Appendix I The Covenant of the League of Nations*
The High Contracting Parties In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve interna tional peace and security
by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war, by the prescription of open, just and honourable relations between na tions, by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organised peoples with one another, Agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.
Article 1
I. The original Members of the League of Nations shall be those of the Signatories which are named in the Annex to this Covenant and also such of those other States named in the Annex as shall accede without reserva tion to this Covenant. Such accession shall be effected by a Declaration deposited with the Secretariat within two months of the coming into force of the Covenant. Notice thereof shall be sent to all other Members of the League. 2. Any fully self-governing State, Dominion or Colony not named in the Annex may become a Member of the League if its admission is agreed to by two-thirds of the Assembly, provided that it shall give effective guarantees of its sincere intention to observe its international obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be prescribed by the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and armaments. 3. Any Member of the League may, after two years' notice of its
* The texts printed in italics indicate amendments adopted by the League.
254 The Covenant of the League of Nations 255 intention so to do, withdraw from the League, provided that all its interna tional obligations and all its obligations under this Covenant shall have been fulfilled at the time of its withdrawal.
Article 2
The action of the League under this Covenant shall be effected through the instrumentality of an Assembly and of a Council, with a permanent Secretariat.
Article 3
1. The Assembly shall consist of Representatives of the Members of the League. 2. The Assembly shall meet at stated intervals and from time to time as occasion may require at the Seat of the League or at such other place as may be decided upon. 3. The Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. 4. At meetings of the Assembly, each Member of the League shall have one vote, and may have not more than three Representatives.
Article 4
1. The Council shall consist of Representatives of the Principal Allied and Associated Powers, together with Representatives of four other Mem bers of the League. These four Members of the League shall be selected by the Assembly from time to time in its discretion. Until the appointment of the Representatives of the four Members of the League first selected by the Assembly, Representatives of Belgium, Brazil, Spain and Greece shall be members of the Council. 2. With the approval of the majority of the Assembly, the Council may name additional Members of the League whose Representatives shall al ways be Members of the Council; the Council with like approval may increase the number of Members of the League to be selected by the Assembly for representation on the Council. 2. bis. The Assembly shall fix by a two-thirds majority the rules dealing with the election of the non-permanent Members of the Council, and par- 256 Appendix I
ticularly such regulations as relate to their term ofoffice and the conditions of re-eligibility. 3. The Council shall meet from time to time as occasion may require, and at least once a year, at the Seat of the League, or at such other place as may be decided upon. 4. The Council may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League or affecting the peace of the world. 5. Any Member of the League not represented on the Council shall be invited to send a Representative to sit as a member at any meeting of the Council during the consideration of matters specially affecting the interests of that Member of the League. 6. At meetings of the Council, each Member of the League represented on the Council shall have one vote, and may have not more than one Representative.
Article 5
1. Except where otherwise expressly provided in this Covenant or by the terms of the present Treaty, decisions at any meeting of the Assembly or of the Council shall require the agreement of all the Members of the League represented at the meeting. 2. All matters of procedure at meetings of the Assembly or of the Council, including the appointment of Committees to investigate particular matters, shall be regulated by the Assembly or by the Council and may be decided by a majority of the Members of the League represented at the meeting. 3. The first meeting of the Assembly and the first meeting of the Council shall be summoned by the President of the United States of America.
Article 6
I. The permanent Secretariat shall be established at the Seat of the League. The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such secre taries and staff as may be required. 2. The first Secretary-General shall be the person named in the Annex; thereafter the Secretary-General shall be appointed by the Council with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. 3. The secretaries and staff of the Secretariat shall be appointed by the Secretary-General with the approval of the Council. The Covenant of the League of Nations 257
4. The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity at all meetings of the Assembly and of the Council. 5. The expenses of the League shall be borne by the Members of the League in the proportion decided by the Assembly.
Article 7
1. The Seat of the League is established at Geneva. 2. The Council may at any time decide that the Seat of the League shall be established elsewhere. 3. All positions under or in connection with the League, including the Secretariat, shall be open equally to men and women. 4. Representatives of the Members of the League and officials of the League when engaged on the business of the League shall enjoy diplomatic privileges and immunities. 5. The buildings and other property occupied by the League or its officials or by Representatives attending its meetings shall be inviolable.
Article 8
1. The Members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations. 2. The Council, taking account of the geographical situation and cir cumstances of each State, shall formulate plans for such reduction for the consideration and action of the several Governments. 3. Such plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least every ten years. 4. After these plans have been adopted by the several Governments, the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be exceeded without the concur rence of the Council. 5. The Members of the League agree that the manufacture by private enterprise of munitions and implements of war is open to grave objections. The Council shall advise how the evil effects attendant upon such manufac ture can be prevented, due regard being had to the necessities of those Members of the League which are not able to manufacture the munitions and implements of war necessary for their safety. 6. The Members of the League undertake to interchange full and frank 258 Appendix I information as to the scale of their armaments, their military, naval and air programmes and the condition of such of their industries as are adaptable to warlike purposes.
Article 9
A permanent Commission shall be constituted to advise the Council on the execution of the provisions of Articles I and 8 and on military, naval and air questions generally.
Article 10
The Members of the League undertake to respect and preserve as against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independ ence of all Members of the League. In case of any such aggression or in case of any threat or danger of such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the means by which this obligation shall be fulfilled.
Article 11
I. Any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the Members of the League or not, is hereby declared a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations. In case any emergency should arise, the Secretary-General shall, on the request of any Member of the League, forthwith summon a meeting of the Council. 2. It is also declared to be the friendly right of each Member of the League to bring to the attention of the Assembly or of the Council any circumstance whatever affecting international relations which threatens to disturb international peace or the good understanding between nations upon which peace depends.
Article 12
I. The Members of the League agree that if there should arise between them any dispute likely to lead to a rupture they will submit the matter either to arbitration or judicial settlement or to enquiry by the Council, and The Covenant of the League of Nations 259 they agree in no case to resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the judicial decision or the report by the Council. 2. In any case under this article the award of the arbitrators or the judicial decision shall be made within a reasonable time, and the report of the Council shall be made within six months after the submission of the dispute.
Article 13
1. The Members of the League agree that whenever any dispute shall arise between them which they recognise to be suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement, and which cannot be satisfactorily settled by diplomacy, they will submit the whole subject-matter to arbitration or judicial settlement. 2. Disputes as to the interpretation of a treaty, as to any question of international law, as to the existence of any fact which, if established, would constitute a breach of any international obligation, or as to the extent and nature of the reparation to be made for any such breach, are declared to be among those which are generally suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement. 3. For the consideration of any such dispute, the court to which the case is referred shall be the Permanent Court of International Justice, established in accordance with Article 14, or any tribunal agreed on by the parties to the dispute or stipulated in any Convention existing between them. 4. The Members of the League agree that they will carry out in full good faith any award or decision that may be rendered, and that they will not resort to war against a Member of the League which complies therewith. In the event of any failure to carry out such an award or decision, the Council shall propose what steps should be taken to give effect thereto.
Article 14
The Council shall formulate and submit to the Members of the League for adoption plans for the establishment of a Permanent Court of Interna tional Justice. The Court shall be competent to hear and determine any dispute of an international character which the parties thereto submit to it. The Court may also give an advisory opinion upon any dispute or question referred to it by the Council or by the Assembly. 260 Appendix I
Article 15
1. If there should arise between Members of the League any dispute likely to lead to a rupture, which is not submitted to arbitration or judicial settlement in accordance with Article 13, the Members of the League agree that they will submit the matter to the Council. Any party to the dispute may effect such submission by giving notice of the existence of the dispute to the Secretary-General, who will make all necessary arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof. 2. For this purpose, the parties to the dispute will communicate to the Secretary-General, as promptly as possible, statements of their case with all the relevant facts and papers, and the Council may forthwith direct the publication thereof. 3. The Council shall endeavour to effect a settlement of the dispute, and if such efforts are successful, a statement shall be made public giving such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of settle ment thereof as the Council may deem appropriate. 4. If the dispute is not thus settled, the Council either unanimously or by a majority vote shall make and publish a report containing a statement of the facts of the dispute and the recommendations which are deemed just and proper in regard thereto. 5. Any Member of the League represented on the Council may make public a statement of the facts of the dispute and of its conclusions regard ing the same. 6. If a report by the Council is unanimously agreed to by the mem bers thereof other than the Representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the Members of the League agree that they will not go to war with any party to the dispute which complies with the recommendations of the report. 7. lfthe Council fails to reach a report which is unanimously agreed to by the members thereof, other than the Representatives of one or more of the parties to the dispute, the Members of the League reserve to themselves the right to take such action as they shall consider necessary for the main tenance of right and justice. 8. If the dispute between the parties is claimed by one of them, and is found by the Council, to arise out of a matter which by international law is solely within the domestic jurisdiction of that party, the Council shall so report, and shall make no recommendation as to its settlement. 9. The Council may in any case under this article refer the dispute to the Assembly. The dispute shall be so referred at the request of either party The Covenant of the League of Nations 261 to the dispute provided that such request be made within fourteen days after the submission of the dispute to the Council. 10. In any case referred to the Assembly, all the provisions of this article and of Article 12 relating to the action and powers of the Council shall apply to the action and powers of the Assembly, provided that a report made by the Assembly, if concurred in by the Representatives of those Members of the League represented on the Council and of a majority of the other Members of the League, exclusive in each case of the Representatives of the parties to the dispute, shall have the same force as a report by the Council concurred in by all the members thereof other than the Representa tives of one or more of the parties to the dispute.
Article 16
1. Should any Member of the League resort to war in disregard of its covenants under Articles 12, 13 or 15, it shall, ipso facto, be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other Members of the League, which hereby undertake immediately to subject it to the severance of all trade or financial relations, the prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and the nationals of the Covenant-breaking State, and the prevention of an financial, commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the Covenant-breaking State and the nationals of any other State, whether a Member of the League or not. 2. It shall be the duty of the Council in such case to recommend to the several Governments concerned what effective military, naval or air force the Members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the covenants of the League. 3. The Members of the League agree, further, that they will mutually support one another in the financial and economic measures which are taken under this article, in order to minimise the loss and inconvenience resulting from the above measures, and that they will mutually support one another in resisting any special measures aimed at one of their number by the Covenant-breaking State, and that they will take the necessary steps to afford passage through their territory to the forces of any of the Members of the League which are co-operating to protect the covenants of the League. 4. Any member of the League which has violated any covenant of the League may be declared to be no longer a Member of the League by a vote of the Council concurred in by the Representatives of all the other Members of the League represented thereon. 262 Appendix I
Article 17
I. In the event of a dispute between a Member of the League and a State which is not a member of the League or between States not members of the League, the State or States not members of the League shall be invited to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, upon such conditions as the Council may deem just. If such invita tion is accepted, the provisions of Articles 12 to 16 inclusive shall be applied with such modifications as may be deemed necessary by the Coun cil. 2. Upon such invitation being given, the Council shall immediately institute an enquiry into the circumstances of the dispute and recommend such action as may seem best and most effectual in the circumstances. 3. If a State so invited shall refuse to accept the obligations of member ship in the League for the purposes of such dispute, and shall resort to war against a Member of the League, the provisions of Article 16 shall be applicable as against the State taking such action. 4. If both parties to the dispute when so invited refuse to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, the Council may take such measures and make such recommendations as will prevent hostilities and will result in the settlement of the dispute.
Article 18
Every treaty or international engagement entered into hereafter by any Member of the League shall be forthwith registered with the Secretariat and shall, as soon as possible, be published by it. No such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until so registered.
Article 19
The Assembly may from time to time advise the reconsideration by Members of the League of treaties which have become inapplicable and the consideration of international conditions whose continuance might endan ger the peace of the world. The Covenant of the League of Nations 263
Article 20
l. The Members of the League severally agree that this Covenant is accepted as abrogating all obligations or undertakings inter se which are inconsistent with the terms thereof, and solemnly undertake that they will not hereafter enter into any engagements inconsistent with the terms thereof. 2. In case any Member of the League shall, before becoming a Member of the League, have undertaken any obligations inconsistent with the terms of this Covenant, it shall be the duty of such Member to take immediate steps to procure its release from such obligations.
Article 21
Nothing in this Covenant shall be deemed to affect the validity of international engagements, such as treaties of arbitration or regional understandings like the Monroe doctrine, for securing the maintenance of peace.
Article 22
1. To those colonies and territories which as a consequence of the late war have ceased to be under the sovereignty of the States which formerly governed them and which are inhabited by peoples not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the modem world, there should be applied the principle that the well-being and development of such peoples form a sacred trust of civilisation and that securities for the per formance of this trust should be embodied in this Covenant. 2. The best method of giving practical effect to this principle is that the tutelage of such peoples should be entrusted to advanced nations who, by reason of their resources, their experience or their geographical position, can best undertake this responsibility, and who are willing to accept it, and that this tutelage should be exercised by them as Mandatories on behalf of the League. 3. The character of the mandate must differ according to the stage of the development of the people, the geographical situation of the territory, its economic conditions and other similar circumstances. 4. Certain communities formerly belonging to the Turkish Empire have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent na tions can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administra- 264 Appendix I
tive advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory. 5. Other peoples, especially those of Central Africa, are at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the terri tory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportuni ties for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League. 6. There are territorities, such as South West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circum stances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population. 7. In every case of mandate, the Mandatory shall render to the Council an annual report in reference to the territory committed to its charge. 8. The degree of authority, control or administration to be exercised by the Mandatory shall, if not previously agreed upon by the Members of the League, be explicitly defined in each case by the Council. 9. A permanent Commission shall be constituted to receive and exam ine the annual reports of the Mandatories and to advise the Council on all matters relating to the observance of the mandates.
Article 23
Subject to and in accordance with the provisions of international Con ventions existing or hereafter to be agreed upon, the Members of the League:
(a) will endeavour to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour for men, women and children, both in their own countries and in all countries to which their commercial and industrial relations extend, and for that purpose will establish and maintain the necessary international organi sations; The Covenant of the League of Nations 265
(b) undertake to secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of terri tories under their control; (c) will entrust the League with the general supervision over the execu tion of agreements with regard to the traffic in women and children, and the traffic in opium and other dangerous drugs; (d) will entrust the League with the general supervision of the trade in arms and ammunition with the countries in which the control of this traffic is necessary in the common interest; (e) will make provision to secure and maintain freedom of communica tions and of transit and equitable treatment for the commerce of all Mem bers of the League. In this connection, the special necessities of the regions devastated during the war of 1914-1918 shall be borne in mind; (j) will endeavour to take steps in matters of international concern for the prevention and control of disease.
Article 24
1. There shall be placed under the direction of the League all interna tional bureaux already established by general treaties if the parties to such treaties consent. All such international bureaux and all commissions for the regulation of matters of international interest hereafter constituted shall be placed under the direction of the League. 2. In all matters of international interest which are regulated by general Conventions but which are not placed under the control of international bureaux or commissions, the Secretariat of the League shall, subject to the consent of the Council and if desired by the parties, Follect and distribute all relevant information and shall render any other assistance which may be necessary or desirable. 3. The Council may include as part of the expenses of the Secretariat the expenses of any bureau or commission which is placed under the direction of the League.
Article 25
The Members of the League agree to encourage and promote the estab lishment and co-operation of duly authorised voluntary national Red Cross organisations having as purposes the improvement of health, the prevention of disease and the mitigation of suffering throughout the world. 266 Appendix I
Article 26
1. Amendments to this Covenant will take effect when ratified by the Members of the League whose Representatives compose the Assembly. 2. No such amendments shall bind any Member of the League which signifies its dissent therefrom, but in that case it shall cease to be a Member of the League. Appendix II The Charter of the United Nations
NoTE: The Charter of the United Nations was signed on 26 June 1945, in San Francisco, at the conclusion of the United Nations Conference on International Organization, and came into force on 24 October 1945. The Statute of the International Court of Justice is an integral part of the Charter. Amendments to Articles 23, 27 and 61 of the Charter were adopted by the General Assembly on 17 December 1963 and came into force on 31 August 1965. A further amendment to Article 61 was adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 1971, and came into force on 24 September 1973. An amendment to Article 109, adopted by the General Assembly on 20 December 1965, came into force on 12 June 1968. The amendment to Article 23 enlarges the membership of the Security Council from 11 to 15. The amended Article 27 provides that decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members (formerly seven) and on all other matters by an affirmative vote of nine members (formerly seven), including the concur ring votes of the five permanent members of the Security Council. The amendment to Article 61, which entered into force on 31 August 1965, enlarged the membership of the Economic and Social Council from 18 to 27. The subsequent amendment to that Article, which entered into force on 24 September 1973, further increased the membership of the Council from 27 to 54. The amendment to Article 109, which relates to the first paragraph of that Article, provides that a General Conference of Member States for the purpose of reviewing the Charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any nine members (formerly seven) of the Security Council. Paragraph 3 of Article 109, which deals with the consideration of a possible review conference during the tenth regular session of the General Assembly, has been retained in its original form in its reference to a 'vote of any seven members of the Security Council', the paragraph having been acted upon in 1955 by the General Assembly, at its tenth regular session, and by the Security Council.
267 268 Appendix II
WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war, which twice in our lifetime has brought untold sorrow to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person, in the equal rights of men and women and of nations large and small, and to establish conditions under which justice and respect for the obligations arising from treaties and other sources of international law can be main tained, and to promote social progress and better standards of life in larger freedom,
AND FOR THESE ENDS to practice tolerance and live together in peace with one another as good neighbours, and to unite our strength to maintain international peace and security, and to ensure, by the acceptance of principles and the institution of methods, that armed force shall not be used, save in the common interest, and to employ international machinery for the promotion of the economic and social advancement of all peoples,
HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TO ACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS Accordingly, our respective Governments, through representatives assem bled in the city of San Francisco, who have exhibited their full powers found to be in good and due form, have agreed to the present Charter of the United Nations and do hereby establish an international organization to be known as the United Nations. The Charter of the United Nations 269
Chapter I PURPOSES AND PRINCIPLES
Article 1
The Purposes of the United Nations are:
1. To maintain international peace and security, and to that end: to take effective collective measures for the prevention and removal of threats to the peace, and for the suppression of acts of aggression or other breaches of the peace, and to bring about by peaceful means, and in conformity with the principles of justice and international law, adjustment or settlement of international disputes or situations which might lead to a breach of the peace; 2. To develop friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, and to take other appropriate measures to strengthen universal peace; 3. To achieve international co-operation in solving international prob lems of an economic, social, cultural, or humanitarian character, and in promoting and encouraging respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion; and 4. To be a centre for harmonizing the actions of nations in the attain ment of these common ends.
Article 2
The Organization and its Members, in pursuit of the Purposes stated in Article I, shall act in accordance with the following Principles.
I. The Organization is based on the principle of the sovereign equality of all its Members. 2. All Members, in order to ensure to all of them the rights and benefits resulting from membership, shall fulfil in good faith the obligations as sumed by them in accordance with the present Charter. 3. All Members shall settle their international disputes by peaceful means in such a manner that international peace and security, and justice, are not endangered. 270 Appendix II
4. All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independ ence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations. 5. All Members shall give the United Nations every assistance in any action it takes in accordance with the present Charter, and shall refrain from giving assistance to any state against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. 6. The Organization shall ensure that states which are not Members of the United Nations act in accordance with these Principles so far as may be necessary for the maintenance of international peace and security. 7. Nothing contained in the present Charter shall authorize the United Nations to intervene in matters which are essentially within the domestic jurisdiction of any state or shall require the Members to submit such matters to settlement under the present Charter; but this principle shall not prejudice the application of enforcement measures under Chapter VII.
Chapter II MEMBERSHIP
Article 3
The original Members of the United Nations shall be the states which, having participated in the United Nations Conference on International Or ganization at San Francisco, or having previously signed the Declaration by United Nations of 1 January 1942, sign the present Charter and ratify it in accordance with Article 110.
