Architecture in Our World

April 16, 2012 In the beginning:

Since the dawn of human existence, people have sought to create shelter to protect themselves from constant weather fluctuations and predators. To do so, humans have had to use tools and build structures by relying on architecture, “The art or practice of designing and building structures and especially habitable ones” (Webster, 1995). Dating back to the original architectural structures, anthropologists and architects, from around the world have noticed key similarities in human buildings. The first “Homo” species made the first tools to build basic structures and even decorated the inside walls with pictures, just as humans today use more advance tools and material to build more advanced structures and decorate the walls of their homes. However, there are also key differences in architecture around the world. These differences allow architects to determine the Sumer

Archeologists found the first architectural evidence in the present day nation of Iraq, dating back to 3,500 BC. During that time, the region now known as Iraq was called Sumer. The Sumerian people built these early structures Can Architecture define a nation? with mud-bricks. Since these mud-bricks were large and solid, the Sumerians did not Architecture is the practice of designing and know how to make the structures hollow, so buildings structures, most commonly buildings. they created large, solid structures that ascended diagonally to form large staircase- This very specific definition, however, does not like structures called ziggurats. Such address that the “art of architecture” differs from ziggurats were built for each different place to place. As if it could speak, architecture Sumerian city, and was the most important can reveal the time, place, economic status, and building in every city. Atop the ziggurat was a shrine used for religious worship preferences of one geographic region. Different (Kirkpatrick, nations, or cultures, have very distinct 2003). architectural differences. Understanding these key differences when researching architecture helps expand knowledge on different cultures and areas http://www.strayreality. com/Lanis_Strayreality/ of the world. sumerian_civilization%20 2.htm

Catalhoyuk Egypt

Though the ziggurats, Step Pyramids and Pyramids are examples of the first intricate architectural styles Similarly, the Egyptians built designed to show economic dominance (whether for a massive structures that, just like city or ruler), the first recorded habitable architectural ziggurats, were triangular in structures were found in Anatolia, present day shape, and built in layers of large http://www. Turkey. This civilization, called Catalhoyuk, dates steps. These structures were called mrdowling.co back to 6300-5500 BC. Just like the Sumerians, the m/604- Step Pyramids; the first one was pharaoh.html people who lived in Catalhoyuk made their homes out built at Saqqara, Egypt, for Pharaoh of mud-brick, but also used plaster. These original Djoser in 2,650 BC. Just like ziggurats, these homes were very utilitarian, but also contained non- architectural structures were not built for habitual utilitarian rooms that were built into shrines, designed use, but rather were built for pharaoh’s burial for worshipping the gods. All of these early tombs. These Step Pyramids were more advanced architectural structures, along with other succeeding then the Samarian ziggurats due to the fact that the structures, were lined with limestone. This is because Egyptian builders used large stone instead of mud- limestone is maintainable, stable and long lasting, and brick to create the tombs. Each step, or mastabas, also beautiful, great for aesthetic purposes (Hirsk, must fit proper dimensions perfectly so the layer 2012). above it will create a triangular shape. Distinct Though the first architectural economic status is also seen through the use of structures were less Step Pyramids, and later better crafted Pyramids, concerned with aesthetic because instead of burying wealthy pharaohs in the beauty, architects can really ground, thousands of slaves would build large notice differences in nation’s pyramids for their burial sites. The inside of the architecture once humans Step Pyramids and Pyramids are like intricate begin to focus not just on mazes. In the middle of the maze, the pharaoh, http://www.precolombino survival, but more on along with his prized possessions, were buried in .cl/en/recursos- educativos/tecnologias- creating an environment the king chamber (Forest, 2012). The Egyptians, in precolombinas/arquitectur which their nation considers particular, were very advanced for their time. a/ beautiful and aesthetically James Fergusson, a 19th Century author, in pleasing. particular, raved about the Pyramids in his book A History of Architecture in all Countries. Referring to the pyramids, he states “No language can convey Aesthetics are “pleasing in appearance” and deal an idea of its beauty, and no artist has yet been able with the beauty of a building (Webster’s, 1995). to reproduce its form so as to convey to those who have not seen it an idea of its grandeur” Since beauty is “In the eye of the beholder,” architects (Fergusson, 1865). gain a good understanding of how the people of different nations define beauty based on the evolution

