued a telegram opposing US advocacy for, or recognition of, a Palestinian state. Amitay telegram, June 6, 1977, Folder: “Foreign Policy/Domestic Politics Memo, HJ Memo, 7/77,” Box 34A, JCL. 6 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 97. 7 . I b i d . 8 . NSC Weekly Report #16, June 10, 1977, NLC-SAFE 16 B-28–14–7–3. Emphases in original. 9 . Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1978 (New York), 1–7, LOC. 10 . Memo from Vance to Carter, May 25, 1977, NLC-128–12–8–17–0. 11 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 296–97. 1 2 . Report of the Conference of Presidents, 1977–1978, 7. 13 . Carter’s relationships with some of these leaders seemed strained on a personal level. Upon being informed by Brzezinski that the Israeli prime minister had received a visit from Hertzberg, Carter wrote in the margins, “Poor Begin.” Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Visitors to Israel,” July 6, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 7/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. 14 . Document 41, Memcon, Katz, Dinitz, Brzezinski, Lipshutz, Aaron and Quandt, June 10, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 308–15. 1 5 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 69–70. 1 6 . S e t h T i l l m a n , The United States and the Middle East: Interests and Obstacles (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 158. 17 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” June 6, 1977, Folder: “6/1/77–6/10/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, President’s Daily Report, Box 2, JCL. 18 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, June 9, 1977, “Conversation with Gordon Zacks of United Jewish Appeal,” Declassified Documents Reference System (hereafter DDRS) CK3100122272. Quandt appeared to heed Zacks’ concern that the Jewish community was anxious that Washington would severely curtail weapons supplies to Israel as a matter of principle. The following month he expressed concern that a review of Israel’s arms needs would lead to a “politicized exercise” and risked being interpreted as another “reassessment” of policy toward Israel. Memo from Quandt to Aaron, “Arms Transfers and Israel,” July 8, 1977, NLC-21–21–9–12–3. On the 1975 “reassessment,” 204 NOTES

see Henry Kissinger, Years of Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999), 424–33. 19 . Memo with attachments from Tuchman to Brzezinski, “Middle East Policy,” June 10, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: 5–6/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Office, Box 31, JCL. 2 0 . “ I s r a e l i E l e c t i o n s , ” NER , 21 (May 25, 1977): 21. 21 . Avi Shlaim, “The Iron Wall Revisited,” Journal of Palestine Studies 41, no. 2 (2012): 80–98. 22 . Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London, W. W. Norton, 2000), 296. 23 . Alan Woods, “Public/Congressional Relations Plan for the CPD,” June 10, 1977, Folder: “Committee on the Present Danger, 1977,” Box 447, Committee on the Present Danger Papers, Hoover Institution, Stanford University (hereafter CPDP). 2 4 . J o h n E h r m a n , The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs 1945–1994 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 97–136. A CPD cofounder, Eugene Rostow, wrote that Israel was “the perfect case history through which to observe the development of our foreign policy since Truman.” Eugene Rostow, “The American Stake in Israel,” Commentary Magazine 63, no. 4 (1977) : 32–46. 25 . Remarks of Walter Mondale, June 17, 1977, Folder: “Middle East—V.P. Mondale’s Speech-SF, 6/17/77,” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 2 6 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 71. 27 . Memo from Brzezinski to Mondale, “Draft Remarks on the Middle East,” June 3, 1977, Folder: “Middle East/Panama, [2/2–6/30/77],” Mondale Donated, Box 206, JCL. 28 . Memo from Clift to Lipshutz, Eizenstat, and Aaron, “Vice President’s June 17 San Francisco Speech,” June 15, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Speech by Vice President—6/17/77 San Francisco, 6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 36, JCL. 29 . Remarks of Walter Mondale, June 17, 1977. 30 . AIPAC memo, “Comments on Vice President Mondale’s Speech Before the World Affairs Council,” June 20, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 31 . “The Mondale Speech,” NER , 21 (June 22, 1977): 25. 32 . Mailgram from Amitay to Lipshutz, “Action Memorandum,” June 30, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. 33 . Seven other senators seconded Javits’ remarks. Jacob Javits, “President Carter’s Mideast Peace Proposals,” Congressional Record—Senate , vol. 123, pt. 17, June 23–30, 1977 (Washington, DC: GPO, 1977), 20947–50. 34 . Letter from Hoffberger to Carter, June 15, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL; Letter from Hoffberger to Carter, June 22, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 3–6/77 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL. NOTES 205

35 . Letter from Brzezinski to Hertzberg, June 22, 1977, WHCF Name File, American Jewish Congress, JCL. 3 6 . Report of the Conference of Presidents , 1977–1978, 7. 37 . William Farrell, “Israel Says Mondale Offered Nothing New in Speech on Mideast,” NYT , June 20, 1977. 38 . “The Independent Palestinian State” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin , vol. 3, no. 10 (July 15, 1977), 3, IPS. 39 . “Discussion Paper for the PRC Meeting on Middle East—June 22, 1977,” n.a., Folder: “Meetings— PRC 18: 6/25/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Subject, Box 24, JCL. Quandt is most likely the author of this paper. 40 . Document 43, Summary of PRC conclusions, June 25, 1977, FRUS, 1977– 1980, VIII, 317–19. 4 1 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 71–72. 42 . “U.S. Statement on the Middle East,” NYT , June 28, 1977. 4 3 . Q u a n d t , Camp David, 72–74. 44 . Document 8, Foreign Ministry statement, June 28, 1977, IFRSD, Vols. 4–5: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/ MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/8%20Foreign%20Ministry-s%20state- ment%20on%20Israel-s%20negotia.aspx . 45 . Note from Eizenstat to Jordan, June 28, 1977, Folder 20, Box 3, SEP. Emphases in original. It is unclear if this handwritten note was ever deliv- ered to Jordan, but it nevertheless reflects Carter’s top domestic policy adviser’s perspective. 46 . The account that follows comes from: Memo with attachments from Jordan to Carter, “Politics and Foreign Policy,” June 29, 1977, Folder: “Foreign Policy/Domestic Politics Memo, HJ Memo, 7/77,” Box 34A, Jordan Files, JCL. 47 . Attached to Jordan’s strategy document was a 16-page memo that analyzes Jewish American voting patterns, political contributions, and support in Congress, while also offering personal thoughts on Jewish identity. Siegel wrote that memo for Jordan. Siegel Interview. “A Gentile can never tell a Jew what is best for him and for Israel. We have heard ‘final solutions’ before,” Siegel wrote. 48 . The American Jewish community was, and remains, active on a range of issues beyond policy toward Israel. However, as Siegel advised Jordan, “let’s make no mistake about the most salient voting issue for American Jews—Israel. To American Jews, the question of Israel is the most salient and determining voting issue, foreign or domestic.” 49 . William Quandt email correspondence with author, May 4, 2011. 50 . “Jordan’s Strategy Memo for Carter’s Run for President,” November 4, 1972, CSPAN’s Presidential Libraries. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// presidentiallibraries.c-span.org/Content/Carter/CarterStrategy.pdf ; Betty Glad, Jimmy Carter: In Search of the Great White House (London: W. W. Norton, 1980), 211–13. 5 1 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 98. 52 . “Israel/Begin/United States as Mid. East Battleground,” “ABC Evening News,” June 20, 1977, VTNA 49126. 206 NOTES

53 . CBS News transcript, June 29, 1977, Folder 8, Box 54, Sevareid Papers. 5 4 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 297. 55 . For example, Letter from Morris Abram to Carter through Lipshutz, “Why Portions of the American Jewish Community are Concerned with the Present Posture of U.S./Israeli/Arab Relations,” July 5, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 7/77–9/79 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL; and Letter from Kash (B’nai B’rith Women) to White House, June 17, 1977, Folder: “Correspondence—Jewish Affairs, 1/76–12/778 [O/A 6471],” Costanza Files, Box 52, JCL. 56 . The Middle East was the second-most popular topic in the mail report, after Carter’s decision to halt production of the B-1 Bomber. Weekly Mail Report from Hugh Carter to Jimmy Carter, July 1, 1977, Folder: “Carter, Hugh A.—[7/1/77–11/1/77],” Hugh Carter Files, Box 103, JCL. 57 . Memo from Jane Simpson to Hugh Carter, July 8, 1977, Folder: “Weekly Telephone Tallies, 4/77–12/77 [CF, O/A 54],” Powell Files, Box 82, JCL. 58 . “Carter, the World and the Jews,” Time , June 27, 1977. 59 . Richard Steele et al., “Carter and the Worried Jews,” Newsweek, June 27, 1977; Steele et al., “Sending Israel a Message,” ibid., July 11, 1977. 6 0 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle, 97–99. 61 . Memo from Jordan to Carter, “Meeting with American Jewish Leaders,” July 6, 1977, Folder: “Middle East/Panama, [7/1–12/31/1977],” Mondale Donated, Box 206, JCL. 6 2 . I b i d . 63 . Memo from Brzezinski to Jordan (for Carter), “Tomorrow’s Meeting with Jewish Leaders,” July 5, 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [2],” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 64 . Minutes, n.a., “Meeting with Jewish leaders,” July 6, 1977, Folder: “Middle East Issues—Jewish Community Concerns O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL; Memcon from Starr to the Files, “Meeting with Jewish Leadership,” July 7, 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Miscellaneous Information, 7/77–9/79 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 35, JCL; and Handwritten notes, “Meeting with Jewish leaders,” July 6, 1977, Folder 20, Box 3, SEP. 65 . Minutes, “Meeting with Jewish leaders,” July 6, 1977. 6 6 . Report of the Conference of Presidents, 1977–1978, 8. 6 7 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 67. 6 8 . I s m a i l F a h m y , Negotiating for Peace in the Middle East (Beckingham, UK: Croom Helm, 1983), 196. 69 . Memo from Quandt and Sick to Brzezinski, “Presidential Meeting with Arab-Americans,” July 27, 1977, Folder: “ND16/CO1–7,” WHCF, Subject, Box ND39, JCL. 70 . Memo with attachment from Quandt and Sick to Brzezinski, “Presidential Meeting with Arab-Americans,” August 26, 1977, Folder: “ND16/CO1–7,” WHCF, Subject, Box ND39, JCL. 71 . Memo from Brzezinski to Jordan, September 2, 1977, “Request for Meeting with Arab Americans,” Folder: “ND16/CO1–7,” WHCF, Subject, Box ND39, JCL. NOTES 207

72 . Terry, “Carter Administration and the Palestinians,” 166–67. 73 . Document 1, Begin’s statement to the Knesset, June 20, 1977, IFRSD: 1977– 1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy /mfadocuments/yearbook3/pages/1%20statement%20to%20the%20%20 knesset%20by%20prime%20minister%20begi.aspx. 74 . For the influence of Jabotinsky on Begin: Lenni Brenner, “Zionist- Revisionism: The Years of Fascism and Terror,” Journal of Palestine Studies 13, no. 1 (1983): 66–92. 75 . Cable from US Embassy Tel Aviv (Lewis) to Vance, July 1, 1977, NLC- 5–6–7–14–8. 76 . “Leadership Profile: Menachem Begin,” n.a. (CIA), July 7, 1977. Retrieved May 10, 2015. http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions /1821105/1977-07-07.pdf . 7 7 . Q u a n d t , Camp David, note 3, 66. See J. Bowyer Bell, Terror out of Zion: The Fight for Israeli Independence, Revised ed. (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996). 7 8 . M e m o f r o m B r z e z i n s k i t o C a r t e r , “ Terror Out of Zion,” June 10, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 4–6/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 34, JCL. 7 9 . S h l a i m , Iron Wall , 352. 8 0 . I l a n P e l e g , Begin’s Foreign Policy, 1977–1983: Israel’s Move to the Right (London: Greenwood, 1987), 95–96. 8 1 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 84. 82 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” July 1, 1977, Folder: “7/1/77–7/10/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, President’s Daily Report, Box 2, JCL. 83 . Memo with attachments from Caddell to Carter, July 15, 1977, Folder: “Middle East—[5/77–12/77],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 12, JCL. 84 . “Mr. Begin Comes to Washington,” NYT , July 18, 1977. 85 . H. D. S. Greenway, “Stakes High In U.S. Visit By Begin,” WP , July 12, 1977. 86 . Don Oberdorder, “Begin Arrives Carrying Secret Peace Proposals,” WP , July 19, 1977. 8 7 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 78. Emphasis added. 88 . William Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 . 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2005), 184–85. 89 . “Framework for the Peace-Making Process Between Israel and its Neighbors,” July 7, 1977, Israel State Archives (ISA)/Record Group (RG) 43/A/4313/1. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/CF98E837 -B502-4429-A601-C3899ACC5C80/0/Egypt03.pdf . 90 . However, in private Begin reportedly described the president as a “cream puff.” Quandt interview, REP. 9 1 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 298. 92 . The best account of these talks is in Quandt, Camp David , 77–84. 93 . Minutes, n.a., Meeting between Carter and Begin, July 20, 1977, ISA/RG 43/A/4349/4. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres /C06F7A44-FD40-4A22-8108-0891E5A66D3F/0/Egypt06.pdf . For the first meeting, see Document 52, Memcon, Begin, and Carter, July 19, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 336–53. 208 NOTES

94 . For examples of positive coverage, see John Maclean, “Begin’s Peace Package ‘Encouraging,’ Carter Says,” Chicago Tribune (hereafter CT ), July 20, 1977; Oswald Johnston, “Carter Reports Basis Is Laid for Mideast Talks,” Los Angeles Times (hereafter LAT ), July 21, 1977; Bernard Gwertzman, “Carter Optimistic on Geneva Meeting after Hearing Begin,” NYT, July 21, 1977. For commentary, see Editorial, “Begin’s Beginning,” WP , July 21, 1977; Rowland Evans and Robert Novak column, “For Israel’s Begin, An Ironic Triumph,” July 25, 1977; Editorial, “Fresh Start in the Middle East,” The Wall Street Journal (hereafter WSJ ), July 26, 1977. 95 . Twenty-eight percent believed Carter would be successful. CBS News/ NYT Poll, July 19–25, 1977, Roper Center. 9 6 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 299. 97 . Document 23, Government statement on settlements, July 26, 1977, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/23%20Government%20statement%20 on%20recognition%20of%20three%20se.aspx . 98 . Document 24, US reaction to Israeli settlements announcement, July 26, 1977, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA /ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/24%20US%20reac- tion%20to%20Israeli%20settlements%20announcement.aspx. In 1978, the State Department’s legal adviser articulated the US position thusly: “Territory coming under the control of a belligerent occupant does not thereby become its sovereign territory . . . While Israel may undertake, in the occupied territories, actions necessary to meet its military needs and to provide for orderly government during the occupation . . . the civilian settlements in those territories [are] inconsistent with international law.” Letter from Hansell to Fraser and Hamilton, April 21, 1978, Folder: “Middle East: Palestine, 1977–1978,” Box 160, LHP. 99 . “The President’s News Conference,” July 29, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 1366–74. The next day, Carter said it was “wrong” for Israel “to insinuate that they are legal.” “Question-and-Answer,” July 30, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 1387–95. 100 . Hedrick Smith analysis, “A President Under Strain,” NYT , July 29, 1977. 101 . August 5, 1977, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 78. 102 . For analysis of Israel’s settlement policy under Begin, see Idith Zertal and Akiva Eldar, Lords of the Land: The War Over Israel’s Settlements in the Occupied Territories, 1967–2007 , trans. Vivian Eden, 2nd ed. (New York: Nation Books, 2007), 55–73.

3 Firestorm over US-Soviet Joint Communiqué (August–October 1977)

1 . “US-Soviet Joint Communiqué on the Middle East,” Department of State Bulletin (hereafter DSB ), November 7, 1977, 639–40. NOTES 209

2 . October 3, 1977, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux), 2010, 111. 3 . M o n t a g u e K e r n , Television and Middle East Diplomacy: President Carter’s Fall 1977 Peace Initiative, 1st ed. (Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1983), 27. 4 . Cable, State to Brzezinski, “Arafat Message,” July 18, 1977. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/1977-07-18b.pdf . 5 . Document 51, Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Message from Arafat,” n.d. [circa July 19, 1977], FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 335–36. 6 . C y r u s V a n c e , Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 187–90. 7 . William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), 86–87. 8 . D o c u m e n t 2 8 , Time interview with Carter, August 1, 1977, IFRSD: 1977– 1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFA Documents/Yearbook3/Pages/28%20Interview%20with%20President%20 Carter-%20Time%20Magazine-.aspx . 9 . August 5, 1977, Carter, Diary , 78. 10 . August 14, 1977, Carter, Diary, 83. 11 . Memo from Sick to Brzezinski, “Summary of Vance’s Middle East Trip,” August 12, 1977, NLC-SAFE 16-A-13–18–1–2. 1 2 . Q u a n d t , Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab- Israeli Conflict since 1967 . 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2005), 186. 13 . “Plains, Georgia,” August 8, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 1459–60. 14 . “ABC News Interview,” August 10, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II, 1467–73. 15 . Memo from Hyland to Carter, “Information Items,” August 11, 1977, Folder: “8/11/77–8/20/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, President’s Daily Report, Box 3, JCL. 1 6 . Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1978 . (New York), LOC, 11–12. 17 . Letter from Carter to Schindler, August 26, 1977, Folder: “ND16/CO 1–7 7/16/77–8/31/77,” WHCF, Subject, Box FO-39, JCL; and Letter from Schindler to Carter, August 26, 1977, Folder: “ND16/CO 1–7 7/16/77–8/31/77,” WHCF, Subject, Box FO-39, JCL. 1 8 . Q u a n d t , Camp David, 84–95. 1 9 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 104. 20 . “Palestine Is the Core” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin, vol. 3, no. 11 (August 11, 1977), 3, IPS. 21 . “Abu Lutf Declaration on ‘242,’” WAFA, August 27, 1977, IPS. US ambassador to Egypt Hermann Eilts said he drafted the compromise declaration, which the PLO’s Central Council rejected. Eilts interview, ADST. 22 . “The Palestinian People and 242” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin , vol. 3, no. 12 (September 1, 1977), 3, IPS. 23 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” August 27, 1977, Folder: “8/21/77–8/31/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, President’s Daily Report, Box 3, JCL. 210 NOTES

2 4 . K e r n , Television and Middle East Diplomacy , 10–12. 25 . Rowland Evans and Robert Novak column, “Carter’s Maneuver to Bring in the PLO,” WP , August 11, 1977. 26 . Howard Smith, “Commentary (Vance’s Failures),” “ABC Evening News,” August 15, 1977, VTNA 49908; Joseph Kraft column, “Vance Comes Home Empty-Handed—Again,” WP , August 16, 1977. 27 . For example, Terence Smith analysis, “The Special Relationship Is Intact but Under Strain,” NYT , August 28, 1977. 2 8 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 105–6. 29 . For example: Editorial, “The Dizzy Pace in the Middle East,” NYT , August 10, 1977. 30 . An account of the secret meeting sympathetic to the CPD leaked to Evans and Novak. Evans and Novak column, “A Touchy Carter: Shades of Former Presidents?” WP , August 13, 1977. 31 . Letter from Rostow to the CPD Executive Committee, August 10, 1977, Folder 5, Box 70, Paul Nitze Papers (hereafter PNP), LOC. 32 . August 4, 1977, Carter, Diary , 76–77. 33 . Letter from Nitze to Brzezinski, March 26, 1976, Folder 5, Box 70, PNP. 34 . September 12, 1977, Carter, Diary, 96–97. However, Gallup put his approval rating lower—at 54 percent. Gallup Poll (AIPO), September 9–12, 1977, Roper Center. 35 . Notes of Brzezinski-Bolling meeting, September 6, 1977. Also see Brzezinski, Power and Principle , 105; Quandt, Camp David , 100–104. 36 . The PLO’s objection to 242 was that it only referred to Palestinians as “refu- gees,” rather than as a people with national rights. “Abu Lutf Declaration on ‘242,’” WAFA, August 27, 1977, IPS. 3 7 . Q u a n d t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . 38 . Document 103, Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “Full set of notes from Landrum Bolling,” September 19, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 498–517. 39 . “Arafat Comments on US State Department Statement,” WAFA, September 13, 1977, IPS. 40 . “Status of Palestinians in Peace Negotiations,” DSB , October 11, 1977, 463. 41 . “Editorial: No Peace without Legitimate Palestinian Rights,” WAFA, September 13, 1977, IPS. 42 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” September 15, 1977, Folder: “9/1–77–9/15/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, President’s Daily Report, Box 3, JCL. 4 3 . “ P a l e s t i n i a n R e p r e s e n t a t i o n , ” NER , 21 (September 14, 1977): 37. 44 . Memo from Vance to Carter, September 12, 1977, NLC-12–12–7–6. 45 . Ibid., September 17, 1977, NLC-128–12–12–12–0. 4 6 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 105. 47 . “Interview with the President,” September 16, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 1615–24. 4 8. L e t t e r f r o m D a y a n t o Va n c e , S e p t e m b e r 2 , 1 9 7 7, I S A / R G 4 3 /A / 4 3 1 3 / 3 . R e t r i e v e d May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/2E42A22C-3D17- 4FE5-B096-98BA2CBDAB1A/0/Egypt07.pdf . NOTES 211

4 9 . Q u a n d t , Peace Process , 186. 5 0 . B o u t r o s B o u t r o s - G h a l i , Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York: Random House, 1997), 28. 5 1 . A n w a r e l S a d a t , In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), 306–7; Avi Shlaim, The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World (London: W. W. Norton, 2000), 358. 5 2 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt- Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 38. 53 . “Main Points from the Meeting of Foreign Minister Moshe Dayan with Egyptian Deputy Prime Minister Hassan Tuhami,” September 17, 1977, ISA/RG 43/A/4313/4. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il /NR/rdonlyres/7BFFC442-E877-4377-989E-DE3ED63389AA/0/Egypt12. pdf. The next week, Dayan informed Vance of the meeting. Quandt, Camp David , 111. 5 4 . S h l a i m , Iron Wall , 358. 5 5 . I l a n P e l e g , Begin’s Foreign Policy, 1977–1983: Israel’s Move to the Right (London: Greenwood, 1987), 99. 5 6 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 191. 5 7 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 301. Emphasis added. 58 . “Soviet Role in the Middle East,” n.a. (CIA), June 1977, NLC-6–50–2–9–9. 59 . For example, see Memo from Vance to Carter, September 10, 1977, NLC- 128–12–12–6–7; Memo from Vance to Carter, September 13, 1977, NLC-128–12–12–8–5; Memo from Vance to Carter, September 16, 1977, NLC-128–12–12–11–1. 60 . “Record of the Main Content of A. A. Gromyko’s Conversation with US President J. Carter” [Excerpt], September 23, 1977, Carter-Brezhnev Project, National Security Archive. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www2.gwu .edu/~nsarchiv/carterbrezhnev/global_competition_ebb.html . 61 . September 23, 1977, Carter, Diary , 106. 62 . Memo from Sanders and Lewis to Jordan and Lipshutz, “Reasons Why the Jewish Community and Other Israeli Supporters are Disturbed by Administration Actions and Inactions Since the July 6 Meeting,” September 19, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 8–9/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. 6 3 . I s m a i l F a h m y , Negotiating for Peace in the Middle East (Beckingham, UK: Croom Helm, 1983), 196–205. 64 . Fahmy later resigned over Sadat’s decision to visit Jerusalem. 6 5 . F a h m y , Negotiating for Peace , 196–205. 66 . Document 107, Memcon, Carter, Fahmy, and US delegation, September 21, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 547–58. 6 7 . F a h m y , Negotiating for Peace , 195–96. 6 8 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 107. 6 9 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 100–103. 70 . Document 110, Telegram from State Department to US Embassy Tel Aviv (from Carter for Begin), September 24, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 564–66. 7 1 . Q u a n d t , S H A F R . 7 2 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 107. 212 NOTES