Article 4
1. Membership in the United Nations is open to all other peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judgment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership in the United Na tions will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The Charter of the United Nations 271
Article 5
A Member of the United Nations against which preventive or enforcement action has been taken by the Security Council may be suspended from the exercise of the rights and privileges of membership by the General Assem bly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. The exercise of these rights and privileges may be restored by the Security Council.
Article 6
A Member of the United Nations which has persistently violated the Prin ciples contained in the present Charter may be expelled from the Organiza tion by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council.
Chapter III ORGANS
Article 7
I. There are established as the principle organs of the United Nations: a General Assembly, a Security Council, an Economic and Social Council, a Trusteeship Council, an International Court of Justice, and a Secretariat. 2. Such subsidiary organs as may be found necessary may be estab lished in accordance with the present Charter.
Article 8
The United Nations shall place no restrictions on the eligibility of men and women to participate in any capacity and under conditions of equality in its principal and subsidiary organs. 272 Appendix II
Chapter IV THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY
Composition
Article 9
1. The General Assembly shall consist of all the Members of the United Nations. 2. Each Member shall have not more than five representatives in the General Assembly.
Functions and powers
Article 10
The General Assembly may discuss any questions or any matters within the scope of the present Charter or relating to the powers and functions of any organs provided for in the present Charter and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommendations to the Members of the United Nations or to the Security Council or to both on any such questions or matters.
Article 11
I. The General Assembly may consider the general principles of co operation in the maintenance of international peace and security, including the principles governing disarmament and the regulation of armaments, and may make recommendations with regard to such principles to the Members or to the Security Council or to both. 2. The General Assembly may discuss any questions relating to the maintenance of international peace and security brought before it by any Member of the United Nations, or by the Security Council, or by a state which is not a Member of the United Nations in accordance with Article 35, paragraph 2, and, except as provided in Article 12, may make recommenda tions with regard to any such questions to the state or states concerned or to the Security Council or to both. Any such question to which action is The Charter of the United Nations 273 necessary shall be referred to the Security Council by the General Assembly either before or after discussion. 3. The General Assembly may call the attention of the Security Council to situations which are likely to endanger international peace and security. 4. The powers of the General Assembly set forth in this Article shall not limit the general scope of Article 10.
Article 12
1. While the Security Council is exercising in respect of any dispute or situation the functions assigned to it in the present Charter, the General Assembly shall not make any recommendation with regard to that dispute or situation unless the Security Council so requests. 2. The Secretary-General, with the consent of the Security Council, shall notify the General Assembly at each session of any matters relative to the maintenance of international peace and security which are being dealt with by the Security Council and shall similarly notify the General Assem bly, or the Members of the United Nations if the General Assembly is not in session, immediately the Security Council ceases to deal with such matters.
Article 13
1. The General Assembly shall initiate studies and make recommenda tions for the purpose of:
(a) promoting international cooperation in the political field and encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codification; (b) promoting international cooperation in the economic, social, cultural, educational, and health fields, and assisting in the reali zation of human rights and fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
2. The further responsibilities, functions and powers of the General Assembly with respect to matters mentioned in paragraph 1(b) above are set forth in Chapters IX and X. 274 Appendix ll
Article 14
Subject to the provisions of Article I2, the General Assembly may recom mend measures for the peaceful adjustment of any situation, regardless of origin, which it deems likely to impair the general welfare or friendly relations among nations, including situations resulting from a violation of the provisions of the present Charter setting forth the Purposes and Princi ples of the United Nations.
Article 15
I. The General Assembly shall receive and consider annual and special reports from the Security Council; these reports shall include an account of the measures that the Security Council has decided upon or taken to main tain international peace and security. 2. The General Assembly shall receive and consider reports from the other organs of the United Nations.
Article 16
The General Assembly shall perform such functions with respect to the international trusteeship system as are assigned to it under Chapters XII and XIII, including the approval of the truste.eship agreements for areas not designated as strategic.
Article 17
I. The General Assembly shall consider and approve the budget of the Organization. 2. The expenses of the Organization shall be borne by the Members as apportioned by the General Assembly. 3. The General Assembly shall consider and approve any financial and budgetary arrangements with specialized agencies referred to in Article 57 and shall examine the administrative budgets of such specialized agencies with a view to making recommendations to the agencies concerned. The Charter of the United Nations 275
Voting
Article 18
1. Each member of the General Assembly shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the General Assembly on important questions shall be made by a two-thirds majority of the members present and voting. These questions shall include: recommendations with respect to the maintenance of international peace and security, the election of the non-permanent members of the Security Council, the election of the members of the Economic and Social Council, the election of members of the Trusteeship Council in accordance with paragraph l(c) of Article 86, the admission of new Members to the United Nations, the suspension of the rights and privileges of membership, the expulsion of Members, questions relating to the operation of the trusteeship system, and budgetary questions. 3. Decisions on other questions, including the determination of addi tional categories of questions to be decided by a two-thirds majority, shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.
Article 19
A Member of the United Nations which is in arrears in the payment of its financial contributions to the Organization shall have no vote in the General Assembly if the amount of its arrears equals or exceeds the amount of the contributions due from it for the preceding two full years. The General Assembly may, nevertheless, permit such a Member to vote if it is satisfied that the failure to pay is due to conditions beyond the control of the Member.
Procedure
Article 20
The General Assembly shall meet in regular annual sessions and in such special sessions as occasion may require. Special sessions shall be con voked by the Secretary-General at the request of the Security Council or of a majority of the Members of the United Nations. 276 Appendix II
Article 21
The General Assembly shall adopt its own rules of procedure. It shall elect its President for each session.
Article 22
The General Assembly may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary for the performance of its functions.
Chapter V THE SECURITY COUNCIL
Composition
Article 23 1
1. The Security Council shall consist of fifteen Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly shall elect ten other Members of the United Nations to be non-permanent members of the Security Council, due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable geo graphical distribution. 2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the first election of the non-permanent members after the increase of the membership of the Security Council from eleven to fifteen, two of the four additional members shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative. The Charter of the United Nations 277
Functions and powers
Article 24
1. In order to ensure prompt and effective action by the United Nations, its Members confer on the Security Council primary responsibility for the maintenance of international peace and security, and agree that in carrying out its duties under this responsibility the Security Council acts on their behalf. 2. In discharging these duties the Security Council shall act in accord ance with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The specific powers granted to the Security Council for the discharge of these duties are laid down in Chapters VI, VII, VIII, and XII. 3. The Security Council shall submit annual and, when necessary, special reports to the General Assembly for its consideration.
Article 25
The Members of the United Nations agree to accept and carry out the decisions of the Security Council in accordance with the present Charter.
Article 26
In order to promote the establishment and maintenance of international peace and security with the least diversion for armaments of the world's human and economic resources, the Security Council shall be responsible for formulating, with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee re ferred to in Article 47, plans to be submitted to the Members of the United Nations for the establishment of a system for the regulation of armaments.
Voting
Article 272
I. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members. 278 Appendix /1
3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of nine members including the concurring votes of the permanent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under paragraph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.
Procedure
Article 28
1. The Security Council shall be so organized as to be able to function continuously. Each member of the Security Council shall for this purpose be represented at all times at the seat of the Organization. 2. The Security Council shall hold periodic meetings at which each of its members may, if it so desires, be represented by a member of the government or by some other specially designated representative. 3. The Security Council may hold meetings at such places other than the seat of the Organization as in its judgment will best facilitate its work.
Article 29
The Security Council may establish such subsidiary organs as it deems necessary of the performance of its functions.
Article 30
The Security Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President.
Article 31
Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council may participate, without vote, in the discussion of any question brought before the Security Council whenever the latter considers that the interests of that Member are specially affected. The Chaner of the United Nations 279
Article 32
Any Member of the United Nations which is not a member of the Security Council or any state which is not a Member of the United Nations, if it is a party to a dispute under consideration by the Security Council, shall be invited to participate, without vote, in the discussion relating to the dispute. The Security Council shall lay down such conditions as it deems just for the participation of a state which is not a Member of the United Nations.
Chapter VI PACIFIC SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTES
Article 33
1. The parties to any dispute, the continuance of which is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security, shall, first of all, seek a solution by negotiation, enquiry, mediation, conciliation, arbitra tion, judicial settlement, resort to regional agencies or arrangements, or other peaceful means of their own choice. 2. The Security Council shall, when it deems necessary, call upon the parties to settle their dispute by such means.
Article 34
The Security Council may investigate any dispute or any situation which might lead to international friction or give rise to a dispute, in order to determine whether the continuance of the dispute or situation is likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and security.
Article 35
I. Any Member of the United Nations may bring any dispute, or any situation of the nature referred to in Article 34, to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly. 2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may bring to the attention of the Security Council or of the General Assembly any dispute to 280 Appendix II which it is a party if it accepts in advance, for the purposes of the dispute, the obligations of pacific settlement provided in the present Charter. 3. The proceedings of the General Assembly in respect of matters brought to its attention under this Article will be subject to the provisions of Articles 11 and 12.
Article 36
1. The Security Council may, at any stage of a dispute of the nature referred to Article 33 or of a situation of like nature, recommend appropri ate procedures or methods of adjustment. 2. The Security Council should take into consideration any procedures for the settlement of the dispute which have already been adopted by the parties. 3. In making recommendations under this Article the Security Council should also take into consideration that legal disputes should as a general rule be referred by the parties to the International Court of Justice in accordance with the provisions of the Statute of the Court.
Article 37
1. Should the parties to a dispute of the nature referred to in Article 33 fail to settle it by the means indicated in that Article, they shall refer it to the Security Council. 2. If the Security Council deems that the continuance of the dispute is in fact likely to endanger the maintenance of international peace and secu rity, it shall decide whether to take action under Article 36 or to recommend such terms of settlement as it may consider appropriate.
Article 38
Without prejudice to the provisions of Articles 33 to 37, the Security Council may, if all the parties to any dispute so request, make recommen dations to the parties with a view to a pacific settlement of the dispute. The Charter of the United Nations 281
Chapter VII ACTION WITH RESPECT TO THREATS TO THE PEACE, BREACHES OF THE PEACE, AND ACTS OF AGGRESSION
Article 39
The Security Council shall determine the existence of any threat to the peace, breach of the peace, or act of aggression and shall make recommen dations, or decide what measures shall be taken in accordance with Articles 41 and 42, to maintain or restore international peace and security.
Article 40
In order to prevent an aggravation of the situation, the Security Council may, before making the recommendations or deciding upon the measures provided for in Article 39, call upon the parties concerned to comply with such provisional measures as it deems necessary or desirable. Such provi sional measures shall be without prejudice to the rights, claims, or position of the parties concerned. The Security Council shall duly take account of failure to comply with such provisional measures.
Article 41
The Security Council may decide what measures not involving the use of armed force are to be employed to give effect to its decisions, and it may call upon the Members of the United Nations to apply such measures. These may include complete or partial interruption of economic relations and of rail, sea, air, postal, telegraphic, radio, and other means of communication, and the severance of diplomatic relations.
Article 42
Should the Security Council consider that measures provided for in Article 41 would be inadequate or have proved to be inadequate, it may take such action by air, sea, or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace and security. Such action may include demonstrations, 282 Appendix II blockade, and other operations by air, sea, or land forces of Members of the United Nations.
Article 43
1. All Members of the United Nations, in order to contribute to the maintenance of international peace and security, undertake to make avail able to the Security Council, on its call and in accordance with a special agreement or agreements, armed forces, assistance, and facilities, including rights of passage, necessary for the purpose of maintaining international peace and security. 2. Such agreement or agreements shall govern the numbers and types of forces, their degree of readiness and general location, and the nature of the facilities and assistance to be provided. 3. The agreement or agreements shall be negotiated as soon as possible on the initiative of the Security Council. They shall be concluded between the Security Council and Members or between the Security Council and groups of Members and shall be subject to ratification by the signatory states in accordance with their respective constitutional processes.
Article 44
When the Security Council has decided to use force it shall, before calling upon a Member not represented on it to provide armed forces in fulfilment of the obligations assumed under Article 43, invite that Member if the Member so desires, to participate in the decisions of the Security Council concerning the employment of contingents of that Member's armed forces.
Article 45
In order to enable the United Nations to take urgent military measures, Members shall hold immediately available national air-force contingents for combined international enforcement action. The strength and degree of readiness of these contingents and plans for their combined action shall be determined, within the limits laid down in the special agreement or agree ments referred to in Article 43, by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee. The Charter of the United Nations 283
Article 46
Plans for the application of armed forces shall be made by the Security Council with the assistance of the Military Staff Committee.
Article 47
1. There shall be established a Military Staff Committee to advise and assist the Security Council on all questions relating to the Security Coun cil's military requirements for the maintenance of international peace and security, the employment and command of forces placed at its disposal, the regulation of armaments, and possible disarmament. 2. The Military Staff Committee shall consist of the Chiefs of Staff of the permanent members of the Security Council or their representatives. Any Member of the United Nations not permanently represented on the Committee shall be invited by the Committee to be associated with it when the efficient discharge of the Committee's responsibilities requires the participation of that Member in its work. 3. The Military Staff Committee shall be responsible under the Security Council for the strategic direction of any armed forces placed at the disposal of the Security Council. Questions relating to the command of such forces shall be worked out subsequently. 4. The Military Staff committee, with the authorization of the Security Council and after consultation with appropriate regional agencies, may establish regional subcommittees.
Article 48
1. The action required to carry out the decisions of the Security Council for the maintenance of international peace and security shall be taken by all the Members of the United Nations or by some of them, as the Security Council may determine. 2. Such decisions shall be carried out by the Members of the United Nations directly and through their action in the appropriate international agencies of which they are members. 284 Appendix ll
Article 49
The Members of the United Nations shall join in affording mutual assist ance in carrying out the measures decided upon by the Security Council.
Article 50
If preventive or enforcement measures against any state are taken by the Security Council, any other state, whether a Member of the United Nations or not, which finds itself confronted with special economic problems aris ing from the carrying out of those measures shall have the right to consult the Security Council with regard to a solution of those problems.
Article 51
Nothing in the present Charter shall impair the inherent right of individual or collective self-defence if an armed attack occurs against a Member of the United Nations, until the Security Council has taken measures necessary to maintain international peace and security. Measures taken by Members in the exercise of this right of self-defence shall be immediately reported to the Security Council and shall not in any way affect the authority and respon sibility of the Security Council under the present Charter to take at any time such action as it deems necessary in order to maintain or restore interna tional peace and security.
Chapter VIII REGIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
Article 52
1. Nothing in the present Charter precludes the existence of regional arrangements or agencies for dealing with such matters relating to the maintenance of international peace and security as are appropriate for regional action, provided that such arrangements or agencies and their activities are consistent with the Purposes and Principles of the United Nations. The Charter of the United Nations 285
2. The Members of the United Nations entering into such arrangements or constituting such agencies shall make every effort to achieve pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies before referring them to the Security Council. 3. The Security Council shall encourage the development of pacific settlement of local disputes through such regional arrangements or by such regional agencies either on the initiative of the states concerned or by reference from the Security Council. 4. This Article in no way impairs the application of Articles 34 and 35.
Article 53
1. The Security Council shall, where appropriate, utilize such regional arrangements or agencies for enforcement action under its authority. But no enforcement action shall be taken under regional arrangements or by re gional agencies without the authorization of the Security Council, with the exception of measures against any enemy state, as defined in paragraph 2 of this Article, provided for pursuant to Article 107 or in regional arrange ments directed against renewal of aggressive policy on the part of any such state, until such time as the Organization may, on request of the Govern ments concerned, be charged with the responsibility for preventing further aggression by such a state. 2. The term enemy state as used in paragraph 1 of this Article applies to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory of the present Charter.
Article 54
The Security Council shall at all times be kept fully informed of activities undertaken or in contemplation under regional arrangements or by regional agencies for the maintenance of international peace and security. 286 Appendix II
Chapter IX INTERNATIONAL ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL CO-OPERATION
Article 55
With a view to the creation of conditions of stability and well-being which are necessary for peaceful and friendly relations among nations based on respect for the principle of equal rights and self-determination of peoples, the United Nations shall promote:
(a) higher standards of living, full employment, and conditions of eco nomic and social progress and development; (b) solutions of international economic, social, health, and related prob lems; and international cultural and educational co-operation; and (c) universal respect for, and observance of, human rights and funda mental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.
Article 56
All Members pledge themselves to take joint and separate action in co operation with the Organization for the achievement of the purposes set forth in Article 55.
Article 57
1. The various specialized agencies, established by intergovernmental agreement and having wide international responsibilities, as defined in their basic instruments, in economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related fields, shall be brought into relationship with the United Nations in accordance with the provisions of Article 63. 2. Such agencies thus brought into relationship with the United Nations are hereinafter referred to as specialized agencies. The Charter of the United Nations 287
Article 58
The Organization shall make recommendations for the co-ordination of the policies and activities of the specialized agencies.
Article 59
The Organization shall, where appropriate, initiate negotiations among the states concerned for the creation of any new specialized agencies required for the accomplishment of the purposes set forth in Article 55.
Article 60
Responsibility for the discharge of the functions of the Organization set forth in this Chapter shall be vested in the General Assembly and, under the authority of the General Assembly, in the Economic and Social Council, which shall have for this purpose the powers set forth in Chapter X.
Chapter X THE ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL
Composition
Article 61 3
I. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of fifty-four Mem bers of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly. 2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, eighteen members of the Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. At the first election after the increase in the membership of the Economic and Social Council from twenty-seven to fifty-four members, in addition to the members elected in place of the nine members whose term of office expires at the end of that year, twenty-seven additional members shall be elected. Of these twenty-seven additional members, the term of office of nine members so elected shall expire at the end of one year; and of 288 Appendix II
nine other members at the end of two years, in accordance with arrange ments made by the General Assembly. 4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one representative.
Functions and powers
Article 62
1. The Economic and Social Council may make or initiate studies and reports with respect to international economic, social, cultural, educational, health, and related matters and may make recommendations with respect to any such matters to the General Assembly, to the Members of the United Nations, and to the specialized agencies concerned. 2. It may make recommendations for the purpose of promoting respect for, and observance of, human rights and fundamental freedoms for all. 3. It may prepare draft conventions for submission to the General Assembly, with respect to matters falling within its competence. 4. It may call, in accordance with the rules prescribed by the United Nations, international conferences on matters falling within its competence.
Article 63
I. The Economic and Social Council may enter into agreements with any ofthe agencies referred to in Article 57, defining the terms on which the agency concerned shall be brought into relationship with the United Na tions. Such agreements shall be subject to approval by the General Assem bly. 2. It may co-ordinate the activities of the specialized agencies through consultation with and recommendations to such agencies and through rec ommendations to the General Assembly and to the Members of the United Nations.
Article 64
1. The Economic and Social Council may take appropriate steps to obtain regular reports from the specialized agencies. It may make arrange ments with the Members of the United Nations and with the specialized The Charter of the United Nations 289 agencies to obtain reports on the steps taken to give effect to its own recommendations and to recommendations on matters falling within its competence made by the General Assembly. 2. It may communicate its observations on these reports to the General Assembly.
Article 65
The Economic and Social Council may furnish information to the Security Council and shall assist the Security Council upon its request.
Article 66
1. The Economic and Social Council shall perform such functions as fall within its competence in connection with the carrying out of the recom mendations of the General Assembly. 2. It may, with the approval ofthe General Assembly, perform services at the request of Members of the United Nations and at the request of specialized agencies. 3. It shall perform such other functions as are specified elsewhere in the present Charter or as may be assigned to it by the General Assembly.
Voting
Article 67
1. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Economic and Social Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.
Procedure
Article 68
The Economic and Social Council shall set up commissions in economic and social fields and for the promotion of human rights, and such other commissions as may be required for the performance of its functions. 290 Appendix II
Article 69
The Economic and Social Council shall invite any Member of the United Nations to participate, without vote, in its deliberations on any matter of particular concern to that Member.
