D-w ~ ~ *u -'*-
ISIAMIC PUBLIC OF PAKISTAN .. * -:
WATER POIrwER DEVELOPMENT :AUTHORI INTERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRU C--- Public Disclosure Authorized
PAKISTAN -- DRAINAGESECTViOr0
-NATIONAL 1RI~. 0. Public Disclosure Authorized
. - i..--- z .... E * Zkit = -- NA9lONAte -- -. : : Public Disclosure Authorized Public Disclosure Authorized
-LBMrED :'-1tcd-- The WorldBank 1818H StreetN.W. (202)477-1234 INTERNATIONALBANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT Washington.D.C. 20433 CableAddress: INTBAFRAD INTERNATIONALDEVELOPMENT ASSOCIATION U.SA CableAddress: INDEVAS
PAKISTAN: National DrainageProgram ProjectID # PK-PA-10500
The followingare availablefrom the Public InformationCenter (PIC), Room G C1-300,FAX (202) 522-1500,Trl: (202)458-5454:
1. Volume III SupplementaryReports. June 1993 $15.00 2. Volume IV Data. Water,Soil and Agriculture.June 1993 $15.00 ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN
WATER & POWER DEVELOPMET AUTHORrrY INT!ERNATIONAL BANK FOR RECONSTRUCTION AND DEVELOPMENT
PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
MAIN REPORT: VOLUME 1
DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
JUNE 1993
) E fi NATIONAL ENGINEEING Mott SERVICES PAKISTAN (PVT) 1 1 MacDonald UIini- IMITED J j j catio L mited PA9E ff AAN1 Mott DRAINAGESECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT 1111 Mabnld NATIONALDRAINAGE PROGRAMME
Of l 76 B - ShahJanL, Lube Pakin Tde:(2) 758438 Fax # 426436709 - 5538712 Teex: 44730 NESPAKPKC.
Ref.DSEA-NDP/669 Date July13, 1993
Mr. Ridwan Ali Chief EMIAG World Rink Group 1818 H Street, N.W. Washington D.C. 20433 USA
Subject: PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT-NATIONALDRAINAGE PROGRAMME FINAL REPORI)
Dear Sir,
In accordance with Clause 7.07 of the Contract concluded on 6 July, 1991 we have pleasure in forwarding 20 copies of the Fmal RXeportThe report consists of:
Executive Summary Volume 1 - Pakistn Drainage Sector Environmental Assessment Volume 2 - Concept Framnework - National Drainage Programme Volume 3 - Supplementary Reports Volume 4 - Data (Water, Soil and Agriculture)
An Atlas gi'-ng depth to watertable maps and other related information is being printed and will be sent as soon as completed.
Yours faithfully, for National Engineering Services Pakistan (Pvt) Limited
(M. ASLAM RASHEED) Vice President
Encl: As above.
cc: General Manager, Planning, WAPDA with enclosure 100 copies of each.
Na6omdEagiumeig Swi. rakta (PuL)Ltd Man Mhiwd -Laenmtoua Lt. PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSNT -NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
(LIr OF VOLUMES)
VOLUME 1 - PAKISTAN DRAINAGE SECrOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
VOLUME 2 - CONCEPT FRAMEWORK NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME
VOLUME 3 - SUPPLEMENTARY REPORTS
VOLUME 4 - DATA (WATEVR,SOIL & AGRICULTURE) PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONNTAL ASSESSNT (NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMME)
(List of Study Participants)
WAPDA
Mr. Javed Saleem Qamar, General Manager (Planning) Mr. MohnammadJibbar, Chief Engineer (WRP) Mr. M. D. Malik, Soil Scientist (WRP) Mr. Abdul Qayyum, Junior Civil Engieer (WRP)
WORLD BANK
Mr. Ridwan Ali, Chief EMIAG Mr. Masood Ahmad
CONSULTANIS
Mr. M. Aslam Rasheed, Project C-odinator (NESPAK) Ch. Ata-ur-Rehman, Team Leader (NESPAK) Mr. Abdul Qadir Rafiq, Technical Assistant (NESPAK)
SPECIALUSTS
NFB_PAK
Mr. A. N. Cheema Mr. N. A. Goraya Mr. S. A. Zaidi Mr. Javed Anwar Mr. Bashir Sial Mr. Badruddin Mr. T. A. Ansari Dr. Aleem Ch. Mr. Syeduddin Khurshid
Mr. P. S. Lee Mr. V. C. Roberston Mr. D. Cross Mr. M. P. Gillham Mr. -P. M. Oates Mr. J. Neville PAKISTAN-DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT - NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAMIME
LST OF CONTENT
Page Nr. Letter of Transmittal
List of Study Participants
List of Contents i
List of Tables ix
List of Figures xii
Abbreviations xiii
Local Terms xvii
Conversion Table xviii
Soil and Water Quality Definitions xviii
VOLUME 1
DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1
1.1 Backgrod 1-1
1.2 Introduction 1-1
1.2 The Study 1-2
1.3.1 Objectives 1-2 1.3.2 Scope 1-2
1.3 Layout of Report 1-3
i SECTION I DRAINAGESECTOR
ClAPrER 2 DRAINAGE IN RETROSPECr
2.1 Introduction 2-1
2.2 Early Meaures 2-1
23 Extent of Problem 2-3
2.4 Action Programmes and Strategies 2-3
25 Drainage Development Since Early 196fs 2-9
2.5.1 Developmentin Public Sector 2-9 2.5.1 Developmentin Private Sectr 2-10
Appendix-li
CHAPTER 3 FUTURE DRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Establishment of Drainage Need 3-1
3.2 Status of Land Drainage 3-3
3.2.1 Sub-surfaceDrainage 3-3 3.2.2 Surface Drainage 3-5
3.3 Future Requiremts of Irrigation Related Drainage 3-5
3.4 Drinage Effluent and its Disposal 3-6
Appendix-III
ii SECTON I
ENVIRONMTAL STUDIES
CHAPTMR4 ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY APPROACH 4-1
4.1 Introducion 4-1
4.2 Methodokgy 4-2
42.1 Scopping 4-2 4.2.2 The Revised Checldist 4-2
CHAPTER 5 EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON LAND AND WATER
5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Effect of Drainage TechnolWies 5-1
5.2.1 AvailableTechnologies- 5-1 5.22 Surface Drane Experience 5-2 5.2.3 Tlle Drainage Experience 54 5.2.4 Tubewell Drinage Experience(FGW) 5-8 S.2.5 Drainage EffluentDisposal Experience 5-11 5.2.6 Sustainabiliy of Drainage Measures 5-15 5.2.7 Summary of Key Findgs 5-18
5.3 EDYfrO tal Effects and hnpacts of Drainage and Disposal 5-19
5.3.1 -Effect on Drained Land Quality 5-19 5.3.2 Impact on Agriculture . 5-19 5.3.3 Effect of Disposalon Receiving Waters 5-19 5.3.4 Impact on Public Health 5-20
5.4 The Emerging Long Term ssues 5-20
5.4.1 Salts Inflow and its Distribution in the Basin 5-21 5.4.2 Mobilizationof Salt by Drainage 5-22 5.4.3 Deteriorationof FGW Quality and its Effect 5-23 5.4.4 The Issue of Salt Balance 5-25
iii 5.5 Drainage EMuent Disposalssues 5-26
5.5.1 Planned Disposal from Sindh 5-26 5.5.2 Effluent Disposal from Punjab 5-28 5.5.3 Effluent Disposal from BalochLstan 5-29 5.5.4 Mid Term Disposal Strategy 5-29 5.5.5 Long Term Disposal Strategy 5-30
5.6 Opportunities for Impact Mitigation/ Enhancement 5-31
5.6.1 Adverse Impacts to be Mitigated 5-31 5.6.2 Positive Impacts to be Enhanced 5-31 5.6.3 Preventative Approach to Drainage 5-32
Appendix-V
CHAPTER 6 IPACTS ON NATURAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES
6.1 Introduction 6-1
6.2 Factors and Process 6-1
6.2.1 Assimilationof Pollutants 6-1 6.2.2 Soil Biochemistry 6-2
63 Impact on Biological Resources 6-4
6.3.1 Forestry 6-4 6.3.2 Ecology of Project Lands 6-5 6.3.3 Deterioration of Wetlands and Effects on Aquatic Life 6-5 6.3.4. Wetland Wildlife 6-6 6.3.5 Wildlife of the Peripheral Lands 6-8 6.3.6 River Fish Stocks 6-8 6.3.7 Fish Stocks in Non-riverine Permanent inland Waters 6-9
6A Impact on Cultuml Properties 6-10
6.4.1 Sub-surface cultural properties 6-10 6.4.2 Surface sites 6-11
6.5 Impact on Health 6-11
6.5.1 Sanitation 6-11 6.5.2 Vector borne Diseases 6-12
iv 6.5.3 Other Water-related Parasiic Diseases 6-13 6.5.4 Anaemia 6-13 6.5.5 LivestockDiseases 6-14 6.5.6 QuantitativeAssessment of Potential Health Risks 6-14
6.6 Soco-cultural impact ot Drainage 6-15
6.6.1 Direct Effects of Physical Development 6-17 6.5.2 Social Constraints on Potential Benefits 6-17 6.6.3 Polarisationof Benefits within the Working Classes 6-18 6.6.4 Farmer and Community Groups 6-19 6.6.5 Women in Farming Communities 6-19 6.6.6 Nomadic Groups 6-20
6.7 Mitigation of Negative Impacts 6-20
6.7.1 Organic Pollution 6-20 6.7.2 Soil Sodicity 6-20 6.7.3 The Fute Value of Water in the Indus Estuary 6-21 6.7.4 Wetland Ecosystems 6-22 6.7.5 Wildlife in Peripheral and Project Lands 6-22 6.7.6 Rare and Protected Species 6-22
6.7.7 Fish of Permanent Non-riverine Wetlands 6-22 6.7.8 Nomadic Groups 6-23
6.8 Relxation or Constraints 6-23
6.8.1 Toxin Transport and Water Quality Management 6-23 6.8.2 Soil Fertility and Nitrogen Harvesting 6-23 6.8.3 Resettlement 6-24 6.8.4 Health 6-24 6.8.5 Social Constraints 6-26 6.8.6 Aquatic Weed Control 6-29 6.8.7 CommunityParticipation in Rural Development 6-29 6.8.8 Fanners and CommunityGroups 6-30
v- SECTION m
SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER 7 SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
7.1 Introduction 7-1
7.2 Evaluation ofDrainage Systenxs 7-1
7.2.1 Drainage Approaches 7-1 7.2.2 BiologicalAlternatives 7-4 7.2.3 Water Management 7-5
7.3 Environmental ImnpactlAssessnent 7-6
7.3.1 Screening 7-6 7.3.2 Criteria 7-7 7.3.3 Data Gaps 7-8 7.3.4 Monitoring and Evauation 7-9 7.3.5 Legislationand Institutions 7-9
7A Wtigation and Enhancement 7-10
7.S DEposal Options 7-11
7.5.1 Relationshipbetween Disposal and Options 7-11 7.5.2 Pattern of Future-Development 7-13 7.5.3 1be No-disposal Option-Dry Drainage 7-13
7.6 Sinablit 7-14
7.6.1 Salt Balance-within the System 7-14 7.6.2 Salt Balance in the Root Zone 7-15 7.6.3 Financial Viability 7-16
7.7 Towards a Mid-Term and Long-Term Drainage Strategies 7-16 7.7.1 OverallObjectives 7-16 7.7.2 Mid-TermStrategy (up to Year2000) 7-16 7.7.3 LongTerm Strategy(up to Year 2015) 7-18 7.7.4 The Needfor a Multi-Disciplinary Approachto Drainage 7-19
vi CHAPTER8 FRAMEWORK FOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS
8.1 The Need for Environmental Poides and Basin Management 8-1
8.1.1 The Need for EnvironmentalPolicies 8-1 8.1.2 Legislation and the Enforcement of EnvironmentalPolicies 8-1 8.1.3 Integrating EA Methodologyinto National Planning 8-2 8.1.4 Intra-sectoral Obstructionsto Integrated Planning 8-3 8.1.5 Linkage between the Drainage Sector and other Sectors 8-3 8.1.6 The Need for an Indus Basin Water Resource ManagementPolicy 8-4 8.1.7 The Hydraulic Model as a Water ManagementTool 8-5
8.2 Environmental CapabiSty 8-5
8.2.1 Multi-sectoralDevelopment 8-5 8.2.2 Constraintsof Staff Motivation in the Drainage Sector 8-6 8.2.3 The Need for Sectoral Audits in Pakistan 86 8.2.4 EnvironmentalResponsibilities of the Drainage Sector 8-7 v.2.5 Responsibilityof EPAs for Environmntal Assessment 8-8 8.2.6 Domestic Capabilityin EnvironmentalAssessment 8-8 8.2.7 Providing Environmnl Assessment Capability 8-9 8.2.8 AssessmentTeam Formation 8-9
8.3 Tools for Managing Envirnmental Poldies 8-9
8.3.1 Methodology 8-9 8.3.2 Grading of Projects for Their EA Needs 8-10 8.3.3 Field Investigations 8-11 8.3.4 Environment Quality Standards in the Drainage Sector 8-12 8.3.5 Protection of Downstream Riparian Interests 8-12
vii 8.4 External Constraints on Drainage Policies 8-13
8.4.1 Long-term Policies and the Future Value of Water 8-13 8.4.2 Population Trends and the Drainage Sector 8-14 8.4.3 Tle Importance of Intangible Assets - EnvironmentalQuality, Culture and Aesthatic Values 8-15 8.4.4 Conservation 8-15 ANNEXTURES
I - Terms of Reference II - Drainage Technology and Salt Balance Issues III - Water Conservation through Watercourse Improvement IV - Irrigation Related Drainage and Environment v - Assimilative Capacity of Drains VI - The 'Biological Alternative' to Drainage
viii LIST OF TABLES
Table No. Page Nr.
2.1 Area with Depth to Watertable within 5 feet in April/June 2-6
2.2 Plan Allocationsand Expenditure for Drainage Sector 2-8
2.3 ImplementationStatus of Drainage Facilities(June 1992) 2-9
Appendix - II
1 Irrigation DepartmentTubewell Schemes 2 Area under various Depths to Watertable June/April (1959164) 3 Surface Salinity (1962-63) 4 Distributionof Profile Salinity (1962-63) 5 Salient Feature of SCARPs (upto June 1992)
3. 1 Effective Rooting Depth and PermissibleDepth to Watertable for Major Crops (metres) 3-2
3.2 Percentage Yield Reductiondue to High Watertable 3-3
3.3 Area (Ma) with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet in April/June 1989-90 3-3
3.4 Areas with Tubewell Drainage having Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet in April in Sindh 3-4
3.5 Area (Ma) with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet in April in remaining Areas of Sindh 3-4
3.6 Area (Ma) Requiring Drainage Facilities 3-6
3.7 Existing and AnticipatedSaline Effluent 3-7
Appendix-lI
I Completed SCARP Areas with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet in June 2 Area with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet in Canal Commands (On-going & remaining) in June 3 Percent Areas under various Depth to Watertable 4 Area with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet 5 Area with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet Completed and On-going SCARPs and Remaining Areas in Punjab 6 Area with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet Completed and On-going SCARPs and Remaining Areas in Sindh 7 Future Surface and Sub-surfaceDraiiage Requirements
ix Table No. Page Nr.
4.1 Direct EnvironmentalImpacts and Drainage in Pakistan (Final Screening) 4-4
4.2 Direct Environmenta Impacts and Drainage in Pakistan (Final Screening) 4-5
4.3 Impacts Requiring Mitigation 4-6
5.1 LSK SDP: Pumping Station Discharge Data 5-3
5.2 Quality of Drainage Effluent LSK Project 5-3
5.3 Percent Area with DTW <5 feet in LSK Project 5-4
5.4 Average Salt Budget fbr Selected Plots in EKTD 5-6
5.5 Status of Soil Profiles in EKTD 5-6
5.6 Cropping Statistics - East Khairpur Tile Drainage Project 5-7
5.7 Average Salt Content in Soil Profile for Mona Project 5-9
5.8 Comparative StatementShowing Profile Salinity Status of SCARP-I and Mona Project (%) 5-10
5.9 Summary of Clear and Affected Profiles(%) 5-10
5.10 Average Monthly Pumpage of Hairdin Pumping Station 5-12
5.11 Salt Content (ppm) of River Indus 5-13
5.12 Unit Costs (Rs.M) of Transition of SCARP Wells 5-17
5.13 Dynamiicsof the Salt Transport Model 5-24
5.14 DevelopmentStages, Area Covered and Disposals Proposed 5-27
Appendix - V
I Quality of Effluent from Sump Nr. 8 (S-HA) and Its Pipe Drains (Drainage IV) 2 Water Quality of Sumps Discharge EKTD Project 3 Annual Operation and Maintenance Costs and Revenue Receipts 4 Effect on Drained Land Quality 5 Effect on Drained Land Agriculture 6 Existing and AnticipatedSaline Fffluent and Salts Disposal from Sindh Sub-surfaceDrainage Projects
x Table No. Page Nr.
*7 Anticipated Salinity of Effluent from Drainage Units of RBOD 8 Anticipated Quantity and Salinity of Effluent from RBOD 9 Impact of RBOD on Indus Water Quality at Kotri t0 Potentical Schemes for Recycling 11 Existing and Anticipated Saline Fffluent Disposal from Punjab Projects 12 Estimated Mixed Water Quality at Various Barrages on Indus River System 13 Total Dissolved Solids (ppm) at various Sites Hairdin Drainage Project 14 Estimated Mixed Water Quality at Guddu Based on 1985-86 Flow 15 Spare Capacity Available in LBOD Stage to take AdditionalFlow 16 Spare Capacity Available in LBOD at Ultimate Developmentto take Additional Flow
6.1 Projected Impacts on Human and Animal Health from Draining Waterlogged Areas (A) and Waterlogged and Saline Areas(B) 6-16
6.2 Potential for Mitigation of NegativeHealth Effects of Drainage 6-25
xi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No. Follows Page
1.1 Study OrganizationChart 14.
1.2 Study Committeeand Team Members 14
3.1 Irrigated Areas Provided with and in Need of Drainage in the Indus Basin 3-6
5.1 Watertable Fluctuations 54
5.2 Yearly Water Quality of Sumps Dischargesfor East Khairpur TileDrainage Project 5-6
5.3 Weekly Stage Hydrograph at Sumps 13115& 18 of East Khairpur Tile Drainage Project (October 1987 to September 1988) 5-6
5.4 SCARP Tubewells in Various Water Quality Ranges 5-8
5.5 Planned Utilizationof Tubewells in SCARP 11(Saline Zone) 5-8
5.6 Schematic Diagram of Saline Effluent Disposalof Punjab 5-14
5.7 Average Salinity of Inflow from MNV Drain and Outflow from Manchar Lake 5-20
5.8 GroundwaterQuality of Irrigated Areas of Indus Basin 5-22
5.9 (a) Schematic Diagram of Salt Flow Model 5-24 (b) Salt Concentration of Applied Irrigation Water
5.10 Mixed Water Quality at Kotri 5-28
5.11 National Surface Drainage System 5-30
-. 12 Spare Capacity of LBOD for Draining Evaporation Ponds 5-30
7.1 Linkage between Disposal Options 7-12
7.2 ApproximateSalt Flow Diagram Canal Water Only 7-16
7.3 River Flow and Salt Outflows at Selected Barrages sites - 7-16
Plate I Salinity Control andReclamation Projects (June 1991)
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
A
Ac Acre ACE AssociatedConsulting Engineer (Pvt) Limited ADBP Agricultural DevelopmentBank of Pakistan ADB Asian DevelopmentBank ADP Annual DevelopmentProgramme APCC Annual Plan CoxrdinationCommituee AXEN AssistantExecutive Engineer
B
Bcm Billion cubic meter BM&E Benefit Monitoringand Evaluation BMIAD BalochistanMinor Irrigation and Agriculture Development
C
CAA Civil Aviation Authority CDWP Central DevelopmentWorking Party CE Chief Engineer cfs Cubic feet per second CsU Colorado State University CWM CommandWater Management
D d day DRIP Drainage and ReclamationInstitute of Pakistan DSEA Drainage Sector EnvironmentalAssessment
E
EAD Economic Affairs Division EC Electrical Conductivity ECNEC Executive Committeefor National Economic Council ETA EnvironmentalImpact Assessment EPA EnvironmentalProtection Agency EPC EnvironmentalProtection Council
F
FFC Federal F1lo Commission FGW Fresh Ground Water FIDIC Federation lnternationalt des Ingenieurs-Conseils
xiii G g granme GDP Gross Domestic Product GIS GeographicalInformation Systems GM General Manager GW gigawatt
H h hour ha hectare hm hectare-meter hm' cubic hectometre
I
IBM Indus Basin Model IBMR Indus Basin Model (Revised) IBWR Indus Basin Water Authority IDA InternationalDevelopment Association IDC Interest during construction IFAD InternationalFund for Agricultural Development IRA Indus River Authority ISM Irrigation System Management ISRP Irrigation System RehabilitationProject IWASRI International Waterloggingand Salinity Research Institute
K kg kilogramme km kilometre ksm2 square kilometre kt kilotonne kw kilowatt kwh kilowatthour
L
LBOD Left Bank Outfall Drain
M
M Million m metre m2 square metre m3 cubic metre Ma million acre Mha Million hectare Maf million acre feet M&E Monitoring & Evaluation
xiv ME&R Monitoring Evaluation and Review Cell Mhm million hectare meter mm millimeter m-2 square millimetre. MMI Mott MacDonaldInternational Ltd, (UK) Mt million tonne MW megawatt
N
NCA National Commissionon Agriculture NCS National Conservation Strategy NDP NationaLDrainage Programme NEC National Economic Council NESPAK National Engineering Services Pakistan (Pvt) Limited NIK Net Benefit Investment Ratio NPV Net Present Value NWFP North West Frontier Province
0
ODAIUK Overseas Development Administrationof UK OFWM On Farm Water Management OMR Operation, maintenance& replacement O&M Operation & maintenance
P
PAD Provincial Agriculture Department PBME Project benefit monitoringand evaluation PC Planning Commission PCW Punjab Cotton Wheat PC-I to PC-V Planning Commission Proforma(s) PDWP Provincial DevelopmentWorking Party PHED Public Health Engineering Department PEPO Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance PEA Punjab Engineering Academy PEPC Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Council PID Provincial Irrigation & Power Department PWD Public Works Department P&D Planning and Development PMW Punjab Mixed Wheat PRW Punjab Rice Wheat PSW Punjab Sugarcane Wheat
R
RSC Residual Sodium Carbonate RAP Revised Action ?lan RBMP Right Bank Master Plan RBOD Right Bank Outfall Drain
xv s s second SAR Sodium Adsorption Ratio SCARP Salinity Control a. i Reclamation Project SCWN Sindh Cotton Wheat North SCWS Sindh Cotton Wheat South SE SuperintendingEngineer SGW Saline Ground Water SMO SCARP Monitoring Organisation (WAPDA) SRWN Sindh Rice Wheat North SRWS Sindh Rice Wheat South
T t tonne
U
USAID United States Agency for InternationalDevelopment w
W watt WAPDA Water and Power Development Authority WASA Water and Sanitation Agency Wh watthour WRP Water Resources Planning WSIPS Water Sector Investment Planning Study WUA Water User Association
x
XEN Executive Engineer
y
y year
xvi DESCRIPrION OF LOCAL TERMS
Bandat Earthen embankmentconstructed along the contour ftirming rectangular ponds
Barani Rainfed areas
Bosi Winter crop grown largely on residual moisture fir summer crops but which has one irrigation.