7 3 . K e r n , Television and Middle East Diplomacy , 9. 74 . “The President’s News Conference,” September 29, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 1684–93. 7 5 . S e t h T i l l m a n , The United States and the Middle East: Interests and Obstacles (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982), 158. 76 . “U.S.-Soviet Joint Communiqué on the Middle East,” DSB . 7 7 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 301. Emphases added. 7 8 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 192. 79 . Document 52, Israeli reaction to communiqué , October 2, 1977, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/foreignpolicy /mfadocuments/yearbook3/pages/52%20israel%20government%20reaction %20to%20joint%20us-soviet%20s.aspx. 80 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with President Anwar Sadat,” February 4, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–184. Egypt’s foreign minister, Fahmy, describes the communiqu é in positive terms. Fahmy, Negotiating for Peace , 234–36. 81 . Mohamed Heikal, Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab- Israeli Peace Negotiations (London: Harper Collins, 1996), 253. 8 2 . F a h m y , Negotiating for Peace , 243–44. 8 3 . “ U . S . - S o v i e t C o m m u n i q u é ” ( e d i t o r i a l ) , Palestine PLO Information Bulletin , vol. 3, no. 14 (October 1, 1977), 3, IPS; and “Communiqué of PLO Executive Committee: ‘No Peace Without Complete Withdrawal and Palestinian Rights,’” WAFA, October 22, 1977, IPS. 84 . Edward Said, “Palestinians” (1977), in Edward Said, ed., The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self- Determination 1969–1994 (London: Vintage, 1994), 30–32. 85 . Jody Powell interview, December 17–18, 1981, CPP, 57. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://web1.millercenter.org/poh/transcripts/ohp_1981_1217_powell.pdf . 8 6 . J o d y P o w e l l , The Other Side of the Story (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 57. 87 . Letter from Bingham, Anderson, and Yates to Carter, October 4, 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 10/6/77 [O/A 10550],” Bourdeaux Files, Box 107, JCL. 88 . Moynihan statement, October 3, 1977, Folder 1, Box 2828, Daniel Patrick Moynihan Papers (hereafter DPMP), LOC. 89 . Eugene Rostow, “Down the Slippery Slope: Carter’s Middle Eastern Policy” (draft), October 17, 1977, Folder 11, Box 70, PNP. 90 . “Carter’s Blunder,” NER, 21 (October 5, 1977): 40. AIPAC also issued a four-and-a-half page memo that elaborated its objections to the statement. AIPAC memo, “The United States, the Soviets and a Middle East Peace,” October 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [2],” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 91 . Robert Kaiser and Murray Marder, “U.S. and Israel at Odds Over Carter’s Mideast Stance,” WP , October 4, 1977. 9 2 . Report of the Conference of Presidents, 1977–1978 , 12–13. 93 . Alexander Schindler interview, April 28, 1992, Folder 8, Box 65, SEP. 9 4 . Report of the Conference of Presidents, 1977–1978 , 12–13. 95 . Editorial, “What’s Going On?” LAT , October 4, 1977. 96 . Editorial, “The Mideast: A U.S. Policy Shift?” WP, October 4, 1977. Emphasis in original. NOTES 213

97 . Editorial, “Bungling the Peace,” WSJ , October 5, 1977. 9 8 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 191–94. 9 9 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 110. 1 0 0 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w . 1 0 1 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 102 . Notes of meeting with Eizenstat, Dinitz, Jordan, Bell, and Siegel, October 3, 1977, Folder 25, Box 4, SEP. 103 . Notes of meeting with Eizenstat, Brzezinski, Aaron, Quandt, Jordan, Lipshutz, Butler, Siegel, Powell, Inderfurth, and Schecter, October 3, 1977, Folder 25, Box 4, SEP. 104 . “Notes on US-Soviet Joint Statement,” October 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [2],” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 105 . Memo from Siegel to Jordan, “Middle East,” October 3, 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [2],” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. Emphasis in original. 106 . Cable, “Israel: Foreign Minister Dayan,” September 17, 1977. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conver- sions/1821105/1977-09-17.pdf. 1 0 7 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 108. 108 . Document 124, Memcon, Carter, Dayan and US delegation, October 4, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII , 652–77. 109 . Notes, Carter, October 4, 1977, Folder: “10/4/77,” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 53, JCL. 110 . US-Israel Joint Statement, October 5, 1977, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6862 /5. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres /1A4B0050-7EF8-403E-AAEA-2F538CD99C4E/0/Egypt08APP1.pdf. The best account of these talks is in Quandt, Camp David , 125–31. 111 . “Working Paper on Suggestions for the Resumption of the Geneva Peace Conference,” October 5, 1977, ISA/RG 130/ MFA/6911/2. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/F97B44C2-363A-4410 -B08C-D0EACB97B7CC/0/Egypt08APP2.pdf. 112 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “Significance of U.S.-Israeli Agreement on Procedures for Geneva,” October 5, 1977, Folder: “Middle East— Negotiations: 10/77–12/77,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 13, JCL. 113 . Document 54, Radio interview with Dayan, October 15, 1977, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/ MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/57%20Interview%20with%20 Foreign%20Minister%20Dayan%20on%20Israel.aspx. 114 . “The U.S.-Israeli Working Paper,” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin , vol. 3, no. 15 (October 15, 1977), 3, IPS. 115 . “Carter/New York City/United Nations/Human Rights/Mid. East/Israel,” “ABC Evening News,” October 5, 1977, VTNA 46402. 116 . Notes of meeting between Carter and Jewish congressmen, October 6, 1977, Folder 25, Box 4, SEP. 1 1 7 . E d w a r d T i v n a n , The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 125–26. 118 . Memo from Vance to Carter, October 26, 1977, NLC-128–13–1–17–6. 214 NOTES

1 1 9 . S c h i n d l e r i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 120 . Some have argued that Carter dealt with the American Jewish leadership essentially as a special interest group, with little regard to the emotional bond with Israel. Arlene Lazarowitz, “Ethnic Influence and American Foreign Policy: American Jewish Leaders and President Jimmy Carter,” Shofar 29, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 112–36. 121 . See the chronological folders in Press—Jewish Media Mass Mailings, Box 16, JCL. 122 . UN General Assembly A/RES/32/5, October 28, 1977, QOP. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/CCB3661A0F5F7 D4C852560DD006B5F93 . 123 . Memo from Jordan to Carter, “UN Resolution on Illegal Settlements,” October 26, 1977, Folder: “Middle East, 1977 [1],” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. Emphasis in original. 124 . “Resolutions adopted by the General Assembly at its 32nd session,” UN Documentation: Research Guide. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www .un.org/depts/dhl/resguide/r32.htm. 125 . Memo with attachments from Caddell to Carter, “Foreign Policy Questions,” October 21, 1977, Folder: “Caddell, [Patrick] [1],” Jordan Files, Box 33, JCL. 1 2 6 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 302. 127 . Quandt correspondence. 128 . George Gallup, “The Gallup Poll: President Receives 66 Pct. Approval After Seven Months,” WP , September 11, 1977. 129 . Louis Harris, “Harris Survey: Carter Has Ground to Make Up,” CT, October 3, 1977. 130 . Aaron David Miller, The Much Too Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for Arab- Israeli Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 2008), 184.

4 “Cronkite Diplomacy,” Sadat’s Jerusalem Initiative, and US Policy (November 1977–February 1978)

1 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith : Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 305. 2 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 111. 3 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w . 4 . Media diplomacy is “the uses of media by leaders to express interest in negotiation, to build confidence, and to mobilize public support for agreements . . . (It includes) spectacular media events organized to usher in a new era.” Eytan Gilboa, “Global Communication and Foreign Policy,” Journal of Comunication 52, no. 4 (2002): 731–48. 5 . M a r t i n I n d y k , “To the Ends of the Earth”: Sadat’s Jerusalem Initiative (Cambridge, MA: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1984). 6 . See Ibrahim Karawan, “Sadat and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Revisited,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 26, no. 2 (1994): 249–66; Adel NOTES 215

Safty, “Sadat’s Negotiations with the United States and Israel: From Sinai to Camp David,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 50, no. 3 (1991): 285–98; Shibley Telhami, Power and Leadership in International Bargaining: The Path to the Camp David Accords (New York: Columbia University Press, 1990). 7 . William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), 138–41. 8 . Anwar el Sadat, In Search of Identity (London: Collins, 1978), 304. 9 . Document 141, Telegram from US Embassy Cairo (Eilts) to State Department, November 3, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 741–44. 1 0 . C y r u s V a n c e , Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 194. 1 1 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 303. 12 . Note from Brzezinski to Carter, n.d. [circa early November 1977], Folder: “Middle East–[5/77–12/77],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 12, JCL. 1 3 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 111. 14 . “World Jewish Congress: Remarks at the Meeting of the General Council,” November 2, 1977, PPP: Carter , 1977 , II, 1952–57. 15 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “President’s Speech to World Jewish Congress, November 2, 1977,” October 31, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 10/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. 1 6 . I b i d . 17 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “Revised Presidential Speech to World Jewish Congress,” November 1, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 11–12/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. 18 . Draft, “World Jewish Congress,” n.a., n.d. [circa November 2, 1977], Folder: “Israel, 11–12/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. 19 . Document 138, Memcon, Goldmann and Vance, October 27, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 729–32. 2 0 . E d w a r d T i v n a n , The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 120–21. 21 . “Speech by Egyptian President Anwar Sadat to the Egyptian Parliament, November 9, 1977 [Excerpts],” in “Arab Documents on Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Journal of Palestine Studies 7, no. 2 (1978): 178–80. 2 2 . B o u t r o s B o u t r o s - G h a l i , Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem : A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York: Random House, 1997), 12–16; Mohamed Ibrahim Kamel, The Camp David Accords: A Testimony (London: KPI, 1986), 15. 23 . Document 145, Telegram from US Embassy Cairo (Eilts) to State Department, “Sadat’s Nov 9 Speech: Geneva or Bust,” November 10, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 750–53. 24 . Magda Bagnied and Steven Schneider, “Sadat Goes to Jerusalem: Televised Images, Themes and Agenda,” in Television Coverage of the Middle East , ed. William C. Adams (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981), 53–66. 25 . For example, after Sadat’s speech Begin told a visiting group of American lawmakers he would be willing to host Sadat. That was communicated to 216 NOTES

Sadat, who repeated that he was willing to travel to Israel. However, no plans were established. “Meeting between the Prime Minister, Mr. Menachem Begin, and delegation from Armed Services Committee of the US House of Representatives,” November 10, 1977, ISA (no archival location listed). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/6C13A8F8- D26F-468D-B0BE-74D72F7D71CA/0/Egypt18APP.pdf. 26 . Transcript, “CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite,” November 14, 1977, Folder: “Middle East,” Box 2M733, WCP. 2 7 . I b i d . 2 8 . W a l t e r C r o n k i t e , A Reporter’s Life (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996), 354. 29 . Cronkite, “Media Played Role in ‘70s Mideast Peace Process,” NPR, January 15, 2007. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story .php?storyId=6861044. 3 0 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w . 31 . Alfred Leroy Atherton Jr., interview, Summer 1990, ADST. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Atherton,%20Jr.,%20Alfred% 20Leroy.toc.pdf. 32 . Letter from Begin to Sadat with covering letter to Carter, November 15, 1977, ISA/RG 43/A/4155/5. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives .gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/B6141B0C-38B2-4542-9640-FE66138132B8 /0/Egypt21.pdf; and Letter from Sadat to Begin, November 19, 1977, ISA /RG 43/A/4313/5. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il /NR/rdonlyres/087008E3-B965-4966-BD44-7D69DECA67EF/0/Egypt26 .pdf ; and Appendix, Covering Letter from US Embassy Tel Aviv to Begin, December 14, 1977, ISA (no archival location listed). Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/FBA11065-4B9D-4330-BB91 -4B882FE349B3/0/Egypt26APP.pdf. 33 . Zahid Mahmood, “Sadat and Camp David Reappraised,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15, no. 1 (1985): 62–87. 34 . William Safire column, “Cronkite Diplomacy,” NYT , November 17, 1977. 35 . Mary McGrory column, “Walter Cronkite, TV’s diplomat,” CT , November 23, 1977. 36 . Editorial, “Peace through Ineptitude?” WSJ , November 18, 1977. 37 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Sadat-Begin: The U.S. View,” NYT , November 17, 1977. 3 8 . C l i p p i n g , The Washington Star, n.d. [circa December 1, 1977], Folder: “Middle East,” Box: 2M733, WCP. 3 9 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 112. 40 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “What Begin Could Give Sadat,” November 17, 1977, Folder: “Israel, 11–12/77,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 35, JCL. Begin did not, in fact, issue such a statement. 41 . Memorandum of conversation between Carter and Begin, November 17, 1977, NLC-128–6–2–1–0. 42 . Allen Alter, “580 U.S. news people cover Sadat’s visit,” Editor & Publisher , November 25, 1977. NOTES 217

43 . The PLO was furious. “Fateh Communiqué : Fateh Rejects Sadat’s Visit to Knesset,” WAFA, November 17, 1977, IPS; “P.L.O. Executive Committee: Sadat’s Decision Apostasy and Blow to Arab Nation,” WAFA, November 18, 1977, IPS. 44 . “Egyptian President Anwar Sadat: Peace with Justice (November 20, 1977),” Laqueur and Rubin, Israel- Arab Reader , 207–15. 4 5 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w . 46 . Cable from CIA/OPS/CTR to White House, “Sadat’s Speech to the Knesset,” November 20, 1977, NLC-43–4–8–17–4. 4 7 . I b i d . 4 8 . “ S a d a t ’ s V i s i t ” ( e d i t o r i a l ) , Palestine PLO Information Bulletin 3, no. 17 (November 30, 1977), 3, IPS. 49 . Document 12, “General Assembly, 84th meeting: statement by PLO Executive Committee member Qaddumi,” November 28, 1977, International Documents on Palestine, 1977, 94–98. 50 . Document 77, Begin-Sadat press conference and text of communiqu é , November 21, 1977, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http:// mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/77%20 Joint%20press%20conference%20Begin-Sadat%20and%20text%20of.aspx. 51 . Bagnied and Schneider, “Sadat Goes to Jerusalem: Televised Images, Themes and Agenda,” 57. 52 . “Sadat Visit/Aftermath,” “ABC World News Tonight,” November 23, 1977, VTNA 46645. 53 . Charles Seib, “A (Televised) Mission to Jerusalem,” WP , November 25, 1977. 54 . Marvin Barrett, “TV Diplomacy and other Broadcast Quandaries,” Columbia Journalism Review 18, no. 1 (1979): 69–80. 55 . Flora Lewis column, “A New ‘Mass’ Diplomacy, Using Television and the Press, Is Emerging in Middle East,” NYT , December 23, 1977. 56 . Meg Greenfield column, “Our Ugly Arab Complex,” WP, November 30, 1977. 57 . Morad Asi, “Arabs, Israelis, and TV News: A Time-Series, Content Analysis,” in Television Coverage of the Middle East , ed. William C. Adams (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981), 67–75. 58 . “CSR: Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States, January 1978,” January 1978, Folder: “CSR: Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States,” Powell Donated, Box 15, JCL. 59 . Ibid. Also see Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1978 (New York), 14–16. 60 . Robert Tucker, “The Middle East: For a Separate Peace,” Commentary Magazine 65, no. 3 (1978): 25–31. 61 . “Sadat and Begin—a Start,” NER 21 (November 23, 1977): 47. 62 . Seymour Martin Lipset and William Schneider, “Carter vs. Israel: What the Polls Reveal,” Commentary Magazine 64, no. 5 (1977): 21–29. 63 . William Adams and Phillip Heyl, “From Cairo to Kabul with the Networks, 1972–1980,” in Television Coverage of the Middle East , ed. William C. Adams (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981), 1–39. 218 NOTES

6 4 . G e o r g e G a l l u p , The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1978 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1979), 57–73. 6 5 . G e o r g e G a l l u p , The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1972–1977, Vol. 1, 1972–1975 (Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, Inc., 1978), 1220–25. 6 6 . G e o r g e G a l l u p , The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1978 , 1. Begin ranked seventh. 67 . “CSR: Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States, January 1978,” January 1978, Folder: “CSR: Analysis of Political Attitudes in the United States,” Powell Donated, Box 15, JCL. 68 . Algeria, Libya, the PLO, South Yemen and Syria formed an “Arab Confrontation Front” in response to Sadat’s initiative. “PLO: Six-Point Program (December 4, 1977),” Laqueur and Rubin, Israel- Arab Reader , 215; and “Arab League: Summit Declaration (December 5, 1977),” Laqueur and Rubin, Israel- Arab Reader , 216–18. 69 . November 23–27, 1977, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 141. 70 . Memorandum of conversation between Carter and Begin, November 21, 1977, NLC-126–6–2–2–9. Also see: Letter from Begin to Carter, November 23, 1977, ISA/RG 43/A/4313/5. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.archives. gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/E4536B4F-5A69-4008-A624-25D7D7317B4D/0 /Egypt35.pdf . 71 . Document 155, Telegram from US Embassy Cairo (Eilts) to State Department, “Sadat’s Assessment of His Visit to Israel and Where Do We Go From Here?,” November 23, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 769–75. 72 . Jerrold Post, “Personality Profiles in Support of the Camp David Summit,” Studies in Intelligence , vol. 23 (Summer 1979): 1–5. 73 . “The President’s News Conference,” November 30 1977, PPP: Carter , 1977, II, 2053–61. 74 . Document 157, Telegram from US Embassy Tel Aviv (Lewis) to State Department, “Meeting with Begin on Sadat Visit,” November 23, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 777–80. 7 5 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 150–51. 7 6 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 196–203. 7 7 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 149. 78 . Memo from Vance to Carter, November 26, 1977, NLC-128–13–2–17–5. 7 9 . I b i d . 80 . Memo from Atherton and Saunders to Vance, November 28, 1977, NLC- SAFE 39-B-35–5–3–4. 8 1 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 195. 82 . “Middle East: Visit of Secretary Vance,” DSB , January 1978, 40. 83 . AIPAC criticized this delay as “puzzling” and “disappointing.” “Rethinking Policy Objectives,” NER 21 (November 30, 1977): 48. 84 . Atherton interview, ADST. 85 . “Israel’s Self-Rule Plan,” December 28, 1977, Documents: Peace Process, Israeli Knesset. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.knesset.gov.il/process /docs/autonomy1977_eng.htm. NOTES 219

86 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “West Bank Portion of Memcon of President’s Meeting with Begin, December 16, 1977,” December 17, 1977, Folder: “Middle East—Negotiations: 10/77–12/77,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 13, JCL; Document 177, Memcon with attachments, US and Israeli delegations, December 16, 1977, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 861–72. 8 7 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 199. 88 . NSC Weekly Report #40 from Brzezinski to Carter, December 16, 1977, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 31–41,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 41, JCL. 89 . Laurence Stern, “Sadat’s Bold Act of Courting America for His Vision of Peace,” WP , February 7, 1978. 90 . Memo from Vance to Carter, December 17, 1977, NLC-128–13–3–12–9. 91 . James Reston column, “The Day After Tomorrow,” NYT , December 16, 1977. 92 . Rowland Evans and Robert Novak column, “Impromptu Diplomacy,” WP , January 9, 1978. 93 . Vermont Royster column, “Negotiating Peace,” WSJ , January 11, 1978. 94 . “Conversation with the President,” December 28, 1977, PPP: Carter, 1977, II , 2187–2202. 95 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with King Khalid,” January 3, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–184. 96 . “Remarks of the President and President Anwar el-Sadat Following Their Meeting,” January 4, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978 , I, 19–20; Document 185, Telegram from Vance to US Embassy Tel Aviv, “President Carter’s Meeting With President Sadat,” January 5, 1978, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 916–18. 97 . Carter wrote “excellent” on the memo and ordered it distributed to Jordan, Mondale, and Powell. Memo from Eizenstat to Carter, “Year-End Summary,” December 27, 1977, Folder 28, Box 4, SEP. 98 . NSC Weekly Report #42 with attachments from Brzezinski to Carter, January 13, 1978, NLC-128–9–14–2–3. 99 . The Panama Canal Treaty ratification and SALT/Comprehensive Test Ban were the other two “must win issues.” 100 . Notes of meeting, n.a., January 23, 1978, Folder: “Egypt 11/77–11/81,” Plains File, Box 1, JCL. 1 0 1 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 239–47. 102 . Brzezinski characterized US policy toward the PLO in the wake of Sadat’s Jerusalem trip as “bye bye PLO.” His remark angered the PLO and further rendered unlikely an imminent US-PLO dialogue. Raymond Carroll et al., “Bye-Bye PLO?” Newsweek , January 16, 1978. 1 0 3 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 162. 104 . Arthur Samuelson, “The Dilemma of American Jewry,” The Nation, April 1, 1978. 105 . Memo from Vance to Carter, January 10, 1978, NLC-128–13–4–3–8. Encouraged by Carter, Humphrey’s office released the letter later that month. The senator died January 13. Hedrick Smith, “Humphrey Urged Begin to Be Flexible in Talks,” NYT, January 25, 1978. 106 . Memo from Vance to Carter, January 31, 1978, NLC-126–13–4–18–2. 220 NOTES

1 0 7 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 171; Brzezinski, Power and Principle , 242–43. 1 0 8 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 1 0 9 . I b i d . 110 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with President Anwar Sadat,” February 4, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–184. 1 1 1 . I b i d . 1 1 2 . I b i d . 1 1 3 . I b i d . 114 . Memo, Sober and Saunders to Vance, “Analysis of Arab-Israeli Developments,” February 2, 1978. Retrieved May 10, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites /default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1978-02-02a.pdf. 115 . “Sadat Appeals Directly to American Jews to Support His Efforts for Peace,” LAT , January 30, 1978. 1 1 6 . Report of the Conference of Presidents, 1977–1978, 17–18. 117 . Memo from Vance to Carter, February 6, 1978, NLC-128–13–5–3–7. 118 . February 7, 1978, Carter, Diary , 170. 1 1 9 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough A Personal Account of the Egypt- Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 116. 120 . “Israeli Settlements,” DSB , March 1978, 37. 121 . Editorial, “Settlements or Settlement?” WP , February 2, 1978. 122 . Editorial, “The Jews and Jimmy Carter,” NYT , November 6, 1977. 123 . Memo from Starr to Lipshutz, Eizenstat and Jordan, “Middle East Roundtable Briefings,” November 14, 1977, Folder: “Middle East Issues— Jewish Community Concerns [O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL. 124 . Memo from Siegel to Jordan, “Meeting with Jewish Leaders on Mideast Situation,” January 6, 1978, Folder: “Middle East Issues—Jewish Community Concerns [O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL. 125 . February 8, 1977, Carter, Diary , 171. 1 2 6 . D a y a n , Breakthrough , 116. 127 . “The Secretary: News Conference, February 10,” DSB , March 1978, 13–18. 1 2 8 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w . 129 . Don Oberdorfer, “Moshe Dayan, the Famous War General, Takes Aim at U.S. Public Opinion,” WP , February 16, 1978. 1 3 0 . D a y a n , Breakthrough , 117–18. 131 . Editorial, “The West Bank Imperatives,” NYT , February 10, 1978. 132 . December 15, 1977, Carter, Diary , 149. 133 . Youssef Ibrahim, “Arabs in the U.S. Stunned, Puzzled by Sadat’s Action,” NYT , November 18, 1977.