Article 70
The Economic and Social Council may make arrangements for rep resentatives of the specialized agencies to participate, without vote, in its deliberations and in those of the commissions established by it, and for its representatives to participate in the deliberations of the specialized agencies.
Article 71
The Economic and Social Council may make suitable arrangements for consultation with non-governmental organizations which are concerned with matters within its competence. Such arrangements may be made with international organizations and, where appropriate, with national organiza tions after consultation with the Member of the United Nations concerned.
Article 72
1. The Economic and Social Council shall adopt its own rules of proce dure, including the method of selecting its President. 2. The Economic and Social Council shall meet as required in accord ance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members. The Chaner of the United Nations 291
Chapter XI DECLARATION REGARDING NON-SELF-GOVERNING TERRITORIES
Article 73
Members of the United Nations which have or assume responsibilities for the administration of territories whose people have not yet attained a full measure of self-government recognize the principle that the interests of the inhabitants of these territories are paramount, and accept as a sacred trust the obligation to promote to the utmost, within the system of international peace and security established by the present Charter, the well-being of the inhabitants of these territories, and, to this end:
(a) to ensure, with due respect for the culture of the peoples concerned, their political, economic, social, and educational advancement, their just treatment, and their protection against abuses; (b) to develop self-government, to take due account of the political aspirations of the peoples, and to assist them in the progressive development of their free political institutions according to the particular circumstances of each territory and its peoples and their varying stages of advancement; (c) to further international peace and security; (d) to promote constructive measures of development, to encourage research, and to co-operate with one another and, when and where appropriate, with specialized international bodies with a view to the practical achievement of the social, economic, and scientific pur poses set forth in this Article; and (e) to transmit regularly to the Secretary-General for information pur poses, subject to such limitation as security and constitutional con siderations may require, statistical and other information of a technical nature relating to economic, social, and educational conditions in the territories for which they are respectively responsible other than those territories to which Chapters XII and XIII apply.
Article 74
Members of the United Nations also agree that their policy in respect of the territories to which this Chapter applies, no less than in respect of their 292 Appendix II metropolitan areas, must be based on the general principle of good neighborliness, due account being taken of the interests and well-being of the rest of the world, in social, economic, and commercial matters.
Chapter XII INTERNATIONAL TRUSTEESHIP SYSTEM
Article 75
The United Nations shall establish under its authority an international trusteeship system for the administration and supervision of such territories as may be placed thereunder by subsequent individual agreements. These territories are hereinafter referred to as trust territories.
Article 76
The basic objectives of the trusteeship system, in accordance with the Purposes of the United Nations laid down in Article I of the present Charter, shall be:
(a) to further international peace and security; (b) to promote the political, economic, social, and educational advance ment of the inhabitants of the trust territories, and their progressive development towards self-government or independence as may be appropriate to the particular circumstances of each territory and its people and the freely expressed wishes of the peoples concerned, and as may be provided by the terms of each trusteeship agreement; (c) to encourage respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion, and to encourage recognition of the interdependence of the peoples of the world; and (d) to ensure equal treatment in social, economic, and commercial mat ters for all Members of the United Nations and their nationals, and also equal treatment for the latter in the administration of justice, without prejudice to the attainment of the foregoing objectives and subject to the provisions of Article 80. The Charter of the United Nations 293
Article 77
1. The trusteeship system shall apply to such territories in the following categories as may be placed thereunder by means of trusteeship agreements:
(a) territories now held under mandate; (b) territories which may be detached from enemy states as a result of the Second World War; and (c) territories voluntarily placed under the system by states respon sible for their administration.
2. It will be a matter for subsequent agreement as to which territories in the foregoing categories will be brought under the trusteeship system and upon what terms.
Article 78
The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality.
Article 79
The terms of trusteeship for each territory to be placed under the trusteeship system, including any alteration or amendment, shall be agreed upon by the states directly concerned, including the mandatory power in the case of territories held under mandate by a Member of the United Nations, and shall be approved as provided for in Articles 83 and 85.
Article 80
1. Except as may be agreed upon in individual trusteeship agreements, made under Articles 77, 79, and 81, placing each territory under the trustee ship system, and until such agreements have been concluded, nothing in this Chapter shall be construed in or of itself to alter in any manner the rights whatsoever of any states or any peoples or the terms of existing interna tional instruments to which Members of the United Nations may respec tively be parties. 294 Appendix li
2. Paragraph 1 of this Article shall not be interpreted as giving grounds for delay or postponement of the negotiation and conclusion of agreements for placing mandated and other territories under the trusteeship system as provided for in Article 77.
Article 81
The trusteeship agreement shall in each case include the terms under which the trust territory will be administered and designate the authority which will exercise the administration of the trust territory. Such authority, here inafter called the administering authority, may be one or more states or the Organization itself.
Article 82
There may be designated, in any trusteeship agreement, a strategic area or areas which may include part or all of the trust territory to which the agreement applies, without prejudice to any special agreement or agree ments made under Article 43.
Article 83
1. All functions of the United Nations relating to strategic areas, includ ing the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendments, shall be exercised by the Security Council. 2. The basic objectives set forth in Article 76 shall be applicable to the people of each strategic area. 3. The Security Council shall, subject to the provisions of the trustee ship agreements and without prejudice to security considerations, avail itself of the assistance of the Trusteeship Council to perform those functions of the United Nations under the trusteeship system relating to political, economic, social, and educational matters in the strategic areas.
Article 84
It shall be the duty of the administering authority to ensure that the trust territory shall play its part in the maintenance of international peace and The Charter of the United Nations 295 security. To this end the administering authority may make use of volunteer forces, facilities, and assistance from the trust territory in carrying out the obligations towards the Security Council undertaken in this regard by the administering authority, as well as for local defence and the maintenance of law and order within the trust territory.
Article 85
I. The functions of the United Nations with regard to trusteeship agree ments for all areas not designated as strategic, including the approval of the terms of the trusteeship agreements and of their alteration or amendment, shall be exercised by the General Assembly. 2. The Trusteeship Council, operating under the authority of the Gen eral Assembly, shall assist the General Assembly in carrying out these functions.
Chapter XIII THE TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL
Composition
Article 86
I. The Trusteeship Council shall consist of the following Members of the United Nations:
(a) those Members administering trust territories; (b) such of those Members mentioned by name in Article 23 as are not administering trust territories; and (c) as many other Members elected for three-year terms by the General Assembly as may be necessary to ensure that the total number of members of the Trusteeship Council is equally di vided between those Members of the United Nations which administer trust territories and those which do not.
2. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall designate one spe cially qualified person to represent it therein. 296 Appendix II
Functions and powers
Article 87
The General Assembly and, under its authority, the Trusteeship Council, in carrying out their functions, may:
(a) consider reports submitted by the administering authority; (b) accept petitions and examine them in consultation with the admin istering authority; (c) provide for periodic visits to the respective trust territories at times agreed upon with the administering authority; and (d) take these and other actions in conformity with the terms of the trusteeship agreements.
Article 88
The Trusteeship Council shall formulate a questionnaire on the political, economic, social, and educational advancement of the inhabitants of each trust territory, and the administering authority for each trust territory within the competence of the General Assembly shall make an annual report to the General Assembly upon the basis of such questionnaire.
Voting
Article 89
I. Each member of the Trusteeship Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Trusteeship Council shall be made by a majority of the members present and voting.
Procedure
Article 90
I. The Trusteeship Council shall adopt its own rules of procedure, including the method of selecting its President. The Charter of the United Nations 297
2. The Trusteeship Council shall meet as required in accordance with its rules, which shall include provision for the convening of meetings on the request of a majority of its members.
Article 91
The Trusteeship Council shall, when appropriate, avail itself of the assist ance of the Economic and Social Council and of the specialized agencies in regard to matters with which they are respectively concerned.
Chapter XIV THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE
Article 92
The International Court of Justice shall be the principal judicial organ of the United Nations. It shall function in accordance with the annexed Statute, which is based upon the Statute of the Permanent Court of International Justice and forms an integral part of the present Charter.
Article 93
1. All Members of the United Nations are ipso facto parties to the Statute of the International Court of Justice. 2. A state which is not a Member of the United Nations may become a party to the Statute of the International Court of Justice on conditions to be determined in each case by the General Assembly upon the recommenda tion of the Security Council.
Article 94
1. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to comply with the decision of the International Court of Justice in any case to which it is a party. 298 Appendix II
2. If any party to a case fails to perform the obligations incumbent upon it under a judgment rendered by the Court, the other party may have recourse to the Security Council, which may, if it deems necessary, make recommendations or decide upon measures to be taken to give effect to the judgment.
Article 95
Nothing in the present Charter shall prevent Members of the United Nations from entrusting the solution of their differences to other tribunals by virtue of agreements already in existence or which may be concluded in the future.
Article 96
1. The General Assembly or the Security Council may request the International Court of Justice to give an advisory opinion on any legal question. 2. Other organs of the United Nations and specialized agencies, which may at any time be so authorized by the General Assembly, may also request advisory opinions of the Court on legal questions arising within the scope of their activities.
Chapter XV THE SECRETARIAT
Article 97
The Secretariat shall comprise a Secretary-General and such staff as the Organization may require. The Secretary-General shall be appointed by the General Assembly upon the recommendation of the Security Council. He shall be the chief administrative officer of the Organization. The Charter of the United Nations 299
Article 98
The Secretary-General shall act in that capacity in all meetings of the General Assembly, of the Security Council, of the Economic and Social Council, and of the Trusteeship Council, and shall perform such other functions as are entrusted to him by these organs. The Secretary-General shall make an annual report to the General Assembly on the work of the Organization.
Article 99
The Secretary-General may bring to the attention of the Security Council any matter which in his opinion may threaten the maintenance of interna tional peace and security.
Article 100
1. In the performance of their duties the Secretary-General and the staff shall not seek or receive instructions from any government or from any other authority external to the Organization. They shall refrain from any action which might reflect on their position as international officials respon sible only to the Organization. 2. Each Member of the United Nations undertakes to respect the exclu sively international character of the responsibilities of the Secretary-Gen eral and the staff and not to seek to influence them in the discharge of their responsibilities.
Article 101
1. The staff shall be appointed by the Secretary-General under regula tions established by the General Assembly. 2. Appropriate staffs shall be permanently assigned to the Economic and Social Council, the Trusteeship Council, and, as required, to other organs of the United Nations. These staffs shall form a part of the Secre tariat. 3. The paramount consideration in the employment of the staff and in the determination of the conditions of service shall be the necessity of securing the highest standards of efficiency, competence, and integrity. Due 300 Appendix II regard shall be paid to the importance of recruiting the staff on as wide a geographical basis as possible.
Chapter XVI MISCELLANEOUS PROVISIONS
Article 102
1. Every treaty and every international agreement entered into by any Member of the United Nations after the present Charter comes into force shall as soon as possible be registered with the Secretariat and published by it. 2. No party to any such treaty or international agreement which has not been registered in accordance with the provisions of paragraph I of this Article may invoke that treaty or agreement before any organ of the United Nations.
Article 103
In the event of a conflict between the obligations of the Members of the United Nations under the present Charter and their obligations under any other international agreement, their obligations under the present Charter shall prevail.
Article 104
The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such legal capacity as may be necessary for the exercise of its functions and the fulfilment of its purposes.
Article 105
1. The Organization shall enjoy in the territory of each of its Members such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the fulfillment of its purposes. The Charter of the United Nations 301
2. Representatives of the Members of the United Nations and officials of the Organization shall similarly enjoy such privileges and immunities as are necessary for the independent exercise of their functions in connection with the Organization. 3. The General Assembly may make recommendations with a view to determining the details of the application of paragraphs 1 and 2 of this Article or may propose conventions to the Members of the United Nations for this purpose.
Chapter XVII TRANSITIONAL SECURITY ARRANGEMENTS
Article 106
Pending the coming into force of such special agreements referred to in Article 43 as in the opinion of the Security Council enable it to begin the exercise of its responsibilities under Article 42, the parties to the Four Nation Declaration, signed at Moscow, 30 October 1943, and France, shall, in accordance with the provisions of paragraph 5 of that Declaration, consult with one another and as occasion requires with other Members of the United Nations with a view to such joint action on behalf of the Organization as may be necessary for the purpose of maintaining interna tional peace and security.
Article 107
Nothing in the present Charter shall invalidate or preclude action, in relation to any state which during the Second World War has been an enemy of any signatory to the present Charter, taken or authorized as a result of that war by the Governments having responsibility for such action. 302 Appendix II
Chapter XVIII AMENDMENTS
Article 108
Amendments to the present Charter shall come into force for all Members of the United Nations when they have been adopted by a vote of two thirds of the members of the General Assembly and ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations, including all the permanent members of the Security Council.
Article 1094
1. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any nine members of the Security Council. Each Member of the United Nations shall have one vote in the conference. 2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-thirds vote of the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their respective constitutional processes by two-thirds of the Members of the United Nations including all the permanent members of the Security Council. 3. If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed on the agenda of that session of the General Assembly, and the conference shall be held if so decided by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. The Charter of the United Nations 303
Chapter XIX RATIFICATION AND SIGNATURE
Article 110
1. The present Charter shall be ratified by the signatory states in accord ance with their respective constitutional processes. 2. The ratifications shall be deposited with the Government of the United States of America, which shall notify all the signatory states of each deposit as well as the Secretary-General of the Organization when he has been appointed. 3. The present Charter shall come into force upon the deposit of ratifications by the Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America, and by a majority of the other signatory states. A protocol of the ratifications deposited shall thereupon be drawn up by the Government of the United States of America which shall communi cate copies thereof to all the signatory states. 4. The states signatory to the present Charter which ratify it after it has come into force will become original Members of the United Nations on the date of the deposit of their respective ratifications.
Article 111
The present Charter, of which the Chinese, French, Russian, English, and Spanish texts are equally authentic, shall remain deposited in the archives of the Government of the United States of America. Duly certified copies thereof shall be transmitted by that Government to the Governments of the other signatory states.
IN FAITH WHEREOF the representatives of the Governments of the United Nations have signed the present Charter.
DONE at the city of San Francisco the twenty-sixth day of June, one thousand nine hundred and forty-five. 304 Appendix II
NOTES
1. Amended text of Article 23 which came into force on 31 August 1965. The text of Article 23 before it was amended read as follows:
1. The Security Council shall consist of eleven Members of the United Nations. The Republic of China, France, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the United States of America shall be permanent members of the Security Council. The General Assembly shall elect six other Members of the United Nations to be non permanent members of the Security Council, due regard being specially paid, in the first instance to the contribution of Members of the United Nations to the maintenance of international peace and security and to the other purposes of the Organization, and also to equitable geographical distribution. 2. The non-permanent members of the Security Council shall be elected for a term of two years. In the first election of non-permanent members, however, three shall be chosen for a term of one year. A retiring member shall not be eligible for immediate re-election. 3. Each member of the Security Council shall have one representative.
2. Amended text of Article 27 which came into force on 31 August 1965. The text of Article 27 before it was amended read as follows:
1. Each member of the Security Council shall have one vote. 2. Decisions of the Security Council on procedural matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven members. 3. Decisions of the Security Council on all other matters shall be made by an affirmative vote of seven members including the concurring votes of the perma nent members; provided that, in decisions under Chapter VI, and under para graph 3 of Article 52, a party to a dispute shall abstain from voting.
3. Amended text of Article 61, which came into force on 24 September 1973. The text of Article 61 as previously amended on 31 August 1965 read as follows:
1. The Economic and Social Council shall consist of twenty-seven Members of the United Nations elected by the General Assembly. 2. Subject to the provisions of paragraph 3, nine members of the Economic and Social Council shall be elected each year for a term of three years. A retiring member shall be eligible for immediate action. 3. At the first election after the increase in the membership of the Economic and Social Council from eighteen to twenty-seven members, in addition to the members elected in place of the six members whose term of office expires at the end of that year, nine additional members shall be elected in place of the six members whose term of office expires at the end of that year, nine additional members shall be elected. Of these nine additional members, the term of office of three members so elected shall expire at the end of one year, and of three other members at the end of two years, in accordance with arrangements made by the General Assembly. The Charter of the United Nations 305
4. Each member of the Economic and Social Council shall have one rep resentative.
4. Amended text of Article 109 which came into force on 12 June 1968. The text of Article 109 before it was amended read as follows:
l. A General Conference of the Members of the United Nations for the purpose of reviewing the present Charter may be held at a date and place to be fixed by a two-thirds vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. Each Member of the United Nations shall have one vote in the conference. 2. Any alteration of the present Charter recommended by a two-thirds vote of the conference shall take effect when ratified in accordance with their respec tive constitutional processes by two thirds of the Members of the United Nations including all the permanent members of the Security Council. 3. If such a conference has not been held before the tenth annual session of the General Assembly following the coming into force of the present Charter, the proposal to call such a conference shall be placed on the agenda of that session of the General Assembly, and the conference shall be held if so decided by a majority vote of the members of the General Assembly and by a vote of any seven members of the Security Council. Notes
Notes to Chapter 1: Roots I. Britain (Lloyd George, Balfour, Bonar Law, Barnes); Canada (Borden, Foster, Doherty); Newfoundland (Lloyd); Australia (Hughes, Cook); South Africa (Botha, Smuts); New Zealand (Massey, Ward); India (Montague, Maharajah of Bikaner, Sinha, Grant); United States (Wilson, Lansing, House, White, Bliss); France (Clemenceau, Pichon, Klotz, Tardieu, Cambon, Bourgeois); Italy (Orlando, Sonnino, Salandra, Robilant, Salvago-Ruggi, Baralai); Japan (Saionji, Makino, Chinda); Belgium (Hymans, Vandervelde, VanDer Heuvel); Greece (Venizelos, Politis); Romania (Bratiano); Portugal (Moniz); Serbia (Paschitch); Poland (Dmowski); and Czechoslovakia (Kramarzh). This list of delegates is not exhaustive but it includes the principals. 2. These various ideas are discussed in F. P. Walters, A History of the League of Nations (London: Oxford University Press, 1952) Ch. 4. 3. Detailed discussions of the Covenant of the League of Nations are included in Walters, History of the League of Nations; J. L. Brierly, The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law ofPeace (London: Oxford University Press, 1963); F. S. Northedge, The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920-1946 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1988). 4. These bodies and their work are described in Brierly, Law of Nations, ch. 16. S. See James Barros, Office Without Power: Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond, 1919-1933 (London: Oxford University Press, 1979). 6. George Scott, The Rise and Fall ofthe League ofNations (London: Hutchinson, 1973) p. 39. 7. Wilson, Edith, Memoirs of Mrs Woodrow Wilson (London: Putnam, 1939) pp. 278-9. 8. Gene Smith, When the Cheering Stopped (London: Hutchinson, 1964) pp. 54-S. 9. Daniel Yergin, Shattered Peace: The Origins ofthe Cold War and the National Security (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1980) p. 44. 10. Hugh Brogan, History of the United States of America (London: Longman, 1985) p. 593. 11. Northedge, League of Nations, p. 194. 12. A criticism of South Africa's handling of its mandate in South West Africa is given in Ruth First, South West Africa (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1963) pp. 169-74. 13. E. E. Reynolds, The League Experiment (London: Nelson, 1939) p. 106. 14. Walters, History of the League of Nations, pp. 404-11, describes the working of the minorities system. IS. Emilio de Bono, Anno Xl/1: The Conquest of an Empire (London: Cresset Press, 1937) pp. 13-17. 16. The Earl of Avon, The Eden Memoirs: Facing the Dictators (London, 1962) p. 227. 17. Hugh Thomas, The Spanish Civil War (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1965) p. 338. 18. Walters, History of the League of Nations, p. 721. 19. Brogan, History of the USA, p. 498.