Bunds Earthen embankments
Chak An area served by a watercourse
Dubari Winter crop grown using the residual moisture from the summer crops
Gur Crude sugar prepared at farm from the sugar cane
Gandas Local name for earthen embankmentsconstructed along the contour to hold water
Hari Sharecropper
Karez A horizontal hand excavated gravity flow well generally used to obtain irrigation water in Balochistan
Kharif Summer cropping season, Ist April to 30th September
Mogha Uncontrolledoutlet from parent canal to watercourse
Pattan Tribe name
Pancho Water Water drained from rice fields during the perioxdicreplacement of standing water
Rod kohi Traditional system of flood irrigation from hill torrents debouching to plains
Rabi Winter cropping season, Ist October to 31st March
Riwaj-e- Set of rules for diverting water for irrigation Abpashi from flows in a natural channel
Sui Gas Natural gas obtained from Sui fields in Balochistan
Wah Local term foirhill torrent
Zam Local term for hill torrent
Zamindar Large Landowners
xvii CONVERSION TABLE
English Units Melric Units 1 inch (in) = 25.4 millimetres (mm) I fibot (ft) = 30.5 centimetres (cm) 1 yard (yd) = 0.915 meters (m) 1 mile (mi) = 1.609 kilometres (kmn) I acre (ac) = 0.405 hectares (ha) I square mile (sq.mi) = 259 ha I pound Qb) = 0.454 kilograms (kg) I long ton (Ig ton) = 1.016 metric tons (t) I cubic fbot/second (cfs) = 0.0283 cubic meters/second (m3/sec) = 28.32 litres/second (1/sec) I acre foot (AF) = 1 233.5 cubic meters(m3) I parts per million (ppm) = 1 milligram/litre (mg/l) = 0.00156 millimho/cm(mmho/cm) = 0.00156 decisemen/meter(WS/m)
SOIL AND WATER QUALITYDEFINITIONS Sois
Description Class ECe SAR (ds/m) Surface Salinity Non saline Si < 4 Slightly saline S2 4-8 Moderately saline S3 8:15 Highly saline S4 > 15
Soils Salinitv/Sodicity Nonsaline-Nonsodic NS-NS < 4 < 13 Saline Nonsodic S-NS > 4 < 13 Saline-Sodic SS > 4 > 13 Nonsaline-Sodic NS-S < 4 > 13
Profile Classification (0-180 cm) No salinity or sodicity at any depth: NS-NS Salinity present but no sodicity at any depth: S-NS Salinity and sodicity present at any depth: SS No salinity but sodicity present at any deptt: NS-S
Water Description EC*106 EC - SAR RSC (micro- (dS/m) mhos/cm)
Fresh (usable) < 1500 < 1.5 < 10 < 2.5 Marginal 1500-3000 1.5-3 10-18 2.5- 5 Hazardous 3000+ 3+ 18+ 5+
xviii CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Drainage for the sustainabilityof irrigated agriculture in Pakistanhas ecnomic repercussions of such a magnitude that it can be regarded as a sector requiring focussed attention. While massive investmentshave been made to protect the agriculturalland from the adverse effects of waterlogging and salinity through drainage projects, the wider impacts of drainage operations on human and natural resources have not received adequate attention. Concerns have been expressed that the drainage programmes could have significantadverse impactson the environmentalresources. It has also been realised that implemnentationof the past drainage measures through area specific projects has not provided the flexibility which is needed to deal with the problem which is so pervasive.
This realisation has prompted a Sector Study relating to the environmental aspects of the drainage programmes associated mainly with the irrigated agriculture and the development of a conceptual frameworkfor a possible NationalDrainage Programme. For this purpose the Govermmentof Pakistan requested the assistance of the World Bank for undertakingthe study for which financing had been provided by the Governmentof Japan.
1.2 Introduction
The Study, as per Terms of Reference (TOR) given in Annex-I and named 'Pakistan- Drainage Sector EnvironmentalAssessment-National Drainage Programme', was entrusted to National EngineeringServices Pakistan (Pvt) Limitedin associationwith Mott MacDonald International Limitedunder a contract dated July 6, 1991.
The lead Government agency associated with the Study was WAPDA with the General Manager Planning (Water) of that organisationbeing responsible for direction. However, to ensure the association of all concerned agencies both the Federal and Provincial, two committeeswere constituted;
a) Steering Committee(SC) at the Federal level for overall policy direction and guidelines; and
b) Technical Co-ordination Group (TCG) to establish working level co- ordination to implementthe policies and guidelines.
The World Bank acted as an executingagency on behalf of the Government of Japan and also provided guidance for the conduct of the Study. For close co-ordinationwith the Consultants team, General Manager Planning constituteda Federal Planning Cell and also appointedhis Chief Engineer Water Resources Planning as Project Director of the Study. The Study organisation chart and members of-Committeesare given in Figures 1.l & 1.2.
l-l The Study conmmencedon August 1, 1991and the InceptionReport was submittedon October 31, 1991 followed by Interim Report by end of May 1991.
1.3 The Study
1.3.1 Objectives
The main objectives of the Study as per TOR are to:
(1) provide macro level assessmentof the environmentaleffects of envisaged and on-going surface and sub-surface drainage programmes;
(2) develop environmental and other criteria, processes and arrangements to facilitate preparation of conceptual framework for National Drainage Programme; and
(3) promote economic and sustainable development with appropriate environmentalsafeguards.
1.3.2 Scope
According to clause 5.01 the proiductof the Study are to be in the form of two reports namely:
'Drainage Sector EnvironmentalAssessment"; and
* 'Conceptual Framework For National Drainage Prograrnme"
'-e Study therefore, has been divided into two main portions:
EnvironmentalAssessment
lhe terms of reference (Annex-l) for the Study require the Consultantsto carry out a macro overview of the environmentaleffects of irrigation related drainage in Pakistan includingthat is in-place, under constructionor envisaged to be required by the-year 2015. This overview is to encompass;
- evaluation of drainage technologies;
- water quality and water quantity changes in rivers and bodies of water receiving or likely to receive drainage effluent;
- disposal options to be discussed and evaluated as related to existing outlets a-id planned future outlets (mid- and long-term);
- health hazards resulting from problems associatedwith drainagesystems;
- opportunities for mitigation and enhancement measures associated with potential drainage programme;
1-2 environmentaleffects and impact of drainage and inrigationprogramme and project activities that directly or indirectly affect natural and cultural resources;
- necessaryimprovements in linkagesbetween EPA's. WAPDA and PID's; etc.
Together these provide an aid for future envirunmentalassessment of individual schemes within the framework of the mid-term (to 2000) and long-term (to 2015) overview to be covered by the present study.
NationalDrainage Pro=ramme
In order to improve efficiency and provide flexibility in the implementationof appropriate drainage and associated water control measures, the Consultants were required ttostudy:
- strengths and weaknesses of project approach;
- the programmeapproach to drainage and its applicability:
- future drainage requirementsand a first cut ectimateof costs and schieduleto completethe drainage programme;
- prepare conceptual framework for National Drainage Programme including recommended procedures, criteria and guidelines etc.
1.4 Layout of Report
As indicated above, the study is broadly divided into two portions; Vol-4 dealing with the 'Drainage Sector EnvironmentalAssessment" and Vol-l1 with the developiner. of conceptual framework for 'National Drainage Programme".
Volume-I after a brief introductionhas been divided into three sections viz;
Section-I, deals with the drainage sector and gives a brief over view of the drainage in retrospect, its present status, anticipateddrainage requirements, quantity nf saline drainage effluent likely to be generated and its disposal so as to provide a base for environmentalassessment.
- Section-Il covers the environmentalstudies and deals with environmentaleftects and impact of irrigation related drainage on land and water, biological and cultural resources. A brief account of methodologyused has beenincluded. Emerging issues of drainage and disposalshave beenbrought out and the options proposed alongwith their possibleeffects.
- Section-Ill gives the over-all sectoral view of the drainage sector identifying the pitfalls. lack of informationand future strategy which may be adopted till more data becomes available to take firm decisions. A chapter on framework for future assessmenthas been added.
1-3 Volume-Il is devotedto the conceptualframework for nationaldrainage pmgramme. Chapter 9 evaluates the benefits of programme and project approaches and gives the- "cenceptual fMrmework' for the National Drainage Programme, which is recommended to run concurrently with other investments,atleast in its first phase. Chapter 10 & I I are devoted to institutionaland training matters.
Volume-Ill contains reports from individualspecialists relating to forestry, fisheries, wetland & wildlife, assimilativecapacity of drains and institutionalframework.
Volume-IV summarisesthe data collectedduring the study which has been considered useful for future reference. It includes depth to watertable, ten daily river flows, water quality data on rivers and drains, distribution of soil textural groups canal command-wiseand some statistics related to agriculture.
1-4 FIGURE 1. I STUDY ORGANISATIONCHART
eeg ...... A ...-. - ederiS F Deeraplanning Environment dWalerand andDeve ent &Urban Affairs Divison Dkon I I l I
Techrical
GMup
BatodIistan Bakochistan MINISTRYOFWATER AND POWER
HERRINOCOMMTTEE G.M PLANNINGWATER WAPDAI IHNICAL CO-ORDINATIONGROUP ADD.SECRETARYMIOWATER&POWERCHWIRMAN I CHIEF CO-ORDINATOR J G.M.(PLANNING) WATER WAPDA CONVENOF MEMBERWATER-WAPDA MEMBER I 'CHEFENGINEERVRP) MEMBER GENERALMANAGER PLANNING (WAPDA) N D.G.EPAPUNJAB CHIEF(WATER). PLANNING COMMISSION D,G.EPA SINDH D.G.PAKSTAN EP.A CHIEF ENGINEER(WRP) D.G.EPA LNDHI JOINTSEC. ENV. & URB.AFFAIRS DIV. * PROJECTDIRECTOR D.G. PANNALOCHUSTA CHAIRMANP&tj PUNJAB ; CHIEFPLANNING PUNJAB CHAIRMANP&D SINDH I CHIEFPLANNINGSINDH CHAIRMAN! P&D NWFP I ______CHIEFPLANNING NWFP CHAIRMANP&DBALOCHISTAN I I CHIEFPLANNING BALOCHISTAN DIRECTORARCHAEOLOGY ; DIRECTORCENTRAL (WASR) . NESPAK REP.OF MINISTRY OF DRAINAGEENG. TEAMLEADER AGRICULTURE INSTITUTIONALDRAINAGE ENGR DY.CHIEF (VATER P&D OMSION) F-EDERALPLANNING CELL TRAINING ECONOMIST REP.OF PLANNING COMMISSION BIOLOGIST HYDROGEOLOGIST ON ENVIRONMENT DIRECTORENGINEERING ENVIRONMENTALSANITARY SPECIAUST REP.OF ENV. & URB. AFFAIRS DIV. DY.DIRECTOR ENGINEERING ENVIRON. PLANNING SOILSCIENTIST GMSWAPDA, SOUTH, NORTH, JR.ENGINEER CML 2 MENTAL AGRONOMIST WESTAND CENTRAL JR.AGRONOMIST C ELL PUBUCHEAL SPLST. DY.DIRECTOR (HYDROGEOLOGY) PROJECTCOORDR. ! RSEARCHOFFICER FISHERIES I AGRO/COMPUTERPROGRAMMING MALARIAERAD SPLSI. -40 I STENOG.l 1 FORESTRY ,STENOUG.ll I ECOLOGIST D.H.ORAFTSMAN1 COMPUTER ORINTHOLOGIST DRAFTSMEN 3 APPUCATION INSTrrUTIONAL !TRACERS D3IRECTORATE TECHNICALASST. Im FERROPRINTER I DRAFTSMAN/COMPASST. . NAIBQASIDS 3 SECRETARY W ACCOUNTSOFFICER m TYPIST 0 PLAINPAPER COPIER OPER m MESSENGARS m DRIVERS > WATCHMEN Z SECTION I
DRAINAGE SECTOR
l CAFPTER 2
DRAINAGE IN RETROSPECT
2.1 Introduction
Irrigation has been practiced in the Indus Plain as far back as 8th century A.D. and the subsequenthistory of the Muslim rulers is also full of descriptions of various artificial canals constructedwith the purpose of amelioratingthe cwnditionof the people and increasingstate revenues.
In the beginning land along the river banks were irrigated through a network of inundation canals which could divert water only during high flow season. As the needs grew, human ingenuity devised ways and means to extend the irrigation facilities to higher lands. In the process of expansion the irrigation system was totally transformed and now includes two storage reservoirs, 17 barrages, 8 link canals and an extensive network of main canals. branches, distributaries and minors measuring over 64,000 kilometers.
The gross area, within the 43 canal commands covering Indus Basin, is 41.16 Ma (16.85 Mba), of which, 34.56 Ma (14 Mha) is cultivable commandedarea. Perennial canal supply is available to nearly 21.2 Ma (8.6 Mha).
The Indus Plains is also characterisedby a lack of any well defined natural surface drainage and differences in micro relief define the pathways for the flow for surface run-off from the infrequentbut intense rainstorms during the monsoonseason. Flooding of agricultural lands fbllowing intense rainstorms with consequent crop and property damages, is a recurrent phenomenon in many parts of Indus Plains. The need for surface drainage of agricultural lands has long been recognized and measures have been taken to construct surface drainc in areas prone to severe damage.
Because of the flat nature of the Indus Plains, natural sub-surface drainage dhrorgh down- valley movement of groundwater was restricted. The persistent seepage over the years from the unlined canals and the large network of distributarychannels and the irrigation surpluses from the fields caused the watertable to rise close to the land surface creating waterlogged conditions. To deal with excess soil moisture in the crop root zone and its adverse consequences, sub-surfacedrainage of the irrigated lands therefore became a pressizigneed.
2.2 Early Measures
Attention to waterloggingwas first drawn in I851 in the Westem Jamna Canal area when malaria became serious. It was reported in Sirhind-canal in 1870 and Bari Doab Canal in 1880. Thus, as the irrigation system developed, problems of drainage followed.
2-1 Irrigationengineers conscious of the approachingproblem established groundwater monitoring programme and also investigated the causes. The investigationsled to the development of mathematicaland empirical relationshipsto estimateseepage losses from canals. It estimated that about 45% of head discharge is lost within the whole system. Experiments carried out to determine losses from crops indicated 11.3% deep percolation from rice and 3.5% from cotton.
Action aimed at solving the problems of waterloggingand salinity started in 1908, when the Punjab Government initiatedinvestigations along the Upper Bari Doab Canal. Followingthis a 'Waterlogging Board' was establishedin 1912 to review progress made in eradicatingthe menace. In 1917, a "Provincial Drainage Board" was set up to investigate the causes and effects of the problems and to suggest remedies.
In 1922, a 'Land Reclanation Directorate' was established to work on problem. The 'Provincial Drainage Board' was split in 1925 into the "Waterlogging Enquiry Committee" and the 'Rural Sanitary Board" with the aim of improvingof the functions of the Board. In 1928, the "Enquiry Commnittee"was abolished, and a new 'Waterlogging Board" created.
All the organizations in the period 1912-28 performed largely reporting or reviewing functions. In 1940, a 'Land Reclamation Board" was created with the specific objective of intensifyingland reclamationoperations in Punjab. However, little was accomplishedby that organization. In 1952, a 'Soil Reclamation Board' was set up and given wide statuary powers. Thbiswas the first organizationto take concrete steps to solve the problems.
The rise of the watertable after the monsoon rains suggestedthe constructionof stormwater drains. Large scale constructionwas initiated in 1933 and by 1947, 2300 miles of surface drains had been laid out mostly in Rechna and Chaj Doabs. Enthusiasmfor drain construction soon began to die out due to maintenanceproblems due largely to the growth of weeds. Also. many drains were constructed parallel to canals to intercept seepage however,these did not lower the watertable.
Lining of existing canals was then initiated to cut off the seepage. In 1943, the lining of a portion of the Ihang Branch was undertaken. This presented many difficulties and did not prove very successful.Further lining of existing canals was not undertaken. However, many new canals were lined such as Ravi-Bedian-Dipalpurlink, Balloki-Sulemankilink and Haveli Canal.
During the period 1912-52, various works were carried out in an attempt to solve the problem. These included:
- frequentand extensive canal closures - lowering of canal water fulilsupply levels - conversion of areas from perennial to non-perennialirrigation - lining of canals - planting of eucalyptusgroves - reclamationby rice cultivation limited use of open surface drains.
Attenpts were also made to control the watertable by intercepting seepage from canals through a battery of tubewells placed parallel to canals and through small tubewell fields as recommended by FAO experts. The schemes implemented by the Punjab Irrigation
2-2 Department, prior to the establishment of WAPDA in 1958, are given in Appendix-l1. However, these attempts were mostly based on inadequate data and not commensurate with the magnitude of the problem with the result that they had no significant effect.
2.3 Extent of Problem
In 1954, a 'Groundwater Development Organization' ('WDO), subsequently named as 'Water and Soils Investigation Division' (WASID)on its trmisfer.to WAPDA in 1960. was establishedto undertake systematicsurvey of land and water resources to generate a data base for planning of drainage facilities.
The extent of the drainage problem created by canal irrigation was not the same over the entire basin at the same time. Whereas,the watertable had attained a more or less stabilized situation in the Northern Indus Plain (NIP) by the early 1960s, in the Lower Indus Plain (LIP) it was still rising due to the later developmentof canal irrigation.
Tle approximate status of depth to watertable and soil salinity before undertaking "Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects" (SCARPs) by WAPDA, given in Appendix-l, are summarized as under:
Northern Indus Plain:
Gross Area 24.62 Ma Area with water table less than 10 feet 38% Surface Salinity: Slightlyto moderately saline 22% Severely saline 7% Profile salinity: - Saline 6% - Saline alkali 29%
Non- saline alkali 13%
Lower Indus Plain:
Gross Area 14.92 Ma Area with water table less than 8 feet 37% Surface Salinity: - Moderately saline 56% - Severely saline 32.5%
2.4 Action Programmes and Strategies
On the basis of investigations it was observed that a large portion of the Indus Plain was underlain by fair!y transmissive aquifers and the quality of the groundwater at places was also usable. Given the paramount importance of agricultural production, it was planned to obtain drainage as a by-product of tubewell irrigation in areas underlain by usable water, and these areas were proposed to be developed on a priority basis. The strategy adopted was:
2-3 to encourage rapid growth of agriculture and impart sufficientmomentum to the economy to override minor constraints;
to over develop groundwater, if necessary, to meet crop water requirements and appropriate compromisesof standardsof irrigation water quality and any other measures v hich will accelerate development;
to increase the cropping intensityto 150%;
as tile drains were not only more expensive than tubewells but they do not provide the outstandingadvantage of the latter i.e. the increaseand regulation of irrigationwater supply,tile drains to be used only where tubewelldrainage not technically feasible.
once the usable groundwater areas needing public tubewells have been covered, then the tubewell constructionprogramme would shift to the saline groundwater areas;
ten percent of the effluentfrom non-aline zone to be exported to depress the rate of salt build up. The unit cost for the export of saline water from saline areas for which surface water is not available for dilution is low in relation to the relative unit cost of providing the necessary surface water for dilution through diversion from fresh groundwater areas;
whereas it is clear that provisions must ultimately be made for a regional network of drainage tubewells and surface drainsto controlaccumuation and distnbution of saline residue to protect the quality of groundwater supplies, it was equally clear that this was not a matter of immediateconcern which would require action during the period of initialdevelopment. As these works are defensive in nature, their implementationwas not recommended to conserve development funds;
- Large outfall drains in Sindh will be needed (LBOD/RBOD)to discharge saline drainage effluent to the sea. In the future, it may be necessary to extend these into Punjab so as whole of Indus Plain is provided with a 'Spinal Drainage System".
In May 1961, WAPDA published a report titled: 'Programme for Waterloggingand Salinity Control in Irrigated Areas of West Pakistan". It contained a ten year programme of waterlogging and salinity control measures through the development of groundwater resources. The Northern and Southern Zones were divided into 10 and 16 reclamation projects respectively and popularly known as "Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPs)'. The entire programme was estimated to require about 31.5W tubewells (28,000 for irrigation and 3,500 for drainage alone),7,500 miles of major surface drainage channels and 25,000 miles of supplemnentarydrains. The total cost was estimated at Rs 5.900 million.
The programme was periodically reviewed and reshaped and a series of reports were produced for the guidanceof the Governmentof Pakistan. Some of the important reports are listed below:
2-4 - "Programme for Water and Power Development in West Pakistan through 1975"; (Master Plan-Initial Phase), Harza Engineering Company International-WAPDA Consultant.
- "Report on Land and Water development in the Indus Plain"Dr.Roger Revelle:1964;
- "Water and Power resources of West Pakistan; A study in Sector Planning' 1968; Peter Lieftink;
- "RegionalPlan, Northern Indus Plain' 1967; M/s lipton & Kalambach Inc. WAPDA Consultant.