of their architecture. Since the majority of the world’s nations are religious, one way many nations apply aesthetics in architecture is through religious symbolism, such as decorative shrines, temples or churches. Each nation or culture takes a lot of pride in their religion and, just as the Sumerians and Egyptians showed their respect to their rulers, god- http://www.astarte.com.au/html/the_pyramids_of_egypt.html kings, with colossal ziggurats and pyramids, we today show respect to the gods or God we worship with large, intricately designed buildings. 2

http://www.follo w- islam.com/tag/sal Islam ah-praying-five- Greece times

Muslims follow a very specific form of aesthetics, Just as the Islamic Canon’s followed specific according to the Islamic Decorative Canon. This architectural designs, the Greeks built their temples following three different orders. However, these orders Canon defines three types of architecture: were not classified by religious hierarchy. Rather, the 1 Calligraphy different structures marked different time periods in Greece. All the Greek temples follow the same Calligraphy is the form of writing structure. Each part of the temple and columns is used in sacred Muslim text, such as named: the Al-Quran. Therefore, this is the most sacred form of decoration in the Canon. Different styles and types of calligraphy are used to decorate mosques to show their importance.

2 Geometric Patterns

Geometric patterns are more vague http://www.dummies.com/how- decorative styles in the Canon. This to/content/greek-architecture-doric- appeals to Muslim designers and ionic-or-corinthian.html architects because it allows them to The differences of each order, however, are found in have more freedom in their symbolic the capital and shaft. interpretations of the design. It also Doric gives the architects the opportunity to 1 show their skills and amaze The first order, the Doric style was very sturdy worshipers at the mosque. with a plain capital. This style was used in mainland Greece and was adopted by colonies in southern Italy and Sicily. Arabesque 3 Ionic The Islamic Decorative Canon says 2 the last architectural design should As the 5th century B.C. continued, the Greeks be arabesque in style and, just like wanted to show more intricacy, and created the geometric patterns, is found across a Ionic order. The Ionic style is thinner and more wide range of Muslim designs elegant than the Doric style. Its capital has a (Broug, 2008). scroll-like design and is found in eastern Greece and on the Greek islands.

3 Corinthian Lastly, as the years continued, the Greeks became even more complex in their architecture and created the Corinthian order. This new style is rarely seen in Greece, but is more prominent on Roman temples (the Romans marveled at the Greek Corinthian style). The Corinthian capital is http://www.patterninislamicart.com/background-notes/the- very elaborate and decorated with acanthus leaves evolution-of-style/ (University Press, 2008)

3

(Greece continued)

The order the Greeks used for their temples did not matter; rather, what did matter was that each European structure had to follow a specific proportion. For example, Doryphoros, the sculptor of the Parthenon, http://www.oldukphotos.com/es believed that “beautiful proportions resulted from sex_chelmsford.htm strict adherence to harmonious numerical rations, whether [he was] designing a temples more than 200 Just as the Greeks and Romans used elaborate feet long or a life-sized statue of a nude man” architectural detail to show the importance of a (Kleiner, 2010). Therefore, architects today can building to honor gods or rulers, later in history, in the observe mathematical proportions represented in 18th Century in England, elaborate emphasis was Greek architecture. added not only to architecture, but to the decorations of homes as well. Amanda Vickery states in her article “Open House Georgian Style” that when couples married, the women would immediately buy new furniture to reflect “dignity and grandeur upon the owner” of the home (Vickery, 2009). In comparison, the 21st Century stereotype for married couples is the husband is frustrated with his wife’s latest, seemingly useless, buys. However, 18th Century European husbands reportedly received their http://iamkevinisme.tumblr.com/ wives lavishness with pleasure, because it indicated they made a good decision to marry someone who Greece was not the only nation that used columns in could help “show off” their wealth (Vickery, 2009). their temple design. As noted earlier, Romans The plethora of such material items was not the only architectural design was based heavily on what they observed in Greek architecture. Thus, a lot of the thing that distinguished the elite in England at that Roman temples of worship are very similar in nature time. Architectural grandeur was seen in upper class to the Greeks. However, major differences can be banquet halls. In that time, Christians (dominant th observed. religion in England in the 18 Century) preferred to socialize in elegant gatherings with people of equal Differences between Greek architecture and economic status rather than be involved with the Roman architecture: urban, lower class. These elegant banquet halls symbolized “the ideal of the integrated but structured Greek Roman community” (Vickery, 2009). These banquet halls  Temples were built  Created own order of were lined with columns similar to those used in on a platform Greece and Rome, with added detail in ceiling murals. called a stylobata, architecture, the Composite Column, Therefore, it is clear that with three steps which contains a the early European taste under it called mixture of Ionic and for civility and crepidoma Corinthian elements. entertainment showed in (Gonzalez-Longo,  Temples were built the architectural design 2009). on an elevated because of the need to  Temples are built plateau. expand living space to with vague  Temples had very allow for entertaining. entrances. definite entrances.  Statues are placed  Roman statues were in the cella, the placed in the center room of the temple of the temple. http://familytreetours.blogspot.c which no one was om/2010/06/buckeburg- allowed to enter. palace.html a