5 Capitol Hill Fight over “Package” Airplane Deal (February–May 1978)

* An earlier version of this chapter first appeared in the journal Diplomatic History, published by Oxford University Press: Daniel Strieff, “Arms Wrestle: Capitol Hill Fight Over Carter’s 1978 Middle East ‘Package’ Airplane Sales,” NOTES 221

Diplomatic History. Advance Access published March 9, 2015, doi: 10.1093/dh /dhv004. 1 . Cyrus Vance, “Middle East Aircraft Sales,” February 14, 1978, DSB , March 1978, 37. 2 . Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 195. 3 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 248. 4 . May 15, 1978, Carter, Diary, 194–95. 5 . Cabinet meeting notes, April 17, 1978, Carter, Diary , 185–88. NSC Weekly Report #42 from Brzezinski to Carter, January 13, 1978, NLC- 128–9–14–2–3. 6 . NSC Weekly Report #48 from Brzezinski to Carter, February 24, 1978, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 42–52,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 41, JCL. 7 . Note in margins, Memo from Vance to Carter, February 25, 1978, NLC- 128–13–5–16–3. 8 . Roy Licklider, “The Power of Oil: The Arab Oil Weapon and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, and the United States,” International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 2 (1988): 205–26; Fiona Venn, “The October 1973 Energy Crisis,” H-Energy. Retrieved May 11, 2015, https://networks.h-net .org/system/files/contributed-files/henergy-f-venn-1973-oil-crisis.pdf ; Daniel Yergin, The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991), 570–94. 9 . Olav Nj ø lstad, “Shifting Priorities: The Persian Gulf in US Strategic Planning in the Carter Years,” Cold War History 4, no. 3 (April 2006): 21–55. 1 0 . D a v i d O t t a w a y , The King’s Messenger (New York: Walker & Company, 2008), 36. 1 1 . H o a g L e v i n s , Arab Reach: The Secret War Against Israel (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983), 12–13. 12 . Memo with attachments from Jordan to Carter, “Overall Foreign Policy Consultation,” June 29, 1977, Folder: “Foreign Policy Issues/Work Plans, 6/77,” Box 34A, Jordan Files, JCL. 1 3 . G e o r g e M o f f e t t , The Limits of Victory: Ratification of the Panama Canal Treaties (London: Cornell University Press, 1985), 204. 1 4 . J o r d a n i n t e r v i e w , C P P , 4 5 – 4 6 . 15 . Memo with attachments, Jones to Senate Foreign Relations Committee (hereafter SFRC), March 10, 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 1 6 . Peace in the Mideast: A Delicate Balance. Report of a Study Mission to the Mideast and Ireland, January 2–20, 1978, House International Relations Committee (hereafter HIRC), 95th Cong., 2nd sess., 17; “Summary of Findings,” April 23, 1978, “Study Mission to the Middle East and Ireland,” Box ZME 1, HIRC, 95th Cong., RG 233, National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC. 17 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with King Khalid,” January 3, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–184. 222 NOTES

18 . “Backgrounder: F-15E Strike Eagle,” Boeing. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http:// www.boeing.com/defense-space/military/f15/docs/F-15E_overview.pdf; “Factsheets: F-15 Eagle,” US Air Force. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www .af.mil/AboutUs/FactSheets/Display/tabid/224/Article/104501/f-15-eagle .aspx . 19 . Vance, “Middle East Aircraft Sales,” DSB . 20 . Weekly Legislative Report from Moore to Carter, April 3, 1978, Folder: “Congressional Liaison Weekly Reports, 1–4/78,” Plains File, Box 20, JCL. 21 . Under the Arms Export Control Act, weapons sales in excess of $20 million could be killed if both houses of Congress voted to disapprove them. International Security Assistance and Arms Export Control Act of 1976, Title II of Pub. L. 94–329, 90 Stat. 729, enacted June 30, 1976, codified at 22 U.S.C. ch. 39. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg /STATUTE-90/pdf/STATUTE-90-Pg729.pdf. 2 2 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales Proposals: Hearing before the Foreign Relations Committee , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 4, 1978, 127–40; Assistant Secretary of State Douglas Bennet Jr.’s letter to HIRC, February 16, 1978, Congressional Record, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 124, part 3, 3900–3905, and part 6, 6894–95. 23 . AIPAC made the clearest arguments against the Saudi and Egyptian sales: “F-15s to Saudi Arabia—A Threat to Peace,” n.d. [circa January 1978], Folder: “Middle East Issues—Jewish Community Concerns [O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL; “F-5Es to Egypt,” February 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 2 4 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales Proposals , May 3, 1978, 16–17. 2 5 . H I R C , Proposed Aircraft Sales to Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia: Hearing before the International Relations Committee , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 8, 1978, 35–45. 26 . Memo, n.a., “US Aircraft and the Middle East Military Balance,” March 7, 1978, NLC-25–1–7–3–3. 2 7 . S F R C , Sales of F-15’s to Saudi Arabia, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 8, 1978, 236–59. 28 . Memo from Vance to Carter, December 21, 1977, NLC-128–13–3–15–6; Memo from Vance to Carter, March 11, 1978, NLC-128–13–6–9–0. 29 . AIPAC memorandum, “Middle East Arms Package,” May 22, 1978, Folder 4, Box 1, Sanders Papers. 30 . Memo from Vance to Carter, March 11, 1978, NLC-128–13–6–9–0. 31 . Letter from Biden, Case, Church, Clark, Pell, Sarbanes and Stone to Carter, January 24, 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 32 . Letter from Jackson, Nunn, and Moynihan to Carter, April 25, 1978, WHCF, Jackson Name File, JCL. 3 3 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 249. 34 . “President’s News Conference,” February 17, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978, I , 331–39. 35 . Meeting notes, n.a., February 15, 1978, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6865/3. I am grate- ful to Sara Palmor, who shared the ISA documents in this chapter with me. NOTES 223

36 . February 8, 1978, Carter, Diary , 171. 37 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Jewish Leader Says Mideast Policy Makes a ‘Question Mark’ of Carter,” NYT, March 10, 1978; Siegel interview. 38 . Summary, n.a., Meeting between administration and Jewish leaders, February 23, 1978, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6865/5. 39 . Memo with attachments from Brzezinski to Eizenstat and Lipshutz, March 23, 1978, Folder: “Middle East Issues—Jewish Community Concerns [O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL. 4 0 . E z e r W e i z m a n , The Battle for Peace (New York: Bantam Books, 1981), 288. 4 1 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt-Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 115–16. 4 2 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales Proposals, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 3, 1978, 43–46. 43 . Document 124, Begin’s statement to the Knesset, February 15, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/124%20Statement%20to%20the%20 Knesset%20by%20Prime%20Minister%20Beg.aspx . 44 . Memo from Vance to Carter, March 9, 1978, NLC-128–13–6–7–2. 45 . Don Oberdorfer and Mary Russell, “Despite Hill Plea, Carter Bars Delay on Mideast Jets,” WP , April 26, 1978; Robert Kaiser, “Top Aide Grilled on Jets,” WP , May 4, 1978. 46 . Oberdorfer, “Dayan’s Talks End on Note of Progress,” WP , April 28, 1978; Brzezinski, Power and Principle , 248–49. 47 . James Reston column, “The New Diplomacy,” NYT , April 28, 1978. 48 . Amitay replied, “That’s not government policy.” Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, April 11, 1978, NLC-10–10–5–20–2. 49 . Israeli Embassy press release, May 11, 1978, Folder 5, Box 4, Frank Church Papers, Boise State University (hereafter FCP). 50 . After the sales, AIPAC noted inconclusively: “There was confusion as to whether . . . Israel would prefer Congressional approval of all three sales in order for Israel to receive her aircraft or Congressional rejection of the entire package.” AIPAC memorandum, “Middle East Arms Package,” May 22, 1978, Folder 4, Box 1, Sanders Papers. 51 . Thomas Franck and Edward Weisband, Foreign Policy by Congress (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979), 184–85, 90. 52 . Memo from Vance to Carter, May 2, 1978, NLC-128–13–8–2–5; SFRC, Middle East Arms Sales Proposals, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 8, 1978, 222–23. 53 . AIPAC memorandum from Amitay and Wollack, “Legislative Update,” September 1977, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 54 . Letter from Amitay and Wollack to Javits, January 23, 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 55 . AIPAC memorandum, “F-15s to Saudi Arabia.” 5 6 . Congressional Record , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 124, part 3, 3900–3905. 57 . AIPAC memorandum, “F-5Es to Egypt,” February 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. The State Department also responded to 224 NOTES

AIPAC’s Egypt memo: Letter with attachments from Bennet to Hamilton, “Comments on AIPAC’s Memorandum re Proposed Sale of F-5 Aircraft to Egypt,” March 9, 1978, Folder: “Saudi Arabia—F-15 Sales 1978,” Box 15, Howard Baker Papers, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (hereafter HBP). 58 . “Upsetting the Peace Process,” NER 22 (February 15, 1978): 7. 5 9 . “ D a n g e r o u s B l u n d e r , ” NER 22 (March 1, 1978): 9. 60 . “Washington Arms Clash,” NER 22 (February 22, 1978): 8. 61 . Peter Novick, The Holocaust in American Life (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999), 209–14. 62 . “Lessons of the Holocaust,” NER 22 (April 19, 1978): 16. 63 . William Claiborne, “‘Holocaust’ Book Is Tool in Arms Lobbying,” WP , April 22, 1978. 64 . Mark Siegel interview, June 12, 1978, EGAFP, 205; Memo with attachments from Jordan to Carter, June 1977, Folder: “Foreign Policy/Domestic Politics Memo, HJ Memo, 7/77,” Jordan Files, Box 34A, JCL. 65 . CIA Intelligence Memorandum, “Cooperation and Conflict among the Gulf States,” March 1977. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov /sites/default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1977-03-01.pdf. 6 6 . Y e r g i n , The Prize , 594, 662–714. 67 . “BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2014: Historical Data,” BP. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www.bp.com/statisticalreview . 6 8 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 3, 1978, 1–20. 69 . Document 116, Telegram from US Embassy Kuwait to State Department, January 12, 1977, FRUS, 1969–1976, Volume XXXVII: Energy Crisis, 1974– 1980 , 405–6. 70 . Paper, “The Saudi Role in Meeting World Energy Requirements,” n.a. (State), May 1977, Folder: “Middle East: Saudi Arabia 10/77—6/78, [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 36, JCL 71 . Memorandum, n.a. (CIA), “Factors Affecting Saudi Arabia’s Position on an OPEC Oil Price Increase,” November 10, 1977. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/1821105 /1977-11-10.pdf . 72 . Saudi purchases of US weapons rose from less than $300,000 in 1972 to a cumulative total of $16 billion in arms and $10 billion in military con- struction projects from 1974 to 1978. “Fiscal Year Series as of September 30, 2013,” Defense Security Cooperation Agency, 340. Retrieved May 11, 2015. http://www.dsca.mil/sites/default/files/fiscal_year_series_-_30_sep_2013.pdf . 73 . Peter Osnos and David Ottaway, “Yamani Links F15s to Oil, Dollar Help,” WP , May 2, 1978. 74 . Peter Osnos and David Ottaway, “Saudi Minister Calls for Arab Reappraisal of Peace Effort,” WP , May 3, 1978. 75 . Letter with attachment from West to Carter, February 19, 1978, DDRS CK3100099224. 7 6 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 3, 1978, 67. However, a General Accounting Office staffer conceded: “The Saudi Arabian government has associated its continued restraint with respect to NOTES 225

oil availability and stable prices, with a favorable decision on the F-15 sale.” SFRC, Middle East Arms Sales , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 4, 1978, 127–40. 77 . Richard Harwood and Ward Sinclair, “Lobbying for Warplane Brings Saudis out of Isolation,” WP , May 7, 1978. 78 . David Howard Goldberg, Foreign Policy and Ethnic Interest Groups: American and Canadian Jews Lobby for Israel (London: Greenwood Press, 1990), 68. 7 9 . O t t a w a y , King’s Messenger , 30–36. 8 0 . M i t c h e l l B a r d , Arab Lobby: The Invisible Alliance That Undermines America’s Interest in the Middle East (New York: HarperCollins, 2010), 122. 81 . John Maclean, “American Arabs Strive to Improve Public Image,” CT , May 9, 1978. 8 2 . S F R C , Middle East Arms Sales Proposals, 95th Cong., 2nd sess., May 8, 1978, 171–90. 83 . Memo with Notes from Vance to Carter, February 2, 1978, NLC-128–13–5–1–9. 84 . Letter with Attachment from Alireza to Javits, March 15, 1978, Folder: “F-15 bomber, 1978,” Box 32, JJP. 85 . Harwood and Sinclair, “Lobbying for Warplane Brings Saudis out of Isolation.” 8 6 . O t t a w a y , King’s Messenger , 32. 8 7 . W i l l i a m S i m p s o n , The Prince (New York: HarperCollins, 2007), 56. 88 . Booklet, n.a. (Dutton), “Questions and Comments on the President’s Pending Authorization of US Sale of F-15 Planes for the Defense of Saudi Arabia,” n.d. (circa May 1978), Folder: “Saudi Arabia—F-15 Sales 1978,” Box 15, HBP. 89 . Letter from Siegel to Jordan, March 1, 1978, Folder: “Siegel, Mark, 1977–78,” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 90 . Letter from Siegel to Carter, March 8, 1978, Folder: “Siegel, Mark, 1977–78,” Jordan Files, Box 35, JCL. 91 . Siegel interview. In his final meeting with the president, Siegel said he felt Carter did not have the “fullest range of opinion” on policy. “Specifically, I want you to understand that my people, the Jewish people, are insecure, and we are insecure for very good and substantial reasons.” Document 227, Record of meeting between Carter, Jordan and Siegel, March 9, 1978, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 1051–54. 92 . For example, Judy Bacharach, “The Man Who Walked Out the White House Door,” WP , March 24, 1978; Don Holt et al., “Painful Exit,” Newsweek , March 20, 1978. 93 . Gwertzman, “Jewish Leader Says Mideast Policy Makes a ‘Question Mark’ of Carter”; Brzezinski, Power and Principle , 249. 94 . Memo from Sanders and Lewis to Carter and Mondale, March 6, 1978, Folder: “Middle East—[1/78—9/78],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 12, JCL. 95 . Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, April 11, 1978, NLC- 10–10–5–20–2. 9 6 . S i e g e l i n t e r v i e w , E G A F P , 1 9 5 . 97 . “President’s News Conference,” March 9, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978, I, 489–98. 226 NOTES

98 . Notes, Elissar-AIPAC meeting, March 9, 1978, ISA/RG 43/A/7370/8. 99 . Schindler’s use of “our” indicates linkage between Israeli and American Jewish leadership interests. Telegram from Schindler to Begin, March 2, 1978, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6865/5. 100 . Telegram from Begin to Schindler, March 3, 1978, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6865/5. 101 . “Kalam Adwan Operation,” Palestine PLO Information Bulletin 4, no. 6 (April 1–15, 1978), 5–7, IPS. 102 . Document 29, Telegram from State Department to US Embassy Tel Aviv (from Carter for Begin), “Message of Condolence From President Carter for Prime Minister Begin,” March 11, 1978, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 1056. 103 . Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East, 3rd ed. (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007), 96–97. 1 0 4 . V a n c e , Hard Choices , 209. 105 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with Prime Minister Begin,” March 21, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–185. 106 . Memcon, “President’s Meeting with Prime Minister Begin,” March 22, 1978, MR-NLJC-11–185; Minutes, Meeting between American and Israeli delegations, March 22, 1978, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6865/6. 1 0 7 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 247. 108 . Weekly Legislative Report from Moore to Carter, April 3, 1978, Folder: “Congressional Liaison Weekly Reports, 1–4/78,” Plains File, Box 20, JCL. 109 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Begin Bids U.S. Public Back Israel’s Policy after Seeing Carter,” NYT , March 24, 1978. 110 . “Mideast Poll,” “NBC Nightly News,” March 23, 1978, VTNA 498027. 111 . “Public Opinion Poll: Mideast/Carter/Canal Treaty,” “CBS Evening News,” April 13, 1978, VTNA 257350. 112 . Linda Charlton, “36 Jews in U.S. Applaud Israelis Who Urged Flexibility on Peace,” NYT , April 21, 1978. 113 . Arthur Samuelson, “The Dilemma of American Jewry,” The Nation, April 1, 1978. Also see Linda Charlton, “Jews in America Now Worried by Both U.S. and Israeli Policies,” NYT , April 5, 1978. 114 . Sol Stern, “Menachem Begin vs. the Jewish Lobby,” New York, April 24, 1978. 115 . Editorial, “Mr. Begin’s Jewish Critics,” NYT , April 23, 1978. 116 . Memo from Eizenstat to Carter, “Middle East Arms Sales,” April 13, 1978, Folder: “Middle East Issues—Jewish Community Concerns [O/A 6342],” Eizenstat Files, Box 235, JCL. 117 . William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), 188. 118 . Norman Kempster, “Jet Deal Tests Carter Policy in Middle East,” LAT , April 30, 1978. 119 . “Mideast/United States Arms Sales,” “ABC Evening News,” February 15, 1978, VTNA 52627. 120 . Robert Kaiser, “A Showdown on Carter’s Arms Package,” WP , March 8, 1978. 121 . “After 30 Years, Arab Cause Gets a Hearing,” U.S. News & World Report , March 27, 1978; “Israel’s Potent Lobby Faces Biggest Test,” U.S. News & World Report, March 27, 1978; William Lanouette, “The Many Faces of the NOTES 227

Jewish Lobby in America,” National Journal , May 13, 1978; “Representing the Arab Point of View,” National Journal, May 13, 1978; “Mideast/Arms Lobby,” “CBS Evening News,” March 10, 1978, VTNA 256800; “Arab Lobby,” “CBS Evening News,” March 29, 1978, VTNA 257125. 122 . Harwood and Sinclair, “Lobbying for Warplane Brings Saudis out of Isolation.” 123 . Lanouette, “Many Faces of the Jewish Lobby.” 124 . Editorial, “Sell Jets to Saudi Arabia,” CT , May 3, 1978; Editorial, “Of Planes and Policy,” LAT , February 17, 1978; Editorial, “Eagles to Arabia,” NYT , February 16, 1978; Editorial, “Mideast Arms-Sales Bind,” WP, April 28, 1978; Editorial, “The Arms Sale Morass,” WSJ , May 12, 1978. 125 . NBC News Poll, February 21–22, 1978, Roper Center; Roper Report 78–74, March 18–25, 1978, Roper Center; “Majority in Poll Opposed to More U.S. Arms in Mideast,” LAT , April 6, 1978; Harris Survey, April 19–20, 1978, Roper Center; Time /Yankelovich, Skelly & White, May 30–June 5, 1978, Roper Center. 126 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” May 5, 1978, NLC- 1–6–2–19–2. 127 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 321. 128 . Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, May 9, 1978, NLC- 10–11–3–19–5. 129 . Don Oberdorfer and Hobart Rowen, “Lipshutz Heckled for Defense of Carter’s Middle East Policies,” WP , May 10, 1978. 130 . Memo from Saunders and Bowdler to Vance, “Analysis of Arab-Israeli Developments,” May 2, 1978, NLC-SAFE 17-B-10–52–5–1. 131 . Bernard Weinraub, “Carter Eases Stand on Plane ‘Package,’” NYT , April 29, 1978. 132 . However, shortly afterward a note from Carter to Vance suggested that he still treated the sales as a unit: “Hold firm— No changes in our ‘package.’” Note in margins, Memo from Vance to Carter, May 2, 1978, NLC-128–13– 8–2–5. Emphasis in original. 133 . Letter from Carter to Zablocki, May 9, 1978, Folder 4, Box 4, Clement Zablocki Papers, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin; Letter from Carter to Sparkman, May 9, 1978, Congressional Record , 95th Cong., 2nd sess., vol. 124, pt. 10, 13628. 134 . “President’s Daily Diary,” May 12, 1978, JCL. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http:// www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/diary/1978/d051278t.pdf. 135 . “Letter to Members of Congress,” May 12, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978, I, 896– 97. In turn, antisales senators tried to rally colleagues: Letter with attachments from Case and Sarbanes to Senators, May 15, 1978, Folder: “Saudi Arabia—F-15 Sales 1978,” Box 15, HBP. 1 3 6 . Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1979 , 5–6, LOC. 137 . Memo from Jordan to Carter, n.d. [circa May 1978], Folder: “Arms Sale Package (Israel-Egypt-Saudi Arabia) [CF, O/A 646],” Jordan Files, Box 39, JCL. 228 NOTES