- 'Lower Indus Report" 1966; Hunting Technical Services and Sir M.Macdonald& Partners, WAPDA Consultant.
- 'Revised Action Program for Irrigated Agriculture' May 1979; Master Planning and Review Division, WAPDA.
Keeping in view the magnitudeof the problems, the Government of Pakistan realised that. though the subject of reclamationwas a Provincial responsibilityit required a national effort to eradicate waterloggingand salinity. With the concurrenceof the provinces, it was resolved that the Federal Gove-nnent should take over responsibilityfor drainage and reclamation of agricultural land. In view of the above, the Planning and Development Division, in consultation with WAPDA and the Provincial Govermnents prepared an "Axelerated Programme of Waterloggingand Salinity Control" in 1973.
The first phase of this programme was to extend over a period of 11 years from 1974-75to 1984-85. The total ouday during its first phase was estimated at Rs 5,400 million with a fbreign exchange componentof Rs 1,400 million. The programme was to provide adequate drainage facilities to an area of 14.10 Ma; 8.9 Ma in Punjab, 4.8 Ma in Sindh, 0.46 Ma in NWFP and 0.04 Ma in Ealochistan. The programme included construction of fresh groundwater tubewell projects, open-surface drainage projects, tile-drainage projects and saline groundwater tubewell drainage projects. The strategies proposed in the programme were (Position Paper GOP, 1985):
- Mining of groundwater was not considered eoDnomicallyfeasible. The appropriate level to -whichgroundwater could be lowered was fixed at 10 to 15 ft below the natural surface.
- Capacity of tubewells in fresh water zones to be kept between I to 2 cusecs and in saline zones between 1.5 to 2.5 cusecs.
- Fibre-glass and stainless steel pipes and strainers were not recommendedas these were expensive. PVC, brass and coir were considered as the most suitable strainer materials.
- Instead of deep turbine pumps, centrifugal pumps were recommended as the watertable was to be stabilized at 10 to 15 ft.
- For water quality, USDA standards of salinity were adopted.
2-5 A high priority was assignedto the AcceleratedProgramme in the FifRhFive-Year Plan with nearly 39% of the total Water Sector allocation given to it. The aim was to protect an additionalarea of 7 Ma through5000 usable groundwatertubewells, 1,177saline groundwater tubewells, 1,805 miles of surface drains and 9,400 miles of tile drains. The main strategy was to give priority to the waterloggedareas having usable groundwater. There were four major reasons for this:
reclamation of this area would improve the net income of the farmers and it would be possible to reclaim the area underlain by saline groundwater by transferring part of the burden of reclamation to the private sector by increasingthe water rates in the completed SCARP areas;
reclamation projects in the usable groundwaterzones had higher economic benefits than the projects in the saline groundwaterzone;
usable groundwater projects being less expensive were expected to give protection to a larger area than the projects in the saline zone for the same capital outlay;
projects in the usable zone were expected to increase the water availability and supplementcanal supplies to increasethe cropping intensity and to leach excess salts from the soils.
The major objective of the programme was to ensure that the watertable remains below 10 feet of the surface in the case of tubewell projects.
Due to unexpected Tarbela repairs and a general shortage of funds, only Rs 4,345 million (65% of the allocation) were spent on the programme and the achievementsfell well short of the targets with the result that the area having a watertable depth within 5 feet increased, albeit slowly, as indicated in Table 2.1.
The implernentationof the Waterlogging and Salinity Control Programme was serious!y constained and it slipped by several years. In addition, the economic, technological and political factors involved in planning and development of irrigated agriculture on a national scale changed substantially. TABLE 2.1
Area with Depth to Watertable within 5 feet in April/June
Year Area (Ma)
1978 4.9 1979 5.0 1980 5.2 1981 5.2 1982 5.5 1983 5.5
Source: Position Paper GOP (1985).
2-6 Therefore, an agreement was executed with UNDP in 1975 for the preparion of a comprehensiveplan for the entire irrigated area of the country. The study was assigned to WAPDA with advisoryTechnical Assistance from Harza EngineeringCompany Intemational. The plan proposed the following main strateies to address the waterlogging and salinity problems (Revised Action Program):
- All future development of usable groundwater should be entrusted to the private sector,but with the assistance of the public sector in the form of supervised credit,technologysupply and information;
- Present SCARP tubewells in usable groundwater areas should be gradually phased out and replaced by private tubewells.
At the time of preparationof the Sixth Five Year Plan, the concept of 'disastrous areas' was evolved. These areas, with depth to watertable within 5 feet, were given priority. Three options were considered:
the envelop concept ie; enclosing the area with depth to watertable less than 5 feet throughout the year for three successive yeas;
area having less than 5 feet depth to watertable during the year;
area having less than 5 feet depth to watertable during April/Juneonly.
The approximatearea under each category was:
envelopconcept 14 Ma. - less than 5 feet during year 13 Ma. - less than 5 feet in AprilJune 5 Ma.
Strategies adopted to control waterloggingand salinity during the Sixth Plan period were:
Instead of reclaimninglarge gross commandedarea, ernphasisshould be given to the "disastrous area7 where the wateitable was within 5 feet in AprilJune.
- Tbe on-going projects in the Fresh Groundwater (FGW) Zone should be completed as originally conceived.
- Priority should be given to the areas underlain by SGW on the basis of productivity of land, types of crops grown, density of populationand rate of rise of watertable.
- The reclamationof FGW zone where cultivationof crops is possible should be left to the private sector. The private sector should be encouraged to instll tubewells by providing closely spaced electric grid, advancing loans and giving tubewell subsidy.
The Sixth Plan (1983/88)envisaged the protection to 5.3 Ma of gross commandedarea (3.0 Ma Punjab, 1.9 Ma Sindh, 0.3 Ma NWFP and 0.1 Ma Balochistan) and the eradication of waterlogging from 2.8 Ma of disastrous area" (1.3 Ma Punjab, 1.4 Ma Sindh, 0.1 Ma
2-7 NWFP). The installationof 2,488 tubewells in fresh groundwater area, 1,824 tubewells in- saline groundwater area, and the constructionof 3,065 miles and 8,381 miles of surface and tile drains respectively was planned. However, due to financial constraints, the programme was delayed.
Soon after the launching of the Sixth Plan it was realized that important projects and programmes should be protected in case of resource shortfalls. Therefore, a Three Year Priority Plan (1985-86 to 1987-88)for the drainageand reclamationsub-sector was prepared. It was planned that during the Priority Plan period nearly 2.9 Ma of gross area would be protected and 1.4 Ma of 'disastrous area' wouldbe cleared of waterlogging, largely through the installation/ constructionof 1,068 tubewells in fresh groundwater area, 1,144 tubewells in saline groundwater area; 1,582 miles of open drains and 5,652 miles of tile drains.
During the Seventh Plan period (1988/93) the key elements of the drainage programme are:
- priority to be given to on-going projects;
- vertical drainage in FGW zones to be tackled by the private sector, except in difficult aquifer conditions;
- areas not severely waterloggedto be tackled by preventive measures within available resources;
- privatizationof public tubewellsto be extendedto other SCARPs based on the results of a pilot project; and;
- gradual replacement of SCARP tubewells based on the experience of the SCARP Transition project and other considerrtions, such as willingness of farmers group to take over productive tubewells.
The allocation-imade to drainage in various Plan periods and their utilization are given in Table 2.2.
TABLE 2.2
Plan allocations and expenditure for Drainage Sector
Plan No: Period Allocation Expenditure Utilization (Rs M) (R/M) (per cent)
1 1955-60 197 153 78 II 1960-65 229 381 166 111 1965-70 1132 864 76 IV 1970-75 1280 1249 98 - 1975-78 2029 2000 99 V 1978-83 6702 4003 60 VI 1983-88 12090 10600 88 VII 1988-93 11759 4976*
*Expenditure in first three years. Source: Planning Division WAPDA.
2-8 2.5 Drainage DevelopmentSince Early 1960's 2.5.1 Developmentin Public Sector
Since 1960,surface and sub-surfacedrainage facilities, where needed,have been provided in a gross area of 14.44 Ma (5.85 Mha) at a cost of Rs. 18.19 billion. Projects costing Rs 19.8 billion, covering an area of 5.35 Ma (2.2 Mha), are in various stages of construction. The information of completed and on-going projects, is given in Appendix-1l at the end of this chapter.
The initial focus was on sub-surface drainage in areas underlain by FGW. where the effluent could be re-cycled. This had three obvious advantages:
additional irrigation water supplies were provided for rapid growth of agriculture;
effluent disposal costs were minimised;
full use could be made of groundwater reservoir.
The surface and sub-surface drainage facilities are now being extended to SGW areas and saline effluent, subject to water quality limitations, is disposed off into canals, rivers, ponds etc depending upon their feasibilityon project to project basis. Table 2.3 gives the FGW and SGW areas drained.
TABLE 23
ImplementationStatus Of DrainageFacilities (June 1992) Gross Area in Ma
Completed On-Going Total
FGW S'iW FGW SGW C 0
A. Sub-SurfaceDrainage
I.Tubewell Drainage 7.292 3.551 - 2.083 10.843 2.083
II.Tile Drainage - 0.265 0.542 0.235 0.265 0.777
B. Surface Drainae
- 3.335 0.468 2.020- 3.335 2.488
Total 7.292 7.151 1.010 4.338 14.443 5.348
G.Total.. 19.791
* does not include 0.5 Ma in Pat Feeder Canal Project.
2-9 2J.2 DeyuopmentIn rlivate Sector
At the time whendrainage activitieswero Initiated, therm was hardly any conceptof tubewell irrigation. Useof groundwaterwas mostlylimited to persianwhed wells. Developmentof SCARPstrigered groundwaterdevdopment in privatesector mostly in areasunderlain with FGW.
Currently,280,000 private tubewells are reported in operationand annually pump nearly 38 Maf of water, of which, 24 Maf is in canalcommanded area.
2-10 Appendizx-X TABLE XX-1
Xrrigation Department Tubwevll schmes
Name of scheme Construction T/Ws Capacity Year (Nr.) (cfs) a______---- Karol 1939-42 20 1.5 Rasul 1945-55 1317 2.0 Central T/W scheme 1953-60 178+ Shiekhupura/Ghara drain 21 3.5 Chichoki Dr: 29 4.0 Batapur 1953-58 57 2.0 Churhkana* 1953 24 2.0 Jaranwala* 1957-60 133 2.5 Chichoki* 1950-60 12 3.0 Pindi Bhattian* 1958-60 21 2.5 Shadman-II* 1960 58 3.0 2L-Dhaya - 24 - Shah Bore - 12 ------*Tubewells subsequently brought under SCARP-I.
TABLE XX-2 Area under various Depths to Watertable June/April (1959/64) ------__---- Debth to Watertable % of Area Region Gross Area < 5 5-10 >10 (Ka) < 4* 4-8* > 8* ------Rechna Doab 5.994 A-.9 39.3 49.8 Chaj Doab 2.451 16.6 54.7 28.7
Thal 3.935 5.4 30.6 - 64.0 Bari Doab 6.909 2.5 12.1 85.4 Bahawalpur 4.322 5.4 33.4 61.2 D.G.Khan 1.009 28.7 30.9 40.4 Sub-Total: 24.62 8.0 30.4 61.6 Guddu 3.1 1;.0 29.0 70.0 Sukkur 8.5 5.0 36.0 59.0 Kotri 3.32 4.0 29.p 67.0
Sub-Total: 14.92 4.0 33.0 63.0 Total: 39.54 6.48 31.38 62.14
Source: SMO and LIP reports * Depth to water ranges for Lower Indus Plain.
I TABLE XX-3
Surface Salinity (1962-63) ------__-- Area with Surface Salicity (% of GA). Area Gross Area ------(Ma) Si S2 & S3 S4 ------Puniab 27.74 68 22 7
Rechna 6.05 66 24 8 Chaj 3.07 66 26 5 Thal 5.96 66 10 3 Bari 7.14 69 20 7 Bahawalpur 4.58 71 16 11 D.G.Khan* 0.94 73 18 9
Sindh 14.92 11.5 56.0 32.5
Guddu 3.1 9.6 44.5 45.9 Sukkur 8.5 12.1 69.8 18.1 Ghulam Mohammad 3.32 12.0 31.4 56.6
Source: SMO * 1977-Nespak.
TABLE II-4
Distribution of Profile Salinity (1962-63) ------Profiles Classification
Bore Hole NS-NS S SS NS-S Name of Doab (Nr.) (%) (%) (M) (%) ------Rechna Doab 5498 39 3 32 26 Chaj Doab 4657 58 8 25 9 Thal Doab 2159 50 6 37 7 Bari Doab 8325 57 7 26 10 Bahawalpur 5509 53 7 32 8 D.G.Khan 278 36 33 31 - ______Total Punjab: 26426 52 6 29 13 ------Source: SMO-
2 Tablc 11-S Salient Features of SCRn (uvto June 1992) - Completcd SCARPs
No. SCAR1_S Am _ k I| - IM _ . 111 * Dt_ _~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~14N (ftm ak Ih1mw I n*lou M.-MM.9 1" MWStu o= *Kn I (NM rf I too PUNJAB A. Sub-Sufae Draiagt PrFjet
I. SCARPI 1I L-631217 1J14 23910 2030D 260 NML NIL NIL NIL NIL 2060 NML ML NIL MIL "ML SCAtPU L N1 961-S IEM 2AM ID72333 13358 2205 NIL 706 R NIL NIL 2203 NIL GU2 M57 NIL NIL . SO m.8 Oise2 N 22 ML NIL NIL a2 NIL NL 4. U"dw 197S-79 112 am 125A3 107A2 2SJ NISL L NIL NL NIL 23 NIL NIL NIL NI NIL SCWARIP S. 1969-81 1.131 LOU2 46fS.4 431,07 1635 NIL 242 t33 NIL NIL 163 NIL 20 123 NIL NI , S 0142 0am6 NtL 2 NIIL NIL NIL 6* NIL NIL SCARPWV 7. NuMbA hmw I 1_90-75 US 05 310.9n e 6030M3 2933 NL NIL NIL NIL NIL 9S ND. NIL NIL NIL NIL SCAR?V L S_o -X_Hll 1973-77 OJ6S 0154 61110 30.26 ao1 NIL IL NL NIL NIL 101 NIL NIL NIL NL NIL 9. s5_m Istu 1973-77 0118 am 239 4.2 20 St NIL NIL NIL NIL 20 31 MIL NM NIL NIL IL Sh_uma 1961-7 033 0301 31272 2 7 NIL AS6 00 223 NmIL NIL NL 45 e0 224 NI NIL 11. GOs3b_r0alb-I 1957-0 0M 0m 34A8 39.311 NIL 40 40 16 NIL NL NL 40 43 16 NIL NIL SCARPII 12. A_bhd It 1973-79 02G 6.2M 29232 216,11103 623 NIL NIL NI NIL NIL 6D NIL NIL IL NIL NIL IL PumjmAb(Ur D V) 1911-92 lAO 12167 3D070m 336976 NIL 314 43S 436 NIL NIL NL 354 435 436 NI NIL SCAR? VD 1. CODC(IIhJ) I3-8 0196 0174 21120 2169 NIL 101 134 75 NIL NIL NIL 201 134 78 NM NIL scARP n 1s. lft& o Hiss 1976-1 OA7B 0A73 93.217 m2.61 203 NL MIL NL NIL 20 23 NIL NIL NIL NIL IL Padu.bSuiqIuU 1911-17 0112 0.100 1273DO t557 NIL 20 177 75 NIL NL NL 30 177 72 IL NIL AWL410S.Ul ALING 17. T.PlJk 1977-al O0 0m20 42* 3173 16 64 N NI NIL ML t6 6 NL NIL L NIL IS.LS03 lIs 1979-62 0.056 O0 42.90 41173 NIL a 2 2 NIL NIL NIL aS 8 2 L NIL 19. lI3NIs 3962-6 0Dl9 Om 2183 107.777 NIL 76 36 43 NM NIL NIL 76 30 37 NIL NIL IL SCARtI_Tm 3916-92 - - 293153 I9S3. Tlnbshr Sum FW kiessSor
J-' I .9 Ma 2270 2 0 NIL NIL NI NI NIL ( N NIL NI NIL NIL raw U 196II-86 0am MUe 2170 243 (0) NIL NL NIL NIL NIL (6) N NIL NIL Nl NIL
S b-Tm* 8.311 7A33 764920 7W7 W6 1924 1907 3SR NIL NL 15 3914 1977 L570 NIL NIL B. Surfbce Drain c Prje
SCAR?V 22. lbmg sris 7 1.96-80 MWs 03M S656 OMJ1 NIL NIL 54 102 NIL NIL NIL NIL 4 91 NIL NL (Oudi.ScARItp) 2. AWLIagCJ.U. 1962-IS OA2 o0m 38m 47.73 NIL NL 35 24 NIL NIL NIL NIL 35 24 NL NIL 2. Dm1 Rudo. 1963-U MU 0*03 12.310 16.12 NIL NIL 19 9 NIJL NIL NIL N 19 9 ML3 NIL Sub-Tl 0.126 0.260 2O0.27 133139 ML NIL 138 1234 L NIL NL ML 135 124 NIL NI Im5ALIF62AI 58.4 7.3S6 52966 62036 IOU 1924 2133 1716 N NI 0 924 2113 1671 NIL NIL fl431 [14711 SINDIH A. Sub-Swfae Drainage Proects Tube L 1dqpw 1969-70 0.4 0.3 233110 237A9 173 365 3 NIL NIL 17 36s 350 36 NIL NIL 2 NurtUbia 1916-7079 0.0 0O8 3610 43116 192 NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 1192 NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 3 K.AuBKOH 3977-71 0013 0*12 9a90 .73 26 NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 26 NIL NIL NI NI NIL 4 iszpHi 1973-74 007 0*4 919 32930 30 NIL NL NIL NIL NIL St NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 3. S r 1974- OA20.I0IS 004 3J20 223 18 NIL NIL N NIL NIL f tNM NL NI NIL NIL 66 l U * Il 197>9 CAND OISO 170Jllt UDA21 35 NIL ML NIL NL NIL M NIL NL ML NIL NIL. IL GsI rF 1976-190 0A41 046D 767S 742. I2O NIL NIL NIL NL MIL 1O NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 9. Sa Rddlc 2976140 Q541 0.375 912 511 1213 NIL NIL I NIL NIL 2214 NL NIL NIL NIL NIL Sob-ToOL, 2220 1233 266366 2443A32 4161 365 3S3 3S NI NIL 619 365 330 3 NIL NI t0. EI0.dlpv 177-63 0.4 0*36 630A0 539017 NIL IL ML NIL 96 3409 IL NL NL NIL 976 3400 Apb Tflbidi 190-86 Om MU 40220 34A39 () NMIL NIL NIL 1rIL NIL (233 NIL NL NIL NL NL B. Surfamcbrn Proect 11. 1_b91n1r SUP-I 196-72 0.701 04 26JID 2613 NIL NIL 212 NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 212 NIL NIL NIL _np-U I972n-2 440.5 347.82 NIL NIL 1040 630 NL NIL NI NIL 200 627 NIL NIL 12. LD OCmP 199734 DMU MUO 111_849 124415 NIL NIL 9t6 1233 NIL N4 NILML NIL 965 130 NIL NM 13. KooSu1 I3.3511 IJ21 463130 4367 NIL NIL 470 2710 ML NL NIL NIL 3196 1719 NIL NIL M KasIPinsupIL 19g-1 OA" 038 31. 303140 NDML2. 415 124 I NIL NIL ML 310 90 NL NI LIL N.ulStohow- 1976-0 0347 0.20 73030 7443 ND NIL 6S4 93 N NIL NL. 47 GM NL NM 16I. SLd.o-U 3909-92 0170 0146 314.0 333D NIL NL NA 272 NIL NiL NIL NL KA 200 NIL NIL Sub-Tak 33 2.545 7 3 NM OMI NL NL NIL NI NA 4676 NIL NIL 1UAL11306 4A34 363 NA 405 076 3400 4190 U6S NA 4714 91 340W0
3 Tablc U-S (Contd..) Salient Fcatures of SRFS (upto Junc 199 - completed SCARPs sr. 1Y_f O-j CCA ISOt-I ~~CArs~~~~ummdI Usarsmupb ebm'pTl_w | wmfN I SCARPS A.,. c1n Ju"X992 1OW I SOW 4d pOW I SOW l _ _ *) n {~~~~~~~~~~(ss Ih~~~~Rs- I efr.d 1 * s I (IC M. 1, .r |tl }1 BALOCIIISrAN A. Surfie DrauWas Fnoects
1. Rdrd-1 1974-10 GM7 0074 72.923 n M NL NNL 172 lo NIL NIL mL NIL 271 195 nL NIL 2. Rum-U 1930-8 SAa 07 525 055 NIL NI 11 067 NIL NL NIL 151
TOTAL. LOCECk 077i L16 1.3.24 16.V179 NIL NIL 2 175 NIL NIL NIL PIL 2 162 NIL NU.