Asia: When observing Asian culture, one can compare it to Egyptian and European because they all add detail to show grandeur; however, they all express grandeur differently. Since the Tang Dynasty in the 600s, Asia’s biggest nation, China, has kept its architectural style largely constant, and has even influenced the architectural styles of Japan, Korea, Taiwan and Vietnam (Weston, 2002). Asia, as a continent, is geographically large, home to 1,400 different languages, contains 18 million square miles of land and has more than 30,000 islands. It is therefore hard to pinpoint one specific Asian architectural style. Yet even though it seems impossible to find a specific architectural detail that represents Asia’s unique population, Weston states http://www.lonelyplanet.com/maps/asia/ in his article “The Arts” that there are some similar features that architects can observe, regardless of the region they are in.

1. One key characteristic are Asia’s rooftops, which are flat, to emphasize the width of the building http://www.flickr.com/ rather than emphasize height with pointed roofs photos/j- fish/galleries/72157629 like Western roofs. All the roofs are made out of 557039891/ gables, similar to shingles. Interestingly, Asia follows a strict classification order, such as those in the Islamic Canon.

2. Asian architecture also stresses the importance of symmetry. Asian symmetry applies to all economic statuses, such as palaces and http://www.timeoutkl.c farmhouses; not just nobility. However, their om/travel/articles/Hav gardens are mostly asymmetrical to give the e-a-capital-time sense that one is walking through nature (as opposed to Europe’s freshly manicured, symmetrical gardens to show artistry) (Weston, 2002).

3. Observing a regions’ architecture can also help http://radio- weblogs.com/0119080/ one learn about the geographical area. Since Asia stories/2003/08/06/gal experiences many earthquakes, they build most of leryTheWorldToYour their buildings from wooden structures. Door.html

4. Just as the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans built large, elaborate buildings in honor of their royalty, http://blog.chinatraveld epot.com/2011/08/chin the Chinese also reserved certain architectural ese-architecture/ features for their Emperors. Color holds a lot of meaning in Asian culture and is used to show different status. a. The Emperor’s home had yellow roof tiles, because yellow is the Imperial color. b. Blue roofs were used for religious buildings http://www.dailytravelph because blue symbolized the sky, or otos.com/archive/2010/1 heavens. Wealthy, Imperial architecture 0/17/ also contains numerology, the use of numbers in construction.

5. The greatest number in Asia was nine, thus the reason why imperial city, The Forbidden City in Beijing, is believed to have 9,999.5 rooms.

http://danilovescats.wordpress.com/posts-2/beijing- dream-come-true-emporers-bedrooms/ 6. Even the placement of Asian buildings sheds light on their cultural beliefs. The East, the direction http://www.energyrefuge.com/b of the rising sun, was the direction most Imperial log/japan-considering-solar- buildings faced, as a form of solar worship found power-for-all-new-buildings/ in many ancient cultures, because Imperial rulers worshiped the sun (Weston, 2002).

http://www.researchhis tory.org/category/amer … Then, in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s, our America ican-flag/ nation’s capital, Washington D.C., designed the Capitol building and many monuments based on the After observing many cultures and their differences, Greek architecture. Just as Rome modeled their as well as similarities in architectural styles, one can architectural columns off of Greek’s columns, look at American architecture and see all the different political figures in America, such as Thomas architectural styles represented from different nations. Jefferson, also worked in architectural buildings America, or the melting pot, contains all types of modeled from Greece, yet lived in large, Federal nationalities and was created by immigrants from style homes, built similar to Roman style buildings other nations. Thus, these immigrants took their (Essential Architecture, 2004). home-architectural styles and implemented them in America. When the English came over, they built America has many architectural influences many of their Colonial homes with brick, because that from all different nations. However, the most was the common element of English buildings innovative architectural design, built originally in (Essential Architecture, 2004). When the Spanish America, is the skyscraper. In 1885, Chicago built explored the Southwest region of America in the the world’s first steel framed skyscraper. 1500’s, the Pueblo people built cubic homes from America’s quickly growing population also created adobe, known today as Pueblo Style homes. New the first suburbs, which emerged in San Jose, England styled homes became popular in the 18th California in 1944 (Essential Architecture, 2004). th Century when constructing plantations. In the 19 Century, many Cathedrals were architecturally influenced by the Medieval, Gothic era from Europe…