306 Notes 307
Notes to Chapter 2: Genesis l. See Clive Ponting, I940: Myth and Reality (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990) ch. 10. 2. US Department of State, Postwar Foreign Policy Preparation, I939-I945, Department of State Publication 3580 (Washington, D.C.: Government Print ing Office, 1949). 3. T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace (London: Frewin, 1967) p. 25. 4. J. K. Horscfield eta/., The International Monetary Fund, I945-I965: Twenty Years of International Monetary Co-operation, vol. III (Washington, D.C.: International Monetary Fund, 1965). 5. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace, p. 20. 6. Anjali V Patil, The UN Veto in World Affairs, I946-I990: A Complete Record and Case Histories of the Security Council's Veto (Sarasota, Fl: UNIFO/ Mansell, 1992). 7. Ted Morgan, FDR: A Biography (London: Collins, 1987) p. 762. 8. Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley Publishing Corporation, 1974) p. 199. 9. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace, p. 68. 10. Ibid., p. 75. 11. Ernst B. Haas, The Web of Interdependence: The United States and Interna- tional Organisations (New Jersey, 1970) p. 3. 12. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1954) p. 55. 13. Ibid., p. 58. 14. Ibid., p. 59.
Notes to Chapter 3: Profile 1. Conor Cruise O'Brien, 'Saving faces, and maybe the world', The Independent (London), 30 April 1993. 2. Michael Akehurst, A Modern Introduction to International Law, 6th edn (Lon don: HarperCollins Academic, 1991) p. 207. 3. The English text states that the 'concurrence' of Permanent Members on the Security Council is a necessary condition for the passing of a resolution, a requirement that is taken as consistent with abstention. The French text de mands 'un vote a.ffirmatif, suggesting that an abstention would defeat a reso lution. Such differences of interpretation have been crucial to important deci sions, such as the Security Council decisions to use force in Korea and in Iraq. 4. These and other subsequent details are taken from Edmund Jan Osmanczyk, Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements, 2nd edn (New York: Taylor and Taylor, 1990). 5. Evan Luard, The United Nations. How it Works and What it Does (London: Macmillan, 1979). 6. Akehurst, Modern Introduction to International Law, p. 212. 7. See, for example, 'Provisional Rules of Procedure in the Security Council', in Anjali V. Patil, The UN Veto in World Affairs, I946-I990: A Complete Record and Case Histories of the Security Council's Veto (Sarasota, Fla: UNIFO/ Mansell, 1992) pp. 545-54. 8. This is not unlike the situation of British government ministers, authorised to 308 Notes
legislate and to mobilise state power but individually, through 'Crown immu nity', in effect above the law. 9. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1954) p. 42. 10. Ibid. 11. Dag Hammarskjold, UN Doc. A/2404, 21 July 1953, p. xi. 12. Ernest Gross, Dag Hammarskjold as Secretary-General, Oral History Project (New York: Columbia University, 1964) p. 36a. 13. Luard, United Nations, pp. 82-5, considers Court cases involving damage to British ships in 1946 following mining of the Corfu Channel, a 1951 dispute between Britain and Norway regarding fishing rights, a method of dividing the Continental shelf, territorial disputes, aircraft incidents, and South African obligations to South West Africa. (In this latter case the Court ruled in 1966 that Liberia and Ethiopia had no legal right to bring such a contentious case. In 1970 the Court ruled that South African occupation of South West Africa was illegal.) 14. See Peter Komer, Gero Maass, Thomas Siebold and Rainer Tetzlaff, The IMF and the Debt Crisis (London: Zed Books, 1992) pp. 42-73. 15. Richard Dowden, 'Nairobi halts IMF and World Bank reforms', The Independ ent (London), 24 March 1993. 16. Peter Pringle, 'IMF deal means trouble in store for Yeltsin', The Independent (London), 15 July 1992. 17. Hugh O'Shaughnessy, 'UN's World Bank condemned for 'immoral' profits', The Observer (London), 22 April11990. Michael Irwin joined the World Bank as director of the health services department after a distinguished 32-year career with the UN Development Programme (UNDP) and the UN Children's Fund (UNICEF). See also Ken Ringle, 'The man who broke open the World Bank', The Sunday Times (London), 30 September 1990. 18. Julius Nyerere, 'Foreword' to Chakravarthi Raghavan, Recolonization: GAIT, the Uruguay Round and the Third World (London: Zed Books, 1990). 19. For an insider's view of UNESCO, see Richard Hoggart, An Idea and its Servants: UNESCO from Within (London: Chatto & Windus, 1978); see also In the Minds of Men: Unesco 1946 to 1971 (Paris: Unesco, 1972). 20. Leonard Doyle, 'Sick tactics in battle for health chiefs job', The Independent on Sunday (London), 10 January 1993. 21. Michael Sheridan, 'World health chief faces fraud enquiry', 'The Independent on Sunday (London), 28 February 1993; James Adams, 'Critics battle to oust "disastrous" WHO chief, The Sunday Times (London), 18 April 1993. 22. See Seymour Hersh, The Samson Option (London: Faber & Faber, 1991). 23. Nick Rufford, David Leppard and Ian Burrell, 'North Koreans build secret A bomb plant', The Sunday Times (London), 4 April1993.
Notes to Chapter 4: Cold War 1. I owe this detail and much of what follows to Clive Pouting, 1940: Myth and Reality (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1990). 2. Ibid., p. 203. 3. H. C. Allen, Great Britain and the United States (London: Odhams Press, 1954) p. 904. Notes 309
4. Q. J. C. Campbell (ed.), The United States in World Affairs, 1945-7 (London: Council on Foreign Relations, 1947) p. 359. 5. Herbert Feis, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957) p. 596. 6. William F. Leahy, I Was There (London: Victor Gollancz, 1950) pp. 351-2. 7. D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins, 1917-1960 (New York: Doubleday, 1961) p. 270. 8. Ibid. 9. David Horowitz, From Yalta to Vietnam: American Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1967) p. 33n. 10. Cited in Fleming, Cold War and its Origins, p. 207. 11. Cordell Hull, Memoirs (New York: Macmillan, 1948) pp. 1405, 1409. 12. Ibid., p. 1722. 13. E. Gross, Foreign Policy Bulletin, 15 September 1954. During the UN's first decade the United States could rely on the support of many dictatorships: for example, Nicaragua, Haiti, Paraguay, Honduras, Thailand, Taiwan, Venezuela, the Dominican Republic, Turkey, Greece and Peru. 14. Arthur Krock, The New York Times, 2 May 1945. 15. James Reston, The New York Times, 12 June 1945. 16. Steven E. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy since 1938, 5th edn (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1988) p. 62. 17. Ibid., p. 69. 18. According to the Russians, between 15 and 20 million Soviet citizens had been killed; the Germans had destroyed completely on partially 15Iarge cities, 1710 towns and 70,000 villages; they burned or demolished 6 million buildings and deprived 25 million people of shelter; they demolished 31,850 industrial enter prises, 65,000 kilometres of railway track, 4100 railway stations, 36,000 postal, telegraph and telephone offices, 56,000 miles of main highway, 90,000 bridges and 10,000 power stations; they ruined 1135 coal-mines and 3000 oil wells, carried off to Germany 14,000 steam boilers, 1400 turbines and 11,300 electric generators; they sacked 98,000 collective farms and 2890 machine and tractor stations and slaughtered or carried off 7 million horses, 17 million cattle, 20 million hogs, 27 million sheep and goats, 1110 million poultry; they looted and destroyed 40,000 hospitals and medical centres, 84,000 schools and colleges and 43,000 public libraries with 110 million volumes; they destroyed 44,000 theatres, 427 museums and 2800 churches (Official Statement of the Extra ordinary State Committee (USSR), and cited in Fleming, Cold War and its Origins, p. 923). 19. T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace (London: Frewin, 1967) p. 139. 20. Howard K. Smith, The State of Europe (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1949) pp. 232-4. 21. Trygve Lie,1n the Cause of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1954) p. 89. 22. Ibid., p. 98. 23. Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) (Washington, D.C.: US Gov ernment Printing Office, 1950) vol. I, pp. 234-92; made public in 1975; discussed in detail by Noam Chomsky, Deterring Democracy (London and New York: Verso, 1991) pp. 10-13. 24. The character of the US-defined Cold War is described in detail in Chomsky, Deterring Democracy, pp. 9-68. 310 Notes
25. 'The World Assembly at San Francisco', Political Affairs, April1945, pp. 293, 295. 26. Mohan Kumaramangalam, The United Nations (Bombay: People's Publishing House, India: 1945) pp. 3-14. 27. Testimony of Jan Bukar before the House Committee on Un-American Activi ties, 13 May 1953, committee report, Soviet Schedule for War- 1955 (Wash ington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1953) p. 15. 28. Hearings before House Committee on Un-American Activities, 24 September 1953 (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1953) pp. 2596, 2607. 29. G. Edward Griffin, The Fearful Master: A Second Look at the United Nations (Belmont, Mass.: Western Islands, 1964) p. 72. 30. Ibid., pp. 73-4. 31. Nicholas von Hoffman, Citizen Cohn (London: Harrap, 1988) p. 115. 32. Lie, 1n the Cause of Peace, p. 388. 33. Ibid., p. 397. 34. Ibid., p. 405. 35. Griffin, Fearful Master, p. 88. 36. Time, 16 April 1945, international section. 37. 1nterlocking Subversion in Government Departments, SISS Report, 30 July 1953, pp. 8-10. 38. Richard Gid Powers, Secrecy and Power: The Life of J. Edgar Hoover (Lon don: Arrow, 1989) p. 299. 39. Allen Weinstein, Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case (New York: Knopf, 1978) p. 15. 40. Ibid., pp. 507, 513. 41. Walter Goodman, The Committee (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1964) p. 267. 42. Mark Tran, 'Joyful Hiss claims Russian files clear him of spying', The Guard ian (London), 30 October 1992. 43. Laurence H. Smith, in Congressional Record, 18 April 1955. 44. Joseph Z. Kornfeder, 'The Communist Pattern in the UN', speech before the Congress of Freedom, Veteran's War Memorial Auditorium, San Francisco, April 1955. 45. Griffin, Fearful Master, pp. 139-50. 46. Congressmen John Ashbrook, William Ayres, Donald C. Bruce, Edgar Hiestand and David Martin, Minority Report of the House Committee on Education and Labour (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, II July 1961). 47. James Byrnes, quoted in Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (New York: 1964) p. 54. 48. George F. Kennan, telegram to James Byrnes, 22 February 1946, in Foreign Relations of the United States (FRUS) (Washington, D.C.: US Government Printing Office, 1946) vol. 6, pp. 697-706. 49. Time, I April 1946. 50. Wilfried Loth, The Division of the World, 1941-1955 (London: Routledge, 1988) p. 111. 51. Ambrose, Rise to Globalism, p. 93; Loth, Division of the World, pp. 134, 147. 52. Sallie Pisani, The C1A and the Marshall Plan (Edinburgh: Edinburgh Univer sity Press, 1991) p. 81. 53. Ibid., p. 82. Notes 311
54. See William Blum, The CIA: A Forgotten History (London: Zed Books, 1986). It is interesting that Harry S. Truman came to regret his part in the creation of the CIA: 'I think it was a mistake. And if I'd known what was going to happen, I never would have done it. .. it got out of hand ... they've got an organization over there in Virginia now that is practically the equal of the Pentagon in many ways ... those fellows in the CIA don't just report on wars and the like, they go out and make their own ... it's become a government all of its own and all secret ... That's a very dangerous thing in a democratic society' (Merle Miller, Plain Speaking: An Oral Biography of Harry S. Truman (New York: Berkley Publishing, 1973) pp. 391-92. 55. Thomas Bodenheimer and Robert Gould, Rollback!: Rightwing Power in US Foreign Policy (Boston, Mass.: South-End Press, 1989). 56. Ibid., p. 21. 57. Christopher Simpson, Blowback: America's Recruitment of Nazis and its Ef fects on the Cold War (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1988). 58. Frank Wisner, correspondence, reproduced in John Loftus, The Balarus Secret (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1982) pp. 102-3. 59. Simpson, Blowback, p. 245.
Notes to Chapter 5: Issues - I 1. Today we often tend to focus on the Muslim-inspired hostility to Jews, but we should also remember the traditional Christian anti-Semitism, from the time of the early Church Fathers to the modern age. Thus St John Chrysostom stated that all Jews 'are drunkards, whoremongers and criminals'; in 1205 Pope Innocent m declared that Jews should be treated as 'damned slaves'; and the Nazi Julius Streicher, defending himself at Nuremberg, praised Martin Luther's 'On the Jews and their Lies' (in which people are urged to burn the synagogues, to deny Jews safe conduct and permission to use the streets, to reduce them to penury, and so on). 2. Bernard Postal and Henry W. Levy,And the Hills Shouted for Joy (New York: David McKay, 1973) p. 4. 3. Trygve Lie, In the Cause of Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1954) p. 162. 4. Postal and Leny, And the Hills Shouted, p. 4. 5. Peter Mansfield, A History of the Middle East (Harmondsworth, Middx: Pen guin, 1991) p. 235. 6. Barnet Litvinoff, The Burning Bush (London: Collins, 1988) p. 393. 7. Andrew and Leslie Cockburn, Dangerous Liaison (London: Bodley Head, 1992) p. 27. 8. Michael C. Sandusky, America's Parallel (Alexandria: Old Dominion Press, 1983) p. 145. 9. E. Grant Meade, American Military Government in Korea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1951) pp. 59-62. 10. George M. McCune, Korea Today (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1950) pp. 51-2,201-7. 11. A. Wigfall Green, Epic of Korea (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1950) p. 95. 12. W. Douglas Reeve, The Republic of Korea (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1963) pp. 31-2. 312 Notes
13. See, for example, David Horowitz, From Yalta to Vietnam: American Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1967) pp. 117-23; I. F. Stone, The Hidden History of the Korean War (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1952); William Blum, The CIA: A Forgotten History (London: Zed Books, 1991) pp. 45-7. 14. D. F. Fleming, The Cold War and its Origins (New York: Doubleday, 1961) pp. 603-4. 15. Blum, The CIA, p. 48. 16. Robert Leckie, The Korean War (New York: Putnam, 1962). 17. Fleming, The Cold War, p. 656. 18. William Manchester, American Caesar (London: Hutchinson, 1979) p. 610. 19. Lie, In the Cause of Peace, p. 273. 20. Ibid., p. 274. 21. Inis L. Claude, Swords into Plowshares (London: University of London Press, 1964) p. 91. 22. Kurt Waldheim, In the Eye of the Storm (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1985) p. 51. 23. George Rosie, The British in Vietnam (London: Panther, 1970) p. 135. 24. The Times, 18 August 1945. 25. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Mandate for Change: The White House Years, 1953- I956 (London, 1963) p. 372. 26. Anjali V. Patil, The UN Veto in World Affairs, I946-I990: A Complete Record and Case Histories of the Security Council's Veto (Sarasota, Fla: UNIFO/ Marshall, 1992) p. 48. 27. George MeT. Kahin, Intervention: How America Became Involved in Vietnam (New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1987) p. 41. 28. Ibid., pp. 62, 65. 29. Andrew Boyd, Fifteen Men on a Powder Keg: A History of the UN Security Council (London: Methuen, 1971) p. 154. 30. New York Times, 8 March 1965. 31. See the accounts in Boyd, Fifteen Men, pp. 1159-63; Kahin, Intervention, pp. 243-5. 32. Kahin, Intervention, p. 389. 33. Patil, The UN Veto, p. 52. 34. Lie, In the Cause of Peace, pp. 445-6. 35. Waldheim, In the Eye of the Storm, p. 98; and see subsequent discussion, pp. 98-110. 36. In 1899 Lord Milner declared that the 'ultimate end' of British policy in the area 'is a self-governing white community supported by well-treated and justly-governed black labour'. King Edward VII signed the South Africa Act in September 1909, enshrining white racism. In 1911 the Mine and Works Act was passed by the Union Parliament, blocking the access of black workers to skilled jobs. Western strategic and economic interests were well prepared'«,> support South African racism: witness the 1957 Simonstown Agreement, the ravages of the Oppenheimer Anglo-American Corporation, and the massive British and American investment to secure gold, iron, coal, diamonds and uranium - all mined by racially exploited native labour. 37. Richard Lamb, The Failure of the Eden Government (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1987) p. 221. Notes 313
38. After an extension ofTrygve Lie's term of office by three years, he resigned on 10 November 1952. He had incurred the hostility of the Soviet Union over Korea, and right-wing Americans thought him 'soft' on Communism. He noted that his successor, Dag Hammarskjold, was supported by all five Permanent Members of the Security Council, and that 'the door of the office of the Secretary-General' had been 'reopened'. 39. T. R. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace (London: Frewin, 1967) p. 257. 40. Ibid., p. 266. 41. One representing the Atlantic military alliance, one representing the Commu nist world, and one representing the uncommitted nations. It was obvious to most observers that such a scheme would lead to a paralysis of the UN, and it was never seriously discussed. 42. G. Edward Griffin, The Fearful Master: A Second Look at the United Nations (Belmont, Mass.: Western Islands, 1972) chs 1-6. 43. Blum, The CIA, pp. 174-81. 44. Deryck Thorpe, Hammarskjold, Man of Peace (Ilfracombe, Devon: Stockwell, 1969) chs ~11. 45. Fehrenbach, This Kind of Peace, p. 340. 46. Norodom Sihanouk, My War with the CIA (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1974) pp. 75-6. 47. Ibid. 48. William Shawcross, Sideshow: Kissinger, Nixon and the Destruction of Cam bodia (London: Hogarth Press and Chatto & Windus, 1986) p. 54. 49. Seymour M. Hersh, Kissinger: The Price of Power (New York: Summit Books, 1983) ch 5, pp. 54-65. 50. Blum, The CIA, pp. 152-3. 51. See Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam (London: Macmillan, 1994). 52. Waldheim, In the Eye of the Storm, p. 174. 53. BBC World Service, 20 July 1988; The Independent (London), 21 July 1988; quoted by Dilip Hiro, The Longest War (London: Paladin, 1990) p. 243. 54. Dozens of 'human rights instruments' -Codes, Conventions, Protocols, Dec larations, and so on - have been developed by the United Nations, covering such areas as genocide, torture, slavery, employment, race, sexual equality, punishment, child protection, national independence, education, treatment of the disabled, medical ethics, religious freedom, and the rest. 55. Examples are given in the present chapter: the illegal seating of Formosa as Permanent Member of the Security Council for two decades; presenting the Council with a fait accompli military invasion in Korea; ignoring the 1986 World Court ruling over Nicaragua, and so on. Many other cases could be instanced; for example: the US insistence in 1954 that its sponsored invasion of Guatemala was no business of the Security Council; and the US invasions of Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989) against the UN Charter, Article 2(4): 'All Members shall refrain ... from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state ... .' 56. J. William Fulbright, The Price of Empire (London: Fourth Estate, 1989) p. 21. 314 Notes
Notes to Chapter 6: Towards the New World Order 1. See, for example, Steven White, Gorbachev and After (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992); Angus Roxburgh, The Second Russian Revolution (London: BBC Books, 1991); Dusko Doder, Shadows and Whispers (London: Harrap, 1987). 2. Will Hutton, 'Even an omnipotent United States may find it hard to fill the post-war power vacuum', The Guardian (London), 23 January 1991. 3. David Marquand, 'How to help America police the universe', The Guardian (London), 8 March 1991. 4. J. K. Galbraith, 'The call of arms and the poor man', The Guardian (London), 27 March 1991; see also his The Culture of Contentment (Sinclair-Stevenson, 1992). 5. Theo Sommer, 'A world beyond order and control', The Guardian (London), 13 April 1993. 6. Patrick Brogan, 'Unrivalled Bush set to police the planet', The Observer (London), 25 April 1991. 7. Peter Jenkins, 'Shape of a new world disorder', The Independent (London), 15 October 1991. 8. Martin Woollacott, 'The New World what?', The Guardian (London), 20 August 1992. 9. Alasdair Burnet, 'Has anyone told Clinton that he has to run the world?', The Sunday Times (London), 24 January 1993. 10. Will Hutton, 'Cold war thaw leaves Britain high and dry', The Guardian (London), 8 March 1993. 11. Lester Thurow, Head to Head: The Coming Economic Battle among Japan, Europe and America (London: Nicholas Brearley, 1993) p. 65. 12. Godfrey Hodgson, 'World voice or US puppet?', The Independent (London), 18 June 1991. 13. Leonard Doyle, 'Moscow may lose seat at UN top table', The Independent (London), 10 December 1991.