N.W.F.P. A. Sub-SwfCe DraiNa ProjcS
W_dowSCARP 397-U 0U3 el1 1to2.97 19.2 21D IL 267 1U3 4 NM. 21 NIL 20 26 I N I. 1hMI* 1979-U L Sbd_h 197S-79 2. XKatz0M 1975-79 4. AWL.Iy 12-79 S. Mudm Thu.-! 1979-17 T9nTik 99.10 762 97 NIL 5 NL NIL V NU 20 NL N (VW H_ 11SW) Dthap fto7 N2 I 6. Rom 1970-U 0G90 00 90 72.5D 176 PM .27 23 I N 1D Sub-Tad: 0.226 OJ9 3.75S 343.0 491 NIL mf 321 4 NIL 491 NIL 3 221 NIL
7. _ 1979-92 0.2 018 328 2903109 NIL NIL 320 209 4792 7300 NIL NIL 320 201 4217 714V = rALN.W33 0A6 0373 36S1705 33029 491 NML 39 s30 4790 7XI0 *91 NIL* 07122 4232 7427a 1OTADL(COMIIZEDSCARIS) 14.0 12.516 I8U3.179 1813574 I1 2279 NA 84M 572 20W 1274 9 NA 0992 527 1US? UCiah_be EE isoiA JB_ b i---1 the cbisid wi (17001 (17011 11 Arm clUim. ua h d 3 o . L AaSlPhaIp4 34o4d
4 Tablc I-S (Conmlk) Salient Features of SCAR(S (upto June 1992) - On-moinx SCARFS sr. 1406cm Y_d G r 0043Ma - IFMIfth"111-@l 1 I r NoJ SCARPS C :hA I CAm9 I:w w w t m so UIEV u _ s} n)~~~~~~iilsIUM*Ib {1Ml fl. It.fl4 ] IKm(ind1 IKami *(me (dr.3 (W I. I*dbl I ( l PUNJAB A. Sub-Suface Draisage Projects
SCARFV 1. G*a&t 8m, o96-93n 0A47 a3m0 267.M 9" NIL 3 2 143 MNL IL IL ML NA is NI NL 2 loat 3m.k(5*Um ,n-194 0.e5 OA 29534 6"U1 NIL 222 257 22 L NIL NIL NIL KA 1 NI NIL 3. 3uSdabmi 197-93 0JU 0.37 426 364.3 NIL 71 128 131 NIL NIL NIL 71 nA 119 NIL NIL 4. Mm_IIbmwDrab_mt 1990-9 - - 1139.S 70L=2 DwmVdem.aoIRctm .mimAAmf l -1 hi Tsbs Sub-Taok: 0A57 0O.4 2114846 323II39 NIL 33 t 2 NIL NIL NIL 71 NA 15 NIL IL
T1k Vadmiu
SCARPV V/ s. Iamw 3IONIMMIV13) 193-93 0.l30 oJ0De 121110) MILOS2 NIL ML 613 141 100 735W NIL NIL NA 326 MA 375W XXudbSkbUsih 1919-94 0105 094 1006666 10116.13NiL NIL W9 32 NA 64 NIL NIL NA 37 WA NIL Sub-Tauk OM3 02IUW 2293326 1333 NIL NIL 704 193 NA 13340 NIL NIL NA 363 WA 3783
B. Surface Drainage roects 7. Sll_ am 11dw as LlIk Ibm-I 1909-93 0.J00 01 346IMJ 147W1O NI. NIL 60 12 NIL NIL NIL NIL NA a14 NIL NIL Sul Nd O"I Cumd ML Upps'rhte(Dh014th1 199950 Q461 0.352 233 2636 NIL NIL 93 233 NIL NIL NIL NIL NA '33 NIL NIL SCAlPVIU *. Fa,&"Smqiomm-I loss-" 0.61 0.571 1304909 557.524 NIL NIL 293 531 NIL NIL NIL NEL NA 277 NIL NIL Sub-Took 106 1183 I J704 733.6 NIL NIL 446 96 NIL NIL NIL NIL NA 424 NIL NIL ITOMLIMIAlk I"97 1.2 6372076 3309633 NIL 331 1831 1IC" NA 32343 NIL 71 NA 740 NA 3783
SINDII A. Sub-Surfae Drainage Projects
1. LDW St" I 1966-U 1.426 1.276 S 346916 NL 2173 184 1230 217 MM010 NIL 44 NA 903 NIL NIL B. Surfae Draing Projec
2. KoiSapt-U 3IM 1969-9t Li 1.J63 464.4 442 NIL NIL KA 124 NIL NL NIL NIL NA 8 NI NIL 3. UemoddlmSotlaomPSMur Thdu.Sy.I 199-92 - _ 10. 101 NIL NIL 240 147 NIL NIL NIL NIL NA 112 NIL NIL
166LIDU 2.6I26 241 9164160 3619-78 NIL 2173 NA 1 7M NIL 424 NA 1102 NI _NI_
N.W.F?.P A. Sub-Surfacc Drainage Priects
1. Ch_nb i d dued 19-92s (.137 031 64o0 sn.m NIL NIL 95 135 ISIO 37 NIL NL NPA 114 NA 335 2. SWIM 19099 0.am 0279 26202 9P SduMll_pd3m W.mIoi_bAmfor luwadac. 1Ieidm duhRp IUrALW.W.VJ. ~~~0.3420.A30 426134 660*-4 NIL NIL 93 3 130036 NIL NIL NA 114 NA 3383 SUFAL(ON-OD4O ICREPSI 4496*.346 1904.37W6 75.3 NIL 25J6 NA 3113 NA 227r NIL 49 NA 1957 NA 736 GRANDIUIJAL(COUVLU l&lCU-GOING19.791 1714 38617.715 2773.179 1277 4603 NKA 3139 NA 3247 32746 2774 NA 89M NA 179117 2V GA mudC Ao(:dfhp-1V.jofAais.34Mmd0Q2MArpmf I p da bySCARFLSUd.mammdP,hwinm~ItI)rmI rsmSumGAa.dCCAlsOJ30MAmd 0.300MArauf 3 NoM Rm IbmdmIkm d d d 1 b_ lududh .
5 CHAPTER3
FUTUREDRAINAGE REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Establishment of Drainage Need Whereas,irrigationis requiredto supplementthe naturalrainfall to removethe soil moisture deficiency,drainage is necessaryto ensurea satisfactorybalance between moisture, aeration and saltconcentration in the root zone. Basically,it meansensuring that the root zoneshould remainsufficiendy moist to allowcrops to extractthe waterrequired for transpirationeasily but at the same time it shouldnot remainsaturated for extendedperiods. For the zone to remainrelatively salt free the net watermovement should be downwardsto preventsalt build- up. For manyyears, it was enoughto assumethat drainagewas a necessityand fairlyarbitrary criteriaand improvementin yieldwere assumed to declarethe projectseconomically viable. For scarce resourceallocation this approachis no longer desireableand more rigorous evaluationis calledfor to establishdrainage need. Areasrequiring drainage are currentlydetermined on the "disastrousarea" concepti.e; area with depthto watertableless than 5 feet (150 cm) in April/June.This conceptneeds to be fiuther refinedby relatingit to cropsand their growthrequirements and the qualityof sub- soil water.The leveland timeat w.lichthe watertableneeds to be maintaineddepends upon the natureof cropsgrown and their critical growth period. Tables 3.1 & 3.2 givethe rooting depths of major crops and yield reductiondue to high watertableduring critical growth periods. Watertablenot only fluctuateswith the quantityof imigationwater inputbut also with the precipitation in the area. Whereas, irrigation water input can be considered fairly constant from year to year, the rain input may vary widely due to unusual storms. Two cases can be referred in this respect amely;
* Whileplanning 6R Commandwater managementproject immediateneed for drainage was not evident. However, heavy downpour before the project appraisal reversed the situation and drainage facilitieshad to be includedat the time of appraisal;
In Drainage IV project the sitation was completely opposite. In part of the area originally delineatedfor drainagethe watertable now remains most of the time below tile drains.
3-1 TABLE 3.1
Effective Rooting Depth and Permissible Depth to Watertable for Major Crops (metres)
------Crop Effective Permissible depth rooting depth to watertable ------
Wheat 1.0 - 1.5 1.0 Maize 1.0 - 1.7 1.1 Cotton 1.0 - 1.7 2.1 Barley 1.0 - 1.5 1.0 Gram 0.9 - 1.5 1.0 Groundnut 0.3 - 1.0 0.8 Lucerne 1.0 - 2.0 1.0 Vegetables 0.3 - 0.6 0.6 Mustard 1.0 - 1.5 1.0 Sugarcane 1.2 - 2.0 1.0/1.8 Sunflower 0.5 - 1.5 1.0 Potatoes 0.4 - 0.6 0.6 Pulses 0.3 - 1.0 0.9
------Source: (1) 5th Drainage Workshop ICID Lahore 1992 (2) LIR. II p.333 and FAO Paper 29
TABLE 3.2
Percentage Yield Reduction due to High Watertable
------Watertable Mango Cotton Sugar & Wheat Berseem Summer Depth (m) Oilseed Fodder ------
0.00-0.25 100 98 91 79 77 80 0.25-0.50 100 57 66 49 45 27 0.50-0.75 100 35 46 28 24 0 0.75-1.00 87 21 29 29 9 0 1.00-1.25 63 12 1 1 2 0 1.25-1.50 38 5 5 5 0 0 1.50-1.75 14 1 1 1 0 0 Over 1.75 0 0 0 0 0 0
------Source: Lee, Sheikh and Youssef, LBOD. Integrated Jrrigation and Drainage in Pakistan. ICID XIII Congress, Special Session, 1987.
3-2 In order to avoid similar situations and to determine drainage areas with more confidence, it is necessarythat density of observation points be increasedand long term trends in disastrous areas be kept in view. As the time provided for detailed planning is generally small it may not be possible to establish the trend of the watertable during this period. It is therefore, recommended:
that the SMO grid of observation points in and arwund 'disastraus areas' be augmented reducing the spacing to 1.5 km .
that "autonmaticwater stage recorders" be installed at strategic ptints in 'disastrous areas" to analyse the long term trends at the time of pnrject planning.
3.2 Status of Land Drainage
Drainage for agriculture is required not only to maintain a favourablesalt water balance in the root zone fbr dry foot crops hut also to remove excess irrigation and rain water to save other crops from drowning and also to create suitable.sil moisture conditionfor sowing of the following crop. Thus surface and sub-surface drainage are ctmplementary and applicability of one or in combinationwith the other depends upon the crop and its requirement. Cropped area outside the CCA of the Indus Plain is mostly Barani or well irrigated and needf no drainage. The land drainage situation in the Indus Plain within irrigationboundary is considered in this context in the following.
3.2.1 Sub-surface Drainage
ITe area with a depth to watertable less than 5 feet, in April/June, varies between 5 to 6 Ma (13%). The distribution of these areas for the year 1989-90 in completed, on-going and remaining areas in various provinces is given in Table 3.3 and detailed in Appendix-Ill.
TABLE 3.3
Gross Area (Ma) with Depth to Watertable less than rFeetin ApriUjune 1989-90
Province Total Comp: On-go: Rem:
Punjab 1.76 0.78 0.18 0.80 Sindh 3.78 0.38 1.85 1.55 NWFP 0.12 0.03 0.05 0.04 Balochistan 0.23 0.06 0.02 0.15
5.89 1.25 2.10 2.54
Source: SMO
In Punjab, the commandsnot yet consideredfor drainagefacilities includes D.G.Khan, Lower Bari Doab, Thal, Bhawal and Upper Chenab Canals. The depth to watertable information indicates that shallow watertable is not likely to be a problem in these areas except, D.G.Khan,where a drainage project is under planning.
3-3 Areas, where irrigation is planned to be extended and will eventually require sub-surface drainage include Indus-Munda (0.051 Ma) in Thal canal, part of Greater Thai Canal (0.3 Ma), Chashma CAD-IlI (0.07 Ma) in Chashma right bank canal command and Dajal extension in D.G.Khan canal command.
Nearly, 0.8 Ma area in completed SCARPs in Punjabhas depth to watertable less than 5 feet. Distribution of these areas is given in Appendix-ll. Improved operation and maintenance of existingfacilities may provide the necessary relief or else supplementarydrainage facilities may have to be added.
In Sindh, 90 % area within 5 feet in completed and on-goingprojects lies in surface and tile drainage projects where, the lowering of watertable beyondthis depth was not envisaged. The distribution of shallow watertable areas in tubewellSCARPS and remaining area is given in Tables 3A & 3.5. In the remaining area, 60 to 70% area within 5 feet depth to watertable, lie on right bank Indus where rice is the major crop and appropriate surface drainage is required.
TABLE 3.4 Area with tubevell drainage having depth to watertable less than 5 feet in April in Sindh ------Gross Area in Ma SCARPs ------1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 ------Khairpur 0.171 0.195 0.094 0.150 0.093 North Rohri 0.020 0.031 0.049 0.045 0.067 South Rohri ------0.191 0.226 0.143 0.195 0.160
Source: SO0 TABLE 3.5 Area with depth to vatertable less than 5 feet in April in remaining areas of Sindh. ------Gross Area in Ma- Commd: ------1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 Guddu Right Bank 0.145 0.091 0.074 0.188 0.379 Left Bank 0.193 0.057 0.028 0.093 0.081 Sukkur Right Bank 0.633 0.337 0.460 0.838 0.665 Left Bank 0.899 0.700 0.499 0.538 0.294
1.860 1.185 1.061 1.657 1.419
3-4 In NWFP, 0.226 Ma is under tubewell drainage and 0.377 Ma under tile drainage. In the remainingarea (0.778 Ma) the depth to watertable of less than 5 feet in June exists in 0.104 Ma.
Balochistanarea within Indus Basin is irrigated mainly from Pat Feeder and Kirthar canals and partly from Desert canal. The gross area under their commandis estimated as 0.98 Ma. In April, 1990 the area with depth to watertable less than 5 feet was 0.23 Ma of which, 0.13 Ma is in the command of Pat Feeder and Desert canals and the remaining in Kirthar canal command. No area requires any sub-surfacedrainage except few kilometersintercepting Tile Drains along some length of Pat Feeder main canal in upper reaches.
3.2.2 Surface Drainage
In Punjab, Upper Chenab and Lower Bari Doab canal commands needs to be provided with appropriatesurface drainage facilitiesto drain excess water from rice fields and during heavy rains.
In Sindh, Kotri command and right bank commandsof Guddu and Sukkur are prdominantly rice areas and need timely drainage not only for sowing Rabi crops but also provide protection from flooding during heavy rain storms.
ITe most affected area in Pat Feeder and Desert canal command is already provided with drainage facilities through Hairdin-l&Il surface drainage projects. In the RBMP study the irrigated areas in Pat Feeder and Kirthar canal commands have been divided into four drainage basins, which require surface drainage.
3.3 Future Requirenents of Irrigation Related Drainage
The gross canal commandedarea in the Indus Basin is reported as 41.16 Ma (16.67 Mha) of which, drainage facilities has been completed and are in operation in 14.44 Ma (5.85 Mha) area.
Since 1978, nearly 5 to 6 Ma of canal commanded area in the Indus basin has depth to watertable less than 5 feet in the monthsof AprillJune. Some of this area is within completed SCARPs, where waterlogging has reappeared and according to present criteria is 'disaster' area and qualifies for sub-surface drainage.
In addition, there are areas which are generally under rice cultivation and or exposed to flooding and need surface drainage. Also, in certain completed SCARPs, where surface drainge was provided, it needs improvement.
The drainage requirements for most of the remaining area, at one time or the other, had been determined by WAPDA and its Consultants. To assess the future drainage requirements the best option therefore,was to determine these on project to project basis. For this various regional planning and project reports have been consulted.
Figure 3.1 shows the areas already drained or that will need drainage in future. The remaining areas are expected to need no drainage. The gross area requiring drainage in future, inclusiveof completed and on-going projects, is estimated as 19.16 Ma (7.78 Mha).
3-5 N * Fig: 3.1
LEGEND:
AREA COVEREDSY DRAINAGE %
Surfee< SlulSurfee; Diamaqe Dwr~ag
AREA IN NiEED Of DRAINAGtEj ;1__ '7§----bliiwt1'\ Surfaele S SurfaeeSub r I Drainage Drabsag '4 - ' DEPTHTO WATERTABLE LESS THAN 5
* I.V
44)
IRRIGATEDAREA PROVIDEDWITH J/ ''0% ANDIN NEEDOF DRAINAGE IN THE INDUS BASIN of which 5.84 Ma (2.39 Mha), inclusiveof 0.5 Ma under Pat Feeder Canal Project, is coveredunder on-going and 2.22 Ma (0.90Mha) In completedSCARPS needing surface and sub-surfacedrainage improvement. The newarea requiringdrairage is 11.10 Ma (4.53Mha), of which,3.80 Ma (1.54 Mha)require Surface drainage, and 7.32 Ma (0.96 Mha)Surface cum Sub-surfacedrinage (Fable 3.6).
TABLE 3.6
GrossArea (Ma) requiring drinage facilities Province Surface Sub-surface Total
C 0 N IC 0 N I Sur: Sub-sur: TOtW
Punjab - 1.08 1.20 1 0.78 0.89 3.91 I 2.28 5.58 7.86 Sindh 1.21 1.40 2.41 1 0.16 1.43 3.00 I 5.02 4.67 9.69 NWFP - - - - 0.54 0.31 I - 0:85 0.85 Balochistan 0.07 0.50 0.19 I - - - I 0.76 - 0.76
1.28 2.98 3.80 0.94 2.86 7.30 8.06 11.10 19.16 C..completed;O..on-going; N..newprojects; * Areacovered under Pat FeederCanal Project.
As of June 1992the on-goingand the anticipatedprojects to cover the entire irrigatedarea in needof drainageare listedin Appendix-Illand shownin Plate-I. 3.4 DrainageEffluent and its Disposal
Presently,10.9 Maf (13.4 Bcm)of drainageeffluent (both from TJWsand rice drainage)is beinggenerated from variousSCARPs, of which,8.4 Maf (10.3 Bcm)is from tubewellsin FGW areas and is re-usedand theremaining 2.5 Maf (3.1 Bcm) is salineand disposedinto variouswater bodiesincluding canals, rivers and ponds.The pumpagefrom private tubewells is mosty re-used.
Quality and quantity of drainage effluent which will be generated during anticipated developmentis difficultto quantifyaccurately. However, as drainagerequirements for most of irrigatedareas had been estimatedat one time or the other therefore,an assessmentcan be madeand is given in Appendix-lI alongwithplanned disposal. The total salineeffluent anticipatedis 10.91Maf (13.5Bcm), of which,60% is plannedto be disposeddirectly into the sea throughLBOD (Table 3.7).
3-6 Table 3.7 E3iating and anticipated Saline Effluent ------__- AREA QUANTITY DISPOSAL (Maf) (Maf) Canals Rivers Ponds Sea ------
A. Exiating Punjab 1.524 0.393* 0.638 0.493 Sindh/Bal 0.948 0.514 0.434 - Total 2.472 0.907 1.072 0.493
B. Total Anticipated (including ozisting) Punjab 2.948 0.606 1.229 1.113 - Sindh/Bal 7.964 0.751 1.174 0.027(L) 6.012
Total 10.912 1.357 2.403 1.140 6.012
*0.15 Maf pumped directly into canal water courses.
3-7 appendiz-tZ
TABLE ZZZ-1 Completed SCARP Areas With Depth to Watertable Less Than 5 Feet Xn June ______…______------___------_____------SCARPs Gross Area in Ka ------…------1986 1938 198'. 1990 …------… -…------I.SCARP-II Non-Saline 0.166 0.020 0.084 0.079 Saline 0.116 0.037 0.044 0.044 Shahpur 0.020 0.022 0.016 0.028
Total(I) 0.302 0.079 0.144 0.151
II.SCARP-III Non-Saline 0.109 0.170 0.295 0.294 Saline 0.096 0.101 0.105 0.109 AWL;TP 0.010 0.014 0.011 0.082
------Total(II) 0.215 0.285 0.411 0.485 ------Total(I+II) 0.517 0.364 0.555 0.636 ------Source: SMO
TABLE 111-2 Area with depth to watertable less than S feet in canal commands (On-going & remaining) in June Canal Command Gross Area Ma.
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 ------Thal Canal Muhajir Br* 0.212 0.299 0.259 0.227 0.133 0.140 D.G.Khan 0.030 0.272 0.341 0.257 0.305 0.404 Left Bank Sutlej Sadiqia* 0.183 0.183 0.314 0.168 0.183 0.245 Fordwah* 0.142 0.165 0.151 0.091 0.109 0.194 Panjnad* 0.227 0.220 0.306 0.163 0.175 0.093 Abbasia* 0.002 0.008 0.020 0.010 0.042 0.059 ------0.794 1.139 1.371 0.906 0.905 1.135
Source: SMO * In part of the command areas projects in progress.
I Appendix III TABLE XXX-3 Percent areas under various depths to watertable (gross area..40.5 Ka) ______------_------% area under depths to watertable ------…- -- - Apr/June Oct Year ------(5 5-10 >10 (5 5-10 >10 ______- --- _ _------1959/64* 6.5 31.4 62.1 1978 11.9 39.5 48.6 33.3 29.0 37.7 1979 15.2 39.3 45.5 30.1 28.7 41.2 1980 12.9 39.5 47.6 30.1 28.1 41.8 1981 12.7 42.4 42.9 29.1 29.0 41.9 1982 13.5 43.2 43.3 27.6 29.2 43.2 1983 13.5 41.9 44.6 33.5 27.6 38.9 1984 12.5 41.8 45.7 32.1 29.6 38.3 1985 11.0 39.6 48.4 29.1 29.4 41.5 1986 13.0 41.0 46.0 30.0 27.9 42.1 1987 12.8 41.0 42.2 26.1 26.8 47.1 1988 9.0 38.2 52.8 28.7 25.6 45.7 1989 14.4 34.9 50.7 29.5 25.4 45.1 1990 13.2 36.2 50.6 ------*watertable in Sind was still rising.