1 3 8 . Congressional Record , vol. 124, Pt. 10 (Washington: GPO, 1978), 13623– 710; Ghassan Bishara, “The Middle East Arms Package: A Survey of the Congressional Debates,” Journal of Palestine Studies 7, no. 4 (1978). 139 . May 15, 1978, Carter, Diary, 195. According to Quandt, several other Democrats told the administration they would support the package if it needed their votes for its approval, but otherwise would prefer to disapprove it for political reasons. Consequently, the final tally of Democrats sup- porting the package did not reflect the administration’s support. Quandt, SHAFR. 1 4 0 . E d w a r d T i v n a n , The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987), 127–28. 1 4 1 . G o l d b e r g , Foreign Policy and Ethnic Interest Groups , 70–79. 142 . Memo from Brzezinski to Eizenstat, “Talking Points on Middle East,” May 15, 1978, Folder: “Middle East, 5/78,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 50, JCL; Terence Smith, “Carter Leads Drive to Mollify Jewish Opponents of Arms Deal,” NYT , May 17, 1978. 143 . Evening Report from Middle East Desk to Aaron, May 23, 1978, NLC- 10–11–7–7–4. 144 . Document 153, Begin’s statement on airplane sales, May 16, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 11, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/153%20Statement%20by%20 Prime%20Minister%20Begin%20on%20US%20arms%20s.aspx. 145 . Document 251, Note 2, Telegram from State Department to US Embassy Tel Aviv (from Carter to Begin), June 1, 1978, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 1150–51. 146. Lawrence Meyer, “Jews Protest Sale of Jets,” WP , May 18, 1978. 147 . Document 152, Note 4, “Summary of Conclusions of Special Coordinating Committee Meeting,” June 6, 1978, FRUS, 1969–1976, XXXVII, 485–88. 148 . John Maclean, “Jewish Groups to Review Tactics on Jet Lobbying,” CT , May 14, 1978. 1 4 9 . “ U n b r e a k a b l e S u p p o r t , ” NER 22 (May 24, 1978): 21; “What the Vote Means,” NER 22 (May 17, 1978): 22. 150 . James Reston column, “Time For Waiting,” NYT , May 19, 1978. 151 . Megan Greenfield column, “Turning Point for Israel,” WP , May 17, 1978. 152 . Robert Kaiser, “Jet Deal: ‘Gang That Couldn’t Shoot Straight’ Wins One,” WP , May 18, 1978. 153 . Robert Healy and Margaret Thompson, The Washington Lobby , 3rd ed. (Washington: Congressional Quarterly, 1979), 150. 1 5 4 . J o d y P o w e l l , Other Side of the Story (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 114–17. 1 5 5 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 247. 156 . Quandt called it a “big distraction.” Quandt, SHAFR; Vance, Hard Choices, 213. 157 . NSC Weekly Report #64 from Brzezinski to Carter, June 23, 1978, Folder: “Weekly Report [to the President], 61–71: [6/78–9/78],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 41, JCL. 158 . June 28, 1978, Carter, Diary , 203. 159 . June 15, 1978, Carter, Diary , 2 0 1 . NOTES 229

6 “Getting Control” at Camp David (June–September 1978)

1 . “Special Report: Camp David ‘A Framework for Peace,’” CBS News, September 18, 1978, VTNA 837720; “Camp David Meeting on the Middle East,” September 18, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978, II , 1533–37. 2 . C y r u s V a n c e , Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 219. 3 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith : Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 325. 4 . The literature on Camp David is voluminous. Lawrence Wright’s day- by-day account, which is generally positive, is the best so far. Lawrence Wright, Thirteen Days in September: Carter, Begin, and Sadat at Camp David (New York: Knopf, 2014). Quandt’s account remains indispensable. William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), especially 206–58. 5 . Betty Glad, Outsider in the White House : Jimmy Carter, His Advisors, and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), 142–53; Robert Strong, Working in the World: Jimmy Carter and the Making of American Foreign Policy (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000), 183–207; Kenneth Stein, Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab- Israeli Peace (New York: Routledge, 1999), 252–68. 6 . Jeremy Pressman, “Explaining the Carter Administration’s Israeli- Palestinian Solution,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 5 (November 2013): 1117–47. 7 . R a s h i d K h a l i d i , Brokers of Deceit: How the US Has Undermined Peace in the Middle East (Boston: Beacon Press, 2013), 5–7; Donald Neff, Fallen Pillars: U.S. Policy towards Palestine and Israel since 1945 (Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1995), 117–19. 8 . W r i g h t , Thirteen Days in September , 262. 9 . Documents 266–273, FRUS, 1977–1980, VIII, 1191–1236. 1 0 . J o d y P o w e l l , The Other Side of the Story (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 60. 11 . Memo from Quandt and Clift to Mondale, “Middle East Developments,” July 10, 1978, Folder: “[Vice President’s Lunch With the President: Talking Points, 7/78–12/78],” Mondale Donated, Box 3, JCL. 12 . Rafshoon interview, CPP, 9; “Assistant to the President for Communications,” n.a., n.d. [circa May 1978], Folder: “Office Procedures: Memos (1),” Rafshoon Files, Box 29, JCL. 1 3 . J o h n A n t h o n y M a l t e s e , Spin Control: The White House Office of Communications and the Management of Presidential News, 2nd, revised ed. (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 149–77. 1 4 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 71. 15 . CSR, “A Brief Analysis of Public Attitudes Toward President Carter,” June 1978, Folder: “Analysis of Political Attitudes toward Jimmy Carter, 6/78,” Powell Donated, Box 16, JCL. 16 . Gallup Poll (AIPO), August 14, 1978, Roper Center. 17 . Roper Report 78–8, August 19–26, 1978, Roper Center. 230 NOTES

18 . NBC News/AP Poll, August 7–8, 1978, Roper Center. 19 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “The Middle East,” July 18, 1978, Folder: “Middle East—Negotiations: (1/78–7/28/78),” Brzezinski Donated, Box 13, JCL. 2 0 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 250. 2 1 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 2 2 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle, 250–51. 23 . Michael Kernan, “Inside the Mountain Hideaway: Taking the Tensions of the Mideast to the Serenity of Camp David,” WP , September 6, 1978. 24 . Letter from Marvin Beaman Jr., to Senator Charles Mathias Jr., December 22, 1977, Folder: “Camp David, 6/77–9/78,” Lipshutz Files, Box 6, JCL. 2 5 . P o w e l l , Other Side, 55–56. 26 . Memo from Purks to Granum and Leibach, “Camp David—The News Media,” August 10, 1978, Folder: “Camp David Summit—Press Coverage Concerns, 8/10/78–9/21/78,” Press, Granum Files, Box 80, JCL. 27 . Memo from Edwards to Rafshoon and Powell, “Proposal for Press Coverage of the Camp David Summit,” August 30, 1978, Folder: “Camp David Summit— Press Coverage Concerns, 8/10/78–9/21/78,” Press, Granum Files, Box 80, JCL. 28 . Letter from Shaddix to Rafshoon, August 11, 1978, Folder: “Camp David Summit 9/78,” Press (Advance), Edwards Files, Box 3, JCL. Emphasis in original. 29 . Memo from Rafshoon to Carter through Powell, August 25, 1978, Folder: “Camp David Summit,” Rafshoon Files, Box 24, JCL. Emphases in original. 3 0 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 325; Powell, Other Side , 65–66. 3 1 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 65–70. 3 2 . I b i d . , 6 4 – 6 5 . 33 . Notice to the Press, “Coverage Details for the Camp David Summit,” September 4, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. 3 4 . S m i t h i n t e r v i e w . 3 5 . P o w e l l , Other Side, 63–64. 36 . In fact, Begin objected to the term “full partner,” which was used by the Americans and Egyptians. He told a reporter he preferred that Carter per- form more modestly as an “honest broker.” Milan Kubic, “On to Camp David,” Newsweek , August 28, 1978. 37 . “Carter/Mideast/United States Troops,” ABC “World News Tonight,” August 30, 1978, VTNA 55468. 38 . “Mideast/Hussein Interview,” ABC, August 31, 1978, VTNA 55513. 39 . “Camp David Meeting,” “CBS Evening News,” August 31, 1978, VTNA 259420; “Mideast,” “NBC Nightly News,” August 31, 1978, VTNA 500448. 40 . Barry Schweid analysis, AP, September 2, 1978, Nexis. 41 . “Mideast Summit,” ABC “World News Tonight,” September 11, 1978, VTNA 55627; Powell, Other Side , 79. 42 . Rowland Evans and Robert Novak column, “Last-Minute Maneuvers For the Mideast Summit,” WP , August 21, 1978. NOTES 231

43 . “Carter Prepared to Suggest U.S. Presence on West Bank,” CT , August 28, 1978. 44 . Jim Hoagland, “U.S. Air Base Is One Proposal for Mideast Talks,” WP , August 30, 1978. 45 . Memo from Christopher to Carter, August 14, 1978, Folder: “State Department Evening Reports, 8/78,” Plains File, Box 39, JCL. 46 . Briefing Book, n.a. (CIA), “Arab Reaction to a US Military Presence in the Middle East,” August 31, 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.foia.cia. gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1978-08-31d.pdf; Briefing Book, n.a. (CIA), “Soviet Reaction to a US Military Presence in the Middle East,” August 31, 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.foia.cia .gov/sites/default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1978-08-31g.pdf . 47 . Minutes, “Middle East—Camp David Summit,” n.a., September 1, 1978, NLC-17–2–1–5–5. 48 . Transcript, News conference, September 7, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. 49 . Memo from Kite to Lipshutz, September 15, 1978, “Mail concerning the Middle East,” Folder: “Middle East: American Policy, 6/77–9/78 [CF, O/A 712],” Lipshutz Files, Box 34, JCL. 50 . Roper Report 78–7, July 8–15, 1978, Roper Center. 51 . “Special Report: High Stakes at Camp David,” CBS News, September 5, 1978, VTNA 837719. 52 . “The President’s News Conference of August 17, 1978,” PPP: Carter, 1978, II , 1438–47. 53 . One poll gave Carter a plurality of 44 percent approval. Roper Report 78–8, August 19–26, 1978, Roper Center. A separate survey gave him a 6.1 rating (out of 10) on the Middle East. WP Poll, September 1, 1978, Roper Center. 54 . Roper Report 78–8, August 19–26, 1978, Roper Center. 55 . Gallup Poll (AIPO), August 4–7, 1978, Roper Center; Gallup Poll (AIPO), September 8–11, 1978, Roper Center. 56 . Roper Report 78–8, August 19–26, 1978, Roper Center. 57 . For example, Release, “Presidents’ Conference Leader Hails Forthcoming Begin-Sadat Meeting in Camp David Under Carter’s Auspices,” n.d. [circa early August 1978], Folder 13, Box 5, Sanders Papers; Release, “Statement by Howard Squadron, President, American Jewish Congress, On the Sadat- Begin Meeting in Camp David,” Sanders Papers. AIPAC showed more cir- cumspection and criticized the phrase “full partner.” “Looking to Camp David,” NER 22 (August 16, 1978): 33. 5 8 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 329. 5 9 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle, 257. 60 . Similarly, in convincing Sadat not to walk out of the summit at one particu- larly contentions moment, Carter reportedly said that if Camp David failed, he would be a one-term president. But if something were signed, he would devote his second term to achieving a comprehensive solution. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East (New York: Random House, 1997), 142. 232 NOTES

61 . Memo, “Talking Points for Camp David Summit Meeting,” n.a., n.d. [circa early September 1978], Folder: “Camp David—Speeches and Statements, 8/8/78–10/20/78,” Moses Files, Box 4, JCL. 62 . However, Quandt concedes they underestimated how tenaciously Begin would insist on clinging to the Sinai settlements. Quandt, Camp David , 209–17. 63 . William Quandt, Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab- Israeli Conflict since 1967. 3rd ed. (Washington, DC: Brookings, 2005), “Appendix E1” Briefing Book for President Carter at Camp David, August 1978.” Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.brookings.edu/press/books/chapter_1 /peaceprocess_appendixE1.pdf . 64 . Ibid. Emphases in original. 65 . Briefing Book, n.a. (CIA), “Camp David: The Consequences of Failure,” August 31, 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites /default/files/document_conversions/1821105/1978-08-31e.pdf. 66 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Strategy for Camp David,” September 1, 1978, DDRS CK3100466153. Emphases in original. 6 7 . I b i d . 6 8 . S a a d i a T o u v a l , The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab- Israeli Conflict, 1948–1979 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), 284–320. 6 9 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt- Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 173. 70 . August 31, 1978, Carter, Diary , 215–16. 7 1 . W r i g h t , Thirteen Days in September , 191. 72 . Jerrold Post, “Personality Profiles in Support of the Camp David Summit,” Studies in Intelligence , vol. 23 (Summer 1979): 1–5. 73 . Memo from Sanders to Jordan, August 15, 1978, Folder 13, Box 5, Sanders Papers. 74 . “Camp David Meeting on the Middle East,” September 4, 1978. PPP: Carter, 1978, II, 1496–97. 7 5 . Q u a n d t i n t e r v i e w , R E P . 7 6 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 60. 7 7 . W o l f B l i t z e r , Between Washington and Jerusalem: A Reporter’s Notebook (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985), 219. 7 8 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 69–70. 7 9 . I b i d . , 6 8 . 80 . “Mideast Summit,” ABC “World News Tonight,” September 7, 1978, VTNA 55968. White House correspondent Sam Donaldson even suggested that an exchange between Begin and Sadat upon entering a cabin with Carter could have been as follows: “‘No, no, after you, President Sadat.’ ‘No, Mr. Begin, I insist, after you, sir.’” 81 . For example, Transcript, News conference, September 7, 1978, Folder: “9/5– 17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. 82 . Transcript, News conference, September 9, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. NOTES 233

83 . Don Irwin, “President Escorts Sadat, Begin on Gettysburg Tour,” LAT , September 11, 1978; Edward Walsh, “In the Mideast Peace Search, a Pause For a Somber Reminder at Gettysburg,” WP , September 11, 1978. 84 . Edward Walsh, “Journalists, with Very Little to Do, Wait for Any Tidbit of Information,” WP , September 8, 1978; ‘Camp David Summit/Oil/ Reactions,” ABC “World News Tonight,” September 6, 1978, VTNA 55947. 85 . Jim Hoagland analysis, “The Stage Is Set for Decisive Action in Camp David Political Mystery-Thriller,” WP , September 11, 1978. 86 . The White House later requested the original, and many similar cartoons, for its collection. Letter from Granum to Bob Taylor, February 1, 1979, Folder: “Camp David Summit—Cartoons,” Press, Granum Files, Box 80, JCL. 87 . Transcript, News conference, September 8, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. 88 . Transcript, News conference, September 14, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. 89 . David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings that Shaped the Twentieth Century (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 306–7. “Mideast Summit/Mondale’s Duties,” “NBC Nightly News,” September 14, 1978, VTNA 500626; “Mideast Summit,” “CBS Evening News,” September 14, 1978, VTNA 259574. 90 . Transcript, News conference, September 15, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly, Box 14, JCL. It turns out that Sadat had indeed nearly walked out of the conference, but Powell did not know that at the time. 91 . Transcript, News conference, September 15, 1978, Folder: “9/5–17/78 Camp David Summit,” NSA, Brzezinski, Schecter-Friendly Series, Box 14, JCL. The expletive is not specified in the transcript. 9 2 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 80–81. 93 . CBS News Poll, September 19, 1978, Roper Center. 94 . William Spragens and Carole Ann Terwood, “Camp David and the Networks: Reflections on Coverage of the 1978 Summit,” in Television Coverage of International Affairs, ed. William C. Adams (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1982), 117–27. 9 5 . P o w e l l , Other Side, 69. 96 . Weekly Mail Report from Hugh Carter to Jimmy Carter, September 15, 1978, Folder: “9/18/78,” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 101, JCL. 97 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Information Items,” September 15, 1978, NLC-1–7–8–33–9. 98 . “The Camp David Accords: The Framework for Peace in the Middle East,” JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/campdavid/accords.phtml . 99 . “The Camp David Accords: Framework for the Conclusion of a Peace Treaty between Egypt and Israel,” JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www .jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/campdavid/frame.phtml. 100 . In effect, Egypt and Israel agreed to disagree on the Holy City: Egypt demanded Arab rights in East Jerusalem and Israel insisted that Jerusalem would never be divided and would remain “the capital of the State of Israel.” 234 NOTES

“The Camp David Accords: Annex to the Framework Agreements,” JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents /campdavid/letters.phtml . 1 0 1 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith, 406; Dayan, Breakthrough, 184–86; Quandt, Camp David , 247–51; Vance, Hard Choices , 225, 228–29. 102 . Jimmy Carter, The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East. 3rd ed. (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007), 169. 103 . “PLO Communiqu é on Results of Camp David Summit,” WAFA, September 19, 1978, IPS. 104 . “Sadat’s Appeasement Policy” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin 4, no. 17 (September 30, 1978), 3, IPS. 105 . Document 300, Communiqué issued by West Bank and Gaza leaders reject- ing the Camp David Accords, October 1, 1978, International Documents on Palestine, 1978 (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), 537–38. 106 . Cable, n.a. (CIA), “Palestinians: Camp David Accords,” October 14, 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/docu- ment_conversions/1821105/1978-10-14b.pdf . 107 . Bernard Gwertzman telephone interview with author, November 3, 2011. 108 . Note from Rafshoon to Carter, n.d. [circa September 19, 1978], Folder: “9/19/78,” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 101, JCL. 1 0 9 . S a m u e l L e w i s , “ D i s c u s s a n t , ” i n Jimmy Carter: Foreign Policy and Post- Presidential Years , ed. Herbert Rosenbaum and Alexej Ugrinksy (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994), 158. 1 1 0 . S m i t h i n t e r v i e w . 1 1 1 . G w e r t z m a n i n t e r v i e w . 112 . Spragens and Terwood, “Camp David and the Networks,” 126. 1 1 3 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 338; Powell, Other Side, 65. 114 . That corresponds to a rating of 58.5, or an estimated 58.5 percent of all US televisions. Telegram from A. C. Nielsen Company to Jagoda, September 29, 1978, Folder: “Address to Joint Session on Middle East 9/18/78,” Rafshoon Files, Box 10, JCL. 115 . That corresponds to a rating of 38.4, or an estimated 38.4 percent of all US televisions. Telegram from A. C. Nielsen Company to Rafshoon, October 6, 1978, Folder: “Address to Joint Session on Middle East 9/18/78,” Rafshoon Files, Box 10, JCL. 116 . “Camp David Meeting on the Middle East,” September 18, 1978, PPP: Carter, 1978, II , 1533–37. 117 . Rafshoon clearly missed in his prediction: “Viewers are used to seeing speeches to Congress punctuated with applause; I doubt if you would see a lot of this, if any.” Lawmakers interrupted Carter’s September 19 speech with applause 14 times. Memo from Rafshoon to Carter, “Summit Wind-Up Speech,” n.d. [circa September 18, 1978], Folder: “9/18/78,” Presidential Handwriting File, Box 101, JCL. 1 1 8 . M a r k R o z e l l , The Press and the Carter Presidency (London: Westview Press, 1989), 95–96. 119 . Editorial, “‘The Jimmy Carter Conference,’” WP , September 19, 1978. NOTES 235

120 . Editorial, “Mr. Carter’s Milestone,” WSJ , September 19, 1978. 121 . William Greider and Barry Sussman, “Post Poll Finds Carter’s Popularity Soaring after Summit,” WP, September 24, 1978; Evans Witt, AP-NBC poll results, AP, September 21, 1978, Nexis; Robert Kaiser, “After the Summit: A Wave of Bipartisan Euphoria for Carter,” WP , September 19, 1978. 122 . CBS News Poll, September 19, 1978, Roper Center. 123 . Gallup Poll, September 19, 1978, Roper Center. 124 . Weekly Mail Report from Hugh Carter to Jimmy Carter, September 22, 1978, Folder: “Weekly Mail Reports, 1/78–11/78 [CF, O/A 161],” Press, Powell Files, Box 82, JCL. 125 . For example, Jim Hoagland analysis, “Carter Has Moved Into Center of Arab-Israeli Chessboard,” WP , September 24, 1978. 1 2 6 . R o z e l l , Press and the Carter Presidency , 101. 127 . NBC News/AP Poll, September 19–20, 1978, Roper Center. 128 . September 18, 1978, Carter, Diary, 245–46. 129 . “Behind Camp David,” Speech by Begin before Presidents’ Conference, September 20, 1978, Menachem Begin Heritage Center, Jerusalem. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.begincenter.org.il/uploads/articles/english/Behind% 20Camp%20David%20September%2020%201978.pdf . 130 . Memo from Sanders to Carter, “Reactions to Prime Minister’s New York Speech,” September 20, 1978, Folder 13, Box 1, Sanders Papers. 131 . “President’s Daily Diary,” September 19, 1978, JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/diary/1978/d091978t.pdf . 1 3 2 . Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1979 , 11–13, LOC. 133 . “Giving Peace a Chance,” NER 22 (September 20, 1978): 38. 134 . Memo from Middle East Desk to Brzezinski, “Evening Report,” September 19, 1978, NLC-10–15–3–1–0. 1 3 5 . A d r i a n a B o s c h , Jimmy Carter: American Experience. Film (United States: PBS, 2002). Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience /films/carter/player/. 136 . Zbigniew Brzezinski interview, CPP, 87. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http:// web1.millercenter.org/poh/transcripts/ohp_1982_0218_brzezinski.pdf. 137 . Jordan interview, CPP, 16. 1 3 8 . P o w e l l i n t e r v i e w , C P P , 1 0 7 . 139 . Letter from Carter to Sadat, September 25, 1978, NLC-128–11–18–7–1.