Notes to Chapter 7: Issues- II l. See Geoff Simons, Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam (London: Macmillan, 1994). 2. In the late 1980s Saddam Hussein commissioned a study from the Washington Center for Strategic and International Studies, a foundation that had links with Iraq. Henry Schuler, the Center's energy security programme director, has provided an insight into the secret commissioned study (see Schuler, 'The oil exporters are leaving money on the table', Arab Oil and Gas Journal, 1 March 1990). In essence, Arab oil producers were urged to adopt an aggressive oil price policy. It is worth remembering that here Saddam followed American advice. 3. Evidence for the US 'green light' is US ambassador April Glaspie's words to Saddamjust prior to the invasion: 'We have no opinion on Arab-Arab conflicts like your border disagreement with Kuwait'; and US Assistant Secretary of State John Kelly's comments, just prior to the invasion, that the US, in the absence of a relevant treaty, would have no obligation to act to defend Kuwait. 4. Bob Woodward, The Commanders (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1991) p. 334. Notes 315
5. The Independent, London, 12 February 1991. 6. Mohamed Heikal, Illusions of Triumph (London: Harpe!Collins, 1992). 7. Simons, Iraq, ch. 1. 8. Ibid. 9. Leonard Doyle, 'UN chief rebukes arms inspectors', The Independent, (Lon don), 1 October 1991. 10. 'UN Troops to Leave Kurdistan', The Guardian (London), 12 May 1993. 11. See Geoff Simons, Libya: The Struggle for Survival (London: Macmillan, 1993). 12. Adrian Porter and Con Coughlin, 'US planes in dry run to bomb Libya', The Sunday Telegraph (London), 1 December 1991. 13. Leonard Doyle, 'Ghali finds merit in Tripoli shift', The Independent (London), 5 March 1992. 14. Marc Weller, The Lockerbie case: a premature end to the "New World Order"?', African Journal of International and Comparative Law, no. 4 ( 1992) pp. 1-15. 15. John A. Marcum, The Angolan Revolution, vol. I: I950--I962 Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1969) pp. 229-30. 16. Hearings before the House Select Committee on Intelligence (the Pike Com mittee) published in CIA: The Pike Report (Nottingham, 1977) p. 199. 17. 'SA "still in Angola"', Portugal Hoje, 30 September 1981. 18. Karl Maier, 'Violence hits run-up to Angolan poll', The Independent (London), 23 September 1992. 19. Victoria Brittain, 'MPLA takes lead in Angolan elections', The Guardian (London), 2 October 1992. 20. Karl Maier, 'Savimbi threat of civil war', The Independent on Sunday (Lon don), 4 October 1992. 21. Chris McGreal, 'Angola teaches lesson to UN', The Guardian (London), 11 December 1992; Victoria Brittain, 'Weak UN abandons democratic cause in warring Angola', The Guardian (London), 28 December 1992. 22. Victoria Brittain, 'Rebels wreak trail of terror and despair across Angola', The Guardian (London), 2 February 1993. 23. John Carlin, 'Pretoria came close to dropping nuclear bomb on Luanda', The Independent (London), 30 March 1993. 24. Tom Gibb, 'End of a headache for US policy-makers', The Independent (Lon don), 2 January 1992. 25. EICN.4/1993/ll (9 February 1993). Report of the Independent Expert on El Salvador, Mr Pedro Nikken, appointed by the Secretary-General in accordance with Commission on Human Rights resolution 1992/62 of 3 March 1992. 26. A summary of the Truth Commission report is appended to the statement (SC/ 5570, 18 March 1993) of the Secretary-General. The report demonstrates culpability, naming names and providing circumstancial detail. See Michael Reid, 'Truth Commission points finger at Salvador military', The Guardian (London), 16 March 1993; Douglas Farah, 'Salvador army challenges civilian rule', The Guardian (London), 27 March 1993. 27. Defence Minister, General Rene Emilio Ponce; Vice-Minister General Orlando Zepeda; former Vice-Minister of Public Security, Colonel Inocente Montano; Chief of Staff, General Gilberto Rubio; former Air Force commander, General Juan Rafael Bustillo; Colonel Francisco Elena Fuentes; Colonel Guillermo Alfredo Benavides; the former commander of the Atlacatl battalion, Colonel 316 Notes
Oscar Alberto Leon Linares; Rodolfo Antonio Parker Soto; former commander of the Atlacatl battalion, Colonel Domingo Monterrosa Barrios; Colonel Natividad de Jesus Caceres Cabrera; Supreme Court President Mauricio Gutierrez Castro; Major Robert D' Aubuisson; Army Captain Eduardo Avila; Captain Alvaro Saravia; and Fernando Segrera. The report also names five commanders of the ERP (the People's Revolutionary Army of the FMLN) as responsible for the killing of mayors. 28. Harold Pinter, 'Archbishop Romero's ghost can be avenged', The Observer (London), 28 March 1993. 29. CNN Super Channel television broadcast, 24 May 1993; cites memorandum from the US embassy in El Salvador expressing knowledge of how Archbishop Romero's assassination was planned and knowledge also of the El Mozote massacre (200 men, women and children killed in 1980). See also Noam Chomsky, Deterring Democracy (London: Verso, 1991). 30. Annika Savill, 'UN set to condemn Palestinian expulsions', The Independent (London), 19 December 1992. 31. Ian Black and Mark Tran, 'UN chief calls for sanctions and Israeli expulsions', The Guardian (London), 27 January 1993. 32. Anton La Guardia, 'Israel backs down over Palestinians', The Daily Telegraph (London), 2 February 1993. 33. Richard Dowden, 'UN under attack for Somalia "bungling" ', The Independent (London), 16 January 1992. 34. Michael Simmons, 'Aid agencies condemn UN as raiders seize convoy', The Guardian (London), 14 November 1992. 35. Richard Dowden, 'Somali faction warns of US "colonisation" ·.The Independ ent (London), 7 December 1992. 36. Mark Huband, 'US marines met by television crews', The Guardian (London), 9 December 1992. 37. Richard Dowden, 'US and UN at odds over Somalia', The Independent (Lon don), 15 December 1992. 38. Karl Maier, 'Mogadishu protesters lay siege to UN', The Independent (Lon don), 4 January 1993. 39. Bernard Morris, 'US seeks way out of the Somali bloodbath', The Sunday Times (London), 28 February 1993. 40. Mark Huband, 'US envoy admits failure to control Somali crime', The Guard ian (London), 3 March 1993. 41. Peter Hillmore, 'They came, they fed- and now they're getting the hell out', The Observer (London), 7 March 1993. 42. UN document SC/5573, 26 March 1993. 43. Mark Huband, 'Doubts cloud UN rebuilding of Somalia', The Guardian (Lon don), 3 May 1993. 44. Gerald Burke and Jonathan Ewing, 'UN "to blame" for Somalia deaths', The Guardian (London), 7 June 1993. 45. Mark Huband, 'Enter the terminator: US takes its revenge for massacre of the peacemakers', The Sunday Times (London), 13 June 1993; Peter Hillmore, 'UN deals out a sharp, short shock', The Observer (London), 13 June 1993. 46. Karl Maier ('20 demonstrators shot dead in Pakistan "revenge" ')and Jonathan Ewing ('Foreigners are rapidly becoming the enemy'), 'UN killings inflame Somali crisis', The Independent (London), 14 June 1993. Notes 317
47. Martin Walker, 'First sign of new US role', The Guardian (London), 14 June 1993. 48. Rakiya Omaar, 'For mercy read murder', The Guardian (London), 15 June 1993. 49. Robert Block, 'Former envoy criticises UN actions in Somalia', The Independ ent (London), 16 June 1993. 50. Peter Hillmore, 'The peacemakers at odds', The Observer (London), 27 June 1993. 51. Karl Maier, 'Three Italian soldiers die in shoot-out', The Independent (Lon don), 3 July 1993. 52. Somalia: Human Rights Abuses by the United Nations Forces (11 Marshalsea Road, London: African Rights, July 1993). 53. Mark Huband, 'UN Somalia action comes under fire', The Guardian (London), 5 August 1993. 54. Patrick Cockburn, 'Raid fiasco focuses US doubts over rule in Somalia', The Independent (London), 31 August 1993; Martin Walker, 'Mission impossible', The Guardian (London), 31 August 1993; Martin Walker, 'Pentagon says botched raid was not a mistake', The Guardian (London), 31 August 1993; Richard Ellis, 'Can "Delta farce" now get it right?', The Sunday Times (Lon don), 5 September 1993. 55. Massimo Alberizzi, 'US helicopters strafe Somalis', The Independent (Lon don), 10 September 1993. 56. In articles and broadcasts the investigative journalist John Pilger has worked to expose Western support for Pol Pot's Khmer Rouge: 'Asia's Nazis must not return', The Independent (London), 6 July 1990; 'Britain secretly giving mili tary Aid to Khmer Rouge', The Independent (London), 8 October 1990; 'In the service of a murderer', The Guardian (London), 16 October 1993. 57. Terry McCarthy, 'Cambodia stands on verge of anarchy', The Independent (London), 9 November 1992; David Watts, 'Collapse of talks bring Cambodia close to war', The Times, London, 10 November 1992; Nicholas Cumming Bruce, 'Cambodia peace pact "unworkable" ', The Guardian (London), II November 1992. 58. Jon Swain, 'UN losing battle for Cambodia in the brothels of Phnom Penh', The Sunday Times (London), 27 December 1992. 59. Jon Swain, 'UN digs in as Khmer Rouge fear stalks the voting fields', The Sunday Times (London), 16 May 1993. 60. Raymond Whitaker, 'UN celebrates rare good news from Cambodia', The Independent (London), 29 May 1993. 61. Robert Fisk, '"Cleansing" Bosnia at a camp called Jasenovac', The Independ ent (London), 15 August 1992. 62. Leonard Doyle, 'UN split over aid for Bosnians', The Independent (London), 26 May 1992. 63. Leonard Doyle and Helen Womack, 'Sanctions will be too little, too late', The Independent (London), 29 May 1992. 64. Leonard Doyle, 'UN turns deaf ear to plight of besieged cities', The Independ ent (London), 15 July 1993. 65. Ian Traynor, 'UN relief for Bosnia almost exhausted', The Guardian (London), 13 April 1993; Ian Traynor, John Palmer and Paul Webster, 'Thousands face starvation as UN food supplies run out', The Guardian (London), 14 April 1993. 318 Notes
66. Annika Savill, 'US may boycott UN meeting over Bosnia', The Independent (London), 18 May 1993. 67. Peter Pringle, Christopher Bellamy and Annika Savill, 'UN forced to delay Bosnia talks as West fails to agree', The Independent (London), 19 May 1993. 68. Text summaries are given in The Guardian (London), and The Independent (London), 24 May 1993. 69. Christopher Hitchens, Hostage to History (New York: The Noonday Press, 1989) pp. 121-30. 70. Ian Black and John Bierman, 'West urges Russia to lift Cyprus veto', The Guardian (London), 13 May 1993. 71. Leonard Doyle, 'UN officials "worked against Polisario" ', The Independent (London), 15 November 1991. 72. John Hooper, 'Polisario warns of resumed warfare', The Guardian (London), 22 February 1993. 73. Inis L. Claude, Swords into Plowshares (London: University of London Press, 1965) p. 218. 74. Tim McGirk, 'Kashmiri student tells of torture', The Independent (London), 25 May 1993. 75. CIA Memorandum, 18 June 1962, Declassified Documents Reference System (Arlington, V, 1975) Document 240A. 76. The New York Times, 12 March 1966, p. 6. 77. Noam Chomsky, 'East Timor', in The Chomsky Reader (London: Serpent's Tail, 1988); see also William Blum, The CIA: A Forgotten History (London: · ~d Books, 1991) pp. 217-22. 78. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, A Dangerous Place (New York: Little, Brown, 1978). 79. Editorial, The New York Times, 13 December 1975, p. 26. 80. It was reported that the killings had put paid to the chances of Indonesian foreign minister Ali Alatas becoming Secretary-General, what would have been in any case an eccentric appointment. 81. Mark Curtis, 'The executioner's charter', The Guardian (London), 25 Novem ber 1991; John Gittings, 'East Timorese accuse Britain of blocking action on Indonesia', The Guardian (London), 17 June 1992. 82. Margaret Coles, 'UN concern at E. Timor trial', The Guardian (London), 11 May 1993. 83. Quoted by Susan George, associate director of the Transnational Institute, Amsterdam, 'The billion-dollar men', The Guardian (London), 22 May 1992. 84. Carlo Ripa di Meana, EC environment commissioner, 'Why I will stay away from the Earth Summit', The Guardian (London), 30 May 1992. 85. David Lascelles, 'Vast agenda but thin on action', The Financial Times (Lon don), 2 June 1992. 86. Martin Walker, Paul Brown, Jan Rocha and John Vidal, 'Rio summit crum bling', The Guardian (London), I June 1992. 87. Nicholas Schoon, 'The Earth's wretched win few favours', The Independent (London), 15 June 1992. 88. Nicholas Schoon, 'Japan and EC fail to fulfil their promises', The Independent (London), 15 June 1992. Notes 319
Notes to Chapter 8: Time for Change 1. The systems interpretation of life is classically described in James Grier Miller, Living Systems (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1978). This is a magisterial work (1100 pages to two-column text) carrying many references to the United Nations. 2. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, Report ofthe Work ofthe Organisation from the Forty sixth to the Forty-seventh Session of the General Assembly (New York: United Nations, September 1992). 3. Beyond the Nation State: Liberal Democrat Policies for International Institu tions, Federal Green Paper no. 25 (London: Liberal Democrats, July 1992) p. 9. 4. The Proceedings of CAMDUN-1, held 13-15 October 1990 in New York, published as Frank Barnaby (ed.), Building a More Democratic United Nations (London: Frank Cass, 1991); CAMDUN-2 was held in Vienna in September 1991, and subsequent meetings held in later years. 5. Leonard Doyle, 'Washington opposes spy role for UN', The Independent (London), 20 April 1992. 6. Anthony Bevins, 'Hurd urges UN to take "imperial" role', The Independent (London), 19 September 1992. 7. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omaar, 'Steps toward an accountable UN' (letter), The Independent (London), 13 November 1992. 8. Boutros-Ghali, Report, p. 9. 9. Simon Jones, 'Gen. MacKenzie slams UN's nine-to-fivers', The Independent on Sunday (London), 31 January 1993. 10. Mark Huband, 'Canteen politics tops UN agenda', The Guardian (London), 26 July 1993. 11. Ibid. 12. 'Talk poor by day; live rich by night', 'The corrupt heart of the UN bureauc racy', The Sunday Times (London), 15 August 1993; 'Inept UN is devastating the poor, says Oxfam', The Sunday Times (London), 22 August 1993; 'UN acts on report of waste and fraud', The Sunday Times (London), 29 August 1993; Peter Hillmore, 'British officer blows whistle on UN corruption', The Observer (London), 29 August 1993. 13. 'UN investigates corruption', The Guardian (London), 25 August 1993; Maggie O'Kane, Edward Luce, Ian Black and Edward Pilkington, 'UN promises to stamp out corruption among troops in Bosnia', The Guardian (London), 27 August 1993. 14. Norman Stone, 'The soldiers of misfortune', The Guardian (London), 27 August 1993; Conor Cruise O'Brien, The Independent (London), 27 August 1993. 15. The UN and The Sunday Times (London: United Nations Information Centre, 9 September 1993). 16. David Bryer, 'Oxfam puts its case against the UN' (letter), The Sunday Times (London), 12 September 1993. 17. Boutros-Ghali, Report, pp. 16-17. 18. Hella Pick and Mark Huband, 'Members begrudge UN the cost of policing conflict', The Guardian (London), 29 May 1993; Hella Pick, 'Good intentions suffer under the burden of bad debts', The Guardian (London), 4 August 1993. 320 Notes
19. Peter Pringle, 'Overload for peace-keepers', The Guardian (London), 16 June 1993. 20. The text of the letter is given in The Guardian (London), 5 August 1993. 21. Annika Savill, 'UK finds a way to hold on to the mother of all seats', The Independent (London), 7 January 1992. 22. UN Peacekeeping and Intervention Forces, Defence Committee, fourth report, House of Commons paper 188/369 (London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1993). 23. Annika Savill, 'Britain starts to bow towards the inevitable', The Independent (London), 9 July 1993. 24. Richard Gott, 'Nations divided by a lost vision', The Guardian (London), 28 August 1993. 25. Leonard Doyle, 'UN starts process of electing a leader', The Independent (London), 11 October 1991; Leonard Doyle, 'How Cairo's man finally won the day', The Independent (London), 23 November 1991. 26. Barnaby (ed.), Building a More Democratic UN. This comprehensive book discusses radical UN reform from many different perspectives. 27. This important proposal cannot be explored here. Interested readers should refer to ibid., especially pp. 83-148; see also Jeffrey J. Segall and Harry H. Lerner (eds), CAMDUN-2: The United Nations and a New World Order for Peace and Justice, Report of the Second International Conference on A More Democratic United Nations (Vienna 1991) (London: CAMDUN Project, 1992). 28. Conor Cruise O'Brien, 'Ritual humiliation at the UN', The Independent (Lon don), 4 June 1993. 29. Louis Mountbatten, 10 August 1947, Broadlands Archives, Dl, quoted in Philip Ziegler, Mountbatten (London: Collins, 1985) p. 450. 30. Jon Holliday, 'Secret war of the top guns', The Observer (London), 5 July 1992. 31. Conor Cruise O'Brien, To Katanga and Back: A UN case history (New York: Universal Library, 1962) p. 63. 32. Ibid., p. 64. 33. Leonard Doyle, 'UN's dream leader heads for disaster', The Independent (London), 27 July 1992; Mark Tran, 'Question mark over future of Boutros Ghali', The Guardian (London) 27 July 1992; 'The order of the boot for Boutros?' (editorial), The Guardian (London), 28 July 1992; Patrick E. Tyler, 'UN Chief's dispute with Council boils over', The New York Times, 3 August 1992. 34. Leonard Doyle, 'Boutros-Ghali's "harsh" style under fire again', The Inde pendent (London), 30 October 1992. 35. Cameron Duodo, 'The West is to blame, not Boutros-Ghali', The Observer (London), 9 August 1992. 36. 'US cash threat over WHO head', The Guardian (London), 5 May 1993; Ian Black, 'West fails to block Japanese chief of world health body', The Guardian (London), 6 May 1993. 37. As with the World Court ruling in favour of Nicaragua in 1984; and against the US-supported Morocco, intent on occupying Western Sahara, in 1975. 38. Lynne Wallis, 'Cuba's hunger feeds an epidemic of pain', The Observer (London), 23 May 1993. Notes 321
39. H. J. Morgenthou, Politics among Nations (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960). 40. FAOIWFP Crop and Food Assessment Mission to Iraq, Special Alert no. 237 (Rome: Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations and World Food Programme, July 1993). 41. Richard Dowden, 'Why the food just stopped', The Independent on Sunday (London), 6 June 1993. 42. Richard Dowden, 'Liberia lives at risk as UN blocks food aid', The Independ ent (London), 2 September 1993. 43. Conor Cruise O'Brien, 'Disorder between war and peace', The Independent (London), 18 June 1993. 44. Edward Heath, 'UNdone', The Guardian (London), lO July 1993. 45. Hugh Muir, 'Britain lags in battle to beat racism, says the UN', The Daily Telegraph (London), 21 August 1993. 46. Boutros Boutros-Ghali, 'UN multilateralism: a cure for ugly new national isms', International Herald Tribune, 21-2 August 1993. Bibliography
Three types of publications have been consulted in the preparation of the present work:
(l) books about the United Nations (its character, history, personnel and so on) that are not UN publications. Such books are sometimes written by current or former UN employees; (2) books not specifically about the United Nations but which provide crucial historical or political background information; (3) books published by the United Nations or its Specialised Agencies.