TABLE X1X-4 Area with Depth to Watertable less than 5 feet (million acres)
June October Year ------P. S/B NWFP TOTAL P S/B NWFP TOTAL
1977 2.370 - 0.080 - 4.091 - 0.135 11.781 1978. 2.093 2.670 0.074 4.837 5.227 8.113 0.166 13.506 1979 3.011 3.068 0.077 6.156 4.352 7.759 0.104 12.215 1980 2.20 2.964 0.059 5.223 4.266 7.811 0.136 12.213 1981 2.365 2.679 0.107 5.151 3.680 7.966 0.131 11.711 1982 2.800 2.587 0.091 5.478 3.345 7.691. 0.125 11.161 1983 2.617 2.735 0.128 5.480 4.742 8.681 0.172 13.595 1984 1.945 2.990 0.127 5.062 4.255 8.593 0.175 13.023 1985 1.217 3.141 0.096 4.054 2.982 8.658 0.139 11.789 1986 1.896 3.269 0.094 5.259 3.194 8.787 0.150 12.131 1987 2.375 2.795 0.103 5.273 2.618 7.977 0.130 10.725 1988 1.335 2.217 0.141 3.691 2.916 8.684 0.157 11.757 1989 1.600 4.196 0.110 5.906 2.652 9.343 0.151 12.146 1990 1.754 3.462 0.121 5.337
2 Appeadl III
TAIBI 111-S
Area with Deli to Wateulahle 1kWth 5 eeo1- Ctmpkltd and Oa-golmg SCARN madRemallg Ares b Penjab
Projects Yewt (Milli. Mef 1 198 1 1984 1 1987 1 19 I 1989 1 90 A. COMPLUlID TubewelDriap Projects Areaunder projet 6.161 6161 6.771 6.771 6.771 6.561 AreawilthTlwth5ftlnJune 0.310 0387 0911 0.480 0.64 0.77 Aeawith VTwith 5 n InOctober 1.011 1.153 1.094 1.4O 1.126 1319 Surae Draina Prjects Aremunderproject 0.120 0.120 0.120 0.120 0.12' 0.120 Ara with WTwith Sft In June 0.012 Q024 0.027 0.007 00 004 Ame with Wrwith 5 n In October 0.031 0.033 QI1 0.007 0007 0004 Sub-Tbol for A: Area underpojet 6.281 6281 6J91 6.891 6.891 6.981 AmeawithWlwtth 5ft In June 0.322 0.61 0.938 0.487 0.691 0.779 AreawithWrwlth5tRlnOctober 1.042 1.186 1.105 1.415 1.133 1323 B. ON-OOINt7 TIbbe DrainagePrje Aenaunderprfjects 2.190 2.190 1550 1.714 1.714 1.624 Areawith WFwth 5 t In June 0.298 0334 0344 Q195 0.218 Q.137 Ares with WTwIth 5ft In October 0.557 0.458 03t1 0.185 0.218 0.135
SurfaceDrainae rects Aea underprojects 0.00 00 0.0 00 0.000 0.000 Ara withWTwith ft in June O 0000 M.OOD 0O0 OO 0.0W Areawith WTith 5 ft In October 000 .000 0.000QOOOD mOW OO
Tk Draine Projects Ama underpojects 0.130 Q130 Q130 0.130 Q130 0.130 Areawith WTwith 5ft In June 0.009 0.011 Q017 0.000 0.005 .002 AreavwithWTwith 5 ft In October 0.006 0.020 0.007 00_.006 _O Sub-Tol for B: Ara unde projects 2.320 2320 1.6O 1.844 1L4 1.754 Areawith WTwith 5 ft in June 0307 .345 0361 0.195 0.223 0.139 Areawith VWTwith5 ft in October 0363 _.478 0318 0.193 .224 0203 C REMAINWNGAREAS WIlIl NO DRAINAGE Ama 16.019 16.019 16.049 15m85 15i5 15.88 June 085 Q940 1.078 0652 0691 08 October 1337 1530 1.195 1.306 1.293 O62 Total(A+B+C) Area 24.620 24.620 24.620 24.620 24.20 24.620 AreawithWTwith ftin June 1217 196 2.377 1334 1.60 1.8216 Areawith WTwihbSfrtin October 2.942 3.194 2.618 2.912 2.650 2.408 Source:SMO
3 Appendix III TABLE 111-6
Ar with Depth to Watertable lea ltanS feet i. Completod and O-oing SCARf. ad Remaling Areas la Sido (Million Acrs) Projects Year 19S | 1986 | 1987 | 1986 L 1989 | 1990 A. COMPLEED Tubewell Drainap Prect Area nderpropct 1.247 1247 1.247 1.247 1.247 t.247 Aeawith WTwith 5 h In April 0.223 0.191 0226 0.143 0.195 0.160 Aea with WlTwlth 5 ft In October 0.246 0292 0244 0.190 0.429 Q423
SurfaceDrainge Projects Ara underproject 0.701 0.701 0.701 0.701 0.701 0.701 Areawith WTwith 5 R In April 0.353 0354 0.187 0.123 0.2S3 0.0o Areawith WT'wIth5 in October 0.776 0.773 0.759 0.768 0.604 0,698
Tile Drainap Projects Areaunder project. 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 0.045 Areawith WTwith 5tin April 0.035 0.038 0.020 0.02S 0.030 Areawith WTwith Sf in October 0 35 0.038 0.033 0.042 0.036 Sub-Total for A: Area underprojects 1.948 1.993 1.993 1."3 1.993 1.993 Areawith WTwith 5 ft in April O.76 0.580 0.451 0.286 0.473 0286 AreawithWTwith5 t inOctober 1.022 1.100 1.041 0.991 1.075 1.157 B. ON-GOING Tubewdl Drainue Projects Areaunder projects 0.982 0.982 0.982 0.982 0.982 0.982 Areawith WTwihh ft in April 0.035 0.039 0.053 0.005 0.018 0O.2 Areawith WTwith 5 ft in October 0.341 0.423 0.227 0.263 0.276 0.272
Surfac DrainageProects Areaunderprojects 3.730 5.156 5.156 5.1.f 5.1.56 5.172 AreawithWTwith5 Rin April 0.361 0.791 1.104 868 2.032 1640 Are withWTwith 5 ft in October 3.S01 3.968 3.588 4.159 4.198 4.112
Tle Drainae Project Aea underprojects 0045 0QOW .OO On0o o0oo 0OW Ara withWrwith 5R in April 0.042 0.000 0.000 o0.00 o.o0o 00 Ara withWTwith 5 ft in October 0.040 0.000 0.000 .OW O.O 0.0W Sub-Totl for B: Are undrdrprojects 4.757 6.138 6.138 6.138 6.138 6.154 Area withWfwith 5 ft in April 438 O0UO 1.157 0373 2.070 1.663 Areawith Wfwith 5 f in October 3.882 4.391 3.815 4.422 4.474 4384 C REMAINING AREAS Wnll NO DRAINAGE Aea 7.755 639 6329 6329 6.329 6.313 April 2.127 1J60 1.185 1.061 1.l67 1419 October 3.755 3.139 3.072 3307 3.637 3.746 Total(A+B+C) Area 14.460 14.460 14.460 14.460 14.460 14.460 Aemawith WTwith 5 f in April 3.141 3.270 2.793 2.220 4.200 3.371 AreawithWwith 5 ftin October S.659 Eh630 7.928 8.720 9.186 9.287 Source:SMO
4 TAlLl 111-7 Future Sorface mudSub-surI.e Draicae Reairemenuh Iroject Surwfae Surf, cmsub-surf: SNr. ~~~~~~~~NameeofProect Arn I Drai_M Afca DrainR Area (Ma) (Ma Ma Ma (Ma) A-1. PUNJAB
i) Completed 0.780 0.7A0 0.116 iI) 0O-Gd.;g Sub-Surfaee Drainge 1. Gojra-Khewra- 0.437 0.120 0.049 2. Drainape-V 0.130 0.1u10 O.o,5 3. SKsmrtia(Saline) 0.056 0.0Q6 0.02.1 4. Khubab 0.1M5 0.058 0.024 5 HadnIi 0.164 0.099 0.040 Sub-total 0.92 0.463 0.18A
SurfaceDrainag 6. Eutem-SadiqiaPhae-I 0.618 0.618 0250 7. UpperRechna (Det) 0.460 0.468 0.109 & SukhNai Outfall: 0.0W Sub-toal 1.086 1.06 0.440 Sub-total(ii) 1.97A l.06 0.440 0.463 0.188 iii) New Sub-SurfaceDrainag 9. Eastemu-SadiqiaPhae-Il 0.743 0.326 0.1.12 10. Eastern-Sadiqin(rem) 0.380 0.130 0.053 11. CDDC(rem) 0.630 t.lo,S 0.043 1t D.G.Kham(salinc) 0.333 0229 0.093 13. Indus-Munda unit 0.0151 0.051 0.021 14. ChahmaCAD-111 0.216 0.070 0.028 15. SCARPGreaterbmal 13.560 030l 0.121 Total: 3.913 Surface DrainWae 16. SukhBeas (rm) 0333 013 0.329 17. UpperRechna (rem) 0o390 0490 0.l,SA Total: 1.203 Sub-TotaAfiii) 7.094 1320.3 0.487 1.211 0.490 Total IPuniab): 7.874 2.289 0.927 2.454 0.994 A-11. SINDII
i) Cominpleted KChairNuriNorthRobri 0.160 0.160 0.065 Lark-Shik:(Du13.17) 0.227 0.227 0.092 Raxodero(Du14) 0.205 020Q 0.03 S.Kos-Miro(DulS.16) 0301 0101 0.122 Northth Dadu(Du 21322) 0.478 Q478 0.194 Sub-otal (i) 1_371 1.11. 0490 0.160 0.065 a) On-Going
Surfierfacecum Sub-Surface Drainage 1. LBODStage-I 1.426 1.019 0.413 (NeawbSbah.Sangiar. MirpurKhas) SurfaceDrainage 2. Kotri SurfaceDrainage 1.402 1.402 0 S68
Sub-Total(ii) 2.528 1.402 0Q568 ID19 0.413 iii) New Surfacecm Sub-surfaceDrainage 3. LBOD_Stage-fl * 3-1 -S.Khairpur 0364 0328 0.133 0.110 0.045 * 3-2 -Moro 0.095 0.095 0.038 * 3-3 _Digri 0.274 0274 0.111 I 3-4 -ThudoAdamn 0.484 Q.484 0.196 J3-5 ..TandoM. Khan 0.130 0.130 0.3l4 J13-6 .TandoBhago 0.090 0.090 0.0.16 4. Khipro 0370 0370 0.150 0068 m028 * S. Farash 0339 0339 0.137 '6. Umarkot 0300 0300 0.121 7. GhotkiSaline 0.429 0.429 0.174 Sub-total 3.075 1.611 0.652 1.606 0.650 Surfacedrainage 8 Tajodero(Du23) 0.027 0.27 0.011 9. RBODStap-I
5 TABLE 111-7 Fatrm Surface ad Sub-surface Draina Re mre nets I Prpjecs Srfice surf: cumsub-sri: SNr. Nameof Project | a Die.a Ama _ Dr I (Ma) (Ma) I (Mua) (Ma) I (Mba) 9-1 &A1:MNVD (MirdChaa) 9-2 Indu tik (MNVD-Ind:) 9-3 Remodel:MNVD = RBOD Kandko ThulShadadkot 10. Becgri-Fmnticr(Du5j6) 0.482 Q482 0.195 SouthDadu 11. Dokri(Du-24) O.i;: 0M20 o048 12. Warah (Du-20) 0.129 0.129 0.052
RBOD Stage-Il 13. Rem;k&Bt:kBOD-llairdin Kandkol Thul Shadadkot 14-1 Sultankot(DM-11) 0.24t 0248 0.100 14-2 ---- (Du-7.8.9) 0387 0387 0.157
RBOD Stape-l1l Kmndko Thiul Sbalakot 14-3 GbrriKbairo(Du-12) 0.312 0312 0.126 14-4 Maulad(Du-10) 0.120 Q.120 0049 South Dad. 15. Johi (Du-25) 0.148 0.148 0.060
RBOD Stage-IV 16. SaifulahMapi (Du-18) 0.164 0.164 0.66 17. SouthDadu(DU-26) 0.276 0276 0.11Q Sub-total 2.413 2.413 0977 TolalUiii) 5A.4 5.635 2.2R2 3212 13_0 Total(Sindh: 9.87 8.248 31339 4.391 1.778 A-111. NWFP
i) On-Going Sub-SurfaceDran 1 2. ChashriaCAD-I 0.157 0.045 0.018 3. SwabiSCARP 0.38 .on4 0.034
wSuh-Total(i) 0.542 0.129 0.052 iil New Sub-SurfaceDrainage 4. iarur Debri-11 0.018 0.013 0.005 5. ChashmaCAD-Il Q0.94 0Q030 0D012 6. PehurSCARP 0.046 0.046 0.019 7. Bannu-l1 0.064 0.064 0.026 . DoabaDaudzai SCARP 0QW9 U.089 0.036 9. PesawarSCARP (rem) 0.o00
Sub-Total(ii) 0311 Q242 0.098 A-IV.BALOCIIMAN Total(NWFP): 0.153 0.770 0.150 Ai-NV. BASLOClINSTAUN
i) On-Going SurfaceDrainage 1. Pat FeederCum: (Du23.4) 0WSW 0.503 0204
Sub-Total(i) 0.503 0.503 0Q204 ii) Newr Sub-SurfaceDrainage 2. InterceptingDr.(Pat) SurfaceDrainage *- 3. Hairdin l&Il (Du 01) o069 0.069 0.028 4. KirtharCanal DU-19(RBOD) 0.192 0.192 Q078 5. LMbecaCanal Command 6. OtherArea Suh-TotaI(i}t 0.261 0.261 C0L06 Total(Balochirtan): 0.764 0.764 Q309 G.Total: 19.178 111301 4.575 7.216 2.921 ! To becompletedbyJune 1993. * WSIPS Val L. * Completedpjcts to be rehahilitatcd. _ PlanningReport. LBOD- 1980. Du RBMPdrainageunit Nr. SECTION II
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES CHAPTER 4
ENVIRONMENTAL STUDY APPROACH 4.1 Introduction
Human action in harnessing the nature for its benefits may result in immediate and or far reaching changes in the environment, which may have positive or negative effects. Just as cost-benefitanalysis is used by economiststo project the economic and financial outcomes of investments, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), provides the means to evaluate the effects of proposed developmenton human and other natural resources and thereby assists in sustainabledevelopment.
A complex inter-relationshipexists between different componentsof the environmentand are known as Linkages. These are used to determine significanceof impactsof a change in one variable on other resources and processes. Becausethere are very large numbers of potentiai linkages, ICID has drawn a list of those related to irrigation and drainage, which can be used as a check list.
EIA's can be project specific and used early in the project-cycleto identify issues which needs to be kept in view and also help in determidingthe inter-agency co-ordinationwhich will be required for preparation of an environmentallysound project. Sectoral ElA's are used where a number of development activities with cumulative, inter-active or inter-dependentimpacts are planned within an area.
The macro level environmental assessmentof drainage sector, which is the focus of this study, has been made in two broad categoriesnamely:
- Engineering, in which effect of drainage has been studied on two major resources land and water;
Environmental, in which effect of drainage on forests, fisheries, wild life, wet lands and ecology in general has been examined.
The impactof drainage on physical resources(such as land and water)presented in this report is inevitably based on the experience in retrospect of the drainage activities and projecting it in the future to the extent possible. A great deal of physical data have been collected during the present study relating to:
(i) the performance and problems associatedwith the developmentof irrigation; and
(ii) the effectivenessof drainage as a mitigatoryaction for at least some of the negative effects and impacts of irrigation.
For the impact of drainage on specific biological resources separate reports on forest, wetland, wildfowl and larger water-relatedanimals such as the Indus Dolphin, turtles, etc have been prepared. A preliminary assessment of the problems associated with the preservation of cultural resources and social structures has also been made. Specific studies on the assimilativecapacity of drains were also undertaken.
4-1 4.2 Methodology
Methodologiesavailable for screening potential effects and impacts include 'checklists", "matrix" and 'system analysis. In this assessment, the Checklist method has been adopted. Within those fields in which particularly complex relationships occur - a more detailed examinationusing a systems approach has been adopted. Scoping, an iterativeprocess aimed at the progressive refining of understandingof the sector, has been used to revise the check list.
4.2.1 Scopping
The initial scoping sessions to identify the major environmentalfactors related to drainage were carried out in October 1991with representatives of the EPAs, WAPDA. and other interested agencies. It was followed by a Workshop in Environmental Assessmentheld at Lahore, on 8-9th April 1992,at which 27 professionalrepresentatives from EPAs, PIDs. WAPDA, IWASRI and others carried out an intensive examinationof the many effects of drainage on a wide range of environmentalfactors.
In the secondround two Workshops, held in Lahore and Karachi in September/October1992, further explored the issues raised in the Interim Report, and in particular examinedthe intra- sectoral and inter-sectoral constraints which presently limit the development of effective environmentalmanagement within the water sector as a whole.
It should therefore, be appreciatedthat the views and analyses included here represent the Consultants'current 'short list' of topics for which they believe significant impactsmight be detectable as a result of drainage activities, and the constraints which exist on the implementationof effective mitigatoryactivities to minimise or even reverse these impacts.
In reviewing this report, assessors shouldregard the data and analyses contained in it as representing,as far as has beenpossible, the current state of understandingof environmental impactsin this sector. The possibilitythat additionalimpacts, both positiveand negative, will emerge from future studies cannot be discounted. In fact a significant and continuing expansionof understandingis inevitableand desirable, especially when those areas in which lackof definitive information is indicatedare addressed in the future.
4.2.2 The Revised Checkllist
During the preparationof this report, both positiveand negative impactshave beenidentified. The main purpose of assessment is to provide an opportunity for planners to incorporate mitigatory actions into development plans to minimise adverse effects. However, an assessment which incorporates a large- element of retrospective analysis provides an opportunityto use previous experience in establishingguidelines for further developmentin the field. So some discussionof the potential enhancementof the benefitsof drainage has been included.
As far as the negative impacts are concerned, those environmentalfactors which originally seemed liable to be unfavourablyaffected have been examined in more detail, through field visits in which local experience was sought from landowners, labourers, veterinary field workers, etc. As a result, some supposednegative effects have been reduced in importance. as it became clear that the potentialfor damage had not actually beenrealised.
4-2 One important result of this assessment process has been that new factors have appeared. related but not identical to the variables used during the initial screening sessions. In the biologicalfield, these includespecific vital pathwaysof energy transfer in the soils - nitrogen fixation. oxidative efficiency and the relationship between soil fungi and forestry, for example. In the social field, factors such as indebtedness,agricultural investment, and public participationare also now identifiedas being of considerablerelevance.
However, many of these effects are not caused directly by drainage. but are constraints imposed by deficiencies elsewhere in the national infrastructure. It is essential to avoid diverting inappropriate attention into these areas at the expense of the consideration of the primary effects and impacts of drainage operations themiselves.Important impacts have therefore been divided into two groups:
1. direct impactsof drainage - (Table 4.1).
2. external factors whichmay constrainthe potentialbenefits of drainage-(Table 4.2).
Direct impacts may be either positiveor negative. Indeed, the lowering of the water tahle. for example, is a positive impact of drainage (althougheven this can become negative if land is over-drained).
The final screening checklistalso identifiesimpacts which require mitigation.These have been flagged in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 and refer to effects which are likely to cause damage, stress or imbalanceto the environment.The main areas of concern are:
- the contaminationof water - changes in soil properties - ecologicaleffects, particularly in wetland areas - nomadic peoples' needs - sanitation and diseases risks
In addition, the need to pay attentionto a number of factors which presently act as constraints on the realisation of benefits have been identified. Not all are negative - for example, some changes in soil biochemistry are beneficial but capable of considerable augmentation.The principal factors in this group are
- inadequatehealth services in rural areas - insufficient public participation in the planning and management of development - inequitabledivision of benefits within the community - ineffectiveextension services for agriculture and water management - poor provision of financial support to farmers attempting to reestablish agriculture on reclaimed land
The importanteffects requiring mitigation(Tables 4.1 and 4.2 ) have been brought together in Table 43, indicatingagainst each the mitigation measuresthat may be appropriate.