7 Desperate Diplomacy and the Egypt-Israel Treaty (October 1978–March 1979)

1 . “Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty,” March 26, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, I , 517–27. 2 . Ibid. Carter made changes to his speech until the final moments, including the last line about a “comprehensive peace.” “Draft Signing Statement,” March 26, 1979, JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.jimmycarterlibrary .gov/documents/campdavid25/cda23.pdf. 236 NOTES

3 . March 2, 1979, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 298. 4 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 425. 5 . Jordan interview, CPP, 12. 6 . The best scholarly account is William Quandt, Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics (Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986), 302–11. 7 . January 26, February 6, 7, March 14, 1979, Carter, Diary , 283, 288–89, 289, and 304; Jody Powell, The Other Side of the Story (New York: William Morrow, 1984), 55. 8 . Document 200, Begin statement to the Knesset, September 25, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/TABLE%20OF%20CONTENTS.aspx. 9 . C y r u s V a n c e , Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983), 236. 10 . Memo from Powell to Carter, “Opening of Israel-Egyptian Peace Talks on Oct. 12,” October 5, 1978, Folder: “Memoranda: President Carter 9/22/78— 12/6/78 [CF, O/A 160],” Powell Files, Box 37, JCL. 11 . Summaries, Carter’s meetings with Israeli and Egyptian delegations, n.a., October 17, 1978, DDRS CK3100129736. 12 . Document 326, Arab League Summit statement, November 5, 1978, International Documents on Palestine, 1978 (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1980), 592–94. 13 . Memo and report from Caddell to Jordan, “Election Prospects and Voter Turnout,” October 28, 1978, Folder 4, Box 72, SEP. 14 . Transcript, Eugene Rostow’s remarks at annual dinner, November 9, 1978, Folder: “Third Annual Meeting,” Box 163, CPDP. 15 . Transcript, Moynihan’s address at the Labor Zionist Alliance’s National Convention, February 19, 1979, Folder 1, Box 2828, DPMP. 1 6 . J a n i c e T e r r y , U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest Groups (London: Pluto Press, 2005), 120. 17 . NSC Weekly Report #79 from Brzezinski to Carter, November 9, 1978, Folder: “NSC Weekly Reports, 6–12/78,” Plains File, Box 29, JCL. 18 . Memo from Jordan to Carter, November 30, 1978, Folder: “Middle East [CF, O/A 414],” Jordan Files, Box 49, JCL. Emphasis in original. 1 9 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 277–78. 2 0 . Q u a n d t , Camp David, 285–89. 2 1 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt- Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 250–51. 22 . Document 221, Israeli government communiqu é , December 15, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/221%20Israel%20Cabinet%20 Communique%20on%20the%20Peace%20Treaty-.aspx. 23 . December 15, 1978 Carter, Diary , 266. NOTES 237

24 . “Angered by Israel, U.S. Officials Allege Inaccuracies in its Case,” WP , December 16, 1978; Vance, Hard Choices , 242. 25 . Document 223, Israel Foreign Ministry statement, December 16, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA /ForeignPolicy/MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/223%20Israel%20 Foreign%20Ministry%20statement%20on%20American.aspx. 26 . Document 225, Begin’s statement to the Knesset, December 19, 1978, IFRSD: 1977–1979. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://mfa.gov.il/MFA/ForeignPolicy /MFADocuments/Yearbook3/Pages/225%20Statement%20to%20the%20 Knesset%20by%20Prime%20Minister%20Beg.aspx . 27 . Cable, n.a. (CIA), “Israel: Pressure for Settlements,” December 20, 1978. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document _conversions/1821105/1978-12-20.pdf . 28 . William Safire column, “Carter Blames the Jews,” NYT, December 18, 1978. 29 . AIPAC memorandum, December 15, 1978, Folder 4, Box 1, Sanders Papers. 30 . Memo with attachments from Sanders to Carter, “Status of Israeli-Egyptian Peace Negotiations,” December 14, 1978, Folder: “Middle East: Peace Talks Between Egypt and Israel, 11–12/78,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 55, JCL. 3 1 . Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1979 ,(New York) LOC, 15–17. 32 . December 15, 1978, Carter, Diary , 265–66. 3 3 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 421. 34 . NSC Weekly Report #86 from Brzezinski to Carter, January 26, 1979, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 82–90,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 35 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, January 23, 1979, Quandt, Camp David , 295. 36 . January 12, 1979 Carter, Diary , 277. 37 . Memo from Mondale to Carter, “Managing Foreign Policy Over the Next Two Years,” January 22, 1979, Folder: “Foreign Affairs Policy, [1/1– 12/31/79],” Mondale Donated, Box 204, JCL. 38 . Memo from Quandt to Brzezinski, “Studies of Islamic Fundamentalism,” February 13, 1979. DDRS CK3100668723. The PLO immediately allied with the new Iranian regime. “Iran and Palestine: One Revolution” (editorial), Palestine PLO Information Bulletin 5, no. 3 (February 16–28, 1979), 3, IPS. 39 . Minutes, PRC on Southwest Asia and Saudi Arabia, January 23, 1979, NLC- 15–3–6–8–8. The president announced the Carter Doctrine the following year. “State of the Union,” January 21, 1980, PPP: Carter, 1980–81, I, 114–80. 40 . NSC Weekly Report #89 from Brzezinski to Carter, February 24, 1979, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 82–90,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 41 . Gallup Poll (AIPO), January 5–8, 1979, Roper Center. 4 2 . C B S N e w s / NYT Poll, January 23–26, 1979, Roper Center. 4 3 . V a n c e , H ard Choices , 243–45. 4 4 . C a r t e r i n t e r v i e w , C P P . 4 5 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 281; Quandt, Camp David , 310–11. 238 NOTES

4 6 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 425. 4 7 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 281. 4 8 . P a t r i c k O ’ H e f f e r n a n , Mass Media and American Foreign Policy (Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1991), 15–16. 49 . March 2, 1979, Carter, Diary , 298. 50 . “Begin Tells U.S. Jews His Visit Was Success,” NYT , March 8, 1979. 51 . January 26, February 5, 8, 1979, Carter, Diary , 283, 88, 90. 5 2 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith, 555–56. 5 3 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 282. 54 . Cable from US Embassy Cairo to White House, March 6, 1979, NLC- 25–16–3–3–1. 55 . Gallup Poll (AIPO), March 2–5, 1979, Roper Center. 56 . Memo from Brzezinski to Carter, “Middle East Scenario,” March 3, 1979, Folder: “Middle East—President’s and Brzezinski’s Trips: [2/27/79–3/15/79],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 14, JCL. 57 . David Butler et al., “The Extra Mile,” Newsweek , March 19, 1979. 58 . For example, Karen Elliot House, “Carter to Put Prestige on the Line in Trip to Mideast Described as Do-or-Die Effort,” WSJ, March 6, 1979, and Editorial, “The Cairo Gamble,” WSJ, March 7, 1979; Edward Walsh and Martin Schram analysis, “Mideast Trip: Major Gamble for Carter,” WP , March 6, 1979, and Editorial, “Toward Peace in the Middle East . . . ,” WP, March 6, 1979. 5 9 . “ R a y o f H o p e , ” NER 23 (March 7, 1979): 10. 60 . Editorial, “Mr. Carter Flies to the Brink,” NYT , March 7, 1979. 61 . Carl Leubsdorf, “The Ruffled Mideast Press Corps,” Columbia Journalism Review 18, no. 1 (1979): 10–11. 62 . Summary of Meetings from Brzezinski to Carter, March 25, 1979, NLC- 128–11–18–15–2; March 8, 10, 1979, Carter, Diary , 300. 63 . March 10, 1979, Carter, Diary , 300–301. 6 4 . Y a a c o v B a r - S i m a n - T o v , Israel and the Peace Process, 1977–1982: In Search of Legitimacy for Peace (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994), 176–77. 65 . Minutes, Meeting between US and Israeli delegations, March 11, 1979, ISA/ RG 130/MFA/6868/7. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il /NR/rdonlyres/82718FC9-E0B2-4052-BC48-ED7522885CB9/0/egpeace50 .pdf . 66 . “Toasts at Dinner Honoring Carter,” March 11, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, I , 419–23. 67 . Hedrick Smith, “Begin, with a Dinner Comment, Turns Carter Grim and Ashen,” NYT , March 12, 1979. 6 8 . I b i d . 69 . Summary of Meetings from Brzezinski to Carter, March 25, 1979, NLC- 128–11–18–15–2; Minutes, Meeting between US and Israeli delegations, March 12, 1979, ISA/RG 130/MFA/6868/7. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/F229595A-F9F7-4193-B912 -E950705F4C7F/0/egpeace51.pdf. NOTES 239

70 . March 11, 1979, Carter, Diary , 301–2. 71 . “Jerusalem, Israel,” March 12, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, I, 424–28. Emphasis in original. 72 . Samuel Lewis interview, August 9, 1998, ADST. Retrieved May 13, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Lewis,%20Samuel%20W.toc.pdf . 73 . March 12, 1979, Carter, Diary , 302. 74 . Minutes, Meeting between US and Israeli delegations, March 12, 1979, ISA/ RG 130/MFA/6868/7. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.archives.gov.il /NR/rdonlyres/C8D18938-91D4-4E97-8B45-F124597D8F90/0/egpeace53 .pdf . 7 5 . P o w e l l , Other Side, 94–95. 76 . Transcript, Press conference, March 12, 1979, Folder: “3/7–13/79 President’s Trip to Egypt and Israel, Press Releases [1], 3/79,” NSA, Brzezinski, Trips/ Visits, Box 15, JCL. 7 7 . P o w e l l , Other Side, 96. 78 . “Carter/Israel Visit,” ABC “World News Tonight,” March 12, 1979, VTNA 58395; John Maclean, “Carter Peace Bid Failing; Blames Leaders on Both Sides,” CT , March 13, 1979; Bernard Gwertzman, “Carter, Nearing End of Visit, to See Begin and Sadat again; Obstacles Still Block a Pact,” NYT , March 13, 1979. 79 . “Carter/Israel Visit,” “CBS Evening News,” March 12, 1979, VTNA 262500. 80 . Karen Elliot House, “Carter, Failing in Trip for Peace Treaty between Israel and Egypt, Heads for U.S.,” WSJ , March 13, 1979. 8 1 . White House News Summary , March 12, 1979, 2–16, JCL. 82 . For more on “horse-race journalism,” see Lee Sigelman and David Bullock, “Candidates, Issues, Horse Races, and Hoopla: Presidential Campaign Coverage, 1888–1988,” American Politics Quarterly 19, no. 1 (1991): 5–32. 8 3 . S m i t h i n t e r v i e w . 8 4 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 101. 85 . Memo with attachments from Vance to Carter, March 13, 1979, Folder: “Middle East—President’s and Brzezinski’s Trips: [2/27/79–3/15/79],” Brzezinski Donated, Box 14, JCL. 8 6 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 309–10. 87 . Summary of Meetings from Brzezinski to Carter, March 25, 1979, NLC- 128–11–18–15–2. 88 . Transcript, Press conference, March 13, 1979, Folder: “3/7–13/79 President’s Trip to Egypt and Israel, Press Releases [1], 3/79,” NSA, Brzezinski, Trips/ Visits, Box 15, JCL 8 9 . P o w e l l , Other Side , 98–100. 90 . “Carter Arrival,” “CBS Evening News,” March 13, 1979, VTNA 262522; “Mideast Peace Developments/Begin Interview,” “NBC Nightly News,” March 13, 1979, VTNA 503252. 91 . “Mideast Peace Developments,” “CBS Evening News,” March 14, 1979, VTNA 262535. 92 . Karen Elliot House, “Persistent Carter again Brings Israel, Egypt to Verge of a Treaty as Begin and Sadat Accept U.S. Proposals,” WSJ , March 14, 1979. 240 NOTES

93 . Leubsdorf, “Ruffled Mideast Press Corps.” 94 . House, “Besides Its Promise, Mideast Accord Holds Pitfalls for the U.S.,” WSJ , March 23, 1979; House, “Prospect of Cordial Egyptian-Israeli Ties in Doubt as Pact Signing Is Slated Today,’ WSJ , March 26, 1979. 9 5 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 435; Powell, Other Side , 102. 96 . Jim Hoagland, “Treaty Seen Straining U.S. Relationships with Other Arab Countries,” WP , March 15, 1979; Don Oberdorfer, “The Price of Peace: Treaty Seen Casting U.S. $5 Billion in Aid,” WP , March 15, 1979; Iver Peterson, “Arab-Americans Attack Treaty over Issue of Palestinian Rights,” NYT, March 15, 1979; John Maclean, “A U.S. Burden: Peace Is Not at Hand Yet,” CT , March 28, 1979. Editorials highlighted the treaty’s costs. For example, Editorial, “Dollars for Peace in the Middle East,” LAT , March 25, 1979. AIPAC defended the guarantees to Israel. “The Price of Peace,” NER 23 (March 21, 1979): 12. 97 . Martin Schram, “A Daring Shuttle Summitry,” WP, March 14, 1979; Jack Nelson, “Pact Seen Giving Carter ‘a Little Running Room,’” LAT, March 15, 1979; Terence Smith analysis, “Winning Trust Was Carter’s Principal Aim, And He Did It,” NYT , March 18, 1979; James Reston column, “The Uses of History,” NYT , March 23, 1979. 98 . Editorial, “The Theater of Peace,” NYT , March 14, 1979. 9 9 . “ T h e T r e a t y B r e a k t h r o u g h , ” NER 23 (March 14, 1979): 11. 100 . Notice to the press, March 15, 1979, Folder: “Middle East—Egyptian-Israeli Peace Treaty Signing, 3/26/78,” Press, Granum Files, Box 87, JCL. 1 0 1 . C a r t e r , Keeping Faith , 435. 102 . Gallup Polls (AIPO), February 23–26, March 16–19, April 6–9, 1979, Roper Center. 1 0 3 . C B S N e w s / NYT Polls, February 27–28, March 26–27,1979, Roper Center. 104 . NBC News/AP Polls, February 5–6, March 19–20, 1979, Roper Center. 105 . “The President’s Trip to Egypt and Israel,” March 14, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, I, 430–32. Carter’s handwritten edits indicate he added the remark about the “political risks” to himself and the United States. “Andrews Arrival Statement,” February 14, 1979, JCL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http:// www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/documents/campdavid25/cda21.pdf. 1 0 6 . P h i l i p S e i b , Headline Diplomacy: How News Coverage Affects Foreign Policy (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997), 31–38. 107 . NSC Weekly Report #91 from Brzezinski to Carter, March 23, 1979, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 91–101,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 108 . For the full treaty text, including annexes, an appendix, agreed minutes, maps, and six letters: “Egypt and Israel Sign Treaty of Peace,” DSB , May 1979, 1–15. 109 . “U.S. and Israel Sign Memoranda of Agreement,” DSB , May 1979, 60–61. 110 . Jordan and Palestinian representatives rejected invitations to join the autonomy talks. 111 . Martin Schram, “‘It Will Make Him Look Presidential’,” WP, March 27, 1979. 112 . “Mideast Peace Developments/Treaty Signing,” ABC “World News Tonight,” March 26, 1979, VTNA 58646. NOTES 241

113 . Tom Shales, “In an Era of Video Diplomacy, the Live Telecast Was the Event,” WP , March 28, 1979. 114 . “Comment (Mideast Peace Treaty),” ABC “World News Tonight,” March 27, 1979, VTNA 58682. 1 1 5 . Q u a n d t , Camp David , 296. 116 . Document 93, Baghdad Conference resolutions, March 31, 1979, International Documents on Palestine, 1979 (Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1981), 155–58. 117 . Letter from Arafat to Waldheim, March 24, 1979, “Arab Documents on Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Journal of Palestine Studies 8, no. 4 (1979): 161–62. 118 . Statement, West Bank Municipalities, Nationalist and Professional Institutions, March 26, 1979, “Arab Documents on Palestine and the Arab- Israeli Conflict,” Journal of Palestine Studies 8, no. 4 (1979): 162–63. 119 . Letter from Brezhnev to Carter, March 19, 1979, DDRS CK3100073483. 120 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Mood of Peace Seems Somber and Uncertain,” NYT , March 27, 1979. 121 . “Poll Shows Limited Hopes for Additional Peace Pacts,” WP , March 25, 1979. 122 . Adam Clymer, “Carter Gains in Poll After Treaty, But His Rating on Economy Falls,” NYT , March 29, 1979. 1 2 3 . C B S N e w s / NYT Polls, February 27–28, March 26–27, 1979, Roper Center. Other surveys found comparable results. NBC News/AP Polls, February 5–6, March 19–20, 1979, Roper Center. 124 . Jimmy Carter interview (II), October 25, 1991, Folder 8, Box 63, SEP. 1 2 5 . M i t c h e l l B a r d , The Water’s Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1991), 235–36. 126 . Memo with attachments from CSR to DNC, “The Political Situation and President Carter,” May 25, 1979, Folder: “Caddell, Patrick (3),” Jordan Files, Box 33, JCL.

8 Lines Blur as Election Approaches (April 1979–November 1980)

1 . NSC Weekly Report #149 from Brzezinski to Carter, August 7, 1980, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 136–150,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 2 . Z b i g n i e w B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 (New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983), 438. 3 . April 24, 1979, Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 315. 4 . Edward Said, “Peace and Palestinian Rights,” in The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination 1969–1994 (London: Vintage, 1994), 43–51; Charles Smith, Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict , 2nd 242 NOTES

ed. (New York: St. Martins, 1992), 240–78; Mark Tessler, A History of the Israeli-Palestinian Conflict (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994), 514–31. 5 . Seth Anziska, “Aborting Palestinian Autonomy: 1979–1980,” Paper presented in LSE Middle East Workshop (London 2013). 6 . “Arafat: US Is Our People’s Main Enemy,” WAFA, May 31, 1979, IPS. 7 . “ ‘ A u t o n o m y ’ — L i q u i d a t i o n i s t S c h e m e , ” PFLP Bulletin, no. 28 (June 1979): 3–5, IPS. 8 . NSC Weekly Report #94 from Brzezinski to Carter, April 12, 1979, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 91–101,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. Emphases in original. 9 . I b i d . 10 . Memo from Vance to Carter, April 30, 1979, NLC-128–14–6–1–8. 11 . On the 1979 oil crisis, see Fiona Venn, The Oil Crisis (London: Routledge, 2002), 21–32. 12 . “Middle East Security Issues,” n.a., n.d. [circa May 11, 1979], NLC-33–4–5–1–5. 1 3 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 438. 14 . Wat Tyler Cluverius IV interview, May 31, 1990, ADST. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Cluverius,%20Wat%20Tyler% 20IV.toc.pdf . 15 . Robert Strauss interview, October 25, 2002, ADST. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/Strauss,%20Robert%20S.toc.pdf . 1 6 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 438. 17 . Cluverius interview, ADST. 18 . Lewis interview, ADST. 19 . Strauss interview, ADST. 20 . Strauss interview, October 27, 1989, Folder 1, Box 66, SEP. 2 1 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 438. 22 . Memo from Vance to Carter, “West Bank/Gaza Negotiations,” May 2, 1979, NLC-15–32–6–68. 2 3 . I b i d . 24 . PRC meeting minutes, n.a., “West Bank, Gaza Negotiations,” May 17, 1979, NLC-132–75–4–1–7. 2 5 . I b i d . 2 6 . I b i d . 2 7 . I b i d . 28 . Memo from Sanders to Brzezinski, “Israeli Settlement Activity,” June 19, 1979, Folder: “Israel, 5–11/79,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country, Box 36, JCL. 2 9 . S t r a u s s i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 30 . Memo with attachments from Caddell to Carter, “Of Crisis and Opportunity,” April 23, 1979, Folder: “Memoranda: President Carter 1/10/79–4/23/79,” Press, Powell Files, Box 40, JCL. 31 . “Speech on Energy and National Goals,” July 15, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, II , 1235–41; Memo from Jordan to Carter, July 16, 1979, Folder: “Image analysis and Changes, 7/16/79,” Jordan Files, Box 34B, JCL. NOTES 243

32 . Minutes from Brzezinski to Carter, “Senior Level Meeting on Middle East Issues,” July 25, 1979, NLC-33–3–4–1–7. 33 . Leonard Silk, “Carter Expects Rise in Joblessness; Believes GOP Will Pick Reagan,” NYT , August 1, 1979. 34 . Jimmy Carter, Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982), 145–48, 284; Saunders interview, ADST. 35 . Jim Hoagland analysis, “U.S.-Israeli Feuding Revives Dilemma,” WP , August 4, 1979. 3 6 . “ A F l a w e d A n a l o g y , ” NER 23 (August 8, 1979): 32. 37 . The AP, PM cycle, August 1, 1979, Nexis. 38 . August 3, 1979, Carter, Diary , 349. 39 . “Interview with the President,” August 10, 1979, PPP: Carter, 1979, II , 1425–32. 40 . The PLO envoy said the meeting did not go beyond social conversation. “Tarazi: Young Refused to Discuss Palestinian Cause,” WAFA, August 15, 1979, IPS. 41 . “Chronology of Events,” August 14, 1979, Folder: “Resignation Statements, 1979,” Box 116, Andrew Young Papers, Auburn Avenue Research Library, Atlanta (hereafter AYP). 42 . August 14, 1979, Carter, Diary , 351. 4 3 . I b i d . , 3 5 2 . 44 . Letter from Young to Carter, August 14, 1979, Folder: “Resignation Statements, 1979,” Box 116, AYP. 45 . Transcript, State Department briefing, August 15, 1979, Folder: “Resignation Statements, 1979,” Box 116, AYP. 46 . Letter from Carter to Young, August 15, 1979, Folder: “White House, Jimmy Carter, 1978–1979,” Box 207, AYP. 47 . Andrew Young interview, December 17, 1991, Folder 5, Box 66, SEP. 48 . Joseph Treaster, “Some Still See Young’s Meeting as Sign of a U.S. Shift on P.L.O.,” NYT , August 17, 1979. 49 . ABC News/Harris Survey, August 21–22, 1979, Roper Center. 5 0 . G a l l u p / Newsweek Poll, August 29–30, 1979, Roper Center. 51 . Thomas Johnson, “Black Leaders Air Grievances on Jews,” NYT , August 23, 1979. 5 2 . S c h i n d l e r i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 5 3 . “ T h e R e s i g n a t i o n , ” NER 23 (August 22, 1979): 34. 5 4 . S c h i n d l e r i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 55 . Memo from Sanders to Jordan, August 27, 1979, Folder 13, Box 5, Sanders Papers; Letter from Maas (American Jewish Committee) to Carter, September 20, 1979, Folder 13, Box 5, Sanders Papers. 56 . Paul Delaney, “Leaders Try to Halt a Black-Jewish Rift,” NYT , August 19, 1979. 5 7 . G a l l u p / Newsweek Poll, August 29–30, 1979, Roper Center. 5 8 . LAT Poll, September 9–14, 1979, Roper Center. 59 . Lee Lescaze and Thomas Morgan, “Black Leaders Back Palestinian Rights,” WP , August 21, 1979. 244 NOTES