The present Bibliography lists items from the first two categories but not from the third. The current UN Publications Catalogue includes thousands of items listed in 149 pages. Interested readers should refer to this Catalogue.
Akehurst, Michael, A Modern Introduction to International Law (London: HarperCollins Academic, 1991). Allen, H. G., Great Britain and the United States (London: Odhams Press, 1954). Ambrose, Stephen E., Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy since I938, 5th edn (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1988). Ash, Timothy Garton, We the People: The Revolution of 89 (Cambridge: Granta, 1990). Baehr, P. R. and Gordenker, L., The United Nations: Reality and Ideal (London: 1984). Baer, George W., The Coming of the ltalian-Ethiopian War (Cambridge, Mass.: 1967). Bailey, Sydney D., The Procedure of the UN Security Council (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988). Bailey, Thomas A., Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace (New York: Macmillan, 1944). Baldev, China, UNO and World Peace (Delhi: International Reporter Publications, 1971). Barnaby, Frank (ed.), Building a More Democratic United Nations: Proceedings of the First International Conference on a More Democratic UN (London: Frank Cass, 1991). Barnet, Richard J ., Intervention and Revolution (London: MacGibbon & Kee, 1970). Barros, James, Office Without Power: Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond, I9I9- I933 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1979). Bassett, Richard, Waldheim and Austria (Harmondsworth, Middx: Viking Penguin, 1988). Bennis, Phyllis and Moushabeck, Michel, Beyond the Storm: A Gulf Crisis Reader (Edinburgh: Cannongate Press, 1992). Bergamini, David, Japan's Imperial Conspiracy (London: Heinemann, 1971 ). Blum, William, The CIA: A Forgotten History (London: Zed Books, 1986).
322 Bibliography 323
Bodenheimer, Thomas and Gould, Robert, Rollback!: Right-wing Power in US Foreign Policy (Boston, Mass.: South End Press, 1989). Boyd, Andrew, Fifteen Men on a Powder Keg: A History ofthe UN Security Council (London: Methuen, 1971). Branford, Sue and Kucinski, Bernardo, The US, the Banks and Latin America (London: Zed Books, 1990). Brierly, J. L., The Law of Nations: An Introduction to the International Law of Peace (London: Oxford University Press, 1963). Brogan, Hugh, History of the United States ofAmerica (London: Longman, 1985). Bryce, James, International Relations (New York: Macmillan, 1923). Castberg, Frede, The Voting Procedure in the League of Nations and the United Nations (Oslo: F. Castberg and E. Dons, 1949). Cecil, Lord Robert, A Great Experiment (London: Oxford University Press, 1941). Choate, J. H., The Two Hague Conferences (Princeton, N.J., and London: 1913). Chomsky, Noam, Deterring Democracy (London and New York: Verso, 1991). Claude, In is L., The Changing United Nations (New York: Random House, 1967). --Swords into Plowshares: The Problems and Progress ofInternational Organi- zation (New York: Random House, 1951). Cockburn, Andrew and Leslie, Dangerous Liaison (London: Bodley Head, 1992). Comay, Joan, The United Nations in Action (New York: Macmillan, 1965). Davis, Betty Jane, Charter for Tomorrow (Seattle: University of Washington, 1946). Degler, Carl N., Out of Our Past (New York: Harper & Row, 1959). Devlin, Patrick, Too Proud to Fight (London: Oxford University Press, 1974). Dusen, Henry P. van, Dag Hammarskjold: A Biographical Interpretation of Mark- ings (London: Faber & Faber, 1967). Eagleton, Clyde, United Nations and United States (Dallas, Tx.: Southern Methodist University Press, 1951). Echelberger, Clark M .• United Nations- The First Ten Years (New York: Harper, 1955). Egerton, G. W., Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics and International Organisation, 19I4-1919 (London: 1979). Evatt, Herbert Vere, The United Nations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1948). Fa1k, Richard A. (ed.), The Vietnam War and International Law (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1968). Fehrenbach, T. R., This Kind of Peace (London: Frewin, 1967). Feis, Herbert, Churchill, Roosevelt and Stalin (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957). Finer, Herman, Dulles Over Suez: The Theory and Practice of his Diplomacy (Chicago, Ill.: Quadrangle Books, 1964). First, Ruth, South West Africa (Harmondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1963). Fleming, D. F., The Cold War and its Origins, 1917-1960 (New York: Doubleday, 1961). Foley, Hamilton, Woodrow Wilson's Case for the League of Nations (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1923). Frankel, Joseph, International Relations in a Changing World (London: Oxford University Press, 1964). Fromkin, David, A Peace to End All Peace (London: Deutsch, 1989). Fulbright, J. William, The Price of Empire (London: Fourth Estate, 1989). 324 Bibliography
Garraty, John A., Henry Cabot Lodge (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1953). George, Susan, The Debt Boomerang: How Third World Debt Harms Us All (Lon don: Pluto Press, 1992). --How the Other Half Dies: The Real Reasons for World Hunger (Hannondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1991). Gildersleeve, Virginia C., The Making of the United Nations Charter (New York: Macmillan, 1954). Goodman, Walter, The Committee (London: Seeker & Warburg, 1969). Goodrich, Leyland and Simmons, Anne P., United Nations and Maintenance of International Peace and Security (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1955). Goodwin, Geoffrey L., Britain and the United Nations (London: 1957). Griffin, G. Edward, The Fearful Master: A Second Look at the United Nations (Belmont, Mass.: Westward Islands, 1964). HammarskjOld, Dag, Markings (London: Faber & Faber, 1964). --Servant of Peace (London: The Bodley Head, 1962). Hancock, Graham, Lords of Poverty (London: Macmillan, 1992). Hersh, Seymour M., Kissinger: The Price of Power (New York: Summit Books, 1983). --The Samson Option: Israel, America and the Bomb (London: Faber & Faber, 1991). Herzstein, Robert Edwin, Walheim: The Missing Years (London: Grafton Books, 1988). Hiro, Dilip, Desert Shield to Desert Storm: The Second Gulf War (London: Paladin, 1992). --The Longest War: The Iran-Iraq Military Conflict (London: Paladin, 1990). Hiscocks, Richard, The Security Council (London: Longman, 1973). Hitchens, Christopher, Hostage to History (New York: Noonday Press, 1989). Hoffman, Nicholas von, Citizen Cohn (London: Harrap, 1988). Hofstadter, Richard, The American Political Tradition (London: Jonathan Cape, 1971). Hoggart, Richard, An Idea and its Servants: UNESCO from Within (London: Chatto & Windus, 1978). Holcombe, Arthur N., The United Nations and American Foreign Policy (Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1957). Horowitz, David, From Yalta to Vietnam: American Foreign Policy in the Cold War (Hannondsworth, Middx: Penguin, 1967). Hovet, Thomas Jr, Bloc Politics in the United Nations (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1960). Hull, Cordell, Memoirs (New York: Macmillan, 1948). Jatlov, Edwin, The United Nations- The First Twenty-five Years (London: Peter Owen, 1970). Jensen, E. and Fisher, T., The United Kingdom- The United Nations (London: Macmillan, 1990). Kahin, George MeT., Intervention: How America became Involved in Vietnam (New York: Anchor Books, Doubleday, 1987). Kelsen, Hans, Law of the United Nations: A Critical Analysis of its Fundamental Problems (New York: Praeger, 1950). Bibliography 325
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Aaronson, Mike, 193 Algerian National Liberation Front Abdic, Fikret, 214 (FLN), 222 Abkhazia, 154, 156 Ali Atalan, 247 Abrams, Elliot, 187 Alipu, Nicholas, 179 Abyssinia, xv, 27-30, 31, 35, 192 Allen, William, 5 see also Ethiopia Aloisi, Baron, 29 Acheson, Dean G., 114 Amberley, Lord, 6 Adams, John Quincey, 17 American Communist Party, 76 Addis Ababa, 30 see also Communists, communism administration (UN), 239, 240 American Legion, 98 see also mismanagement (UN) American Peace Society, 5-6 Afghanistan, 101, 145 see also Peace Society (London- Africa, xiii, 43, 62, 69, 73, 175-6, 222, based) 226, 245 Amnesty International, xiii, 224 see also individual states Andreatta, Beniamino, 200 African Development Bank, 71 Andropov, Yuri, 148 African National Congress (ANC), Angoche, 183 121, 177 Angola, xv, 176, 177, 178-82, 183, African Rights group, 199, 200, 239 186,224,243,252 Africa Watch, 239 Anstee, Margaret. 179, 180 Aga Khan, Sadruddin, 247 Antall, Jozsef, 159 aggression, 26-7, 28-9, 31, 105, 111, apartheid, 120-1 116, 119, 124, 125, 129, 135-6, Arab League 137, 142, 143, 144, 168, 170, see League of Arab States 213, 220, 227 Arabs, Arab states, 22, 49, 107, 108 Ahtisaari, Martti, 169 see also individual states Aideed, Mohammed Farah, 193, 197, Arafat, Yasser, 191 198, 199, 200, 201 Argentina, 76, 84 aid (UN), xi, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, Armenia, 22 197, 198, 201, 208, 209, 210, Asia, 43, 73, 82, 86, 222, 226 211,212,214,215,217,219, see also individual states 233, 242, 252-3 assassinations, assassination attempts, AIDS, 74 129, 173, 183-4, 185, 186 see also diseases see also genocide Ajello, Aldo, 183 Athens peace talks (1993), 209 Akashi, Yasushi, 204, 205 Atlantic Charter, 36, 41 Albania, 89, 149, 151 Atomic Energy Commission (UN), 89 Albanians, 215 atrocities, 143-4, 213, 214, 215, Albright, Madeleine, xii, 246 220-1, 227-8 Alexander, Robert C., 97-8 see also genocide; human-rights Alexander the Great, 55 abuses Alexandria, 122 al-Attar, Leila, 170 Algeria, 60, 122 Attlee, Clement, 83, 87, 112
328 Index 329
Austin, Warren R., 49 Boston, 49 Australia, 35, 48, 49, 75 Botha, Pik, 179 Austria, 133 Bourgeois, Leon, ll Austrian State Treaty (1955), 60 Boutros-Ghali, Boutros, 62, 173-4, Azerbaijan, 149 180, 187, 188, 190, 193, 194, Azeris, 159 196,200,203-4,207,208,211, 217,218,219,220,221,224, Baghdad, 139, 140, 167, 170 225, 237, 238, 239, 241, 242, Bailby, Edouard, 184 243,246,247,248,250,253 Baker, James, 166-7 Bowden, Mark, 194 Balbo, General, 25 Bray, Denys, 30 Balfour Declaration ( 1917), 22, 107 Brazil, 29, 39, 133, 253 Baltic states, 149, 150 Bretton Woods Conference (1944), 37, see also individual states 38-40, 68, 81, 162 'Bancor' plan (Keynes), 39 Brezhnev, Leonid, 147, 148 Bangkok conference (UN), 229 Briand-Kellogg Pact, 24, 29 Bangladesh, 145 Bright, John, 6 Banja Luka, 213 Britain Barcelona, 30 see United Kingdom Baruch, Bernard M., 89 British Aerospace (BAe ), 228 Baruch Plan, 89-90 British Empire, 43, 52 Batista, Fulgencio, 129 see also colonies, colonialism Beirut, 125-6 Browder, Earl, 91 Beletuen, 193 Brown, George, 135 Belet Weyn, 200 Bruce Commission, 64 Belgium, 8, 9, 35, 75, 126, 127, 243 Brundtland, Gro Harlem, 247 Berber, Fritz, 11 Brussels, 47 Berlin Wall, 150 Bryer, David, 241 Bermuda,82 Budapest, 150 Bernadotte, Folke, I 08 budget (UN) Berne Convention (1886), 67 see debts to (UN); funds (UN) Bihac, 214 Bukar, Jan, 92 biodiversity treaty (Rio), 233, 234 Bulgaria, 89, 150, 151, 152, 158 Blundy, David, 184 Bunche, Ralph, 109 boat people (Vietnamese), 230 bureaucracy (UN), 239 Bohlen, Charles, 83 see also administration (UN) Bolivia, 29 Burke, Edmund, 19 Bondelzwarts affair, 21 Burritt, Elihu, 6 Borah, William, 17, 18 Bush, George, 131, 163-4, 167, 169, Bosnia-Herzegovina, 181, 207, 208, 187, 195, 196, 221, 233, 234, 241 209, 210, 211, 213, 214, 216, Byelorussia, 43 217,218,220,221,242,252 Byrnes, James, 86, 100, 101 Bosnian Croats, 209,210,211,213,215 see also Croats Cambodia, xv, 52, 119, 135-8, 142, Bosnian Muslims, 208, 209, 210, 211, 201-6,242,243,252 213,214,215,219,220 Cambodian Peoples' Party, 205 Bosnian Serbs, 208, 209, 210, 21l, Camp David Accord, 125 212, 213, 219, 242, Canada,35, 75,107,133,221,231,243 330 Index
Cape Verde, 179 Clinton, Bill, 72, 155, 159, 170, 181, Carrington, Lord, 218 189, 194, 195, 196, 198-9, 200, Carter, Jimmy, 184, 227 211, 213, 219, 220, 230, 234, Casey, William, 142 241,246,251 Castro, Fidel, 129, 130, 131, 168 Clinton Doctrine, 198 Ceausescu, Elena, 150 Coalition Government of Democratic Ceausescu, Nicolae, 150 Kampuchea (CGDK), 138 Cecil, Lord Robert, 11, 15, 16, 34 Cobden, Richard, 6 Central America, 85, 141-2 Cohen, Herman, 180 see also individual states Cohn, Roy, 94 Central Europe, 104 Cold War, 81-105, 146, 147, 163, 165, see also individual states 222, 238 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), colonies, colonialism, 20--1, 28, 38, 43, 103, 104, 105, 113, 121, 128, 82, 93, 126, 127, 128, 158, 175, 136, 142, 143, 146, 160, 163, 176, 195, 222 176, 182, 187,226, 227 see also Trusteeship Council ceremonial initiation (UN), 57 Columbia, 143 Cerska, 208 Columbo--Peruvian War (1934), 32 Chakrapong, Norodom, 205 Commission on the Truth (UN), 186-7 Chalker, Lynda, 195 Commission on the Truth (UN) Chamberlain, Neville, 30 Report, 187 Chambers, Whittaker, 96 Commonwealth of Independent States Chang Hsueh-liang, 26 (CIS), 157, 159 Chang Tso-lin, 26 Communications and Transit Charter 77, 149 Organisation (League of Nations), Charter of the United Nations 12 see UN Charter Communist Party of the Russian Chernenko, Konstantin, 148 Federation (CPRF), 157 Chiang Kai-shek, 113 Communists, communism, 100, 103, Chidzero, Bernard, 247 104-5,113,206,207,226 Chile, 39 see also 'communist' United China, 26, 27, 36, 40, 44, 45, 56, 58, Nations 76, 77, 110, 111, 112, 113-16, 'communist' United Nations, 88, 91-9 137,138,166-7,168-9,217,226, Concerned Citizens Speak, 248 231 Concert of Europe, 7 Chinchow, 27 Conference of A More Democratic Chissano, Joachim, 182-3 United Nations (CAMDUN), 237, Chou En-lai, 116 248 Christopher, Warren, 190, 246 Congo, 126-9, 250 Churchill, Winston, 22, 36, 42, 43, 52, Congress (US), 7, 37, 81, 166, 181, 251 82, 83-4, 86-7' 100, 102, 126 see also House of Representatives Civic Forum, 151 (US); Senate (US) civil war (Chinese), 113 Connally, Tom, 38 civil war (Greek), 89 Constantinople, 22 civil war (Spanish), 30--1 Contadora Act, 143, 144 Clemenceau, Georges, 8, 9, 10, 16 Contadora Group, 143, 144-5 Cierides, Glafkos, 221, 222 containment policy, 99, 100--5, 147 Clifford, Clark, 119 corruption (UN), 239, 240 Index 331
Costa Rica, 29, 143, 184 Democratic Republic of Vietnam, 116, Council (League of Nations), 12, 21, 118 23,24,26,27,28-9,31,45 see also Vietnam War Council of Europe, 71, 151, 156 de Moura, Venacio, 180 counter-revolutionaries ('contras'), Denktash, Rauf, 221 142, 143-4 Denmark, 39 Covenant (League of Nations), xv, 4, Department of Humanitarian Affairs 8, 9, 10--12, 16--17, 19, 21, 23, (DHA), 170, 193 26, 29, 32, 34, 35,56, 228 de Saint-Pierre, Abbe, 4 Covenant of Civil and Political Rights de Soto, Alvaro, 185 (UN), 228, 230 de Waal, Alex, 239 covert operations, 103, 104 Dhaklama, Alfonso, 182-3 see also Central Intelligence Agency Dickens, Charles, 6 (CIA) Dien Bien Phu, 117 Creech-Jones, Arthur, 107 'Dighenis', 132 Cristiani, Alfredo, 185, 187 di Meana, Carlo Ripa, 232 Croatia, 151, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, disarmament (under League of 214, 216, 217, 242 Nations), 23-6 Croats, 208, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214 see also Permanent Armaments see also Bosnian Croats Commission (League of Cuba, xiv, 129-31, 142, 161, 166, 168, Nations) 176, 177,251-2 disarmament conference (League of Cuba Democracy Act, 251 Nations), 24-5 Cuba missile crisis, 130--1 disease, xiv, 73-4, 173, 183, 251 Cultural Revolution (Chinese), 114 domestic jurisdiction (UN), 52-3 Curzon, Lord, 21 dos Santos, Jose Eduardo, 178, 181 Cyprus, 132-4, 221-2 Drug Traffic Committee (League of Czechoslovakia, 35, 68, 86, 107, 149, Nations), 12 150, 151 Drummond, James Eric, 15, 28, 33 Czech Republic, 154 Duff, Alasdair, 175 Dulles, Allen, 136 Dalai Lama, 231 Dulles, John Foster, 45, 110, 117, 118, Daniels, Jonathan, 44 122, 123, 136 Danube Commission, 6 Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944), Dardanelles, 22 40--2,43,44,46,81,85,96 d' Aubuisson, Roberto, 184 Duodu, Cameron, 250 Dayal, Rajeshwar, 250 de Bethune, Maximilien, 4 Eagleburger, Laurence, 188 de Bono, Emilio, 28 Early, Steve, 44 debts (to UN), 241-2, 243, 244, 251, Earth Summit 252, 253 see United Nations Conference on Declaration of Human Rights (UN), 229 Environment and Development Declaration of Independence (UNCED) (Vietnamese), 116 Eastern Europe, 85, 87, 88, 89 102, Decolonisation Committee (UN), 66 104, 105, 147, 148-59, 160, 206 Delano, Laura, 44 see also individual states Democratic Kampuchea, 137 East Germany, 150 see also Cambodia East Timor, 226--8 332 Index