4-3 TABLE 4.1 Direct Environmental Impacts of drainage in Pakistat (Final Screening) Group EnvironmentalFactor Processor Variable ProbableVirection and Scaleof Lnpacts
flydrolo ' 1.4 ater table Reductionof near surface watertable Signiricantreduction of water table Water roilution 2.1 Soluletransport ' Mobilisationof soilsalt Substantialincrease 2.3 I OrganicPollution * Transport of organicpollutants do%uistream Locallysignificant- negligile averal Soils 3.1 Soilsalinity * Leachingof salts fromagricultural soils M1ajorincrease 3.2 Phvical properties * Developmentofsodicsods Locallysevere - moderateincrease overall 3.3 Sa ine groundwater Extentand depth of salinegroundwater reservoirs Locallyimportant - minorlmoderatepositive overaD 3.5 Organicmaterial recycling Oxidativedecomposition of organicwastes Substantialincrease in all drained areas 3.6 Nitrogenfixation Nitrogenaquisition by plants Substantialinerease in all drained areas 3.7 Nutrientavailabilitv I Operationof tree -mveorrhzal association I Substantialincrease in all forestedareas LEcoogyo 5.1 Projectlands Habitatchange in waterloggedand saline lands Substantialchange. detrimental to aquaticlife 1 5.2 Wetlandbirds * Avaibabilityaofmstingfeeingandbmedingsites gatnreandpositWe-balaneprbablminor egatr 5.3 Wetlandaquatic fauna HAviabitat chanoes for aquaticspecies d Negativeand positive- balanceprobably minor negative 5.4 detandvegetation hne Iaiao qatcseisNgtv n osative-bancpralymoregtv v.54 Wetlandvegetation *Changes in p ants growingin wetlandsand drains !Locallysevere negative Peripheral^ S S lands * Effectof reclaimingland on adjacenthabitats. Negativeand positive- balanceptobably minor negative 5.6 Rare and protectedspecies * Effectson specificsites important to rare species | Locallysevere negatWe 5.7 foRiverainwrest resources Effectsof habitat changeson riverainforests Locallyminorpositive i. 8 | Irrigationforest resources Effectsof habitat changeson irrigated forests Locallymajor positive- overall minorpositive 5.9 I Mangroveforests Effectsof drainagediposal on estuanne and coastalmanaroes Locallyminor positive - overallnil Socio-economic factors 6.1 I Employment Changesin employoantopportunities Substantialincrease. mainly indigenous worersk 6 2 Ladproductivity Changesin agncultulralproductivity! Substantialincrease! 6.7 madic roups * Accessto land and benefitsof nomadicherders etc Substantialneptve 6.9 Housing Effectof drainage on stabilityof Kutchahousing i hloderatepositive 6.10 Secondaryemplayment Generationof secondaryemployment after dramagep Substantialpositive 6.11 Livestocknutrtion Accessto fodder.especially m the dryseason Substantialptive 6.12 Archaeologicalsites Effectson stabiity of archaeologicalremains Substanti osrnve Hleallh 7.1 Domesticwater supplies Accessto uncontaminatedwater sources i Potentialsubstantial increase.but subject to investment 7.2 Sanitation Effectsof changesin human habitatson sanitationand consequentrisks ISubstantialnegative 7.3 Housingand shelter Availabilityof land for settlement Moderateincrease 7.4 Nutrition Effectofagricultural changes on humanfood supplies Substantialincrease. but inequitabl distnbutionlikely 7.7 Water contact diseasesof man * Changesin pattems of humancontact with contaminatedwater Majorincrease in exposure 7.8 Vector-borne diseasesof man * Changesin vector attack opportunity !Major increase - ie. majorand negatie; i 7.9 I Diseasesof livestock * j Changesin exposureto disease vectors Major increase - ie. maor and negative imbalances 8.1 I Floodrisk Effectof drainagechannels on local floodrisk ' Locallymoderate positive 8.3 Aquaticweeds Changesin distributionof weeds in wetlandsand drainagechannels Maiorincrease likely mpactrequinng mitigation TABLE 4.2
External Factots Constraining Potential Bntefits of Drainage in Pakistan (Final Screcning)
Gwup EnvironmentalFactor Processor Variable ProbableDirectioa and Scaleof Impacts
Water Pollution 2.2 Tox:n transport * 1'ransportof toxicpollutants downstream Locallysignificant- minor veran 2.4 Groundwatercontamination * Movementof pollutantsfrom drains to aquifers Locallyvezysigniricant Socio-economic factors 6.3 Agriculturalinvestment Incentivesfor investmentin land development Substantialincrease. but socio-economicconstaints apply 6.4 Imnebtedness * Effectson repaymentof debtsincurred when land degraded Substantialincrease. but socio-economicconstraints apply 6.5 Sharecroppingrelationship Stabilityof relations between zamindarsand haris No change 6.6 Status of wmmen Effectsof changesin opportunityand benefitson womens status Minorpositive 6.8 I Resettlement * Effectsof resettllementon resourcesavailability in drained areas Substantialnegatbi t HoalthI 7;5 | Accessto healthservices * Changesin road and communicationsafter drainage None.but majorconstraint in reducingbealth isI 7.6 | Accessto welfareservices * Changesin welfareservices availabiliyafterdrainage None.butmajorconstraintin reducinghealthrisks Imbalances 8.2 Conservationof widlife * Chang&sin vulnerabilityof widlife in drained areas Variable - overall.an increaseit. mioanegative impact 8.4 Publicparticipation * Opportunityto participatein localand regionalplanning Relativedecrease - majorconstraint requiring imprwment 8.5 Regionaldevelopment balance Effecton balanceof multisectoraldevelopment in drained areas Improemenvon role of agriculturein ocal economy 8.6 Socialstructures Restorationoforiginal status quo' Unlikely- no changesexpected 8.7 -Benefitdistribution j Allocationof benefitssto membersof socialgroups Moderatenegative - inceased pokrisationof benefitshkely i Impact requiringmitigation TABLE 4.3 Impacts Requiring Mitigption Group EnvironmenalF MitigationMeuuss ! Water Pollution 2.1 Soluletransport Developsalt managementmodd. and use to controldischarge wier nece. | 2.2 Toxintransport StrengthenEPA monitoringand enforcement;phmd standards. 23 OrgankCpollution StrengthenEPA monitoringand enforcement;phled standar 2.4 Groundwatercontamination Developmodd. then incormorateinto Consent procedurs. Soils 3.1 | SoilsaiLnity Developsalt managementmodd. and use to controldischare where _ecazy. 3.2 I Physicalproperties StrengthenAgricultural Extension Service. Ecology 5.1 Projectlands Detailedpre-project surveys;integrated approacb under NaLConserm. Strat 5.2 Wetlandbirds NationalWetland Survey. development of Indus Flyay ManagementPlan. 53 Wetlandaquatic fauna NationalWctland Suyvey; Nat. Weiland Management Plan. 5.4 Wetlandvegetation Improvedrainage channel maintenance and managemenL 5.5 Peripherallands Ensuredispenal corridoisame incorporated into ProjectDesig. 5.6 Rare and protectedspecies Establish'Red List of endangeredspMees and habiOats. Socio-economic factors 63 Agriculturalinvestment Establishpreferrd incentivesfor smalllandholdes 6.4 Indebtedness Establishlow interst revolvingcredit funds. operated at vilage leveL 6.7 Nomadicgroups Developlow-intensity saline surface irrigtion of marginallands for grazing. 6.8 Resettlement . Increasenatural resoures withincultivated aras e* socialfore Health 7.2 Sanitation Improvehealth educationand domesticsanitation. 7.5 Accessto healthservies Improed vigilanceand early attention strngthen medicalservics 7.6 Accessto welfareservices Prmote communityinvolement in walfarevigilance and supporL 7.7 Water contactdiseases of man Improveadult education on diseasetransmsion. 7.8 Vector-borne diseasesof man Vectorcontrol prograrmces reduction of babitatsused byvectos 7.9 Diseasesof livestock Vectorcontrol pnM&ammes reduction of habitatsued byvectos Imbalances 8.2 Conservationof wildlife Identificationof vulnerablepopulations enforcement of consevrationactivities 83 Aquaticvweds Educationof benefactorsof ned control;improved maintenance by PublicSctor. 8.4 Publicparticipation Mandatorypublic Participationr devolution of optionselection to communites CHAPTER 5
EFFECTS OF DRAINAGE ON LAND AND WATER
5.1 Introduction
The significant environmentaleffects and impacts of drainage, identified in the final screening, have been grouped together as Direct and External in Tables 4.1 & 4.2. Out (If these, the effectmunder the group headings of Hydrology, Water Pollutionand Soils,which areessentially related to the vital resourcesof landand water, have been treated herein. This diversionIs predicatedon the considerationthat engineering solutic I the drainage have an overridinginfluence on the environmentalconsequences. The engineeringsolutions also determinewhat happens to the landsfor whichdrainage is providedprimarily.
Apart from bringing out the effectsof drainage on the land and water resourceslocally. considerationhac also been given to what happens to tide system externally and the engineeringmeasures which couldbe adoptedto mitigate the adverseimpacts.
The macronature of the environmentalassessment, required under terms of reference,means to considerthe effectsat the systemlevel. Attemptsto analysethe effectsor impactson system or national level,especially attempts to projectthese intoi the future.almost inevitably runs into problemsof inadequateor insufficientdata.
In order to overcomethese difficulties and study effectsof various aspectsof drainage. schemesfor which adequatedata is availablehave been selected as case studies. It is believed thatconclusions drawn from thesewould be equally applicable to similar schemeselsewhere in the system.
It may beargued thatas the future drainageis goingto generateeffluent of quitea different orderand higher salt contenttherefore, the assessmentof the impactsand effects of drainage initiatedin the 1960'smay not be enoughto projectthe natureor scaleof future impacts accurately.Keeping this limitation in view, effort has beenmade to bring out the critical macro-levelissues.
While the direct effectsof drainageare usually positive (or mitigatory),the larger-scaleand longerterm actualor potentiallynegative effects will relatemainly to how the drainage effluentis managed.As is pointedout laterin this reportsalt build-upmust be consideredthe paramountthreat to long-termst3bility of the Indusbasin. An attempttherefore has been made to study the salt balanceissues in somedetail to bring out its importanceand significance. 5.2 Effect of Drainage Technologies
5.2.1 Available Technologies
There are three types of drainage methco.swhich individuallyor in combination might be appropriate in a particular situation and these are:
5-1 surfacedrainage; horizontalsuh-surface; and verticalsub-surface. SometimesIt may be economical to allowthe natura drainage prmcsos of surf eoand sub- surfaceoutflows and evaporation to balanceand stabilize the watertable at acceptabledepth, of-coursewith lossof somecultivable land. Boause of micrordlief In tholand surfce and partialcoverage with crop, fallow areas and low landsturn Into sinks which remove excess waterthrough evaporation and thereby creato a balancoebtween rechargo and discharge. Thetechnologies used for sub-surfacedrainage Included tubowells and tile drains.Surface drainshave boen used for ricedrainago and to caterfor stormwator drainage to protectother crops.Each type of drinagehas Its own characteristics with regard to watertablecontml and saltbalance. Drainage and disposal experiences are discussed In thefolowing sections. The indicatorsselected are qualityof effluent,control of watertable,salt balance In the soils, drainablesurplus and saline effluent disposal, as theseIdentify the effecton two major resourcesiLe; Water and Soils. In addition,the problems affecting sustainability of drainage measureshave been looked Into. 5.2.2 SurfaceDrainage Experience a) Technicalperformance Surfacedrains are used either to drainrice cultivatedareas or savedamages to cropsin non- riceareas from flooding during heavy rain storms. In thelater case quality of effluentand salt renoval is generallyof insignificantconsideration.
Majorcontiguous rice areasare locatedon theright bank of Indusbelow Guddu in Sindh wherethe practice of 'pancho'irrigation is sustainedby copiouswater allocations as high as 14ft3/secIlO00 acres (0.96 m'/secIlODO ha) of cultivablearea, generating sizeable surpluses. Onthe other hand rice areas in thePunjab occur in mixedcrop zones with normal canal water alocations(as low as3.3 ftesec/1000 acres) and do notgenerate any surface surpluses. For technicaland environmental performance evaluation of surfacedrains in rice drainage area,Larkana-Shikarpur (LSK) surface drainage project has therefore been selected. It was implementedintwo phases; first completedin 1968and second in 1982.It ispartly a pumped surfacedrainage system, pumping effluent into various canals, and the remaining is gravity flow with anoutlet to Hamallake.
The averageannual pumpage (0.093 Maf) from the 8 pumpstations and the quality of effluent aregiven in TablesS.1 and S2 respectively.Average gravity flow of Miro Khanmain drain was0.09 Maf per year.
A uniform designeddrainable surplus of 2 fl/sec per squaremile (0.022ml/sec/km 2) was adoptedfor the 8 pumpingstations. The actualmaximum recorded (1981-91)fir various pumpstations varied from 0.77 to 2.56 cubicfeet second per squaremile (0.008 to 0.028 m'/sec/km2), whichindicates the needfor impmvingestimations to avoidover design.
Miro Khanand Larkana North stationspumped comparatively higher salinity water than can be expectedfrom rice drainage.It maybe desireableto determinethe causeand if possible the defectmay be rectified.
5-2 LBI IDW Pumping Btation Discharge Data
Station Annual Pumpags (acre-feot) 1986 1987 1988 1989 Avarage ______
Miro Khan(l) 15712 27914 18346 17480 19863 Larkana (South) 7065 10582 9033 10115 9199 Larkana (North) 2532 3302 3550 3667 3263 Naudero 3780 5499 4512 4135 4482 Nuarat 467 267 1660 692 772 Ruk 29620 33257 39428 34514 34205 Garhi Yasin 9824 16472 14306 24203 16201 Sindh Wah 5106 5800 6651 6364 5980
Total: 74106 103093 97486 101170 93964
Source: PID Sindh (1) Pumps water from the Shahdadkot Branch Drain.
TABLE 5.2 Quality of Drainage Effluent LSK Project
Station Total Dissolved Solids(ppm) Min Max Mean Weighted (Avg)
M.;ro Khan(P) 1000 4330 3156 3803 Larkana North 370 5380 2403 1383 Larkana South 190 1950 772 715 Naudero 410 1470 597 505 Nasrat 190 690 294 392 Ruk 230 2110 957 845 Garhi Yasin 250 2150 1142 977 Sindh Wah 500 2950 1540 1544 Miro Khan Dr. 220 2820 1196 -
Source: Drainage supporting data; Supplement S6.4; RBMP
5-3 Surfacedrains di) nmtappreciably lower the walertablo as theo aregenerally very shallow Fable5.3). Howevor,through timely removal of exces surfce waterthese do helpIn regainingoriginal walertablep psitioin. fiture 5.1 givt thehydrogrAphs dpklilng watortablo bohaviourduring a yearlycyclo In lwronnialand non-porennial aroas. Table 5.3 PercentArea With DTW
1985 39.8 98.2 1986 38.5 98.0 1987 16.4 95.8 1988 11.7 97.1 1989 28.6 97.3 1990 2S.8 ._...... _...... Source:SMO
Preliminarysalt balance study indicated average annual salt input of 0.5Mt fromcanal supply (0.7tlac)and outflow of 0.36Mt (0.St/ac)through drains. Average annual retention of salt isestimated at 0.14Mt (0.2t/Ic).In non-panchorice area the salt retention may he more due to in-frequentremoval of water. b) Environmentalperfoirmance Theconstruction of LSKproject had minor positive and negative impacts as given below. On balance,it wouldappear that pnrject had no significantenvironmental impact.
Positive - swampland hasnot increased; - 50%salt inflow removed; - agricultureproduction may have increased;and - roadsand other infrastructures may havesuffered less damage.
Negative - mosquitobreeding habitats provided; and - disruptionto thefarming community due to drains.cutting across land holdings.
5.2.3 rile Drainage Experience ITe threeprojects currently under operation/construction are:
EastKhairpur Tile drainage(EKTD) project covering 36000 ac ( 14.500ha). implementedduring 1977-86 Mardanproject Contract-1l covering 26000 ac (10000 ha) implemented during 1983-86;Contract-ll covering 49000 ac (19500ha) initiatedin 1987is scheduledto becompleted by 1992.
5-4 Flg. 5.1
______PUKEFIRNNIAU. 60 -_ . "!^_ --.
0----
-6so-
° -200 X-
o 200 - -
-260
-300______,_,-_ JJ A * 0 H D J F M A M J J A 0 N Month (1989-1990)
60 iO-PIRIUNAL
W~~~~~S0 aUG AL
-250
-100 ~ ~ onh (99-90
WATERTABLE FLUCTUATIONS
Source:ROMP -Supplement S3. Drainage IV projectcovering 1,30,000 ac (55.000 ha) under construction since 1987 to-date.
In a comparativestudy of these projects carried out by IWASRI (1990), it is observedthat wthe systems have not beenoperated as intendedand therefore, there is no valid basisfor an evaluation of their performanceand beneficialimpact". However, it is believedthat the data available can be used for macro-evaluationof the indicators selected. a) Technical performance
The design drainage coefficients (mm/day) for various tile drainage projects and the actual observed in the field are given as under:
Project q (mm/day) dCAien actul East Khairpur 2.5 to 3.5 0.7 to 1.4 Drainage IV(sump 9) 2.4 0.2 to 0.8 Mardan 3
Observed drainage coefficients are much less than design and indicate a gap in knowledge about estimationof drainable surplus, especially from watercourses and fields becausethese are based on percentageshaving no research support.
In Mardan project over drainage is reported as the farmers are now asking for nmorewater for their crops.
Drainage effluent from tile drainage projects in SGW zones continues to be brackish (Appendix-V), contrary to original thinking.Figure 5.2 gives the graphs indicatingvariation in the quality of effluentfrom Sump Nr. 8 (S-4A) Drainage IV and Sump Nr. 7 and 16 from EKTD. In deep aquifers major componentof flow towards drain is expectedfrom belowthe drains therefore, quality of effluent to a large extent is controlled by the quality of underlain groundwater.
Tile drains are generally shallow and the watertablebetween the tile lines remains at I to 1.5 m below the natural surface. In event of a wet spell the storage to accommodateincreased recharge is limitedand waterloggedconditions do reappear for short spells of time during the year. However, as there is no stagnation, the aeration of soil may not be seriously affected and the growth of plant remnainslargely un-affected.Hydrographs giving depthto water below NSL for pipe No.35 in Sump 8 (S-4A) and Sumps Nr.13 and 15 in Drainage IV Project are given in Figure 5.3.
Requisiteinformation for strict salt balancestudy is notavailable. Preliminaryanalysis carried out fbr sump Nr (8-SIIA) in Drainage IV and East Khairpur Tile Drainage indicate that whereas, tile drains appear very efficient in removal of salts from soils in sump Nr 8-SIIA area in Drainage IV their performance is unsatisfactoryin EKTD project.
Soils of the EKTD project were initially monitored in 1977-78. No repeat soil surveysince then has been carried out. However, SMO (south), in 1986,selected 74 experimentalplots, 2 in each of 37 sumps and monitored in 1986and 1990 to determine the fect of tile drains on normal, saline and saline sodic soils. One borehole in each plot was drilled to a depth of 150 cm to determine reclamationprogress.
5-5 Figq5.2
6000
4000 - j 3000
* 2000 g
tO00
Jul Avg Sup ao Ner oe Jun rob Ma Apr mayiun Jul Auo Sup On' NovDes Jun Illemb USE9 b on)
WATER QUALITY OF SUMP 8 (S-IIA)IN DRAINAGE IV PROJECT
12000
10000
l.--6000
* 000
200 0 I I I 1965 "o8 367 1986 189 ago
YEARLY WATERQUALITY OF SUMPS DISCHARGES FOR EAST KHAIRPURTILE DRAINAGEPROJECT Fig, 5.3
400
360
300
260 e 200
g, 150
soo
60
Jun rob Mar Apr May Jon Jul Aug Sep Oo Nov Deo Month
MONTHLY STAGE HYDROGRAPHAT SUMP8 OF DRAINAGE IV PROJECT FORTHE YEAR 1989
400r
300 -A
260 E sump131/1 .e 200 - sump Is
w 160 100
eo mWC JwM " ts "AW NW r _.qy Amm slr 1 4 7 to 13 18 19 22 26 28 Sl 34 ST 40 43 46 49 62 MeoUhIWool
WEEKLYSTAGE HYDROGRAPHAT SUMPS 13/15 8 18 OF EAST KI'AIRPUR TILE DRAINAGE PROJECT (OCT 87 TO SEP88) Assumingthat the dataof these 74 pkitsrepresent the proJect,a salt contentestimation In die soil profile for the years 1986 and 1990 has been made and given in Tablle 5.4 alongwith estimated salts from 1977-78 soil survey.
TABLE 5.4 Average Salt contents for selected plots in EXTD Layer(cm) Avg: Salt (t/a) Change (1986-90) ------1977 1986 1990 (-/+) 0-30 2.18 4.1 5.4 1.3 30-60 3.01 3.4 4.9 1.5 60-90 4.25 4.0 4.8 0.8 90-150 4.32 5.1 9.1 4.0 ------Total 13.76 16.6 24.2 7.6 ------Source: SMO (South Directorate)
Analysis for the salt balance, for the four year peri d 1986-90, indicate salt inftivwof 0.42 Mt from canal water and an outflow of 0.78 Mt thnrugh sumps (Annex 11). It means that in this period, the net removal of salt from the area was nearly 0.36 Mt. The average salt contents of the soil profiles however, indicatean increase from 0.57 to 0.84 Mt. Soil profile classificationdata (Table 5.5) also indicate that Normal profiles in pre-project period were 29 percent which increasedto 51 percent in 1986 and then again decreased to 31 percent. The resalination of soil profiles is hardto explain in the face of rcmoval of 0.36 million tonnes of salt (10.2 tlac) from the project area during 1986-90.
TABLE S.5 Status of soil proriles in EKTD
Classification Percent Profiles
1977-78 1986 1990
NS-NS 29 51 31 S-NS 30 23 9 S-S 39 24 53 NS-S - 2 7
Source: SMO (South Directorate).
7he crop statistics given in Table S.6 also indicatethat there is some rroblem with the soils, as the acreage under cotton is decreasingand those under rice increasing. a situation uncalled for in a tile drainage project. Immediaterepeat soil survey is therefore. recommended to identify the exact status of the soil prcfite to take necessary remedial measures.
5-6 TAULK 5.A CrOppAlttStamhai. oit KhFuirpurTOP, Dralhomp 1nd __...... Sem cAICf. Pre.Pn*t CnVp.d Afms(ba)
1-9i ...... ___...... 1_"A 3...... __'1- -.N... _ 9_-'s9 _1 9___1' - 1979.30 3934.15 1917.33 1931.9 1939.90 .. _. .... _ .. _ ...... _ _._...... _._...... _._..... ___.__...... _.__ Kharlf Craon 3643 5612 303 2760 2013 Rke 1531 llh3 2353 2150 2504 Sorghum 1654 1350 710 1956 2280 Sugerana 53 9 15 16 19 Orhard 786 1294 I54 1426 1426 Veptable 1 135 136 Fodder 70N 1307 2164 1426 170
Sub-Total:1355 10781 10904 9918 10123
Rabi Wheat 7764 6111 7037 7613 7543 Pulpe 73 47 123 35 21 Ouheed 214 74 15 34 Sugarean 53 9 15 16 19 Orchard 766 1294 1354 1426 1426 Vegetable l 13 38 44 Fodder 2532 20b9 2153 21538 2213
Sub-Tol: 11407 9622 11291 11291 11300
Total: 19762 20333 21209 21209 2212h b) Environmental performance
The availabledata indicatefollowing effe:ts:
Area underlain by moderatelybrackish groundwater:
Positive - efficient removalof saltsfrom soil profile - increased agriculturalproduction - comparatively smaller quantityof salineefuent as comparedto tubewells
Negative - interferencewith cultivationoperation due to manholes and sump!
- overdrainage due to higher drainagecoefficient and increased water needs.
Areasunderlain by highly brackishgroltndwater:
Positive - none,
Negative - increase in soil salinity mobilization of salts from depth.
5-7 5.2.4 TubewellDrainalge Expernce (FGW) Since1960, nearly 15025 tubowalls have been installed by WAPDA(2279 In SGW)fiar irrigationand drainage. Tho average annual pumpage lr:n thesettibewells Is about 10.94Mar (12.6 Bcm), of which, 1.84 Maf (2.27 Bem) is hrackishand disposedt of. In privatesector 280,000tubewells are In operation(55% in CCA; 38%In Riverain& 7% In Burani)and pumpannually 38 Maf (46.9Bcm) of water. a) Technicalperformnance Subsurfaceinvestigations carried out In theIndus plains show that, the quality orgroundwater variesboth spatially and with depth. Quality of the tubewellefuent therefore.depends upoin thequality of underlyinggroundwater. Flgure 5.4 showsthe tubewellsin variousqtuality rangesin selectedSCARPS. Flow regime of tubewellsinvolve much greater depth of aquifer. Therefore,in areaswhere groundwater salinity increases with depth,efuent from deep tubewellswill hemore saline as compared to shallowtubewells.
Tubewellscontrol watcrtable through groundwater reservoir olperation and strictly speaking arenot the means of landdrainage which comes into play as and when the need arises. This characteristichowever, provides some flexibility in operatitn,especially in SGW areas where salineeffluent disposal is to he regulatedi.The reservoir can he operated and depleted at a higherrate during medium to highflow periodand allowed to fill up duringthe remaining periodwhen disposal is toi he restricted.Figure 5.S is a sampleoperation schedule for SCARP-I1(saline) to controlmixed quality of river waterabove Trimmu and still draining therequired quantity.