60 . Morgan and Lescaze, “Foreign Policy Voice Demanded by Top Blacks,” WP , August 23, 1979. 61 . “Blacks and the Middle East (II),” Political Focus, November 15, 1979, Folder: “Arab-[American] Newsletters 10/79–7/80,” Aiello Files, Box 38, JCL. 62 . See Folder: “Palestine Liberation Organization, 1979,” Box 201, AYP. 63 . Memo from Sanders to Carter, “Middle East Peace Negotiations,” August 15, 1979, Folder: “Middle East [CF, O/A 646],” Jordan Files, Box 49, JCL. 64 . Memo from Saunders to Vance and Strauss, “The UNSC Resolution on Palestinian Rights,” n.d. [ca. early August 1979], NLC-126–17–42–1–6–3. 6 5 . B r z e z i n s k i , Power and Principle , 238–40. 66 . Bernard Gwertzman, “Strauss, Brzezinski and Vance Concur on Mideast Course,” NYT , August 22, 1979. 67 . Editorial, “Downstream in the Middle East,” NYT , August 23, 1979. 68 . Editorial, “Middle East Disarray,” WSJ , August 22, 1979. 69 . NSC Weekly Report #109 from Brzezinski to Carter, September 13, 1979, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 102–120,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 70 . October 12, 1979, Carter, Diary , 361. 7 1 . S t r a u s s i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 72 . “Interagency Intelligence Memorandum,” n.a., “New Realities in the Middle East,” December 1979, NLC-2–17–6–2–3. 73 . Memo from Sherman to Linowitz, “Press Coverage of Middle East Trip,” November 26, 1979, Folder 7, Box 128, Sol Linowitz Papers, LOC (hereafter SLP). 74 . Memo from Walker to Linowitz, “Scheduling Your Initial Visit to the Middle East,” November 26, 1979, Folder 7, Box 128, SLP. 75 . Lewis interview, ADST. 7 6 . M o s h e D a y a n , Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt-Israel Peace Negotiations (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), 303. 77 . UNSC S/RES/446, March 22, 1979, QOP. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http:// unispal.un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/db942872b9eae454852560f6005a76fb/ba12 3cded3ea84a5852560e50077c2dc?OpenDocument . 78 . February 12, 1980, Carter, Diary , 400. 79 . “Upsetting the Formula,” NER 24 (February 27, 1980): 9. 80 . Cable from Lewis to Vance, February 21, 1980, DDRS CK3100146548. 81 . UNSC S/RES/465, March 1, 1980, QOP. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://unispal .un.org/UNISPAL.NSF/0/5AA254A1C8F8B1CB852560E50075D7D5. 82 . Memo from Vance to Carter, February 29, 1980, NLC-128–15–2–21–8. 83 . Jordan interview (I), December 23, 1992, Folder 6, Box 64, SEP. 84 . Donald McHenry interview (II), March 23, 1993, ADST. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.adst.org/OH%20TOCs/McHenry,%20Donald%20F.1993 .toc.pdf . 8 5 . I b i d . 8 6 . I b i d . 87 . Memo with attachments from Granum to Jordan, March 7, 1980, Folder: “Middle East [CF, O/A 646],” Jordan Files, Box 49, JCL. NOTES 245

88 . Jimmy Carter interview (II), October 25, 1991, Folder 8, Box 63, SEP. 89 . Bernard Nossiter, “U.S. Votes at U.N. to Rebuke Israelis on Settlement Issue,” NYT , March 2, 1980. 90 . “Israel/United Nations,” “CBS Evening News,” March 1, 1980, VTNA 269262. 91 . McHenry interview (II), ADST. 92 . March 3, 1980, Carter, Diary , 406–7. 93 . “Statement on Israeli Settlements and the Status of Jerusalem,” March 4, 1980, PPP: Carter, 1980, I , 427. 94 . “White House Briefing on Administration Policies,” March 11, 1980, PPP: Carter, 1980, I , 458–61. 95 . “Question-&-Answer,” April 10, 1980, PPP: Carter, 1980, I , 631–43. 96 . Editorial, “And Now, the Communication Gap,” NYT , March 5, 1980. 97 . Editorial, “Wrong Number on Israel,” NYT , March 9, 1980. 98 . Editorial, “Up the Hill, Down the Hill,” WP , March 7, 1980. 99 . Editorial, “Bungle Fever,” WSJ , March 7, 1980. 100 . Carter interview (II), SEP. 101. Hamilton Jordan interview (I), May 11, 1992, Folder 6, Box 64, SEP. 102 . Evening Report from Middle East/North Africa Desk to Brzezinski, March 11, 1980, NLC-25–126–6–7–2. 103 . Adam Clymer, “Kennedy Campaign Seeks Gains from Confrontation over U.N. Vote,” NYT , March 6, 1980. 104 . Sewell Chan, “Jimmy Carter and the New York Democrats,” January 31, 2008, City Room blog, NYT . Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://cityroom.blogs .nytimes.com/2008/01/31/jimmy-carter-and-the-new-york-democrats/ . 105 . Hedrick Smith, “Inflation, Israel and Aid to City the Main Issues,” NYT , March 26, 1980. 1 0 6 . H a m i l t o n J o r d a n , Crisis: The Last Year of the Carter Presidency (New York: Berkley Books, 1982), 234. 107 . Jordan interview (I), SEP; Carter, Keeping Faith , 493–94, drew a similar conclusion. 108 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Washington (Henderson) to FCO, “US Statement on the Vote on the Occupied Settlements,” March 4, 1980. 1 0 9 . S c h i n d l e r i n t e r v i e w , S E P . 110 . McHenry interview (II) ADST; Brzezinski, Power and Principle, 442; Carter, Keeping Faith , 493–94. 111 . “Campaign ‘80/Massachussettes Primary/US-Israel Relations,” ABC “World News Tonight,” March 4, 1980, VTNA 64828. 112 . McHenry interview (II), ADST. 113 . “A Misguided Vote,” NER 24 (March 5, 1980): 10. 114 . Hodding Carter interview, June 10, 1992, Folder 7, Box 63, SEP. 115 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Washington (Henderson) to FCO, “US Statement on the Vote on the Occupied Settlements,” March 4, 1980. 116 . Vance, SFCR, “U.S. Middle East Policy,” March 20, 1980, 96th Cong., 2nd sess., 17, 32. 246 NOTES

1 1 7 . R o s a l y n n C a r t e r , First Lady from Plains (Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1984), 346. 118 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from Parsons (UK Mission New York) to FCO, “European Initiative on the Middle East,” May 8, 1980. 119 . Sol Linowitz, The Making of a Public Man: A Memoir (Boston: Little, Brown, 1985), 234. 120 . Note in margins, Memo from Vance to Carter, January 15, 1980, NLC-128– 15–1–9–3. Emphasis in original. 121 . Memo from Aaron to Carter, “Sadat Summit,” April 3, 1980, Folder: “Egypt, President Sadat and Prime Minister Begin, 4/80: Cables and Memos, 3/24/80–4/9/80,” NSA, Brzezinski, VIP Visit, Box 4, JCL. 122 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Tel Aviv (Mason) to FCO, “Middle East,” May 4, 1980. 123 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Cairo (Weir) to FCO, “President Sadat’s Visit to Washington,” April 3, 1980. 124 . “Editorial: Egypt Seeking Save-Face Maneuvers,” WAFA, May 17, 1980, IPS. 125 . “The Palestinians Reject Sadat’s Latest Autonomy Plan Proposals,” Al-Fajr , April 23, 1980, IPS. 126 . Lewis interview, ADST. 127 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Washington (Henderson) to FCO, “Linowitz Middle East Tour,” January 23, 1980. 128 . UKNA: PRO PREM 19/295, “The Situation in the Middle East.” Telegram from UK Embassy Tel Aviv (Mason) to FCO, “Mr. Hurd’s Visit to Israel: Meeting with Mr. Sol Linowitz,” December 13, 1979. 129 . George Gedda, “Linowitz, Disclosing U.S. Palestinian Plan, Sees ‘Better Prospects’ for Mideast Settlement,” AP, September 6, 1980, Nexis. 130 . Cluverius interview, ADST.

Conclusion: Reconciling the Irreconcilable?

1 . NSC Weekly Report #149 from Brzezinski to Carter, August 7, 1980, Folder: “Weekly Reports [to the President], 136–150,” Brzezinski Donated, Box 42, JCL. 2 . Carter interview, CPP, 15. 3 . James Schlesinger interview, July 19–20, 1984, CPP, 1, 6, Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://web1.millercenter.org/poh/transcripts/ohp_1984_0719_schlesinger.pdf 4 . Jordan interview, CPP, 15. 5 . Rafshoon interview, CPP, 57. 6 . For instance, see the polls cited in William Schneider, “Conservatism, Not Interventionism: Trends in Foreign Policy Opinion, 1974–1982,” in Eagle defiant: United States foreign policy in the 1980s , ed. Kenneth Oye, Robert Lieber, and Donald Rothchild (Boston: Little, Brown, 1983), 33–64. NOTES 247

7 . Jimmy Carter, White House Diary (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010), 528. 8 . S m i t h i n t e r v i e w . 9 . November 4, 1980, Carter, Diary , 479–80. 10 . Memo from Belford to Butler, “Jewish Issues,” October 9, 1980, Folder: “Israel: 5–11/80,” NSA, Brzezinski, Country Chron, Box 22, JCL. 11 . “Election Reference Information: Jewish Voting Record (1916–2012),” JVL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US -Israel/jewvote.html . 12 . AIPAC Legislative Update, “Year End Report,” December 1980, Folder 4, Box 1, Sanders Papers. 13 . “CRS Issue Brief IB85066—Israel: US Foreign Assistance” (updated April 26, 2005), Federation of American Scientists. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/IB85066.pdf ; and “US Assistance to Israel (FY1949—FY2009),” JVL. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www .jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/US_Assistance_to_Israel1.html. 1 4 . I l a n P e l e g , Begin’s Foreign Policy, 1977–1983: Israel’s Move to the Right (London: Greenwood, 1987), 99–100. 15 . Philips Payson O’Brien demonstrates how political science research on media and public opinion can inform historical writing. Phillips Payson O’Brien, “The American Press, Public, and the Reaction to the Outbreak of the First World War,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 3 (2013): 446–75. 1 6 . R o h a m A l v a n d i , Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014); Paul Thomas Chamberlin, The Global Offensive: The United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order (New York: Oxford University Press, 2012); Craig Daigle, The Limits of D é tente: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1969–1973 (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012).

Bibliography

Archives Consulted

Andrew Young Papers, Auburn Avenue Research Library on African American Culture, Atlanta, Georgia (AYP). British Library Newspaper Collection, Colindale, London. Clement Zablocki Papers, Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Committee on the Present Danger Papers, Hoover Institution Archives, Stanford University, Palo Alto, California (CPDP). Cyrus and Grace Sloan Vance Papers, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut (Vance Papers). Edward Sanders Papers, American Jewish Archives, Cincinnati, Ohio (Sanders Papers). Frank Church Papers, Boise State University, Idaho (FCP). Howard Baker Papers, University of Tennessee, Knoxville (HBP). Institute for Palestine Studies, Beirut, Lebanon (IPS). Israel State Archives (ISA), Jerusalem, Israel. Jacob Javits Papers, State University of New York, Stony Brook (JJP). Jimmy Carter Presidential Library, Atlanta, Georgia (JCL, NLC or NLJC). Lee Hamilton Papers, University of Indiana, Bloomington (LHP). Manuscript Collection, Library of Congress, Washington, DC (LOC). National Archives and Records Administration, Washington, DC (NARA). United Kingdom National Archives, Kew, London (UKNA). Walter Cronkie Papers, Dolph Briscoe Center for American History, University of Texas, Austin (WCP).

Digital Resources

The American Presidency Project (APP). http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ . Boeing. http://www.boeing.com/ . BP. http://www.bp.com/ . Brookings Institution. http://www.brookings.edu/ . Carter Presidency Project, Miller Center, University of Virginia (CPP). http:// millercenter.org/president/carter. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). http://www.foia.cia.gov . CSPAN’s Presidential Libraries. http://presidentiallibraries.c-span.org/ . 250 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Declassified Documents Reference System (DDRS). http://gdc.gale.com/products /declassified-documents-reference-system/ . Digital National Security Archive (DNSA). http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/ . Federation of American Scientists. http://www.fas.org/ . Frontline Diplomacy: Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training (ADST). http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/diplomacy/ Gallup Presidential Approval Index. http://www.gallup.com/poll/124922/presidential -approval-center.aspx. Government Printing Office. http://www.gpo.gov . H-Diplo. http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/ . H-Net. http://www.h-net.org . HeinOnline. http://home.heinonline.org/ . iPOLL Databank, Roper Center for Public Opinion (Roper Center). http://www .ropercenter.uconn.edu/data_access/ipoll/ipoll.html. Israel Knesset. http://www.knesset.gov.il/ . Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MFA). http://www.mfa.gov.il/MFA/ . Israel State Archive (ISA). http://www.archives.gov.il/ArchiveGov_eng . Jewish Virtual Library (JVL). http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/ . Jimmy Carter Presidential Library (JCL, NLC, or NLJC). http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/ . Menachem Begin Heritage Center. http://www.begincenter.org.il/en/ National Archives and Record Administration. http://www.archives.gov . National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC). http://www.nbc.com/ . The New York Times City Room Blog. http://cityroom.blogs.nytimes.com/ . Nexis Database. http://www.nexis.co.uk/ . PBS American Experience. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/ . Politico. http://www.politico.com . ProQuest Historical Newspapers. http://www.proquest.com/en-US/promos/hnp .shtml . Roll Call blogs. http://blogs.rollcall.com/ . UK National Archives (UKNA). http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ . US Air Force. http://www.af.mil/ . US Congressional Hearings Digital Collection Historical Archive 1824–2003. http://www.proquest.com/products-services/ProQuest-Congressional -Hearings-Digital-Collection.html. US Defense Security Cooperation Agency. http://www.dsca.mil/ . United Nations. http://www.un.org/ . United Nations: The Question of Palestine (QOP). http://unispal.un.org/ . Vanderbilt Television News Archive (VTNA). http://tvnews.vanderbilt.edu/ .

F i l m s

American Experience: The Presidents: Jimmy Carter . Directed by Adriana Bosch. United States: PBS, 2002. Accessed online: http://www.pbs.org/wgbh /americanexperience/films/carter/ . BIBLIOGRAPHY 251

Oral History Collections

Carter Presidency Project, Miller Center, University of Virginia (CPP). http:// millercenter.org/president/carter. Ethnic Groups and American Foreign Policy Project, Center for Oral History, Columbia University, New York (EGAFP). Frontline Diplomacy: Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training (ADST) . http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/diplomacy/ . Jimmy Carter Presidential Library Oral History Project (CLOHP). http://www .jimmycarterlibrary.gov/library/oralhist.phtml#ohproject . White House Exit Interview Project. http://www.jimmycarterlibrary.gov/library /oralhist.phtml#exit .

I n t e r v i e w s

Bernard Gwertzman, The New York Times , 1977–81. Telephone, November 3, 2011. Hedrick Smith, The New York Times , 1977–81. Telephone, October 27, 2011. Mark Siegel, deputy assistant to President Carter, 1977–78. Telephone, July 21, 2011. William Quandt, Middle East Office director, National Security Council, 1977– 79. May 4, 2011.

N e w s S o u r c e s

Al-Fajr American Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) Associated Press (AP) Columbia Broadcasting Service (CBS) Chicago Tribune (CT) Dallas Times-Herald Detroit News Editor & Publisher The Los Angeles Times (LAT) The Nation National Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) National Journal National Public Radio (NPR) Near East Report (NER) The New Republic New York New York Post The New York Times (NYT) The New York Times Magazine Newsday 252 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Newsweek Palestine PLO Information Bulletin PFLP Bulletin Politico Roll Call Rolling Stone Time Public Broadcasting Service (PBS) United Press International (UPI) U.S. News & World Report WAFA The Wall Street Journal (WSJ) The Washington Post (WP) The Washington Star

Public Appearances

“Jimmy Carter in Conversation with Jon Snow.” Royal Festival Hall, London, October 5, 2011. William Quandt, Commentator, Panel: “Carter, Reagan and the Middle East.” Annual Meeting of the Society for Historians of American Foreign Relations, Arlington, Virginia, June 21, 2013 (SHAFR).

Published Primary Materials

“Arab Documents on Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Journal of Palestine Studies 7, no. 2 (Winter 1978): 178–80. “Arab Documents on Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Journal of Palestine Studies 8, no. 4 (Summer 1979): 160–88. Blitzer, Wolf. Between Washington and Jerusalem: A Reporter’s Notebook. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. Boutros-Ghali, Boutros. Egypt’s Road to Jerusalem: A Diplomat’s Story of the Struggle for Peace in the Middle East . New York: Random House, 1997. Brzezinski, Zbigniew. Power and Principle: Memoirs of the National Security Adviser 1977–1981 . New York: Farrar, Strauss, Giroux, 1983. Carter, Jimmy. The Blood of Abraham: Insights into the Middle East . 3rd ed. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 2007. ———. A Government as Good as Its People. 2nd ed. Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1996. ———. Keeping Faith: Memoirs of a President . Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1982. ———. White House Diary . New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2010. ———. Why Not the Best? Nashville, TN: Broadman, 1975. Carter, Rosalynn. First Lady from Plains . Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press, 1984. BIBLIOGRAPHY 253

Cronkite, Walter. A Reporter’s Life . New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1996. Dayan, Moshe. Breakthrough: A Personal Account of the Egypt-Israel Peace Negotiations . London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981. Dobrynin, Anatoly. In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents . New York: Times Books, 1995. el Sadat, Anwar. In Search of Identity . London: Collins, 1978. ———. Those I Have Known . London: Jonathan Cape, 1985. Fahmy, Ismail. Negotiating for Peace in the Middle East. Beckingham, UK: Croom Helm, 1983. Gallup, George. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1972–1977, Vol. 1, 1972–1975 . Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1978. ———. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion 1978. Wilmington, DE: Scholarly Resources, 1979. International Documents on Palestine, 1977–1979. Beirut: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1979–1981. Jordan, Hamilton. Crisis: The Last Year of the Carter Presidency. New York: Berkley Books, 1982. Kamel, Mohamed Ibrahim. The Camp David Accords: A Testimony. London: KPI, 1986. Kenen, I. L. Israel’s Defense Line . Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1981. Kissinger, Henry. Years of Renewal . New York: Simon & Schuster, 1999. ———. Years of Upheaval . London: Phoenix Press, 1982. Laqueur, Walter, and Barry Rubin, eds. The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict . 7th ed. London: Penguin, 2008. Linowitz, Sol. The Making of a Public Man: A Memoir. Boston: Little, Brown, 1985. Post, Jerrold. “Personality Profiles in Support of the Camp David Summit,” Studies in Intelligence , vol. 23 (Summer 1979): 1–5. Powell, Jody. The Other Side of the Story . New York: William Morrow, 1984. The Presidential Campaign 1976 : Jimmy Carter , I . Washington, DC: GPO, 1978. Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Jimmy Carter, 1977–1981. Washington, DC: GPO, 1978–1981. Available online: http://quod.lib.umich. edu/p/ppotpus?key=title;page=browse;value=j . Rabin, Yitzhak. The Rabin Memoirs. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California, 1996. Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1978 . New York. Report of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Organizations for the Year Ending March 31, 1979 . New York. Reston, James. Deadline: A Memoir . New York: Random House, 1991. Rielly, John, ed. American Public Opinion and U.S. Foreign Policy, 1979 . Chicago: Chicago Council on Foreign Relations, 1979. US Congress. Congressional Record. 95th Congress, 1st session, Volume 123, Part 17. Washington: GPO, 1977. ———. Congressional Record . 95th Congress, 2nd session, Volume 124, Parts 1–10. Washington, DC: GPO, 1978. US Congress House of Representatives, Committee on Appropriations. Foreign Assistance and Related Agencies Appropriations for 1979, Part 2 . 95th 254 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Congress, 2nd session, January 25, February 22, 24, March 2, 9–10, 14–17, 21–22, April 4–5, 1978. Accessed via ProQuest: http://congressional.proquest. com.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/congressional/docview/t29.d30.hrg-1978-hap -0046?accountid=9630 . US Congress House of Representatives, International Relations Committee (HIRC). Proposed Aircraft Sales to Israel, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia: Hearing before the International Relations Committee . 95th Congress, 2nd session, May 8–10, 16, 1978. Accessed via ProQuest: http://congressional.proquest. com.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/congressional/docview/t29.d30.hrg-1978-hir -0064?accountid=9630 . US Congress Senate, Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC). U.S. Middle East Policy. 96th Congress, 1st session, March 20, 1980. Accessed via ProQuest: http://congressional.proquest.com.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/congressional /docview/t29.d30.hrg-1980-for-0012?accountid=9630 . US Congress Senate, Foreign Relations Committee (SFRC). Middle East Arms Sales Proposals: Hearing before the Foreign Relations Committee . 95th Congress, 2nd session, May 3–4, 8, 1978. Accessed via ProQuest: http:// congressional.proquest.com.gate2.library.lse.ac.uk/congressional/docview /t29.d30.hrg-1978-for-0012?accountid=9630 . US Department of State. Department of State Bulletin, 1977–1980 ( DSB ). ———. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXVI: Arab- Israeli Dispute, 1974–1976. Washington, DC: GPO, 2012 ( FRUS ). Accessed online: http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v26 . ———. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, Volume XXXVII: Energy Crisis, 1974–1980. Washington, DC: GPO, 2012 (FRUS ). Accessed online: http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v37 . ———. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1977–1980, Volume VIII: Arab-Israeli Dispute, January 1977–August 1978. Washington, DC: GPO, 2013 ( FRUS). Accessed online: http://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1977-80v08 . Vance, Cyrus. Hard Choices: Critical Years in America’s Foreign Policy . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1983. Weizman, Ezer. The Battle for Peace . New York: Bantam Books, 1981.