Throughout history, each nation has revealed individual taste through their architecture. “Until the invention of the printing press, architecture was the primary means of the expression and communication of the ideas, values, and beliefs of a culture.” (Hendrix, 2010). Hendrix’s quote makes it clear that just by observing different nations’ architecture, you can learn about their evolution as a country, their beliefs and values, economic statuses, and much more. Yet, after researching, it seems as though all nations get architectural ideas from one another and apply the styles to their own environment. However, each nation adds its own uniqueness to old designs, to create new ones. Thus, architects can learn many different things about a specific nation and its region just based on its architecture.

AllThe nations’ importance architectural of math designs, and though science different, in are centered around mathematics and science. The website Inspirationfeed explainsarchitecture that “Mathematics and architecture have always been close, not only because architecture depends on developments in mathematics, but also their shared search for order and beauty” (Tate, 2012).

http://www.universityvisitorsnet work.com/majors/Mathematics- and-Statistics Ancient Greek philosophers and mathematicians, the Pythagoreans, believed that “number took on a religious significance” and “all things are numbers” (O’Conner & Robertson, 2012). Therefore, mathematics was clearly heavily used in that time. Pythagoras applied mathematics to everything, particularly music. Because of his experiments with stretched strings on a music scale, he discovered the significance of dividing it into ratios determined by small integers. By dividing the ratios, harmonious sounds were created. This discovery “led to architects designing buildings using ratios of small integers. This led to the use of a module, a basic unit of length of the building, where the dimensions were now small integer http://www.storyofmathematics.co multiples of the basic length” (O’Conner & Robertson, 2012). m/greek_pythagoras.html

Geometry was also heavily used because geometry is the study of shapes and “shapes were determined by numbers”. But even more fascinating, Pythagoreans created the aesthetics of a building with proportion. They used symmetry to create beauty and harmony in their architecture. “The word symmetry comes from the Greek architectural term “symmetria” which indicated the repetition of shapes and ratios from the smallest parts of a building to the whole structure” (O’Conner & Robertson, 2012). http://whatisthepyramid.com http://www.synapsee.com/2009 /2009/08/08/the-cult-of- /06/04/greek-symmetry/ pythagoras/

Continuing through history: http://www.roxannea rdary.com/blog/castle  A mathematician from the Renaissance period, s-palaces- Bombelli, became an engineer and architect; he chateau/comment- applied both these skills in his work and his thorough page-1/ investigation of complex numbers.  Bramer followed in Bombelli’s footsteps and combined mathematical and architectural skills to construct fortifications and castles. Bramer also published a work on the calculation of sines, and in 1630 he constructed a mechanical device which enabled one to draw accurate geometric perspectives (such as a protractor or ruler) (O’Conner & Robertson, 2012). http://www.stlclacademy.or g/students/studentsovervie w.html  O’Conner and Robertson make it clear that throughout the early history of architecture, mathematics, science and architecture played a large role together. However, they also explain that in the 19th century, people began to separate scientific and artistic notions. Though the connections between mathematics and architecture did not vanish during this time, people just mentally separated these aspects. “Scientific and artistic aspects were seen as complementary skills not to be found in the same person” (O’Conner & Robertson, 2012). This was much different than the classical view that great mathematicians were great artists, such as Di Vinci.

Architecture Today

As we move towards the present day, people are beginning to see that mathematics and science, as well as technology and engineering, go hand-in-hand with the application of architecture. The 21st century company, Nexus, has a philosophy centered around determining mathematical connections in architecture (since the definition of nexus is “connections”). Specifically, the Nexus Design Company dedicates its time to “problem seeking and problem solving” (Nexus, 2012). Their large, diverse firm is able to collaboratively put together creative design solutions to create strong buildings. Constructing a building is not the only thing architects need to consider. Along with creating the blueprint, Nexus explains that architects need to consider building “sustainability, landscape design, and interior design” as well as research “the latest technologies [to] sensibly adapt into our projects” (Nexus, 2012). To help bring the architects creative, mathematic based ideas, to life, a civil engineer needs to bring http://math- science into play. A civil engineer’s job is to determine if the area where sciences.tripod.com/math.htm the architect wants to build can support buildings, as well as research the history of the land to see if erosion, earthquakes, or other natural disasters are common in the area. Without a civil engineer’s pragmatic thinking and science background to help advise the architect, buildings would not be as structurally sound as they are now. http://engg.pcabout.com/civil- engineering/