Watertablein tubewellschemes is generally lowered to a greaterdepth as compared to other drainagemodes. In tubewelldrainage projects only 11.6% areain June 1992, had watertable lessthan 5 feetwhereas, in EKTDproject 70 to 80 % arearemained within 5 feet. Saltbalance in theFGW tubewell drainage area can be looked into from twocontexts:
i) changesin groundwaterquality due to leachingof saltsin the soil andre- cydingof groundwater; ii) saltbuild up in soil matrixdue to reuseof drainageeffluent for irrigation.
Limitedmonitoring data is availablein thisrespect therefore, the data observed by SMOfrm timeto timefor selectedprojects have been reviewed. The conclusions drawn are equally applicableto otherareas operating under similar environment. i) Groundwater
Saltbuild up in theFGW reservoir, as a resultof its re-cycling,was predicted by 'Harvard StudyGroup' in early 1960's.There is however,no evidenceof any major increasein its salinity on this account.Minor changesare due of groiundwatermovement in responseto pumping.It therefore,appears that the mostimportant assumption of thatstudy that all salts in the soils will leachdown to groundwaterreservoir probab'v was not realized.
5-8 Fig, 5.4
SCAMID CA IV
~~eehS~ tb bbsu
_EX.L.E* X . * mu stin imu swm >m a in. ses uws tin_N'S . U__... ~gg r. yw_e_
n t M-"m Wit" sia .m `M mi IM,S.m
_t_n < t t| t > < t lere.t1*3 urn_ in w _ SCAP UBWELSSNCAROUWAERQULIYCANGES
SCRinEEL NWIOSWZRQAT $E
in ~ SUC: M,AD
tiS tC M Flg, 5.5
160 100
140
123t231 3123t23t23t2312312312312312380
-0120 -t 64C- a2ou~~~~~~~~~~s l 60
40- 6 -~~~~~~~~~~~20 20-
123123123123123 123 123123123 123123123 am Flu n MaR9 NW ap 'JUL We soP Cr Nov fic Month (Ton Daily)
Utilization % -- 1- Water Pumped
MixingRatio 60 MaxilmumTDS of MixedWater 300 ppm
PLANNED UTILIZATION OF TIUBEWELLS IN SCARPIi (SALINEZONE) 11) Suillmatrix
As changesIn the grwndwnterquality oibserved so far are attrihutnl'letl Its nliwemcen establishedIn responseto extensivepumpago therelnire, the question ariscs ass tl wherethe saltsapplied to thosoills by thegrnundwater are accumulating. Toi find an answerit this questionsalt Input-output study of theroott zAne of Monascheme was Carried out.
It is estimatedthat uf theaverage annual net salt inlputtof aohut0.87 t/;. ilnly0 12ItaIC (14%)Is retained In thetoip 1.8 meter of thesuill profile resulting in pnrgressivesalt buildluil (Table5.7). The remaining amtount is eitherretained in thesoil profile below N.meter o r hasjoined the shallow watertahle. Nto data however, Is avallahle to confirmtle whereahouts of theremaining salt.
TABLE 5.7
Averagesalt conlenitin soil prolie ftwrMona Project (tonstate/I.8mdepthi) ...... DeCph 1977-78 1985-86 ...... ,*...... 0-15 cm 0.40 0.63 15-45 0.61 0.71 45-90 1.06 1.19 90-180 2.05 2.56
4.12 5.09
Source:SMO
Table, 5.8 and 5.9 summarizesthe stil, mconitoiringresults for SCARP-Iand Mona project. After initial reclamationthe trend hasreversed in SCARP-Iand morepnrofiles at dilferent depthsare beingaffected again. The saline-sodic and non-saline sodic proriles which initially reducedfrom 54% in 1962-63to 26% in 1977-78have increased to 35%in 1986-88.It will be further observedthat it is not simple'salinity but 'SoWicity'which is increasing.
Thoughthe data for Monadoes not indicateany suchtrend yet the quantityof salt in the profile has increasedby about24% I(5.094.12)/4.121 over the period 1977-85.If this salt build-up in the r(ootzone in FGW areascontinues unchecked. then the sustaina;hilityof agriculturemay becomequestionable.
5-9 TABDL 5.8 Comparative Statement Showing Profile Salinity Status of SCARP-1 and Mona Project (%)
0-15 cm 15-45 45-90 90-180 ------Survey NS S SS N NS S SS N NS S SS N NS S SS N Year NS SS NS SS NS SS NS SS ------figara-- 62-63 52 6 24 11 53 5 14 21 56 4 10 23 52 3 21 17 77-78 77 1 10 6 77 1 8 8 78 2 8 6 79 1 6 6 81-82 71 1 10 17 69 1 14 15 68 1 16 13 70 1 17 10 86-88 73 1 16 9 72 1 14 12 73 1 11 14 76 2 9 12
Nonao Proiect 62-65 69 8 14 9 71 8 11 10 73 5 9 13 66 9 13 12 77-78 85 1 9 4 86 1 8 4 89* 1 6 4 86 3 6 5k 84-85 84 2 11 3 89 1 6 4 88 2 5 5 90 1 3 5 ------Source: SMO
TABL,E 5.9 Summaryor Clearand AffectedProfiles(%)
SurveyProfiles NS S SS+ Year (Nr) NS NS NSS
3carp-1 62-63 1929 34 5 54 77-78 1898 70 2 26 81-82 2042 60 2 37 86-88 2003 63 2 35
Mona Prnoject 62-65 231 45 10 45 77-78 226 73 2 24 84-85 226 78 2 20
Source: SMO
b) Environmentalperformance
Poitive - control of waterlogging - increasedcropping intensityand crop production - reclamationof moderately saline soils.
Negative - increased input of salts in the soils - mobilisationof salts from groundwater hitherto dormant.
5-10 52J DraInap UmumntDiNpewu lxpeerlve ProblemsumciateJ with the dsipsal tif drainag effluentweo in the mindsof arlier planners,an efT#ftswore made toi avoid negative effects M fl alnposstible. 'he diplwa mehos In us are:
a) reaw...thetubewell drinage efuent fromFOW arm diretly or artermixing with canalwater thrugh disposalin canalwmtercnursea, wherever feasible:
b) re-cycle... the salinedrainage eMuent In thesysitem by disposalIn nearbycanal or river keepingmixed water quality within permissible limits fir ro-usedownstream; c) dispmmal...into in existingsurfAce water body (lakos) fhr temporaryor permanent storage; d) dispmal... intoi evaporation ponds, developed In thecurrently waste land; and e) dlspsal... into seathnrugh carrier drainage system constructod for thepurpose.
Thelimitations of eachmethods of disposalare discussed heliw In paragraphs3.2.5(a) to (e). In 3.2.5(f),the options fior dealing with the isisues of re-use,re-cycling and disposal In the long.termare introduced. This discussion is thendeveliped in moredetail in Chapter7. a) Re-useor EMuent Nearly,8.4 Mar (10.3Bcn) of tubeweldrainage effluent from SCARPs in FOWzones is beingre-used. Liberal water qualitystandards were adopted under the assumptionthat appropriatemixing with canal water would he poasible, soil andwater management practices will be improved,and that adequate water for leachingthe soils would be applied.
Themonitoring studies indicate that these assumptions were not fully validand nearly 205 tubewelisin SCARP-Ialone were later either abandoned or converted into drainage wells and thedrainage efuent disposedoff in nearbydrains or canals.Re-use of tubewelldrainage effluentis mobilizingI to 2 tonsof saltper acre per year. and part of it is beingretained by thesoil (Annex-Il).
Privatetubewelis are pumping approximately anowher 38 Mafof FGWfor irrigationpurp'-es (60%in CCA) andsomewhat similar effects are expected in thoseareas also.
b) Re-cyclingof Effluent Nearly,1.98 Maf (24 Ban) of salineeMuent from surface aii; sub-surfacedrainage areac is currentlybeing re-cycled (46% in canalsand 54% in rivers). This is an efficientuse of a scarceresource however, not without risks due to mismanagement.By controllingthe dilution ratio the detrimenta!effects on soils and crops from increasedsalt concentrationcan be minimized.
Plannershowever, when makingproposals have not adoptedany uniform criteria for the mixedwater quality as would be clearfrom the following:
5-ll ppm SCARP=t1(a.:) wtero a 700 dixtributarie 400 flyer Ch.n*t 300 SCARPV LowerRechna canalsildisty: 480 riverChenab 380
SCARPThal Hadailunit river Chenah 480
Surfacedrainage effluent from Halirdin 1&II (0.048Mat) Is being pumped Into Kirthar canal for recycling. Table5.10 gives the average monthly pumpaga (Jan 80 - Dec88) into the canal. Thelimitod information available indicate that at timesthe salt contents recorded for the canal waterwero more than 1000 ppm (Appendix-V).
TABLE 5.310 Average Monthly Pumpags of Nairdin Pumping SLation
------Month Pumpage Month Pumpage (cumecs) (cusecs) (cumecs) (cusecs)
Jan 0.78 27.9 Jul. 2.30 82.1 Feb 1.095 39.1 Aug 3.62 129.3 Mar 1.067 38.1 Sep 4.16 148.7 Apr 0.422 15.1 Oct 3.99 142.6 May 0.082 2.9 Nov 2.65 94.7 Jun 0.434 15.5 Dec 1.79 64.2 =0.048Maf Source: XEN Hairdin Division
In case of effluent from tiabewelldrainage projects pumped directly into canal other pollution may be insignificant. However, when pumping from 'evaporation pxinds' (Hairdin) or surface drains (Larkana Shikairpur), the effluent may be pollutedJfrom municipal and industrialwaste disposal into drains. In areas where canal water is also used for drinking the health hazards are evident. No data however, is available to assess the magnitude of this hazard. In case of lIairdin project where canal water is used for drinking. health problenms have been reported.
5-12 Pliure 5.6 giva the schematicflow diagramof salinoeffluent from SCARIs entering rivers.Regular water qulity munitoringat all harragesite on riversIs nwtheing dlno. DuringRUMP studyConnultanis have collected water quality orf Indusriver In loiwer reache.Tne data fcir the year 1990 Is given In TableS.11 . It Isobserved that undaer prsent conditionsthe salt concentration is well withinpermissiblo limits at Guddoand below.
TA3L3 5.11 Salt Content (ppm) Of River Indus Month Cuddu SukIkur Sehwan Kotri ------M------l------Jan-1(1990) 220 240 440 - -2 230 280 600 - Feb-i 280 - 560 - -2 240 190 230 - Mar-I - - - - -2 210 310 880 490 Apr-i 240 230 250 210 -2 540 250 330 - May-i - 220 350 - -2 130 140 160 - Jun-i 130 120 190 - -2 130 150 170 - Jul-i 130 150 150 - -2 130 130 150 150 Aug-i 150 140 160 640 -2 130 130 160 - Sep-i 130 130 140 200 -2 130 140 200 170 Oct-i 150 ibO 220 170 -2 140 150 340 170 Nov-1 160 170 300 190 -> 200 190 450 - Dec-1 220 210 510 240 -2 240 190 560 - Source: RBMP reports
c) Disposal into Lakes
Larkana Shikarpur-and North Dadu surface drainage projects dispose into llamal and Manchar lakes nearly 0.25 Maf (0.31 Bem) of their saline water. Effluent from LSK project has salinity of about 3000 ppm. The average salinity of drainage water entering Manchar jake varies from 300 to 3000 ppm with an average of 1550 ppm. Currently no negative envirenmental effects have been reported. d) Disposal into Evaporation Ponds
There are three canal commands where, evaporation ponds have been provided/planned as components of drainage projects. These are the Hairdin [&lI in Pat Feeder canal command. SCARP-VI, in Panjnad-Abhaciacanal commandand SCARPVIII, in Fordwah-Sadiqiacanal command. Evaporation ponds in the first two projects are in operation for the last few years.
5-13 LEGEND oM RIVER/ BARRAOES LINK- I"n ORAIN PROPOSEDDRAlN
/~~~~ -z
TA,UNA
cr r II SCHEMAIC OIAGRAMOf SALE ~ PtmUUZ- OF lTbe pond ar in SCARP-VI (33,000 ac.) arc the low lying Interdunalflat valleys interconnectedand surrounded by sandduns. The v'alleyfloors wlth.highlysodic clays do not supportany vegetationand havelow permeability.Those having loamyso1ils support shrubvegetation and have moderate permeability. Nearly,0.493 Maf (0.61 Bem) of salineeMuent (21000 ppm) per year is plannedto he drainedinto ponds.In nearly2 yearsof operationthe salineeffluent reportedly has spread over an areaof 11,000acres. The averagedepth of water in the pond Is reportedto be 6 to 8 feet. The informationavailable indicates a rapidrise of watertable adversely affecting nearly 2000 acresof adjoiningIrrigated areis with salinity.Use of evaporationponds as meansof eMuent disposalis very recentand its environmentalimpact needs to be monitoredcarefully. The adverseeffects envisaged are: waterloggingand salinization of adjoiningirrigated areas; temporarynature oif the arrangemcnt,as storagecapacity is expectedto depletedue to depositi(onof saltsand wind blown sand: hazardsof salt-dustspray from the pondareac during dry andwindy season to the adjoiningirrigated areas; the natural vegetation in valleys and dependant fauna, after submergence, wouldhe eliminated from the pond area. Someof the positive effects of evaporationponds are: - creationof a new wetland fiir fish and other waterfowls; increasein humidity of area which may help in establishingnew fauna and flora; stabilisationof sand dunes. e) Disposal into Sea For the left bank command area of Sukkur barrageit is proposed to convey the saline sub- surface drainage effluent to seathrough the Left Bank outfall drain. In Phase-I. the LBOD extends 160 miles inland. The projects tied to LBODcurrently under implementationinclude Sanghar, Nawabshahand Mirpur Khas. The expected drainage effluent from these is 0.905 Maf, with salinity of about 20,000 ppm. Environmental studies carried out by Mott MacDonaldInternational (MMI) for LBOD anticipateno appreciable environmentaleffects. f) Lengterm Scenario As the salt builds up in the system, disposal methods of re-use and re-cycling with their attendant hazards must be looked upon as interim. As components of a long-term national plan, these disposal systems probably would have to be phased out. Disposal into rivers and lakes will also have severe limitationsas the scale of drainage increases. 5-14 Disposalinto evaporation ponds has proved to bean economic and environmentally acceptable methodIn the River Murray basinin Australia,where saline effluent in the middlereaches couldnot bedisposed of downstreambecause the mostvaluable and salt sensitive crops were grown there. But in this part of Australiavast areas of uninhabiteddesert were available, wherecreation of salineponds did not posethe kind of problemsthey do in Pakistan. None of the methodsof disposalwithin the systemseem environmentally acceptable on a large scaleor on a permanentlong-term basis. Disposal outside the systemis whatseems to be the over-ridinglong-term need and can only beachieved by takingthe eMuentto the sea. Extensionand enlargement of theLBOD systemwould involve enormous costs. Nevertheless, this optionseems at presentto bethe onlyone which, if feasible,could maintain permanentlv the present- andstill developing- irrigationsystem which is so crucialto Pakistan. 5.2.6 Sustainabilityof DrainageMeasures Drainagemeasures were aimedto eliminateor mitigatethe negativeimpacts of irrigated agricultureand ensuresustainable development. SCARP projects, after constructionwere handedover to respectivePiDs for operationand maintenance.Projects performance was subsequentlymonitored to obtainfeedback to improveplanning and design. The performancedata thus collectedreveals that the sustainabilityof thesepmjects is becomingincreasingly difficult becauseof operationaland financial difficulties as discussed below: a) Tubewefls Tubewellsare the major componentof drainageprojects in usablegroundwater zones. Their pumpingcapacity was designed to pumpnot onlythe drainablesurplus but alsoto meetsome of the estimatedcrop waterrequirements. The usefullife of the SCARPwells was initially assumedas 40 yearshowever, monitoringdata, indicatethat their specificcapacities are falling at an averagerate of 3 to 7% per yearcausing reduction in pumpage.with the result that shallowwatertable have reappeared at placeswithin the SCARParea. Researchto identifycauses of well deteriorationresulted in introductionof fiber glassscreen material,but it did not improvethe situation.Efforts to rehabilitatethe deteriorated wells also could not prolongtheir usefullife andproved a temporarymeasure. The behaviourof tubewellsin salinegroundwater zones is evenworse. In theseareas, the pumpimpellers and shafts become severely corroded. Expensive materials were subsequently usedincreasing initial capitaloutlay. All effortsso far madehave not beenable to increase the life of tubewellsbeyond 10 to 12years, thus requiring rapid replacementburdening the meagrebudgetary resources. b) Tile Drain Con-struction East Khairpur Tile Drainage project, the first in the cAuntrywas initiated in 1977 in Sindh. Tile drains were proposed to be installed by trenching machine whereas, the concrete collectors were to be installed manually through trenching and dewatering. Because of unstable soils laying of collector pipes manually ran into difficulty. Dewatering operations were slow. At places the collector lines had to be abandoneddue to repeated cave-ins. 5-l' Subsequently,plastic collector pipes were used and laid whh trenchingmachines, sopecially procuredfor the purpose.The monitoringdata indicates that sumpsdischargo has generally boenfar below(20 to 30%) the designand In severalcases, the collectorshave ceaeud to function.Among the reasonsare difficulties in construction,poor ioperationand maintenance andclogging of the gravelenvelope. DrainageIV tile drainageproject near Faisalabad Is alsofacing problems in the construction phasewhich include in-adequate gravel envelope, difficulty in properbsckfilling resulting Into developmentof sinkholesand siltation of pipics.:Some pipes have silted so badly.that these hadto be replacedby new lines.Fine sandfractions In the waterhad a disastrousetfect on the bearingsof the pumps which becamenon-functional in a shorttime. MardanSCARP tile drainagepro ect hasbeen partly laid by trenchiessmachine (26.000 ac) andpartly by the trencher(49,000 ac). No manholeshave been provied and 75% of the outlet pipesare submerged. No monitoringresults are availablefor evaluation. As mostof the tile drainageprojects are to helaid underwater the difficulties indicated above arelikely to continue.11 is too earlyto determinethe sustainabilityproblems of tiie drainage projectsin the long run becauseno regularmonitoring is beingcarried out. The indications however,are that like tubewellsthe usefullife for tile drainagepnrject may also be muchless than planned. c) FinancialViability The revenuegenerated through reclamationcess and increasedwater rates in tubewell drainageprojects is muchless than average annual operation and maintenance costs. with the resultthat the SCARPoperation is heavilysubsidized. The O&M data(Appendix-V) indicate that revenuereceipts from SCARPsare only 20% of the annualoperation and maintenance expenditure.The SCARPprojects therefore, not only areunable to meetthe O&M costsbut do not generatefunds for their replacement. PIDs are finding it difficult to copewith the ever increasingcosts. This resultsin deferred maintenanceof the canalsystem as well as of the SCARPprojects. As a3matter of policy PIDs are nowworking on a SCARPTransition programme to transferdevelopment in FGW zonesto the farmersand shed some of their financialburden. The responsibilityof maintaininga network of surfacedrains and sub-surfacedrainage facilities in SGWzones would remain with the PIDs. The budgetaryposition of the PIDs is such that financial constraintsare likely to continueto stand in way of the efficient maintenance. d) SCARP TraiLsitionProgramme Revised Action Plan study completed in 1979, among other policy recommendations, included: developmentof all usable groundwater areasby the privatesector gradual transferof usablegroundwater SCARP areas to the privatesector. To attainthis objective,it recommendeda "SCARPTransition Study" to be undertaken. Consequently,the studywas undertakenupder the UNDP UmbrellaProgram for SCAR?