Two Spheres: Mao and the Market in Chinese Architecture (1990-) Jiawen Han A thesis in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Australian School of Architecture and Design Faculty of the Built Environment August 2014 ABSTRACT Mao and the market, meaning the centralised state and the market, as expanded by Robin Porter, is the broad subject of this thesis. The aim of this study is to examine how changes in the social-political system, the residual influence of Mao, and the acceptance of the market, have changed Chinese architecture over recent time. The process from Mao to market currently cannot be easily situated within any overarching theory, nor is it a linear and systematic transition, but it has far reaching effects on every corner of China, every Chinese social group, from bureaucratic agendas to personal motives. Looking at the architecture from this perspective provides a strategy, a fresh way of reading architecture and architects, and a solid way of framing them under the uncertain nature of the socialist transition. This research re-examines the new wave of innovative architecture through three case studies of Liu Jiakun, Cui Kai, URBANUS and their designs in the context of a longer vision and a broader perspective, extending the research to an ideological level. The market, the West, the East, the state, the architect – all these elements are decisive factors in shaping contemporary architecture, but they make different contributions in different cases, and, more significantly, they affect architectural design at different points in time under different versions of socialism. In other words, the intricate details of the historical pressures and practical approaches have been clarified through case studies. Regarding the actual architectural works, this research identifies factors that distinguish the designs of the subject architects from the majority of architecture in China today: they and their works transgressed the conventional imagining of modernity, which represented the homogenous dreams of the metropolis, regardless of specific social conditions. Liu Jiakun, Cui Kai and URBANUS are consciously or unconsciously facing the real socio-political challenges and the i socio-economic problems of Chinese society from Mao to market. Simultaneously they also enrich the architectural language in the boundaries between this imagined modernity and the actual socio-political environment. Each of these architects, it is argued, has evolved a mediated codified language for bureaucratic communication with the state, and a communicative mode with Chinese residents who are eager for the new world. Cui Kai’s designs provide an acceptable way of mediating people’s disquiet with the status quo by operating within the official institutes. Architecture designed by Liu Jiakun becomes a psychological medium to provoke Chinese people to confront pre-reform history, and also a medium to reconcile the different cognitions of Mao and his era between the pre-reform China and China’s enthusiasm for market driven capitalism now. URBANUS’s urban strategies highlight the ideological shifts between the private and public sectors and attempt to resolve the concurrent conflict as an idiosyncratic private/public halfway position between a planned and a market economy in the city. Thus the thesis argues that, for the architects considered, their manipulations of the changing relationships between market and the state in China are in fact the sources of their architectural innovations. The mix of “Mao” and the “Market” has created a modern Chinese vernacular that has been true both in the sense of complying with the demands of the state, and also deeply rooted in the nature of the capitalist market. The tense dialogue between neo-liberal logic and socialist sovereignty is reconfiguring contemporary China, and furthermore reconfiguring China’s contemporary architecture, all of which contribute to the idea that the innovation and uniqueness of contemporary architectural design is not driven solely by the state, nor by the market, but rests with the struggle between the state and the market. ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS During the final stage of writing my thesis, I came across a song titled “Better Me,” originally recorded by a young singer, Fiona Sit, which struck me while I reflected my time in Australia. In the completion of this thesis, I owe my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Associate Professor Harry Margalit, for his rigorous intellectual guidance and continual encouragement, both of which supported me in becoming a “better me.” Though I am imperfect, I can always see a “better me” in his eyes and hear it in his words—so much so that it is difficult to count the changes he has gifted me. He has not only brought unique perspectives to see architecture, as well as ability in conducting research and skills with resolving problems, but also taught me to bear a sunny heart on any intellectual journey. Our countless chats have always been enjoyable and, interestingly enough, turned out to be useful, for most of my ideas emerged from our chats and were later developed in my writing. His extensive comments on my drafts also helped my ideas to finally come out of their shells. I am also quite fortunate to have had Professor Xing Ruan as my co-supervisor, who significantly impacted the development of this thesis. I was impressed with his scholarship, his personality, and his attitude toward research. There is a Chinese idiom, “Ju zhong ruo qing” which is the best way I know to describe his character. I have always sought to learn the confidence and grace of traditional Chinese intellectuals from him, and I hope that I have somehow merited a little bit of that. There has been a hidden supervisor of this thesis, my mother Wang Bing, who shared her experiences, thoughts, and feelings of both Maoist and contemporary China with me, which were always different from my assumptions, and have inspired me to think more. She has been a third voice in shaping my arguments. At the same time, my father, Han Yanduo, has been unconditionally supporting iii me in a fatherly way: You are not good at expressing your feelings, but I understood them all, dad. I know that the trouble I caused when I rebelled seriously hurt and disappointed my parents, and I hope that at this moment they are proud of me. I also owe personal debts of gratitude to my parents-in-law, Lun Qiang and Jiang Li, for their constant encouragement and emotional support. A most special thanks is due to my dear husband, Lun Jiyun. He is a practicing architect, yet has held a very respectful attitude toward my research. He has listened to me and pointed out my moments of error as well as my moments of excellence. It is a great man who can let his girl’s soul fly freely, something not every man can achieve, but you let me spread my wings. His decisiveness, rational thought, and everlasting support have been the most robust supports of my life. I am also grateful to the University of New South Wales for offering me a full scholarship and additional funding during my doctoral study, which have given me the financial support needed to focus on my research. I am also very fortunate to have many friends in Australia. In particular, I would like to thank Mengyu Huang, Annie Yuxuan Xu, Steven Chang, Nicole MaNamara, Yolanda Tobing, Laura Goh, Sarah Judd, Anumitra Mirti, John Blair, and Samira ALp. I also would like to say thank you to an architect, Liu Jiakun. The extensive discussions and chats with him allowed me to find myself more: I have finally realised that what I am keen to find and what stirs my heart are still something genuine and real. Though I have matured while writing my thesis, I have realised that being mature is not to give up anything sincere; being mature is being calm and smiling slightly at that which is fake—just as how he treats architecture. Years may wrinkle my skin; I hope it will not wrinkle my soul, nor the souls of all of the people I love. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ……………………………………………………………………………………..iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ………………………………………………………………………………………….v LIST OF FIGURES……………..……………………………………………………………………….…………ix CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION……………………………………………..................….….……1 1.1 Misconceptions Regarding the Transition Era………………………………….4 Is Money the Only Language? …………………………………………………………..5 Has China Forgotten Mao? ……………………………………………………………….9 Do People Just Want to Be the Individuated Self……………………………..10 Clearing the Path for Research in Chinese Architecture..................... 14 1.2 Understanding Resistance………………………………………………………………16 Overcoming the Urban Research………………………………………….………….16 Review of the Literature on Modern Chinese Architecture…………..…22 1.3 The Betweenness: Architect and Architecture……………………………….33 Research Aims and Questions………………………………………………………….33 Research Methodology…………………………………………………………..……….36 Organization…………………………………………………………..……………………….39 CHAPTER TWO: ON PROCESS AND CONTEXT………………………………………..……….47 2.1 The Connection with the Past………………………………………..……………….52 1840-1949: Unforgotten History………………………………………..……..…….52 1949-1976: Mao’s Influence on Architecture………………………………….57 1976 onwards: Influences of the Market on Architecture………….…….63 2.2 What Drives Post-Mao Architecture? 1990 onwards……………….…….68 Three Historical Periods Driven by Imagining Modernity ………….……70 v A Crisis of Identity………………………………………..………………………………….72 The New-Wave Architecture………………………..………………………………….74