Civil Engineers are not the only people who work alongside architects. Many other jobs need to have architectural backgrounds: It is vital for STEM to be integrated in education with real  Landscape Architecture world applications so our future can be prepared. Based  Carpentry on the list to the right, such integrations will not only  Industrial Design prepare students to become architects, but will help create  Interior Design the foundation for many job avenues. Administrators  Building/Private home Inspection who don’t know how this could be done in schools, here  Renovation are just a few subjects that would benefit from real world  Historic preservation application in architecture:  Technical architecture  Algebra  Physics  Construction worker  Geometry  Calculus  Proportions  Art/Drawing  Ratios  Computer Graphics

The Future in Architecture Currently, architects and engineers are collaborating like never before. The journal, “Nexus Network Journal, 2011” explains that these professions will now need to be knowledgeable in computer technology as well. An important, up and coming program called CAAD (computer-aided architectural design), is a powerful tool for architects to use that will allow them to “manipulate geometric and algebraic formulas, recursions, random functions, statistics, splines, the fourth dimension and other complex mathematical concepts” (Williams, 2006). Through CAAD, the science of computer technology will allow architects to shift from paper and pencil blueprints to computer generated ones. A huge shift in the 21st Century has been towards constructing ecofriendly, energy sufficient homes. The U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reported that “in coming years, Building Sector energy consumption will grow faster than that of industry and transportation. Between 2010 and 2030…total Building Sector energy consumption will increase by 5.85 QBtu…1 QBtu is equal to the delivered energy of 37 1000-MW nuclear power http://www.universityvisitor snetwork.com/majors/Archit plants” (Architecture 2030, 2011). Architecture 2030’s website explains that a ecture&page=3 2030 Challenge has been created that provides strict, ecofriendly guidelines for builders to follow. In 2007, the Senate and the House of Representatives made the Energy Independence and Security Act a law that required all “new federal buildings and major renovations to meet the energy performance standards of the 2030 Challenge beginning in 2010” (Architecture, 2030, 2011). Architecture 2030 provides a diagram of what the 2030 Challenge expects energy consumption to look like by 2030:

http://architecture2030.org/the_ solution/solution_energy

Architects, engineers, urban engineers, and others in the field need to adopt the 2030 Challenge and to do this, they need to be good problem solvers. One major problem addressed in the 2030 Challenge is how to provide electricity for buildings without burning fossil fuel. Architecture 2030 states that “In 2010, 75.5% of all electricity produced at power plats in the U.S. was used to just operate buildings” (Architecture 2030, 2011). Too much fossil fuel emission over the years has put a huge strain on our earth’s climate, and has even been a huge factor in climate change. Therefore, it will not only be important for architects to keep this in mind when creating a floor plan, but in the upcoming years, it will be mandatory to build solely carbon-neutral buildings. To start this in the future, architects can look at current examples. The first carbon-neutral home was completed in September 2012 in D.C. It met the carbon-neutral classifications, as well as other standards being pushed for future use, because it had cutting-edge mechanical systems including:

 Ground source heating and cooling  Solar hot water  LED lights  Energy Star appliances to produce a home that will use 60-80% less energy  Local utility providers provide the rest of the homes “clean” power  Ethanol fireplace

Homes, such as the one built in D.C., will act as the forerunners for our

future sustainable and environmentally integrated buildings! http://dc.urbanturf.com/article s/blog/dcs_first_carbon_neutra l_home_hits_the_market/1652

Throughout the millions of years that humans have been on this earth, our ways of living have drastically changed. This change can be observed in the evolution of each nation’s architectural designs. Though some cultures are more minimalists and others value intricacy, each nation’s architectural tools have been able to evolve to help create more stable, economically secure buildings. It is important for a society to understand the similarities as well as staunch differences in every countries building configurations. Though there are many visible differences, every architect, no matter where in the world, must use mathematics and science (and in today’s leading countries, technology) to create such aesthetically pleasing buildings.

http://www.turbosquid.com/3d- http://www.turbosquid.com/3d- http://arifkhan1.blogspot.com/ models/future-buildings- models/future-buildings- 3ds/363510 3ds/363510

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