Economic and Financial Organisation Feinberg, Abe, 108 (League of Nations), 12 Feisal, King, 22 Economic and Social Council (UN), Fhimah, Amin Khalifa, 172, 175 54, 61, 64-5, 72-3, 75, 186 Filatov, Sergei, !57 Ecuador, 168 financial organisations (UN), 68-70 Eden, Anthony, 28, 29, 30, 122, 123 see also General Agreement on education, 71, 99 Tariffs and Trade (GATT); Egypt, 29, 48, 101, 122-4, 125, 168, International Monetary Fund 175, 218 (IMF); World Bank Eichmann, Adolf, 105 Finland, 32, 133 Eisenhower, Dwight D., I 08, 117, 123 First World War, 7, 22, 47, 106 elections, 117, 118, 120, 178, 181, Fisk, Robert, 206 185,203,204,205,247-8 Food and Agriculture Organisation El Nispero, 143 (FAO), 67, 71, 74, 171,233-4,252 El Salvador, 49, 143, 144, 145, 183-7, Formosa, see Taiwan 224,243,252 Forrestal, James, 101 England, 8, 25 Fourteen Points (Woodrow Wilson), see also United Kingdom 7-8, 17,23, 36 enosis, 132 France, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 20, 22, 25, 28, environmental protection, 232-4 29,35,36,39,40,45, 55,58,69, EOKA (National Organisation of 75, 103, 114, 118, 122, 168, 173, Cypriot Struggle), 132, 222 175, 191, 198,209, 210,211, Erasmus, Desiderius, 3 217,218,220,223,224,242, Eritrea, 28, 192 243,245,246-7 Esher plan, 24 Franco, General, 223 Estonia, 149, 154 Frankfurter, Felix, 95 Ethiopia, 196 free trade, 6 see also Abyssinia see also General Agreement on 'ethnic cleansing', 203, 206, 210, 211, Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 213,214,217,220 Frente de Libertac;:ao de Moc;:ambique Europe, 16,29, 30,42,48,49, 82, 85, (FRELIMO), 182 103, 104, 159, 162 Frente Nacional de Libertac;:ao de see also individual states Angola (FNLA), 176 European Economic Community, xiv, Frente Popular para Ia Liberation de 74,206,207,212,216,219, Saguia el-Harnra y Rio de Oro 221-2, 229, 245, 246, 247 (Polisario), 223, 224 European Recovery Programme, 103 Fretilin, 227 Fulbright, J. William, 38, 146 Fahd, King, 168 Fulbright Resolution, 38 famine, xiv, 171, 180, 183, 209, 210, Fulton (Missouri), 86-7, 100 252 Fulton speech (Churchill), 86-8, 100 Farabundo Marti National Liberation Funcinpec (royalist) party, 202, 205 Front (FMLN), 184, 185, 186 funds (UN), 238, 241-4, 250--1 facism, 84, 89, 94, 95, 103, 206, 227 see also debts (to UN) see also Hitler, Adolf; Mussolini, Benito; Nazis G7 nations, 151, 152, 154, 156, 162, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), 247 95,96-7 Gaddafi, Muammar, 172, 173, 174, Federenko, Nikolai, 131 175, 223 Index 333
Gaidar, Yegor, 155 Gestapo, 105 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 161 Gifford, Lord, 167 Gallucci, Robert, 77 glasnost ('openness'), 148 Gamsakhurdia, Zviad, 159 Glazyev, Sergei, 155 Ganic, Ejup, 212 Goddard, Henry W., 97 Garcia-Inchaustegui, Mario, 131 Golan Heights, 124, 191 Garnji Vakuf, 215 Gorazde, 218, 220 GAIT Gorbachev, Mikhail, 148, 149, 151, see General Agreement on Tariffs 155, 156, 159 and Trade Gorbunov, Anatoly, 153 Gaza Strip, 124, 188, 189, 191 Goulding, Marrack, 179 Gdansk, 149 Gracey, Douglas D., 116 Gehlen, Reinhard, 104 Grachev, Pavel, 156 Gencsoy, Mustafa, 221 Grandi, Count, 28 General Agreement on Tariffs and Greece, 35, 55, 56, 89, 102, 111, 132, Trade (GATT), xiii, 40, 70, 145, 215, 221 162 Greek Cypriots, 132, 133, 221, 222 General Assembly (League of Grenada, 142 Nations), 12, 15, 21, 32, 33-4 Grey, Lord, 18 General Assembly (UN), 41, 43, 48, Griffin, G. Edward, 93, 98 49-50,54,55,56-8,59,60,61, Grivas, George, 132 63, 65, 71, 72, 73, 75, 84, 93, 96, Gromyko, Andrei, 130, 148 99, 106-7, 108, 110, 114, 115, Gross, Ernest, 62 120-1, 123, 124-5, 126, 132, 134, Grotius, Hugo, 4 138, 144-5, 163, 175, 185, 214, Guantanamo base, 130 219,225,229,238,244,245, Guatemala, 60, 107, 184 248, 251 Guernica, 31 General Peace Convention (1843), 6 Guinea, 129 Geneva, 11, 15,47, 60, 73,129,177, Gulf of Tonkin, 118 184 Gulf War (1991), 161, 163, 167, 169, Geneva Conference 172, 221, 241 1954, 117 Gusmao, Xanana, 228 1993,210,211,212,213,214,215 Geneva Conventions Hadzimuratovic, Irma, 212 see Geneva Protocols Haig, AI, 187 Geneva Protocols, 24, 25, 126, 140, Haile Selassie, 28, 29, 192 188, 200, 251 Haiti, 230 Geneva Summit Conference (1955), 60 Hamas, 188, 189 genocide, 112, 116, 119, 137, 142, Hammarskjold, Dag, 53, 61, 62, 123, 184, 210, 212, 226-7, 228, 229 126,128,129,250 George, Lloyd, 9, 16 Hand, Graham, 231 Georgia, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158 Handa1, Shafik, 184 Gerlogubi, 28 Hangun, Abdi Mohamed Elmi, 196-7 Germanou, Georges, 204 Hankey, Maurice, 15 Germany, xii, 10, 11, 19, 24, 25, 27, Hanoi, 116 29,30,31,32,36,42,69, 86, Hansen, Peter, 193 102, 159, 163, 169, 198, 226, Hassan, King, 223, 224 245, 246, 247 Hatano, Yoshio, 245 see also East Germany Havel, Vaclav, 150 334 Index
Health Organisation (League of Iceland, 29 Nations), 12 Iliescu, Ion, 150 Hearst, William Randolph, 32 IMP/World Bank/GATT nexus, xiii, Hinton, Nicolas, 193-4 xiv, 163, 231, 249 Hiss, Alger, 95-7 see also General Agreement on Hitler, Adolf, 11, 25, 29, 32, 106 Tariffs and Trade (GATT); Hizbollah, 191 International Monetary Fund Hoare, Samuel, 29 (IMF); World Bank Hoare-Laval Pact ( 1935), 29 Imtiaz Shaneen, 193 Ho Chi Minh, 116 India, xiii, 76, 101, 107, I 14, 120, 132, Hochschule fiir Politik, 11 225,226,245 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 95 Indochina (French), 116 Holocaust, 105, 106 Indonesia, 56, Ill, 138, 227-8, 252 homosexual laws, 229 lnstitut de Droit International, 7 Honduras, 142, 143, 144 Intellectual Co-operation (League of Honecker, Erich, 150 Nations), 12 Hong Kong, 230 Inter-Allied Declaration (1941 ), 35-6 Hoover, Herbert, 25 Inter-Governmental Maritime Hoover, J. Edgar, 96-7 Consultative Organisation, 67 Hotel National (Geneva), 15 International Agency for Cancer House Committee on Un-American Research, 74 Activities, 92 International Atomic Development House of Representatives (US), 181 Authority (IADA), 87 see also Congress (US) International Atomic Energy Agency Howe, Jonathon, 199, 200 (IAEA), 68, 75-7 Huambo, 179, 181 International Bank for Reconstruction Hull, Cordell, 36-7, 84 and Development Human Development Index, 230 see World Bank Human Freedom Index, 229 International Civil Aviation human rights, 228-32 Organisation (ICAO), 37, 67 see also human rights abuses International Court of Justice (World human rights abuses, 109, 110, 120, Court), 45, 54, 59, 63-4, 106, 129, 169, 183-4, 188, 189, 198, 144, 223, 251, 252 200-1, 220-1, 224, 225, 226, 229, International Development Association 230,231 (IDA), 68, 70 see also assassinations, assassination International Finance Corporation attempts; atrocities; 'ethnic (IFC), 68, 70, 153 cleansing'; genocide International Fund for Agricultural Human Rights Centre (UN), 230 Development (IFAD), 67, 175 Hungary, 68, 149, 150, 151, 152, 159 International Health Office, 7 Hun Sen, 202, 205 International Institute of Hunter College (New York), 48, 89 Agriculture, 7 Hurd, Douglas, xii, 172, 210, 215, 238, International Labour Organisation 246, 247 (ILO), 12, 33, 67, 71 Husak, Gustav, 150 international law, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 190, Hussein, Saddam, 139, 141, 161, 165, 225, 251 167, 169, 173, 190,228 see also human rights abuses; International Court of Justice; Ibero-American Bureau of Education, Montreal Convention (1971); 71 UN resolutions Index 335
International Maritime Organisation Jenkins, Peter, 161 (IMO), 67 Jericho, 191 International Meteorological Jerusalem, 107, 124 Organisation (IMO), 67 Jewish state, foundation of, 107-9 International Monetary Fund (IMF), see also Israel; Palestine xiii, 37, 38, 39-40, 54, 68-70, Johnson, Lyndon, 119 129, 145, 150, 151, 152, 156, Jonah, James, 189, 192 168, 252 Jordan, 124 International Network for a UN Justice Department (US), 62-3, 96 Second Assembly (INFUSA), 248 International Programme for the Kadar, Janos, 149 Development of Communication, Kampuchea 72 see Cambodia International Red Cross, 189, 193, 200 Kang Sok Ju, 77 International Telecommunication Kant, Immanuel, 5 Union, 67 Karadzic, Radovan, 214, 215 International Telegraphic Union (later Karamanlis, Konstantin, 132 International Telecommunication Kasavubu, Joseph, 127, 128, 250 Union), 6-7 Kashmir, 60, 145, 225--6 International Trusteeship System (UN), Katanga, 127, 129 66 Kaufman, Ed, 108 interpretation (of UN Charter), 53-4 Kaufman, Samuel H., 97 Iran, 86, 88, 101, 138, 140-1, 142, Kennan, George F., 100-l 167, 168, 172 Kennedy, John F., 108, 130, 131, 226 Iran-Iraq War, 138-41 Kenya, 69, 196 Iraq, 19, 22, 48, 52, 55--6, 76, 112, Keynes, John Maynard, 39 138, 140, 141, 165-72, 175, 243, Khasbulatov, Ruslan, 153, 154, 155, 156 252 Khieu Samphan, 137, 138 'lraqgate' ('Saddamgate'), 141 Khmer Krom, 136 Ireland, 133 Khmer People's National Liberation 'iron curtain', 87, 100 Front, 202 Irwin, Michael, 70 Khmer Rouge, 136, 137, 138, 201, Isaiah, 3 202, 203, 204, 205, 206 isolationism (US), 18, 37, 81, 82 Khmer Serei, 136 Israel, 75,107-9, Ill, 123,124,125, Khomeini, Ayatollah, 141 126, 187-191,224,252 Khrushchev, Nikita, 128, 130, 131 ltalo-Ethiopian War, 28 Kilmuir, Lord, 122 see also Abyssinia Kim 11-Sung, 109 Italy, 8, 9, 10, 16, 25, 28-30, 31, 32, Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 187 103, 243 Kismayo, 200 Izetbegovic, Alija, 209, 210, 211, 212, Kissinger, Henry, 137, 176 213, 214 Kompong Cham province, 205 Kompong Thorn province, 203, 204 Jackson, Jesse, 177 Korea, 109 Jammu, 226 see also North Korea; South Korea Japan, xii, xiv, 9, 18, 26-7, 29, 32, 36, Korean War, 59, 60, 62, 109-13, 114, 69, 86, 116, 152, 160, 162, 163, 116, 119, 249-50 169, 203, 204, 233, 242, 243, Kornfeder, Josepf Z., 98 245, 246, 247 Korowicz, Marek Stanislaw, 92 Jarring, Gunnar V., 124 Kosovo, 149,214,215 336 Index
Krajisnik, Momicilo, 213 Lumumba, Patrice, 127, 128 Kravchuk, Leonid, 143, 156 Lusitania, 10 Krock, Arthur, 84 Luxembourg, 35, 39 Kuchuk, Fazil, 132 Lytton Report, 27 Kuomintang, ll3, 114 see also civil war (Chinese) Maastricht agreement, 246 Kurds, 161, 169, 242 MacArthur, Douglas, 86, 112 Kuwait, 140, 163, 165, 166, 170, 243 Macedonia, 55, 56 Kuznetsov, Cavily, 131 Machel, Samora, 182 Mackenzie, Lewis, 240 Ladd, William, 5 Macmillan, Harold, 226 Laos, 119, 138, 142 Maglaj, 210 Latin American Centre for Physics, 71 Maharajah of Kashmir, 225 Latvia, 149, 153 Major, John, 69, 152, 155, 212, 228 Laval, Pierre, 29 Makarios, Archbishop, 132 law, international Makashov, Albert, 157 see international law Malaysia, 56, 138 League of Arab States, 45, 71, 174 Malik, Yakov A., 113-14 League of Nations, xv, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Malta, 175 10, 11, 12-33, 35, 37, 42, 45, 47, Manchukuo, 26 50, 64, 67, 73, 81, 95, 106, 250 see also Manchuria see also Covenant (League of Manchuria, xv, 18, 26-8, 30, 31, 35, Nations) 101, 113 Lebanon, 125-6, 188, 189-90, 191, Mandates (League of Nations), 19-22, 243 43, 66, 102, 106-7, 120 Lend-Lease, 83, 85 Mandates Commission (League of Lenin, 157 Nations), 12, 21 Leopo1dville, 250 Mandatories (League of Nations), 19, Levinson, David, xiv 20-2 Liberia, 252 Mandela, Nelson, 121 library (League of Nations), 15, 33 Manz, Johannes, 223 Libya, xiv, 28, 76, 101, 142, 172-5, Mao Tse-tung, 113 223, 252 Marasyk, Tomas, 15 Lie, Trygve, 46, 47, 48, 50, 61, 62, 89, Marcum, John, 176 94, 95, 109, 111, 114, 120 Marshall, George C., 103 Liechtenstein, 29 Marshall Plan, 88, I 03-4 Lippmann, Walter, 84 Mauritania, 223 Lithuania, 149, 150, 155 McCarran, Pat, 94 Liu Binyan, 168-9 McCarran-Walter Act, 94, 95 Lloyd, Selwyn, 123 McCarthy, Joseph, 87, 94, 97 Locarno Pact, 24 McCloy, John J., 39, 85 Lockerbie bombing, 172, 173, 175 McGehee, Ralph, 227 Lodge, Henry Cabot, 17, 18 Megaoil (US), 159 Loi, Bruno, 200 ai-Megrahi, Abdelbaset, 172, 175 London,47, 177 Melendez, Jorge, 186 London peace conference (1992), 202 Membership (UN), 55-6, 244 'long telegram' (Kennan), 100-1 see also Member States (League of Lon Nol, 137 Nations); Permanent Members Luanda, 179, 181 (Security Council) Index 337
Member States (League of Nations), Mudavadi, Musalia, 69 12-14 Mugabe, Robert Gabriel, 135 Menderes, Adnan, 132 Mulroney, Brian, 247 Merimee, Jean-Bernard, 246 Multilateralism, 253 Merino, Francisco, 187 Murphy, Robert, 88 Metzenbaum, Howard, 194 Murphy, Thomas, 97 Mexico, 39, 143 Mussolini, Benito, 25, 28, 29, 30, 95 Middle East, 19, 60, 86, 167, 191, 243 Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), see also individual states 160 Middle East peace talks, 190, 191 Myers, Dee Dee, xiv Military Staff Committee, 112 Milosevic, Slobodan, 206, 207, 208, Nairn, Alan, 228 214, 215, 216 Nakajima, Hiroshi, 74-5, 250-1 Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD), Namibia, 121, 145, 176, 177-8 156 Nampula, 183 Minorities Committee (League of Nasrallah, Hassan, 191 Nations), 12 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 122, 123 minorities question (League of National Audit Office (UK), 75 Nations), 23 National Guard (Somoza), 142 mismanagement (UN), 240, 252 National Security Act (1947), 104 see also corruption (UN) National Security Council memoranda Mobutu, Joseph, 128, 250 NSC 4/A, 104 Mogadishu, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, NSC 10/2, 105 198, 199, 200, 240 NSC 58, 105 Mohammed, Ali Mahdi, 193, 199 NSC 68, 90-1, 100, 104, 105 Moi, President, 69 Nazis, 25, 30, 47, 89, 104, 105 Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovick, see also Hitler, Adolf 42-3, 83, 84 Needham, Richard, xiv Monaco, 29 Negrin, Juan, 30 Monroe, James, 17 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 249 Monroe, Doctrine, 16-17 Netherlands, 35, 39, 107, 226 Montenegro, 207, 208, 209, 217 New Deal, 81, 95 Montreal Convention ( 1971 ), 173, 174 Newfoundland, 36, 82 Montreux Convention (1936), 102 'New World Order', 146, 151, 159, Morgenthau, Henry, 82-3 161, 163, 164, 188, 222 Morillon, Philippe, 208, 209, 214 NewYork,48,49,81,92, 177,222 Morocco, 179, 222-3, 224 New Zealand, 35 Moscow, 181 Ngorny-Karabakh, 149 Moscow Declaration on General Nicaragua, 63, 142-4 Security (1942), 36 Nicholas II, Tsar, 7 Mostar, 210, 211, 212, 213, 215 Nicosia, 132, 221, 222 Mount lgman, 211, 212 Nikken, Pedro, 186 Movimento Popular de Liberta~ao de Nixon, Richard, 97, 137 Angola (MPLA), 176, 177, 178, non-governmental organisations 179, 180, 181 (NGOs), 231 Moynihan, Daniel Patrick, 227 Non-intervention Committee (over Mozambique, 176, 180, 182-3 Spain), 30, 31 Mozambique National Resistance Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), 75, Organisation (RENAMO), 182, 183 76-7 338 Index