Secondary Sources

Adams, William C., ed. Television Coverage of International Affairs . Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1982. Adams, William C., ed. Television Coverage of the Middle East. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1981. Almond, Gabriel. The American People and Foreign Policy . New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1950. Alvandi, Roham, Nixon, Kissinger, and the Shah: The United States and Iran in the Cold War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Amirahmadi, Hooshang, ed. The United States and the Middle East: A Search for New Perspectives . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1993. BIBLIOGRAPHY 255

Aronoff, Yael. “In Like a Lamb, out Like a Lion: The Political Conversion of Jimmy Carter,” Political Science Quarterly 121, no. 3 (Autumn 2006): 425–49. Aruri, Naseer. Dishonest Broker: The Role of the United States in Palestine and Israel . Boston: South End Press, 2003. Auten, Brian. Carter’s Conversion: The Hardening of America’s Defense Policy . Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 2008. Ball, George. “How to Save Israel in Spite of Herself,” Foreign Affairs 55, no. 2 (January/February 1977): 453–71. Bar-Siman-Tov, Yaacov. Israel and the Peace Process, 1977–1982: In Search of Legitimacy for Peace . Albany: State University of New York Press, 1994. ———. “The United States and Israel since 1948: A ‘Special Relationship’?” Diplomatic History 22, no. 2 (Spring 1998): 231–62. Bard, Mitchell. The Arab Lobby: The Invisible Alliance That Undermines America’s Interest in the Middle East . New York: HarperCollins, 2010. ———. The Water’s Edge and Beyond: Defining the Limits to Domestic Influence on United States Middle East Policy . New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1991. Barrett, Marvin. “TV Diplomacy and Other Broadcast Quandaries,” Columbia Journalism Review 18, no. 1 (May 1979): 69–80. Baum, Matthew, and Tim Groeling. War Stories: The Causes and Consequences of Public Views of War. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2010. Bell, J. Bowyer. Terror out of Zion: The Fight for Israeli Independence . Revised ed. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1996. Berinsky, Adam. In Time of War: Understanding American Public Opinion from World War II to Iraq. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2009. Berridge, G. R., and Lorna Lloyd. The Palgrave Macmillan Dictionary of Diplomacy . Palgrave Macmillan, 2012. E-book. http://www.palgraveconnect .com/pc/doifinder/10.1057/9781137017611. Bird, Kai. The Good Spy: The Life and Death of Robert Ames . New York: Crown, 2014. Bishara, Ghassan. “The Middle East Arms Package: A Survey of the Congressional Debates,” Journal of Palestine Studies 7, no. 4 (Summer 1978): 67–78. Biven, Carl. Jimmy Carter’s Economy: Policy in an Age of Limits. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002. Borstelmann, Thomas. The 1970s: A New Global History from Civil Rights to Economic Inequality. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012. Blumenthal, Sidney. The Permanent Campaign. Revised ed. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1982. Brenner, Lenni. “Zionist-Revisionism: The Years of Fascism and Terror,” Journal of Palestine Studies 13, no. 1 (Autumn 1983): 66–92. Brinkley, Douglas. “The Rising Stock of Jimmy Carter: The ‘Hands on’ Legacy of Our Thirty-Ninth President,” Diplomatic History 20, no. 4 (Fall 1996): 505–29. ———. The Unfinished Presidency: Jimmy Carter’s Journey Beyond the White House . New York: Penguin, 1998. Brookings Middle East Study Group. Toward Peace in the Middle East . Washington, DC: Brookings, 1975. 256 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Carenen, Caitlin. The Fervent Embrace: Liberal Protestants, Evangelicals, and Israel . New York: New York University Press, 2012. Chamberlin, Paul Thomas. The Global Offensive: The United States, the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the Making of the Post-Cold War Order. New York: Oxford University Press, 2012. Christison, Kathleen. Perceptions of Palestine: Their Influence on U.S. Middle East Policy . Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. Clymer, Kenton. “Jimmy Carter, Human Rights, and Cambodia,” Diplomatic History 27, no. 2 (April 2003): 245–78. Cohen, Bernard. The Press and Foreign Policy . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963. Cohen, Raymond. “Israel and the Soviet-American Statement of October 1, 1977: The Limits of Patron-Client Influence,” Orbis 22, no. 3 (Fall 1978): 613–33. ———. Negotiating across Cultures: International Communication in an Interdependent World . Revised ed. Washington, DC: United States Institute of Peace Press, 1997. Cooper, Andrew Scott. The Oil Kings: How the U.S., Iran, and Saudi Arabia Changed the Balance of Power in the Middle East. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2011. CQ Almanac 1978 . Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1979. Daigle, Craig. The Limits of Dé tente: The United States, the Soviet Union, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1969–1973. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2012. Davidson, Lawrence. “Truman the Politician and the Establishment of Israel,” Journal of Palestine Studies 39, no. 4 (Summer 2010): 28–42. De Boer, Connie. “The Polls: Attitudes toward the Arab-Israeli Conflict,” Public Opinion Quarterly 47, no. 1 (Spring 1983): 121–31. Dumbrell, John. American Foreign Policy: Carter to Clinton . Basingstoke: MacMillan Press, 1997. ———. The Carter Presidency: A Re-Evaluation. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 1993. Edwards III, George. “Exclusive Interview: President Jimmy Carter,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 38, no. 1 (March 2007): 1–13. ———. On Deaf Ears: The Limits of the Bully Pulpit. London: Yale University Press, 2003. Ehrman, John. The Rise of Neoconservatism: Intellectuals and Foreign Affairs 1945–1994 . New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995. Feldman, Shai, ed. U.S. Middle East Policy: The Domestic Setting . Boulder, CO: Westview, 1988. Fink, Gary, and Hugh Graham, eds. The Carter Presidency: Policy Choices in the Post-New Deal Era . Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press, 2001. Franck, Thomas, and Edward Weisband. Foreign Policy by Congress. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979. Freedman, Robert. “The Religious Right and the Carter Administration,” The Historical Journal 48, no. 1 (March 2005): 231–60. Friedlander, Melvin. Sadat and Begin: The Domestic Politics of Peacemaking . Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1983. BIBLIOGRAPHY 257

Gaddis, John Lewis. Strategies of Containment: A Critical Appraisal of American National Security Policy During the Cold War , Revised and expanded ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005. Garthoff, Raymond. Detente and Confrontation: American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan . Revised ed. Washington, DC: Brookings, 1994. Gelvin, James. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One-Hundred Years of War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005. Gilboa, Eytan. American Public Opinion toward Israel and the Arab-Israeli Conflict . Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1987. ———. “Global Communication and Foreign Policy,” Journal of Comunication 52, no. 4 (December 2002): 731–48. Glad, Betty. Jimmy Carter: In Search of the Great White House . London: W. W. Norton and Company, 1980. ———. An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, His Advisors, and the Making of American Foreign Policy. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009. Goldberg, David Howard. Foreign Policy and Ethnic Interest Groups: American and Canadian Jews Lobby for Israel . London: Greenwood Press, 1990. Hahn, Peter. Crisis and Crossfire: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 . Washington, DC: Potomac, 2005. Halliday, Fred. The Making of the Second Cold War , 2nd ed. London: Verso, 1986. Hargrove, Erwin. Jimmy Carter as President: Leadership and the Politics of the Public Good . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Hargrove, Erwin, Scott Kaufman, Robert Pastor, and Robert Strong. “H-Diplo Roundtable Review of Betty Glad: ‘An Outsider in the White House: Jimmy Carter, His Advisers, and the Making of American Foreign Policy.’” H-Diplo. Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://www.h-net.org/~diplo/roundtables/PDF /Roundtable-XII-6.pdf . Healy, Robert, and Margaret Thompson. The Washington Lobby. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Congressional Quarterly, 1979. Heikal, Mohamed. Secret Channels: The Inside Story of Arab-Israeli Peace Negotiations . London: Harper Collins, 1996. Hess, Stephen. The Washington Reporters. Washington: Brookings Institution, 1981. Holsti, Ole, R. Public Opinion and American Foreign Policy, Revised ed. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2004. Howe, Russell Warren, and Sarah Hays Trott. The Power Peddlers: How Lobbyists Mold America’s Foreign Policy . New York: Doubleday, 1977. Indyk, Martin. “To the Ends of the Earth”: Sadat’s Jerusalem Initiative. Cambridge, MA: Center for Middle Eastern Studies, 1984. Jacobs, Matthew. Imagining the Middle East: The Building of an American Foreign Policy, 1918–1967 . Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011. Jones, Charles. The Trusteeship Presidency: Jimmy Carter and the United States Congress . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1988. Karawan, Ibrahim. “Sadat and the Egyptian-Israeli Peace Revisited,” International Journal of Middle East Studies 26, no. 2 (May 1994): 249–66. Kaufman, Burton, and Scott Kaufman. The Presidency of James Earl Carter, Jr. 2nd ed. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2006. 258 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Kaufman, Scott. Plans Unraveled: The Foreign Policy of the Carter Administration . DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press, 2008. Kenen, I. L. Israel’s Defense Line . Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books, 1981. Kernell, Samuel. Going Public: New Strategies of Presidential Leadership. 3rd ed. Washington, DC: CQ Press, 1997. Kern, Montague. Television and Middle East Diplomacy: President Carter’s Fall 1977 Peace Initiative. 1st ed. Washington, DC: Center for Contemporary Arab Studies, 1983. Kern, Montague, Patricia Levering, and Ralph Levering. The Kennedy Crises: The Press, the Presidency, and Foreign Policy. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1983. Khalidi, Rashid. Brokers of Deceit: How the US Has Undermined Peace in the Middle East . Boston: Beacon Press, 2013. ———. The Iron Cage: The Story of the Palestinian Struggle for Statehood. Boston: Beacon Press, 2006. ———. Sowing Crisis: The Cold War and American Dominance in the Middle East . Boston: Beacon Press, 2009. ———. Under Siege: P.L.O. Decisionmaking During the 1982 War. New York: Columbia University Press, 1986. Kirkpatrick, Jeanne. “Dictatorships and Double Standards,” Commentary Magazine 68, no. 5 (November 1979): 34–45. Lazarowitz, Arlene. “Ethnic Influence and American Foreign Policy: American Jewish Leaders and President Jimmy Carter,” Shofar 29, no. 1 (Fall 2010): 112–36. Leffler, Melvyn, and Odd Arne Westad, eds. The Cambridge History of the Cold War: Volume 3: Endings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. Lenczowski, George. American Presidents and the Middle East . Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990. Leubsdorf, Carl. “The Ruffled Mideast Press Corps,” Columbia Journalism Review 18, no. 1 (May/June 1979): 10–11. Levins, Hoag. Arab Reach: The Secret War against Israel. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1983. Licklider, Roy. “The Power of Oil: The Arab Oil Weapon and the Netherlands, the United Kingdom, Canada, Japan, and the United States,” International Studies Quarterly 32, no. 2 (June 1988): 205–26. Lipset, Seymour Martin, and William Schneider. “Carter Vs. Israel: What the Polls Reveal,” Commentary Magazine 64, no. 5 (November 1977): 21–29. Little, Douglas. American Orientalism: The United States and the Middle East since 1945 . London: I. B. Tauris, 2003. Maddux, Thomas, et al. “H-Diplo Roundtable Review of Nicholas Evan Sarantakes: ‘Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, The Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War.’” H-Diplo, Retrieved May 12, 2015, http://h-diplo.org/roundtables /PDF/Roundtable-XII-26.pdf. Mahmood, Zahid. “Sadat and Camp David Reappraised,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15, no. 1 (1985): 62–87. BIBLIOGRAPHY 259

Maltese, John Anthony. Spin Control: The White House Office of Communications and the Management of Presidential News. 2nd, revised ed. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1994. Marrar, Khalil. The Arab Lobby and US Foreign Policy: The Two-State Solution . London: Routledge, 2009. McAlister, Melani. Epic Encounters: Culture, Media, and U.S. Interests in the Middle East, 1945–2000 . Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001. McCombs, Maxwell. Setting the Agenda: The Mass Media and Public Opinion . Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004. McDonald, Darren. “Blessed Are the Policy Makers: Jimmy Carter’s Faith-Based Approach to the Arab–Israeli Conflict,” Diplomatic History. Advance Access published August 14, 2014, doi:10.1093/dh/dhu038. Mead, Walter Russell. “The Carter Syndrome,” Foreign Policy (January/February 2010): 58–64. ———. “The New Israel and the Old: Why Gentile Americans Back the Jewish State,” Foreign Affairs 87, no. 4 (July/August 2008): 28–46. Mearsheimer, John, and Stephen Walt. The Israel Lobby and US Foreign Policy . London: Allen Lane, 2007. Merkley, Paul Charles. American Presidents, Religion, and Israel: The Heirs of Cyrus . Westport, CT: Praeger, 2004. Miller, Aaron David. The Much Too Promised Land: America’s Elusive Search for Arab-Israeli Peace . New York: Bantam Books, 2008. Moffett, George. The Limits of Victory: Ratification of the Panama Canal Treaties . London: Cornell University Press, 1985. “The Mood after the Summit,” Public Opinion (September/October 1978): 21. Morris, Benny. Righteous Victims: A History of the Zionist-Arab Conflict, 1881– 2001 . Revised ed. New York: Vintage, 2001. Muravchik, Joshua. “Our Worst Ex-President,” Commentary Magazine 123, no. 2 (February 2007): 17–26. ———. The Uncertain Crusade: Jimmy Carter and the Dilemmas of Human Rights Policy . Lantham, MD: Hamilton Press, 1986. Neff, Donald. Fallen Pillars: U.S. Policy Towards Palestine and Israel since 1945 . Washington, DC: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1995. Nemchenok, Victor. “‘These People Have an Irrevocable Right to Self- Government’: United States Policy and the Palestinian Question, 1977–1979,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 20, no. 4 (December 2009): 595–618. Neustadt, Richard. Presidential Power and the Modern Presidents: The Politics of Leadership from Roosevelt to Reagan . New York: Free Press, 1990. Nj ø lstad, Olav. “Shifting Priorities: The Persian Gulf in US Strategic Planning in the Carter Years,” Cold War History 4, no. 3 (April 2006): 21–55. Novick, Peter. The Holocaust in American Life. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1999. O’Brien, Phillips Payson. “The American Press, Public, and the Reaction to the Outbreak of the First World War,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 3 (June 2013): 446–75. 260 BIBLIOGRAPHY

O’Heffernan, Patrick. Mass Media and American Foreign Policy. Norwood, NJ: Ablex, 1991. Ottaway, David. The King’s Messenger . New York: Walker, 2008. Oye, Kenneth, Robert Lieber, and Donald Rothchild, eds. Eagle Defiant: United States Foreign Policy in the 1980s. Boston: Little, Brown, 1983. Painter, David. “Oil and the American Century,” The Journal of American History 99, no. 1 (June 2012): 24–39. ———. “Oil and Geopolitics: The Oil Crises of the 1970s and the Cold War,” Historical Social Research 39, no. 4 (June 2014): 186–208. Peleg, Ilan. Begin’s Foreign Policy, 1977–1983: Israel’s Move to the Right. London: Greenwood, 1987. Perlmutter, Amos. “Cleavage in Israel,” Foreign Policy 27 (Summer 1977): 136–57. Pressman, Jeremy. “Explaining the Carter Administration’s Israeli-Palestinian Solution,” Diplomatic History 37, no. 5 (November 2013): 1117–147. Price, Daniel. “Presidential Power as a Domestic Constraint on Foreign Policy: Case Studies Examining Arms Sales to Saudi Arabia,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 26, no. 4 (Autumn 1996): 1099–113. Quandt, William. Camp David: Peacemaking and Politics . Washington, DC: Brookings, 1986. ———. Peace Process: American Diplomacy and the Arab-Israeli Conflict since 1967 . 3rd ed. Washington, DC: Brookings, 2005. Reynolds, David. Summits: Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century . London: Allen Lane, 2007. Rosati, Jerel. “Jimmy Carter, a Man before His Time? The Emergence and Collapse of the First Post-Cold War Presidency,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 23, no. 3 (Summer 1993): 459–76. Rose, Gideon. “Neoclassical Realism and Theories of Foreign Policy,” World Politics 51, no. 1 (October 1998): 144–72. Rosenau, James. Public Opinion and Foreign Policy. New York: Random House, 1961. Rosenbaum, Herbert, and Alexej Ugrinksy, eds. Jimmy Carter: Foreign Policy and Post-Presidential Years . Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1994. Rostow, Eugene. “The American Stake in Israel,” Commentary Magazine 63, no. 4 (April 1977): 32–46. Rozell, Mark. The Press and the Carter Presidency . London: Westview Press, 1989. Rubin, Barry. Paved with Good Intentions: The American Experience in Iran . New York: Penguin, 1981. Safty, Adel. “Sadat’s Negotiations with the United States and Israel: From Sinai to Camp David,” American Journal of Economics and Sociology 50, no. 3 (July 1991): 285–98. Said, Edward W., ed. The Politics of Dispossession: The Struggle for Palestinian Self-Determination 1969–1994 . London: Vintage, 1994. Sanders, Jerry. Peddlers of Crisis: The Committee on the Present Danger and the Politics of Containment . Boston: South End Press, 1983. Sarantakes, Nicholas Evan. Dropping the Torch: Jimmy Carter, The Olympic Boycott, and the Cold War . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2011. BIBLIOGRAPHY 261

Sargent, Danel. A Superpower Transformed: History, Strategy, and American Foreign Relations in the 1970s. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015. Saunders, Harold. The Other Wall: The Politics of the Arab-Israeli Peace Process . Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, 1985. Sayigh, Yezid, and Avi Shlaim, eds. The Cold War and the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997. Schmitz, David, and Vanessa Walker. “Jimmy Carter and the Foreign Policy of Human Rights: The Development of a Post-Cold War Foreign Policy,” Diplomatic History 28, no. 1 (January 2004): 113–44. Seib, Philip. Headline Diplomacy: How News Coverage Affects Foreign Policy . Westport, CT: Praeger, 1997. Shindler, Colin. “Likud and the Christian Dispensationalists: A Symbiotic Relationship,” Israel Studies 5, no. 1 (Spring 2000): 153–82. Shlaim, Avi. “The Impact of U.S. Policy in the Middle East,” Journal of Palestine Studies 17, no. 2 (Winter 1988): 15–28. ———. The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World . London: W. W. Norton, 2000. ———. “The Iron Wall Revisited,” Journal of Palestine Studies 41, no. 2 (Winter 2012): 80–98. Sick, Gary. All Fall Down: America’s Tragic Encounter with Iran. New York: Random House, 1985. Sigelman, Lee and David Bullock. “Candidates, Issues, Horse Races, and Hoopla: Presidential Campaign Coverage, 1888–1988,” American Politics Quarterly 19, no. 1 (January 1991): 5–32. Simpson, William. The Prince . New York: HarperCollins, 2007. Skidmore, David. Reversing Course: Carter’s Foreign Policy, Domestic Politics, and the Failure of Reform . Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1996. Smith, Charles. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict . 2nd ed. New York: St. Martins, 1992. Smith, Gaddis. Morality, Reason, and Power: American Diplomacy in the Carter Years . New York: Hill and Wang, 1986. Sneh, Itai. The Future Almost Arrived: How Jimmy Carter Failed to Change U.S. Foreign Policy . New York: Peter Lang, 2008. Spiegel, Steven. The Other Arab-Israeli Conflict: Making America’s Middle East Policy, from Truman to Reagan . Chicago: University of Chicago, 1985. Stein, Kenneth. Heroic Diplomacy: Sadat, Kissinger, Carter, Begin, and the Quest for Arab-Israeli Peace . New York: Routledge, 1999. Strong, Robert. Working in the World: Jimmy Carter and the Making of American Foreign Policy . Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2000. Strum, Philippa, ed. American Arabs and Political Participation. Washington: Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, 2006. Suleiman, Michael, ed. U.S. Policy on Palestine from Wilson to Clinton . Normal, IL: Association of Arab-American University Graduates, 1995. Telhami, Shibley. Power and Leadership in International Bargaining: The Path to the Camp David Accords . New York: Columbia University Press, 1990. Terry, Janice. U.S. Foreign Policy in the Middle East: The Role of Lobbies and Special Interest Groups . London: Pluto Press, 2005. 262 BIBLIOGRAPHY

Tessler, Mark. “The Political Right in Israel: Its Origins, Growth, and Prospects,” Journal of Palestine Studies 15, no. 2 (Winter 1986): 12–55. Thornton, Richard. The Carter Years: Toward a New Global Order. New York: Paragon House, 1991. Tillman, Seth. The United States and the Middle East: Interests and Obstacles . Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982. Tivnan, Edward. The Lobby: Jewish Political Power and American Foreign Policy . New York: Simon and Schuster, 1987. Touval, Saadia. The Peace Brokers: Mediators in the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1948– 1979 . Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982. Tucker, Robert. “The Middle East: For a Separate Peace,” Commentary Magazine 65, no. 3 (March 1978): 25–31. Venn, Fiona. “The October 1973 Energy Crisis,” H-Energy. Retrieved May 12, 2015, https://networks.h-net.org/system/files/contributed-files/henergy-f-venn -1973-oil-crisis.pdf . ———. The Oil Crisis. London: Routledge, 2002. Westad, Odd Arne, ed. The Fall of Dé tente: Soviet-American Relations During the Carter Years . Oslo: Scandinavian University Press, 1997. Wright, Lawrence. Thirteen Days in September: Carter, Begin, and Sadat at Camp David. New York: Knopf, 2014. Yergin, Daniel. The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money and Power. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1991. Zelizer, Julian. Jimmy Carter . New York: Times Books, 2010. Zelizer, Julian, and Bruce Schulman, eds. Rightward Bound: Making America Conservative in the 1970s . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2008. Zertal, Idith, and Akiva Eldar. Lords of the Land: The War over Israel’s Settlements in the Occupied Territories, 1967–2007. Translated by Vivian Eden. 2nd ed. New York: Nation Books, 2007. Zureik, Elia, and Fouad Moughrabi, eds. Public Opinion and the Palestine Question . London: Croom Helm, 1987.

Unpublished Secondary Sources

Anziska, Seth. “Aborting Palestinian Autonomy: 1979–1980.” Paper presented in LSE Middle East Workshop . London, January 21, 2013. Yakovee, Rehavia Uami. “Arms for Oil—Oil for Arms: An Analysis of President Carter’s 1978 Planes ‘Package Deal’ Sale to Egypt, Israel and Saudi Arabia.” PhD diss., Claremont Graduate University, 1983.

Index

Afghanistan, 6–7, 172 and presidential election of 1980, 185 African-American community and Rabin, Yitzhak, 29 and resignation of Young, Andrew, and resignation of Young, Andrew, 162, 170–1, 180 170 and support for Carter, Jimmy, 16, and Sadat’s 1977 visit to Jerusalem, 87 168–70 and stance on changing wording of al-Assad, Hafez (Syrian leader), 36, UNSCR 242, 173 88, 199 and support in Congress, 47–8, 118 Alireza, Ali (Saudi Ambassador), 111–12 and US-Soviet Joint Communiqué, American Broadcasting Company 71, 212 (ABC), 48, 74, 82, 86, 89, 125–6, American Jewish community 157, 177 (including American Jewry) American Israel Public Affairs and 1977 memo by Jordan, Committee (AIPAC) Hamilton, 39–53 and annual policy conference activism of, 5, 12–13, 24, 32–3, 39–53, dinner (1978), 116 81, 87, 96–7, 106–7, 128, 166 and Begin, Menachem, 36, 43 and Begin, Menachem, 35–6, 38, and Cairo Conference (1977), 218 42, 52–3, 62, 69–70, 95, 114–15, and Camp David Accords, 130, 137, 137, 148 231 and contacts with the Carter and Carter’s March 1979 trip to the administration, 15–16, 22, 32–3, Middle East, 149 35–6, 43, 48, 55–7, 75, 97–8, and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, 155, 106–7, 137 240 and opinion of Carter’s policies, and F-15 sales, 101, 106–9, 112–13, 28, 36, 37, 45–6, 49, 52–3, 68, 71, 116, 118–19, 222, 223–4 76, 82, 94, 97, 113, 145–6, 157, and the Holocaust, 9, 108 167–8, 176 and mistaken US vote on 1980 and resignation of Young, Andrew, UNSC Resolution, 177 16, 162–3, 170–1 and National Security Council, 25, and US-Soviet Joint Communiqué, 113 70–5 and nature of influence, 13, 109 and voting patterns, 12–13, 39, 47, and opposition to a Palestinian 120, 175–7, 184–5 state, 203 Amitay, Morris (executive director of and opposition to Carter’s policies, AIPAC), 25, 107–8, 113, 116, 130, 41, 43, 45, 65, 71, 145, 168 203, 223 264 INDEX

Arab League, 13, 17, 143, 158 and relations with Carter, 61, 66–7, Arab-American community, 25–6, 51, 69, 102–3, 114, 128, 137, 145, 148, 98, 111, 137–8, 171 150–1 Arab-Israeli wars and relations with Sadat, 94, in 1967, 8, 28–9, 32, 36, 46, 132–3 49–50, 52–3, 70, 74–5, 96, and Sadat’s Jerusalem trip, 82–9 173, 187 and settlements, 95, 97, 134, 143, in 1973, 20, 33, 102, 109 173–4 Arafat, Yasser (PLO leader) Blair House Talks, 142 and contacts with US, 21, 61, 63–4, Bolling, Landrum (educator and 135 unofficial US emissary to and declaration that the United Arafat), 21, 64 States was the Palestinians’ Brown, Harold (US secretary of “principal enemy,” 162 defense), 47, 63, 127, 164 and position on Sadat’s trip to Brzezinski, Zbigniew (US national Jerusalem, 88 security adviser) and statements regarding and 1980 election, 161–3, 181, 183 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, 158 and American Jewish leaders, 32–3, and UN Security Council 41–3, 45, 49–50, 106–7, 112–13, Resolution 242, 61, 64 116–17, 144 Autonomy Talks (Palestinian) and Arab American groups, 51 1979–1980, 161–7, 172–3, 177–9 and Autonomy talks, 163–6, 172 and Camp David, 124–39 Begin, Menachem (Israeli prime and Carter, 14–15, 35–6, 90, 102, minister) 123–4, 144, 147, 172 and 1977 election, 34 and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, 144, and American Jewish community, 148–58 35–6, 41–2, 62, 96, 106, 113–15, and F-15 sales, 101, 103, 106, 128, 137, 148, 166 115–19 and annexation of East Jerusalem, foreign policy ideas of, 6, 14, 22, 24, 179 28, 41–2, 181 and Autonomy Plan of, 91–2, 114 media coverage of, 48 and Autonomy talks in 1979–80, and meetings with Egyptian 166–7, 171 leaders, 94–6 background of, 34, 43, 52 and meetings with Israeli leaders, and Camp David Accords, 121, 125, 52, 91, 114 127–39 and the PLO, 64–5, 219 and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, and Sadat’s visit to Jerusalem, 79, 141–60 85, 90 and F-15 sales, 107, 118 and US-Soviet Joint Communiqué, and Holocaust Memorial Museum, 72–4 116 and Vance, Cyrus, 5–6, 14, 46, 164 ideology of, 14, 17, 43, 51–2 and July 1977 visit to US, 40, 51–6 Caddell, Patrick (Carter’s pollster), and March 1978 visit to US, 113–14 16, 26, 35, 37, 52–3, 76, 87–8, 143, and March 1979 visit to US, 147–8 167, 176 INDEX 265

Camp David Accords and Congress, 11, 12, 22–3, 26–8, and Carter’s presentation to 34, 35, 40, 42, 47, 65, 68–70, 75, Congress, 121, 135–6 96, 98, 102–20, 123, 130, 135–6, and contents of agreements, 134 143, 166, 184, 186–7 different interpretations of, 134, 137 doctrine of, 147, 237 Palestinian reaction to, 134–5 and the economy, 9, 102–3, 160, and signing ceremony, 135 182 and US media and public opinion, and Egypt, 13, 25, 51, 63, 68, 79, 80, 136–7 92, 93, 135, 141–2, 149–50, 153, Camp David Summit 159, 163, 167 negotiations at, 121–39 and energy policy, 7, 11, 26, 75, 104, preparations for, 128–31 109, 191 press coverage of, 121–2, 124–8, and foreign policy, 5–10, 14–15, 131–3, 135 22–3, 26–7, 32, 36–8, 46–7, 64, and public opinion, 127–8, 136–8 76–7, 120, 122, 141–2, 146, 147, Carter, Jr., James Earl (Jimmy) (US 149, 152, 158, 159, 160, 161, 163, president) 172, 180, 181, 182, 183 and 1976 election, 9–10, 170, 182, and human rights, 5, 7, 8, 25, 63, 185 144, 168 and 1980 campaign, 125, 144–5, and Iran, 92, 142, 146–7, 156, 160, 148, 161–3, 172, 174, 175, 177, 164, 172–3, 179, 180 179–81, 183–6 and Israel, 7, 8, 10, 12–13, 24–5, and American Jewish community, 27–30, 38, 39, 45, 50, 54–6, 12–13, 28, 32–3, 35–8, 39–53, 61–2, 63, 69, 70, 73–6, 77, 80–1, 55, 57, 68, 69–73, 75–6, 81–2, 87, 91–2, 94–5, 96, 97, 102, 106, 94–8, 106–7, 112–13, 115, 117–20, 114–15, 116, 123–4, 126, 128, 128, 130–1, 137, 144–6, 162–3, 129–30, 134, 137, 142, 143, 144–5, 166–8, 170, 175–7, 182, 184–5, 146–8, 150–3, 157, 165–8, 169, 203, 205 175, 177, 185 and Aswan Declaration, 93 and Jordan, Hamilton, 15–16, background of, 11, 16–17, 39 39–41, 46–50, 72–3, 75–6, 85, and Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 5–6, 103, 117, 131, 138, 142, 144, 148, 14–15, 22, 24, 28, 32, 35, 36, 41, 174–6, 183 42–3, 49, 50–2, 63, 65, 73, 79, and leadership, 1, 3, 5, 11, 23, 60, 80, 90–2, 102, 103, 106–7, 116, 119, 90–1, 102, 121, 123, 138, 147, 158, 123–4, 127–30, 133, 138, 144, 161, 180, 182 146–7, 148–9, 153, 156, 161, and news media, 4–5, 10–12, 26, 27, 163–4, 166, 172, 181, 183 48–9, 53, 57, 60, 62, 63, 74–5, 80, and Camp David Accords, 121–2, 82–3, 94, 98–9, 115, 119, 121–5, 134–9, 142–3, 161, 165, 184 126, 127, 129, 131, 135, 136–7, and Camp David Summit, 121–39 138, 141–2, 148–9, 152–8, 159, and Begin, Menachem, 34–6, 42, 177, 183–4 49–56, 61, 69, 85, 89, 91–2, 96, 97, and Pahlavi, Mohammad Reza 113–14, 116, 118, 120, 121, 128, Shah, 147, 160 132–5, 137, 141, 147, 148, 150–3, and Powell, Jody, 15–16, 28, 46, 63, 157, 173, 174, 182, 185 71, 131, 138, 143, 154 266 INDEX

Carter, Jr., James Earl—Continued Cronkite, Walter (US journalist), 26, and public opinion, 4, 10, 12, 30–1, 31, 79, 82–4, 86, 152 37, 43–4, 46, 48, 50, 52–4, 63–4, 81, 93, 96, 116, 119, 128, 133, 155, Dayan, Moshe (Israeli foreign 159, 167–8, 182–3, 186 minister), 60, 65–6, 69–70, 72–4, and religion, 5, 9 97–8, 107, 114, 123, 130, 151–3, 173 and Sadat, Anwar, 70, 79–81, 87, 89, Dinitz, Simcha (Israeli ambassador to 92–7, 121, 132, 135, 141, 147, 148, Washington), 72–3 150, 153, 157, 178, 199 Disengagement Agreements of and Saudi Arabia, 50–1, 92–3, 102, 1974–1975 (including Sinai II), 103–4, 110, 111, 117, 199 20–1, 61, 67, 169 and Soviet Union, 5, 6, 7, 8, 22, 23, 31, 32, 59, 60–1, 67, 69, 75, 144, Egypt 172 and Disengagement Agreements and Vance, Cyrus, 6, 14, 16, 22–3, (1974 and 1975), 20 25, 28, 29, 32, 42, 50, 61–2, 65, 67, and negotiations with Israel, 54, 75, 90, 92, 95, 97, 102, 111, 125, 62–3, 65–7, 72, 76, 79–80, 82–6, 91, 134, 144–5, 146, 153, 164, 165, 122–3, 131–9, 142–3, 156–7, 177 168, 169, 174–8 and the Palestinians, 30, 162–3, Carter, Rosalynn (first lady of the 167–8, 178 United States), 177 and relations with other Arab CBS News, 27, 49, 82–4, 126, 127, 133, states, 86, 88, 90, 102, 147, 158 152, 154–5, 158, 176 and the United States, 3, 14, 17, 49, Ceausescu, Nicholae (Romanian 61, 68, 72–3, 80, 82, 87–8, 89, 92, leader), 66 93, 95–6, 98, 114–15, 142, 149–50, Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 159–60, 185 21, 52, 67, 73, 89, 109, 110, 126–7, and US weapons sales, 45–6, 101–20 130, 135, 145 Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty Church, Frank (Democratic senator), and legacy of, 3, 8, 188 106, 109, 117, 118, 148 negotiation of, 114, 121, 134, 138, Clinton, Massachusetts, 29–30 141–60, 185 Committee on the Present Danger, 9, and Palestinians, 122, 158–9, 162 43–4, 63–4, 71, 144 and response of other Arab states Conference of Presidents of Major to, 158–9 American Jewish Organizations, and signing ceremony, 156–7 13, 33, 41, 48–9, 62, 71–2, 75, Eilts, Hermann (US ambassador to 96–8, 106, 117, 145, 170 Egypt), 21, 82, 89, 209 confrontation strategy (including Eizenstat, Stuart (Carter administration “showdown”) of US toward aide), 15–16, 29–32, 35, 41, 46, 50, Israel, 9, 13, 40, 43, 53, 63, 65, 74, 72–3, 81, 93, 115, 184 82, 89, 94, 96, 113, 119, 182 Evron, Ephraim (Israeli ambassador Congress (including House and to Washington), 173–4 Senate), 11–12, 22–3, 26–8, 34–5, 40–2, 45, 47–8, 65, 68–70, 75, 96, F-5 sales (fighter jet). See F-15 sales 98, 101–20, 123, 130, 135–6, 143, F-15 sales (fighter jet), 101–20 159, 165–6, 184, 186–7 F-16 sales (fighter jet). See F-15 sales INDEX 267

Fahd, Saudi Crown Prince, 50–1, 93, 199 and the United States, 2, 3, 7, 9, 10, Fahmy, Ismail (Egyptian foreign 12–13, 15, 21, 27, 28–30, 39, 42–3, minister), 51, 63, 68 44–5, 52, 54–5, 65, 69, 73–6, 92, Ford, Gerald (former US president), 98, 114, 116, 123–4, 128, 145, 10, 21, 23, 56, 76, 103, 105 150–3, 170–1, 184, 185 and US weapons sales, 25, 45–6, Gaza Strip, 13, 25, 52, 90, 91, 95, 98, 114, 101–20 121, 134, 137, 143, 145, 149–51, 153, 157, 161, 166, 178, 188 Jabotinsky, Vladimir (Revisionist Geneva Peace Conference Zionist leader), 51, 207 in 1973, 20, 67 Jackson, Henry (Scoop) (Democratic and the Carter administration, 20, senator), 71, 109, 118 22–5, 28, 32–3, 36–7, 39, 44–6, 51, Javits, Jacob (Republican senator), 42, 54–7, 59–60, 61–4, 66–9, 71, 74–5, 45–6, 118 77, 80–1, 85–7, 89–90, 99, 130, 183 Jerusalem resolution, UN Security “Georgia Mafia,” 16–17 Council (1980), 162, 173–8 Ghorbal, Ashraf (Egyptian Jewish Americans. See American ambassador to Washington), 163 Jewish community Johnson, Lyndon B. (former US Hassan II, King (Morocco), 66 president), 56, 76, 175 Holocaust, 9, 108, 116 Joint Communiqué on the Middle human rights, 5, 7–8, 25, 63, 144, 168 East, US-Soviet, 6–7, 17, 59–60, Humphrey, Hubert (Democratic 67–77, 80, 93, 94, 99, 183, 186 senator), 35, 95, 219 Jordan, 24, 30, 34, 42, 44–5, 50, 53–4, Hussein, King (Jordan), 92, 199 61, 63, 65–6, 88, 90, 92–3, 134, 188 Jordan, Hamilton (Carter Iran, 6, 7, 21, 92–3, 142, 146–7, 156, administration aide) 160, 163–4 and “Foreign Policy/Domestic and hostage crisis, 21, 164, 172–3, Politics Memo,” 39–40, 46–9, 56–7 179–80 and influence, 15, 16–17, 39–40, 41, Iraq, 86, 90 46–9, 56–7, 72–3, 75–6, 103, 112, Israel 117, 131, 138, 142, 144, 148, 174, and 1977 election, 33–5 176, 178, 183, 199, 205 and the American Jewish community, 13, 41, 47–8, 50, Kennedy, Edward (Ted) (Democratic 52–3, 68, 95, 107, 113, 115, 166 senator), 148, 160, 174, 176, 180 and Disengagement Agreements Khalid, King (Saudi Arabia), 93, 104 (1974 and 1975), 20–1, 61, 169 Khalil, Mustapha (Egyptian and negotiations with Egypt, 54, diplomat), 147, 153 62–3, 65–7, 72, 76, 79–80, 82–6, 91, Kissinger, Henry (former US secretary 122–3, 131–9, 142–3, 156–7, 177 of state and national security and the Palestinians, 8, 21, 23, 24, adviser), 10, 17, 20, 22–4, 43, 50, 29, 30–1, 34–5, 36, 42, 54–5, 61, 61, 67, 105, 164 63, 65, 70, 74, 91, 113–14, 122, Knesset (Israel), 51, 82, 85, 96, 107, 134, 136–7, 143, 147, 150, 153, 145, 148, 153 162, 167, 173–4, 178, 185 and Carter’s 1979 address to, 150–1 268 INDEX

Lebanon, 2, 3, 26, 61, 65, 69, 90, 113, 164 and resignation of Young, Leeds Castle talks (Britain), 122–3, 125 Andrew, 169 Lewis, Samuel (US ambassador to and Sadat’s trip to Jerusalem, Israel), 52, 65, 89, 151, 165, 173–4, 79–80, 82–9, 98–100 178 Nixon, Richard (former US president), Likud Party (Israel), 8, 9, 10, 17, 34, 35, 10, 17, 56, 76, 92 38, 39, 47, 48, 52, 53 Linowitz, Sol (US diplomat and oil, 7, 9, 49, 87, 102–3, 105, 109–12, negotiator), 162, 172–3, 177–9 116–17, 147, 149, 151, 153, 157–8, Lipshutz, Robert (Carter 163, 187, 191 administration aide), 15–16, 32, O’Neill, Thomas P. (Tip) (Democratic 35, 41, 81, 116 congressman), 26–7, 41

McHenry, Donald (US ambassador to Pahlavi, Mohammed Reza Shah the United Nations), 173–7 (Iran), 6, 146–7, 160 Mondale, Walter (US vice president), Palestine Liberation Organization 11, 15, 32, 40–1, 44–6, 50, 56, 63, (PLO), 16–17, 20–2, 24, 28–34, 72, 96, 138, 146, 168 36, 45, 50–1, 54–5, 57, 59–66, Moynihan, Daniel Patrick (Democratic 68–72, 74, 77, 82, 85–91, 94, 113, senator), 71, 116, 118, 144 134–5, 143, 146, 155, 158, 162–3, 165, 167–71, 187, 196 National Association of Arab Palestinians, 8, 13, 17, 19–25, 29–30, Americans, 25–6, 51, 111, 138 31–7, 42–5, 50–1, 53–6, 59, 61–6, National Broadcasting Company 68–71, 73–4, 81, 85–91, 93–4, (NBC), 1, 19, 82, 126, 133, 154, 113–14, 121–2, 128, 134–5, 143, 155, 158 146, 150, 153, 155, 157–9, 162–3, National Security Adviser. 165, 167–9, 171–3, 178, 185, 188. See Brzezinski, Zbigniew See also Palestine Liberation Near East Report. See AIPAC Organization New York Democratic Primary (1980), Panama Canal Treaties, 46–7, 96, 99, 159–60, 162, 174, 176 103–5, 119–20, 136, 184 news media Persian Gulf, 7, 9, 103, 109, 112, 146–7, and Camp David Summit, 121–40 159, 164, 172, 187 and Carter administration, 2, 4, Powell, Jody (Carter administration 5, 10–12, 23–4, 26–7, 48–9, 63, spokesperson), 15–16, 28–9, 46, 72, 92, 94, 124–7, 136–7, 138–9, 63, 71, 123–7, 131–3, 138, 143, 183–4 151–4 and editorial cartoons, 132 Presidents’ Conference. and Egypt, 79–80, 130 See Conference of Presidents and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, of Major American Jewish 141–2, 149–59 Organizations and F-15 sales (1978), 115–16, 119–20 public opinion (American), 2, 4–5, and Israel, 36, 53, 55–6, 60–1, 69 10–13, 31, 37, 42, 44–6, 48, 50–4, and Palestinian autonomy talks, 63, 80–1, 87, 96, 98–9, 105, 115, 164, 173, 179 119, 128–9, 133, 139, 155, 159, and public opinion, 10–12, 186–7 167–8, 186 INDEX 269

Quandt, William (US diplomat and Secretary of State (US). See Vance, scholar) Cyrus and NSC, 14, 15, 20, 22, 25, 30, 35, Settlements (Jewish), 8–9, 17, 25, 34–5, 43, 46, 64, 69, 72, 74, 76, 81, 84, 42, 55–6, 60–3, 65–6, 68, 75, 81, 94, 95, 107, 113, 118, 119, 124, 95–8, 103, 106–7, 113–14, 119, 131, 192 134, 143, 158, 165–7, 173–7, 179, scholarship of, 4, 53–4, 129, 190 182–3, 185, 187, 208 Siegel, Mark (Carter administration Rabin, Yitzhak (Israeli prime aide), 33, 72–3, 79, 85, 97–8, minister), 24, 28–30, 33–4, 38, 106–7, 112–13 54, 199 Sinai Peninsula, 3, 65–7, 91, 95–6, Rafshoon, Gerald (Carter 98, 107, 126, 128–30, 134, 147, administration aide chief), 15, 16, 149–51, 153, 156, 158, 172, 123, 125, 129, 135–6, 154, 183, 234 232. See also Disengagement Reagan, Ronald (US president), 1, 9, Agreements 105, 112, 174, 176–7, 181, 185 Soviet Union, 5–9, 14, 18, 20–3, 31–2, 43–4, 54, 59–61, 63–4, 67, 69–77, Sadat, Anwar (Egyptian president) 81, 94, 105, 109–10, 118, 122, 127, and “Barbara Walters syndrome,” 144, 147, 164, 172, 187 89, 130 Stone, Richard (Democratic senator), and Begin, Menachem, 1, 2–3, 25, 42, 118 85–6, 89, 92, 114, 130, 132–3 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks II. and Carter, Jimmy, 1, 2–3, 17, 68, See SALT II 80–1, 92, 93, 94–7, 121, 130, Strauss, Robert (US diplomat and 135–6, 149–50, 153, 178 negotiator), 162, 164–8, 171, 172, and Jerusalem trip, 79–99 178–9, 186 and “Nobel Prize complex,” 130 Syria, 20, 36, 54, 61–2, 65–7, 70, 86, and Palestinians, 30, 86, 88, 134–5, 88–90, 102 157, 158, 171, 178 public diplomacy of, 80, 82–4, 87, Terzi, Zehdi (PLO envoy to the United 96–7, 98, 125, 148 Nations), 169–71 and US-Soviet Joint Communiqué, 70–1 United Nations, 20, 31, 43, 46, 95, 130, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation 144, 156, 167–9, 173–4. See also Talks) II, 31–2, 47, 70, 74, 96, 120, Young, Andrew; and McHenry, 142, 172 Donald Sanders, Edward (Carter United Nations Security Council administration aide), 68, 113, (UNSC), 36, 162, 168–9, 173–5, 128, 131, 137, 145, 167, 171 185 Saudi Arabia, 18, 33, 46, 49–50, 61, and Resolution 242, 8, 20–1, 28, 30, 88, 90, 92–3, 99, 101–20, 147, 163, 36, 43, 46, 51, 54, 61–5, 69, 74, 93, 168, 183, 199, 224 95, 98, 106, 167, 171, 173, 177 Saunders, Harold (US diplomat), 8, 21, and Resolution 338, 20, 36, 54, 62, 30, 171 69, 74, 93 “secret strategy” (US-Egyptian), 80, US-Israel Working Paper (1977), 94–7, 99 73–5 270 INDEX

Vance, Cyrus (US secretary of state) resignation of, 164 and American Jewish community, and US-Soviet Joint Communiqué, 28, 50, 72, 75, 82, 97, 131, 145, 165 67–72 and Brzezinski, Zbigniew, 6, 14, 24, and visits to the Middle East, 24, 32, 164 26, 61–3, 144–5 and Camp David, 121, 125, 128–31, 134 Walters, Barbara (US journalist), and Carter, Jimmy, 6, 14, 22–3, 24, 86–7, 89, 130 28–9, 61, 65, 84, 90, 91–2, 95, 97, Weizman, Ezer (Israeli defense 102, 105, 134, 145, 146, 150, 164, minister), 107, 153 174–8 West, John (US ambassador to Saudi and Congress, 42, 65, 101, 105, 111, Arabia), 110–11, 118 117, 126, 165 West Bank, 3, 13–14, 17, 25, 34–6, 42, and Egypt-Israel Peace Treaty, 150–3 46, 52–6, 60, 67, 69, 90–1, 95–6, and foreign policy, 6, 14, 22–3, 31, 98, 107, 114, 120–1, 126, 129, 134, 32, 98 137, 143, 145–6, 150, 157–8, 161, and media, 84, 125 165–6, 169, 173, 175, 178–9, 188 and mistaken US vote on UN Jerusalem resolution, 174–8 Young, Andrew (US ambassador to and Palestinian Autonomy Talks, the United Nations), 16, 162, 163, 164, 165–6, 168 169–73