NorthAfrica,82, 118,222 Palestine Liberation Organisation see also individual states (PLO), 124-5, 190-1 North Atlantic Treaty Organisation Palme, Olof, 139 (NATO), 88, 102, 158, 159, 160, Panama, 143 209,211,212,213,215,219 Paraguay, 29 Northern Ireland, 52 Paris,S-9,47 North Korea, 76-7, 109, 110, 111, 112 Pawlak, Waldemar, 157 see also Korea Peace Conference Norway, 35 1919, Paris, 8-10, 16, 89 Novi Travnik, 214 1946, Paris, 101 nuclear weapons, 86, 87, 88, 89-90, Peace Society (London-based), 5, 6 112, 117, 130, 160, 181 Peillod, Patrick, 212 see also International Atomic Peking, 113 Energy Agency (IAEA) Penn, William, 4 Nyerere, Julius, 70 Pennsylvania, 4 Peoples Republic of Kampuchea Oakes, John, 143 (PRK), 138 Oakley, Robert, 197 Peres, Shimon, 189 O'Brien, Conor Cruise, 51, 249, 250 perestroika ('restructuring'), 148 Observer Group Beirut (OGB), 125 Perez de Cuellar, Javier, 62, 126, 134, O'Donnell, Emmet, 112 140, 141, 167, 169, 184, 185, 186, Office of Policy Coordination (OPC), 207, 216, 223, 224, 228. 247, 248 103 Permanent Armaments Commission Office of Special Operations (OSO), (League of Nations), 24 104 Permanent Headquarters Commission Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 104 (UN), 48,49 Ogaden province (Abyssinia), 28, 192 Permanent Headquarters (UN), 48, 49, Ogata, Sadako, 210 50 Omaar, Rakiya, 199, 239 Permanent International Court of Operation Irma, 212 Justice (League of Nations), 12, see also Hadzimuratovic, Irma 23,33,63 Operation Life-line, 211, 212 Permanent Members (Security Operation Restore Hope, 196, 199 Council), xii, 45, 55, 58, 59, 60, Organisation of American States 115, 164, 168, 201, 220, 226, (OAS), 45, 130, 185, 230 238,242,244,245,246,247,250 Orlando, Vittorio, 16 see also Security Council (UN) Oslo, 47, 191, 215 Peru, 107 Ottomans, 106 Philadelphia, 49 see also Turkey Philip (of Macedon), King, 55 Oxfam, 241 Philippines, 75, 138 Owen, David, 208, 210, 212, 213, 215 Phillimore, Lord, II Phillips, Frederick, 82-3 Pace, John, 231 PhnomPenh,201,202,203,204,205 Pacific Security Pact (1951), 102 Pinter, Harold, 187 Pakistan, 197, 225 Poland, 35, 36, 68, 83, 84, 85, 149, Palais des Nations (Geneva), 15, 33 150, 151, 152, 153, 155, 157, 158 Palais Wilson, 15 Pol Pot, 136, 137, 138 Palestine, 19, 22, 106-9, 124-5, 127, Portugal, 30, 75, 129, 135, 176, 181, 175,226 182, 227 Index 339
Potsdam Conference (1945), 81, 85, Roosevelt, Franklin D., 18, 27, 29, 32, 102, 109 36,37,40,42,43,44, 81,82,83, power, problem of, 248-53 84,95,96 Preah Vihear temple, 205 Roosevelt, Theodore, 18 Preparatory Commission (League of Rousseau, Jean Jacques, 4 Nations), 24-5 Royal Government of National Union Prey Veng province, 205 of Kampuchea Protection of Children Committee see Khmer Rouge (League of Nations), 12 Royal Institute of International Affairs, Provisional Rules of Procedure (UN), 246 60 Rusk, Dean, 130 Prozor, 214 Russell, Bertrand, 6 Pu Yi, 26 Russia, 4, 58, 60, 68-9, 76, 151, 152, 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 163, Rabin, Yitzhak, 189, 191 164, 172, 179, 181,209,217, racial segregation, racism, 21, 230, 253 220,222,242,243,245 see also apartheid Russian Federation Radford, Admiral, 117 see Russia Raison, Timothy, 72 Rutskoi, Alexander, 153, 155, 156, Rappard, William, 19 158 Reagan, Ronald, 142, 144, 176, 177, 184, 187 Sabra refugee camp, 126 Red Cross Saddam Hussein see International Red Cross see Hussein, Saddam Red Guards, 114 'safe areas', 209, 211, 215, 216, 220, refugees, 12, 97-8, 144, 181, 213 242 Reichswehr, 25 Saharawi Peoples Liberation Army Renariddh,Prince,205 (SPLA), 223 representation (in UN), 42-3, 57, 59, Saharawis, 223, 224 63, 83, 96, 113-16, 164,244-8 Sahnoun, Mohammed, 194, 199 Representative Democratic Council, Salisbury, Lord, 122 109 sanctions, xiii, xiv, 29, 30, 35, 76, 121, Republican government (Spanish), 31 124, 135, 166, 167, 169, 171-2, resources (UN), 241, 242 173, 174, 175, 182, 187, 208, see also debts (to UN); funds (UN) 210,213,217,251-2 Reston, James, 84-5 Sandinistas, 143 Rhee, Syngman, 109, 110 see also Nicaragua Rhineland, 29 Sandino, Augusto, 142 Rhodesia, 134-5, 182 Sane, Pierre, xiii Richard, Henry, 6 San Francisco, 48, 49 Rifkind, Malcolm, 222 San Francisco Conference (1945), 42, 'Riga School', I 00 44-6,53,54,55,63,65, 84, 85, Rio de Janeiro, 232 92, 96 Rockefeller, John D., 49 San Jose, 184 rollback policy, 99, 100-5, 147 Sao-ke Sze, 27 Romania, 68, 150, 156, 158 Sarajevo, 207, 208, 21 I. 212, 213, Romero, Oscar Arnulfo, 184 214,215,217,218,220,240 Roosevelt, Alice, 18 Saudi Arabia, 29, 35, 101, 140, 168, Roosevelt, Eleanor, 87 169, 172 340 Index
Save the Children charity, 193-4 Shanghai, 113 Savimbi, Jonas, 176, 177, 178, Sharpeville, 120, 121 179-180, 181, 182, 183 Shatila refugee camp, 126 Scandinavia, 47 Shatt al-Arab, 139 see also individual states Shawcross, William, 136 Scheider, Joseph, 128 Sherman, Senator, 18 Scotland, 175 Shevardnadze, Eduard, 157, 158, 167 Second World War, 31, 35, 36, 41, 43, Sibert, Edwin, 104 64, 66, 81, 82, 103, 105, 113, Siem Reap, 204 116, 119, 132, 192,206,222 Sierra Leone, 75 Secretariat (League of Nations), 12, Sihanouk, Norodom, 136, 137, 202, 23, 60-l, 95 203, 205-6 Secretariat (UN), 33, 48, 54, 60-3, 66, Simon, John, 28 93,94-7,98 Simon, Paul, 194 Secretary-General (League of Nations), Sinai, 123, 124 15 Singapore, 138 Secretary-General (UN), 15, 46, 54, Sino-Soviet conflict, 114-15 61, 62, 128, 237, 247-8, 249 Sisowath Sirik Matak, 137 see also Boutros-Ghali, Boutros; Slavery Committee (League of HammarskjOld, Dag; Lie, Nations), 12 Trygve; Perez de Cuellar, Slovakia, 154 Javier; Thant, U; Waldheim, Slovenia, 207 Kurt Smith, Ian, 134 Security Council (UN), xii, xiii, xiv, Smith, Lawrence H., 98 41,42,45,46,48,54,55-6, Smith, Stephen, 108 58-60, 61, 63, 66, 75, 90, 92, Smuts, Jan Christian, 12, 15, 16 100,101,108,110,111,112, Snyder, John W., 49 113,114,115,117,118,119, Socialist Party of Working People 120-1, 123, 124, 125, 126, 129, (SWP), 157 130, 131, 132, 133, 134-5, 137, Somalia, xv, 19, 28, 52, 129, 176, 181, 138, 139-40, 141, 142-3, 144, 192-201,240,242,243,252 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, Somali1and (British), 192 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, Somaliland (Italian), 28, 192 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 187, Somoza, Anastasio, 142 188, 190, 192, 193, 194,207, Son Sann, 138 20~ 213, 216, 217, 218, 219, South Africa, 21-2, 75, 120-1, 135, 220, 221, 224, 226, 237, 238, 145, 176, 177, 180, 181, 182, 241,242,244,245,246,247, 183, 252 248,249,250,251,252,253 South America, 85 Senate (US), 17-18, 22 see also individual states see also Congress (US) South-East Asia Treaty Organisation Senegal, 129 (SEATO), 136 Serbia, 149, 209, 213, 217 South Korea, 76, 77, 109, 110, Ill, 112 Serbs,208,209,211,214,215,216,219 see also Korea see also Bosnian Serbs South West Africa, 19, 21-2, 120 Serot, Colonel, 108 see also Namibia Sert, Jose Maria, 15 South West African People's Seychelles, 75 Organisation (SW APO), 177-8 Index 341
Soviet Union Switzerland, 6, 47 see Union of Soviet Socialist see also Geneva Republics (USSR) Syria, 48, 124, 168, 172 Soyo, 181 Spain, xv, 30-1, 35, 55, 129, 209, 220, Taiwan, 76, 111, 113, 115 223 Tarnoff, Peter, xiv Spanish Sahara, 223 Tashkent, 225 Special Committee against Apartheid, Tasmania, 229 120 Tehran, 36, 139, 140 Specialised Agencies (UN), 54-5, 58, Temporary Headquarters (UN), 48-9 61, 65, 66-8, 71 Temporary Mixed Commission Special Procedures Group (SPG), 104 (League of Nations), 24 Sperry plant (Long Island), 49 Thailand, 138, 205 Srebrenica, 208, 209, 219, 220 Thant, U, 62, 115, 119, 124, 128, 129, Srinagor, 225 130, 131, 133 Stalin, Joseph, 36, 42, 43, 84, 85, The Hague, 7, 63 87-8,96 see also International Court of Justice State Department (US), 168, 179, 227, The Hague Conferences, 7, 63 245,252 The Hague Tribunal, 7 Statute of International Court, 63 see also Permanent Court (League Stettinius, Edward R., 40, 45, 49, 84, 85 of Nations) Stevenson, Adlai Ewing, 47-8, 118, Thekaekara, Marl Marcel, xiii 119, 130, 131 Thimayya, General, 133 Stimson, Henry L., 18, 27, 85 Third World, 38, 39, 56, 68-9, 72, Stockwell, David, 201 231, 233, 234, 241 Stoltenberg, Thorvald, 212, 247 Thornburgh, Dick, 239 Strom, Carl. 136 Thurow, Lester, 162 Strong, Maurice, 233 Tokyo, xii, 152 structural adjustment, xiii Tokyo Summit (1993), xii, 247 Sturge, Joseph, 5 Tonkin Gulf Suckley, Margaret, 44 see Gulf of Tonkin Suckocka, Hanna, 153 Torricelli Bill, 251 Sudan, 168, 252 torture, 229, 230 Suez Canal, 122, 132 see also atrocities; human rights Suez Canal Users' Association abuses (SCUA), 122 Traffic in Women Committee (League Suharto, General, 226, 227 of Nations), 12 Sukarno, President, 226 travaux preparatoires, 54 Sukhumi, 156 Trieste, 101, 102 Sully, Due de Tripoli, 175 see de Bethune, Maximilien Troika Concept, 128 al-Sultan, Fawzi Mamed, 175 Truman, Harry S., 44, 49, 83, 84, Summers, Lawrence, 232 85-6, 87, 95, 102, 104, 105, 108, Supreme National Court (SNC), 202 111,112 Supreme War Council, 9, 10 Truman Doctrine, 90, l 00, 102, 103 Suresnes, 8 Trusteeship Council (UN), 19, 48, 54, Svay Rieng province, 205 61, 65-6 Sweden, 107, 127, 133 trusteeship provisions, 43 342 Index
Tshombe, Moise, 127, 128 United Nations, 15, 31, 33, 34, 100, Tsiang, T. F., 114 101, 105, 117, 118, 119, 120, Tudjman, Franjo, 206 122, 123, 126, 127, 128, 130, Tunisia, 60, 175 131, 135, 139, 140, 141, 143, Turkey, 19, 86, 88, 101, 102, 132, 168, 145, 146, 147, 155, 158, 162-3, 221 164, 165, 167, 169-70, 171, 172, Turkish Cypriots, 132, 133, 134, 221, 173, 175, 176, 177-8, 179, 180, 222 181, 182, 183, 184-5, 189, 190, Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 134, 221 197-8, 199, 200, 201-2, 203, 204, Turtle Bay (New York), 49 205-6,207,208,209,210,211, Tuzla, 209, 220 212, 213, 214, 215, 216-21, 222, 223-5,226,227,228-32 Ukraine, 43, 105, 153, 154, 155, 156, as subversive organisation, 88, 91-9 158, 159, 218 background to, 35-7 UN Charter, 12, 19, 23, 34, 36, 40--1, creation of, 38-50 44,46,51-4,55,60,63,65,85, main organs, 54-77 86, 94, 96, 101, 102, 104, 105, purposes, 51-3, 238 106, 110, 111-12, 114, 119, 120, reform of, xii, 237, 239, 245-8, 121, 131, 135, 164, 165, 166, 250--1 168, 169, 173, 174, 194, 195, siting of, 46-50, 92 228-9,249,251,252,253 see also separate entries UN Conference on Food and United Nations Angola Verification Agriculture (1943), 37 Mission (UNA VEM), 180, 186, 243 UN Declaration (1942), 36 United Nations Childrens Fund unemployment, 230 (UNICEF), 72-3,74, 179, 194, Uniao Nacional para a Independencia 230,240,252,253 Total de Angola (UNITA), 176, United Nations Conference on 177,178, 179, 180--1, 182, 183, 186 Environment and Development unilateral declaration of independence (UNCED), 232-4 (UDI), 134 United Nations Development Union Miniere, 127 Programme (UNDP), 74, 193, 194 Union of Soviet Socialist Republics United Nations Educational, Scientific (USSR), 15, 27, 32, 36, 40, 42-3, and Cultural Organisation 45,47,49,58,59,60,66,68, 75, (UNESCO), 71-2, 97-9 81, 82, 83-8, 89, 90--1, 92, 97, United Nations Emergency Force 100--2, 104-5, 109, 110, 111, (UNEF), 123-4, 127 113-14, 117, 122, 127, 128,130, United Nations Force in Cyprus 131, 138, 147-8, 150, 151, 152, (UNFICYP), 132-3, 222 159, 160--1, 162, 163, 164, 168, United Nations High Commissioner 176, 192, 225, 245 for Human Rights, 230 United Kingdom (UK), 6, 9, 10, 20, 22, United Nations High Commissioner 28, 30, 35, 40, 45, 55, 58, 66, 69, for Refugees (UNHCR), 133, 194, 72,75, 77,82,83,85,87, 105,106, 210,211,212,214,218 107-8, 112, 114, 118, 121, 122-3, United Nations Human Rights 132, 133, 134, 166, 168, 172, 173, Committee, 229 174, 175, 192, 195,209,211,212, United Nations Industrial Development 215, 217, 220, 221, 222, 225, 226, Organisation (UNIDO), 67 227,228,231,232,234,237,242, United Nations Interim Force in 243, 245, 246-7, 248, 250 Lebanon (UNIFIL), 125, 126, 243 Index 343
United Nations Military Observer United States Military Government in Group, ll 0-ll Korea (USAMIGIK), 109 United Nations Observer Mission in El Universal Declaration of Human Salvador (ONUSAL), 185--Q, 243 Rights (UN), 229 United Nations Operations in Universal Postal Union (UPU), 7, 67 Mozambique (ONUMOZ), 183, UNOSOM II, 197, 198, 200 243 see also United Nations Operations United Nations Operation in Somalia in Somalia (UNOSOM) (UNOSOM), 195, 196, 240, 243 UN peacekeeping United Nations Operations in the see individual states Congo (ONUC), 127, 128 UN resolutions, 55--tl, 76, 77, 84, 110, United Nations Protected Areas 117, 119, 123, 125, 129, 139, (UNPAs), 216-17 166, 190, 221, 222, 226, 227, see also 'safe areas' 238,242-3,251,252 United Nations Protection Force GA 47119, xiv, 251 (UNPROFOR), 207, 208, 216-17, GA 48116, xiv 251 243 sc 84, 112 United Nations Relief and sc 242, 124, 187 Rehabilitation Administration sc 338, 187 (UNRRA), 37, 38,97-8 sc 435, 177 United Nations Relief and Works sc 465, 124, 187 Agency (UNRWA), 189 sc 476, 124, 187 United Nations Special Committee on sc 478, 124, 187 Palestine (UNSCOP), 107 sc 479, 139 United Nations Temporary sc 598, 140-1 Commission on Korea, 110-11 sc 660, 165--Q United Nations Transitional Authority sc 661, 166, 167 in Cambodia (UNT AC), 202, 203, sc 672, 187 204,205,243 sc 673, 124, 187 United Nations Truce Supervision sc 678, 166-7, 168 Organisation (UNTSO), 124, 125 sc 681, 124, 187-8 United Somali Congress, 195 sc 688, 23, 52 United States (US), xii, xiv-xv, 6, 7, 9, sc 713, 207, 216 10, 16-18, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, sc 721,216 32,35,36,37-50,52-3,57,58, sc 724,216 59,61-3, 66,69, 72,74-7,81, sc 731, 173 82-3, 84-105, 108, 109, 111-13, sc 743, 207, 216 114, 117, 118-19, 121, 122-3, sc 748, 174 127-8, 129, 130, 133, 135--tl, 138, sc 749,207 141-2, 143, 144, 145, 146, 152, sc 755, 218, 221 160-1, 162, 165, 166, 167-8, sc 757,217 169-70, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, sc 769,208 17~ 17~ 179, 180, 181, 18t sc 775, 195 183-4, 185--Q, 187, 188, 190, 191, sc 779,208 192, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, sc 785, 180 199,200,201,202-3,207,208, sc 794, 195, 197 209,210,211,213,215,217, sc 799, 188, 189, 190 218, 219-20, 221, 223, 224-5, sc 814, 197 227,228,231,232-3,241-2,243, sc 883, 174, 175 244.246,247,249-50,251,252 UN Sanctions Committee, 167, 169 344 Index
UN Second Assembly, 248 Watson, Alexander, xiv Uruguay, 107 Webster, Laurence, 30 Uruguay Round (GATT) Webster, William, 172 see General Agreement on Tariffs Wehrmacht, 206 and Trade (GATT) Weller, Marc, 174 Ustashe, 206 West Bank, 124, 188, 191 UTA DC-10 bombing, 172 Western Europe, 103 see also Europe Vance, Cyrus, 207, 208, 216 Western Sahara, 222-5, 239, 243 Vance-Owen peace plan, 208, 209, West Indies, 82 219, 220 White, Harry Dexter, 99 Vancouver, 152 White, Robert, 184 Vandenberg, Arthur, 45, 84, 101 White plan, 39 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 142 Wilkenson, Elen, 99 van der Broek, Hans, 246, 247 Wilson, Edith, 16 Vares, 215 Wilson, Harold, 134, 135 Vassiliou, George, 221 Wilson, Thomas Woodrow, 7-8, 9, Venezuela, 143 10-11, 15, 16-18, 23, 36 Venizelos, Eleftherios, 15 Wisner, Frank, 105 Versailles, Treaty of, 8, 10-11, 12, 15, Woollacott, Martin, 161 17, 24, 25, 32, 33, 35, 37, 67 World Bank, xiii, 37, 38, 39-40, veto (in League of Nations), 46 68-70, 74, 129, 145, 151, 153, veto (in UN), 46, 58, 59, 60, 92, 102, 168, 232, 252 110, 118, 144,219,222,245 World Citizens Assembly (WCA), 248 Vienna, 231 World Conference on Human Rights Vienna, Congress of, 9 (UN), 231 Viet Minh, 116, 117 WorldCOPE, 248 Vietnam, 137, 138 World Court see also Vietnam War see International Court of Justice Vietnam War, 86, 116-19, 135, 167,201 World Food Programme (WFP), 133, Vitez, 209, 210, 214 171, 181-2, 194,252 Volkogonov, Dmitri, 97 World Health Day, 73 Volstead Act, 81 World Health Organisation (WHO), voting rights, 54-5, 71, 73-5, 251 see representation (in UN) World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO), 67 Waldheim, Kurt, 62-3, 115-16, 121, World Meteorological Organisation 133, 139, 248 (WMO), 67 Walesa, Lech, 150, 151, 153, 154, 155, Wright, Ann, 200 157, 158 Wallace, Henry, 87, 101 Yalta Conference (1945), 42-4, 46, 81, Wall Street crash (1929), 81 83, 84, 96, 109 war crimes, 209, 211, 214, 219 Yeltsin, Boris, 68-9, 97, 148-9, 151, see also atrocities; Geneva 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, Protocols; human rights abuses 158, 159, 162, 164, 245-6 War Crimes Commission (UN), 62 Yemen, 166, 168 'war of constitutions' (Russia), 153 Yoshizawa, Zenkichi, 26, 27 Warsaw Pact, 158, 159, 160 Yugoslavia, xiv, xv, 35, 89, 101, 107, Washington, 191 149,206-21,240,243 Index 345
Yugoslav Peoples' Army, 207 Zetra, 211 Zhirinovsky, Vladimir, 159 Zaire, 126, 168, 182 Zimbabwe, 168 Zambia, 69, 129 see also Rhodesia Zepa, 209, 220 Zorin, Valerian, 131