-I 5-16 In Punjaband SCARP North Rohrl In Sindh(Nov: 1982 to Oct.84). Studyafter completion was reviewed hy the Bankand the respoctiveProvincial governments andthe decisions worm: - GO Sindhoriginally decidednot to participateIn tho project,primarily becausethe provincehad only about10% of SCARPtubowells. However, nuw It Is proposedto be implemented; - GO Punjab decidedto takeup ScarpTransition on pilot basiswithin a selectedarea of Scarp-1,and later selected the 'Khangah Dogran' scheme,as it exhibitedthe best prospectsof a successfulpilot project in a somewhatrepresentative area. The mainconclusions of thestudy for SCARP-Iindicated following three mxldes of transition. Terminationand replacement mode had the highestlevel of acceptancewith the farmers. - Salinewells to be operatedand maintained by the Government.Some of theseto be disposedoff in drains throughrelocation and others to be providedwith suitable mixing beforedistribution: Carry- out minor repairsto somewells andtransfer to farmersfor theiroperation and maintenance; - Terminationand replacementmode i.e; SCARPwells to be closedand replacedby privatewells ownedby the farmers. In the KhangahDogran pilot project,termination and replacement mode had to be adopted for all the 213 tubewellspumping fresh water. The choicefor electricor dieselwell rested with the farmers.Those requiring diesel were provided subsidy in the form of the ctst of the borehole.SCARP wells havebeen replaced by 1500electric (500 of I cfs. 1000of 0.5 cfs) and600 diesel (100 of I cfs; 500of 0.5 cfs) privatewells. The projectalso includedlining of distributariesand minors upto 15 cusecs(20 miles) capacityand lining of watercoure (182miles). The toitalcost of the projectis estimatedat Rs.296million andthe unit costare asgiven in Table 5.12. TABLE 5.12 Unit Costs (Rs.M) of Transition of SCARP WeIls Items per T/w per cusec Electrification 0.683 0.229 Lining of Watercourses 0.169 0.057 Adm1monitoring/T.A 0.197 0.066 Contingencies 0.338 0.113 IDC 0.315 0.105 Total: 1.702 0.570 Source:PC-1 Khangah Dogran Pilot Project 5-17 5.2.7 Summary .,rKey Findins Te,hnical Performance Effluent from surfacedrains In rice drainagearea is generallyof moderateqalkity (< 1500ppm) andcan he re-cycledoffetively, keepingmixed wnter quality under control. Effluentfrom tills drainsIn SOWIs likely In remainsaline and unfit fior re-usefor quitesometime. WatertableIn tile drainagearea generally remainsshallow. Tubowollscontrol watertablemore effectively as comparedto tile drainsIn an eventn f heavyrecharge. Surfacedrains In riced rainage area, using pancho system of Irrigation,are removing the saltsfrom the soils andthe systemquite effectively. Whereas,tile drainsin DrainageIV appearefficient in removingsalts from the soils andthe systemtheir performancein EKTD projectis unsatisfactoryand immediate monitoringis necessaryto determinethe cause. Saltsare accumulating in thesoiis in FGWareas where, tubewell effluent is beingre- usedfor irrigation. At placessoil profilesare beingre-salinised and sodicity is on increase. - Salinityof groundwater,in FGW SCARPs,has not shownany appreciableincrease throughre-cycling. - All methodsof drainageeffluent disposal, currently in use,,are temporary and likely to be phasedout in duecourse of time. Disposaloutside the systemseems to be the only longtermsustainable optioni. The sustainabilityof manySCARPs (and Tile DrainageProjects) is endangeredby operational andfinancial difficulties. SCARP wells in FGW areaare being replaced by wellsowned and operatedby farmers,but the questionof ensuringefficient operation and maintenance of SGW wells, tile drainsand surface drains is yetto be resolvedand requires scrious considerations by PDDs. EnvironmentalPerformance Surfacedrains may drain wetlands,polluted and poorly maintaineddrains may damageenvironment and create health hazardls through providing breeding sites for mosquitoesetc. There are no major environmentalconcerns at field level with tile drains. As its effluentis dischargedinto drainstherefure, the concernsrelating to surfacedrains mayapply. Re-useof tubewelleffluent for irrigation is creatingserious hazard for sustained healthof soils.Re-cycling of groundwateris likely to increaseits salinityin the long run. 5-18 5.3 EnvironmentalEffects and Impac of Drainageand DispOSal 53.1 Effecton Drainedland Quality Drainag Is requiredto ensurea satisfactorybalance betwen moisture,aetlon and uat concontrationIn the root zone.To assessthe effectsof the drAinagemeaures on Boils, WAPDAperiodically monitored depth to watertableand surface and profile salinitystatus of the soils. Datafbr the selectedprojects, given In AppendixV Indicatesthe improvomen. Percentarea under shallow watertable and surface sallnity has reduced and number of soll profilesfree from salinityand sodicity have increased. DrainagoIs a mitigatoryaction and Is expectedto Improvethe saltand water balance In the rootzone, Irrespective of thedrainage mode. The extent of Improvement,In additionto being functionof technology( as each technology has Its own performance characteristics), depends uponcrop andwater management practices and the waythe drainageeffluent Is handled. In EastKhairpur tile drainagearea, which is underlainby highly salinegroundwater, the watertablegenerally remains shallow (particular characteristic of tile drains)and the salts continueto accumulateIn the root zone(Annex-Il). Whetherit is becauseof particular drainagetechnology or poorwater management or bothis difficult to identifyand callsfor immediatedetailed monitoring to identifythe causeto takeremedial measures. Tmesalt balance studies (Annex-Il) for FOWzones show that in areaswhere the effluentis beingre-used for irrigation,the salts mobilized from thegroundwater are partly accumulating in the root zone.This is a critical imsueas 8.4 Maf of drainageeffluent from tubewelisin FGW SCARPsand 24 Maf of groundwater pumped by privatesector (in canalcommanded areas)is beingre-used and in the longrun is likely to adverselyeffect the salt balancein the root zone. 5.3.2 Impact on Agriculture Developmentof agriculture is dependenton a large number of factors and data is generally not adequateto identifythe impactof drainage alone. The two indicatorsnormally used are the croppingintensity and yieldsof major crops. Pre and post nrojectdata for variousprojects is given in Appendix V. Boththe croppingintensity and crop yieldshave increasedindicating a positiveimpact of the drainageon agriculture however,these increasesare much less than envisaged. 53.3 Effect of Disposal on ReceivingWaters Effluentfrom operatingprojects is finding its way into canals, lakes, rivers and evaporation ponds. Experienceso far availablehas been discussed in Sec 5.2.5 and briefed as under: - annually0.9 Maf of saline water is disposed'from projects in operation into various canals without any controlon the mixed water quality. Saline effluentfrom Hairdin surface drainageproject disposed into Kirthar canal, reportedlyat times increasesits salinity to more than 1000ppm. 0.1 Maf (existing)of saline water from LSK project is going into Hunal lake and then through Main Nara Valley drain into Manchar lake alongwith 0.14 Maf 5-19 (existing)ftm North Dadu.Temporary dispoul and storage of "line effluentInto Laks andevaporation Increus thosalinity of lakeswator. Environmentalauossment report for RBMP obsorvesthat the drainap eMuent currentlyemptying In Hamallake is boneflcial.Figure 5.7 gives the sat concentrationof incoming eMuent and that of lakas. - annually0.64 Maf of salinewater, from tubewell projes Inoperation In Punjab,was plannedto be disposeddirectly Into variousrivers. Post project water quality at variousbarrage mites Is not availableto determinedisposal effects on qualityof receivingwaters except for Guddu. Waterquality at Gudduduring 1990 varied from 130to 280ppm except for April whenIt wasrecorded as 540 ppm. It appearsthat offet of currentdisposas on qualityof waterat GudduIs negligible.The effluentfom MNV drain through Mancharhowever, increased the salt content at Sehwanwhich varied from 150to 600ppm (Table S 11). 5.3.4 AssimilativeCapacity or Drains Pollutantsentering the drains from municipal, industrialand agro-chemicalsare expected to undergodilution, oxidation-reductionand biodegradation,as these travel in drains. The ability of drains to provide the conditionswhich allow these processes to occur determines the assimilativecapacity (AC) of drains. Annexes IV & VI gives the summary of studies carried out. It is observed that quantityof agro-chemicalscurrently used is so smallthat there is no immediatedanger of pollution of drainagewater. On the basis of informationcollected it is also observedthat AC of drains is mostly negativeand that conceptof AC as a practical measureof potentialvalue of drains for pollutionloading, under field conditionsprevailing in Indus basin is not workable and may be abandoned. 5.4 The Emerging Long Term Lssues The concept of "control of waterloggingand salinity" hitherto had been limited to the immediateproblem of removalof excess of soil moisture in the root zone. The leaching of salts from the root zonewas consideredmostly a by-productof drainage and tubewellwater made available, where ever feasible, to supplementthe existingsupplies. With the pre-occupationwith immediateproblem and area specific development, the long term issues of salt balance on the basin or regional level attracted less attention. Large quantitiesof salts are brought into the basin by rivers, most of which is retained within the basin. In addition, in FGW zones, tubewell irrigation is mobilizinghuge quantities of salts from the groundwaterreservoir and puttingonto soils. Someof the questionswhich arise are: - Where the salts appliedthrough canal and tubewellwater are accumulating; - How the quality of groundwater in FGW zones will change through continued re- cycling, and how it can be avoided; 5-20 7Igo 5.7 10000 ..- 4000-- -- ~~~~~- 4000 t A U°4.-. . 2000 300O - . - - ,- . -_ 1 1 e1 1 12 I a I R 11 31 I 23 I 2 1 I 2 Jon rob Mae Apt AMyJ *Jn. Jul Aig Sep Oat fow Due Montl AVERAGESALINItY OF INFLOWFROM MIROKI IAN e SIIADADKOT DRAINSe OUtFLOW TO MNV DRAIN AT IIAMAL LAKE REGULATOR sowoe*MeSpUupplemnl 56.4 Tablet12 1650 ale 4000 - s500 - _ _ E .9 000 '52600 0 000 O0 1600 \ , X wGooot\e * 1000 - 0 o '***LLJ....s-- i...J 1 1 2 I 2 i1 2 2 1 2 12 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 Jis Feb MW Apr NW Jun u Au sep 0O1 Now Dee Month ,AVERAGESALINITY OF INFLOWFROM MNV DRAIN S OUTFLOW FROM MANCIIAR LAKE *Omue nRUP IhFle.nl 81.4 TaMe 6J (1060 Dole) How the evaporationfrom shallowgroundwatw, In SOW zones(-11 Mar In Sindh), Is eThctingsoil healthand wustainabillty of agriculturalproduction; - Whatis the signifhcanceof ult balanceand at whatlvel It shouldbe tackled; otec - Aboutfuture salne effluentdisposals arrangements are foulble. Thoseand related Issues are looked Into In the fbllowingsections. The dataused Is neither adequatenor that accurate,howevwer, still It Is enoughto broadlydetermine the natureof pmblems,their extontand signiflcance to helpdetermine future drainage strategy. 5.4.1 Salt Inflow and Its DistributionIn the Basin SaltsIn the basinar broughtby the riversand theirtributaries. Using the availablewatr qualitydata and the Inflows(Vol-IV; Annex11 & 111),salt Inflowhas been estimated. In the period k077-91,average annual Inflow of salt was33 Mt, of which,24 Mt remainedwithin the basin; 13.6 Mt In upper Indus (Punjab)and 10.4 Mt In Lower Indus (Sindh & Balochistan)as givenbelow: Salt Inflow Mt. Rim Inflow 30 Tr. inflow 3 S.tota! 33 Salt at Gudduabove 19 Kotri below 8.6 Retentionin basin 24 Punjab 13.6 Sindh& Balochistan 10.4 Furtherdistribution of salt within the canalirrigated areas can be lookedupon on drainage sub-basinsand is as estimatedbelow: Area App:Quality CanalInflow Salts (ppm) (Ma) (Mt) PUNJAB D.G Khan 170 3.05 0.71 Thal Doab 170/150 7.68 1.64 Chaj Doab 150 4.21 0.86 Rechna Doab 150 11.10 2.26 Bari Doab 150 16.56 3.38 Bhawalpur 150 10.91 2.23 53.51 11.08 *adoptedfrom IBMR 5-21 SINDH RBODcathment 170 13.65 3.15 LBODcathment 170 21.72 5.02 KotriCommand 200 10.1S 2.76 45.52 10.93 Anotherdistribution of ImportanceIs the salt inputIn FGW and SGWareas (Flgure 5.8)and is estimatedas under (IBRDpaper 166). lThesalt concentrationassumed here is on higher side however,It does bring out the relativedistribution pattern. Zones Area Canal Inflow Salts Salts Ma (MaD) (ppm) (Mt) t/acdyr Punjab FGW 18.88 41.60 200 11.31 0.64 SGW 5.01 12.32 200 3.35 0.70 Sindh FGW 10.79 11.98 250 4.07 0.94 SGW 4.33 33.26 250 11.31 1.05 Theabove analysis indicate that in Punjab,75 % of incomingsalt ends-upinto the FGWzone whereas,nearly the same amount,in Sindh,goes into SGWzones. S.4.2 Mobilizationof Salts by Drainage a) FreshGroundwater Ares In fresh groundwaterareas tubewells are beingused bothfor drainageand irrigationand are mobilisinghuge quantitiesof salts, whichwere earlierdormant and not in circulation.To determinethe likelyorder of magnitude,water qualityfbr publicand privatetubewells has been assumedas 750 and 600 ppmrespectively. Average annual salt mobilisedby drainage in FGWzones is as under: Area Pumpage' App:Quality Salts Mar) (ppm) (Mt) (t/ac) Punjab Public 6.7 750 6.8 0.36 Private 21.9 600 17.9 0.95 Sindh Public 1.7 750 1.7 0.39 Private 2.2 600 1.8 0.40 * Planning Div: Nov; 1988 Thesesalts alongwith those brought in by canalwater are appliedto the soils in FGW areas. Averageannual application of salt to the soils in FGW areas of Punjabhas increasedfrom 0.64 to 1.95 t/ac, whereasin Sindhthe increaseis from 0.94 to 1.75 t/ac. As indicated earlier,part of this salt is beingretained in thesoils. 5-22 Fig. 5.8 GROUNDWATERQUALITY OF IRRIGATEDAREAS OF INDUS BASIN NWFP PMW N PCSCW _. * StWN R o ~~~~~~~GROUNDWATEROULIT \SC W~~Scw MAINLY FRESH E IIMAINLYSALINE SRWS AGRO-CLIMATICZONE LSRWS It is therefore, obvious that the soils of the FGW areas are at risk because of salt accumulationarising from tubewell irrigation. b) Saline Groundwater Areas Averageannual salt input in SGW areas is 0.7 t/ac in Punjab and 1.05 t/ac in Sindh. It is difficult to estimate the sats mobilised by drainage in these areas. However, whatever, quantityis mobilisedit is generallydrained out of that area. The salt balancesituation in these areas is therefbre, on way to improvementand is least in danger: As the SGW is not used therefore, if soils in these areas can be kept free from excess moistureand salts, then groundwaterreservoir beneathcan act as storage for incomingsalts, almost for indefiniteperiod. This is only possible if the watertable is sufficientlylowered to stop upward movement of salts from groundwater to the soils. Drainage of SGW zones therefore, should aim only at attaining an appropriatesalt balance in the root zone. 5.43 Deterioration of FGW quality and its Effect Drainage aims at removing excess water and salts from the root zone. Drainage effluent therefore, contains salts and if re-cycled in any shape, the salts removed also get re-cycled and may accumulatein the soils or groundwaterto a harmful level. How long re-cyclingof FGW can be continued without harmful effects depends upon the rate at which the salts accumulate. Two studies are currently available to examine this issue and are briefly reported in the following: I. Study Nr.1 This study was carried out as part of White House Panel Report by the 'Harvard Study Group"(1964)to determine salt build-up in groundwater reservoir under its long term use, with the following assumptions: a) All the residual salt of the applied irrigation water is completelyleached to the groundwaterreservoir; b) The ratio of the groundwaterto canal water is 1:1.5 to 1:2; c) Zero to ten per cent of the pumped groundwater is removed out of the project; d) The ratio of horizontaland vertical permeabilityis equal to ten: and e) The recycling is within the cone of influenceof each well. The results for various optionsare given in Figure 5.9. It was recommendedthat about 10% of tubewellpumpage over a 50 year period is needed to preclude eventualsalt accumulation in the groundwater reservoir. More than 15% is unnecessaryand less than 5% ineffective. As already indicatedthe predictionsof this model have not turned out to be true inspite of the fact that for nearly 30 years now no groundwaterin SCARP-Iis being pumpedto waste. 5-23 Fig: 5.90 0 CANAL INFLOW NET EVAPORATION y-z z DR_INAGE RETURN Y [v+(U-d)+tr-r.';;)_ r] TUBEWELL EFFLUENT NET THROU6H-PUT! GROUNDWATER D_ (TABLE CONSTANT (tu;+W+r'-V) v - EVAPORATION FROM GROUND WATER (u-u')= EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (r-WA-PEVAPORATIONAND EVAPOTRANSPIRATIONFROM RAINFALL r = RAINFALL w = LEAKAGE TO GROUND WATER FROM CANALS, AND WATERCOURSES us = THROUGH- PUT FROM IRRIGATION WATER re= THROUGH- PUT FROM RAINFALL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SALT FLOW MODEL Fig- 5.9b aOOt Mm^~~~~~~~~~~~~NIILOROUND WTER COCIITRA- TION - ooo rpp ;OtO. NOeoNCES" SLTOnour ACC" t Z R25000 Po ra. E z2000 {1 v7 smp4 O ~~~~~~~~.. Z 5500 T - -100p - -- ~ ~ O -o z~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ Iooo:'~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ 07, ~~CONCEMTRATIONoF CANALWTER 0~~~~~~~~~~~~~-5 Ip I 41,1 .1 10 300 1000 10,000 WARS SALT CONCENTRATIONOF APPLIED IRRIGATIONA WATER One possible explanation is that leaching and recycling envisaged has not been fully established. H. Study Nr.2 A more recent study (IBRD paper 166) is carried out by the Environmentdepartment of the World Bank with the Indus Basin Model Revised (IBMR), which in addition to others also examinedwater and salt balance issues. The model has the facility and data to operate on agro-climaticzones basis. Salt build-up in two sample areas, one each in FGW and SGW zones is given in Table S.13. It is observed that as most of the salts remain in soil therefore, salinity of groundwater increases at a nominalrate. TABLE 5.13 Dynamics of the Salt Transport Model Salt addition(Mt) to: Salinity of (ppm) Soils Gw Soils GW PSW Fresh initial Condition 1280 900 1988 5.03 -3.32 2156 897 1989 2.13 -0.42 2528 900 1990 0.91 0.80 2687 905 1991 0.41 1.31 2757 912 1992 0.20 1.51 2792 919 1993 0.12 1.59 2813 926 1994 0.09 1.62 2828 933 1995 0.08 1.63 2843 940 BRWS saline initial 5620 4000 1988 12.47 -9.31 8183 3943 1989 10.74 -7.58 10391 3907 1990 7.40 -4.24 11912 3887 1°91 4.91 -1.75 12920 3879 1992 3.26 -0.10 13590 3878 1993 2.19 0.97 14040 3883 1994 1.49 1.67 14347 3891 1995 1.05 2.11 14562 3900 ------PSW...Punjab sugarcane-wheatzone; SRWS..Sindhrice-wheat south; It is therefore, concludedthat chancesof salinity increaseof FGW are there however, it can be managedby disposingabout 10% of drainageeffluent from these zones. Current pumpages from these areas are approximately33 Maf and 10% of this would be 3.3 Maf, which would need disposalarrangements. If appropriatedisposals are initiated in time the quality of this effluent will not be very saline and probably could be managed through existing arrangements. 5-24 111. Study Nr. 3 Salt Water Intrusion Figure 5.8 gives the distribution of saline and fresh ground water areas in the Indus Plain. Fears have been expressed that heavy tubewell pumpage in FGW areas may in the long run result in saline ground water encroaching FGW areas. Saline ground water intrusion into FGW body can possibly occur in two ways: a) Lateral movement of SGW body as a whole, shifting the SGW-FGW interface towards the FGW areas and there by encroachingupon FGW areas; b) Up-conningof SGW underlying FGW tubewells at places and mixing with the FGW pumped by these tubewells thus deteriorating the quality of the effluent of individualtubewells. Water quality monitoring of FGW tubewells carried out by SMO indicate that water quality of few wells has deteriorated at places due to upconningbut their is no evidence yet of any major encroachmentof FGW areas through movement of SGW body as a whole. An experimentwas laid by WAPDA close to the FGW-SGWinterface in SCARP-I to study the lateral movement of the interface as a result of pumping in FGW area. Results of this study, published in the proceedings of the 'Internationw' Seminar on Waterlogging and Salinity' held in Lahore-Pakistan in October 13-17, 1975, also confirmed absence of any lateral movement of the interface and found up-conning as. the cause of water quality deteriorationof individualtubewells. 5.4.4 The Issues of Salt Balance Inflow of salt at rim stations and outflow below Kotri, considered as an indicator of salt accumulationor removal, is not only inadequatebut also hardly indicateswhere the incoming salts are accumulatingand where from the outgoing salts are being removed. Salt balance needs to be watched where, there is likelihood of its imbalancewith negative effects. As discussed in Sec 5.4.1 and 5.4.2, the salt balance needs to be watched both for the root zone and the groundwater reservoir; the two resources of major importance for sustained agriculture. The critical areas are FGW zones where, salt has the tendency to accumulate both in the soils and the groundwater with serious consequences. In SGW zone, salt balance in the root zone only needs to be watched because of possible salt accumulationfrom evaporationfrom shallow groundwater, which generally exists even after provisionof drainage ie; surface drains or tile drains. As the water input data is maintained and generally available on canal command basis therefore, the best watch over salt accumulation can be kept on canal command basis. The second best alternative is to watch at the level of drainage sub-basins, as identified in Sec 5.4.1. What happens on long term basis to soils and groundwater is difficult to predict as the mechanism of salt movement through soil and water is not known. However, on basis of preliminarystudies (Annex-Il) it appears that the system tends towards a balance which may not be equally detrimental at all places. 5-25 It is therefore, recommendedthat: a) salt balance at canal commandor sub-basin level should get precedence and will automaticallyand more realistically result in salt balance at basin level; b) repeat soil salinity surveys be carried out every 10 years to monitor the salt position in the soils. Areas which show salt build up tendency may be specificallymonitored more frequentlyto determine the rate and cause to take remedial action; c) in SGW area effort be made to mobilisesalt through drainage only to the extent to keep root zone clear to minimize disposal problems of saline effluent; d) in FGW area effort be made: i) to keep root zone clear of salt through leaching; ii) mobilize salt through drainage out of the area to the extent of incomingsalts through canal water, as and where necessary. The mechanism of salt movement cannot be studied in isolation without the water balance-of an area. Current knowledge in water balance is highly deficient and is based on empirical ooefficientsmost of which do not have any research support. Situation further worsens due to lack of adequate monitoring data. Some of the unknownsare: - watercourse losses which form part of the groundwater resbrvoir; - deep percolation from irrigated fields supportingdifferent crops; - role played by shallow groundwater quality in buildingsoil salinity; - recharge from rainfall and salts removed by surface runoff from an area; etc: 5.5 Drainage EMuent Disposal issues Indus river and its tributaries are the only natural drainageoutlet to the sea and also the major source of irrigation water supply. Capacity of the river system to accept saline drainage effluent is therefore, limitedand would depend upon the water qualitystandards adopted both for irrigation and other uses. In order to arrive at a satisfactorymid-term disposal arrangementsone can study the current proposals and their effects on the system. 5S-.1 Planned Disposals from Sindh Lower Indus can be divided into three major drainage units namely; a) left bank commands of Guddu and Sukkur drained through LBOD to sea; b) right bank commandsof Guddu and Sukkur drained through RBOD to Kotri above in river Indus; and c) Kotri command drained directly to sea. 5-26 From the above the only area plannedto be drained tD river Indus is the RBOD catchment. It has been divided into twenty eightdrainage units (Du) coveringboth Sindhand Balochistan provinces. Drainage effluent from a numberof drainageunits is proposedfor re-cycling by disposal into the canal system. Drainagedevelopment in the area has been proposed in four stages goingalmost upto end of 14th Plan i.e; 2028. Area covered in variousstages and their planned disposal is given in Table 5.14. TABLE 5.14 Development stages, Area covered and Disposals Proposed Stage CumulativeArea Disposal Drained RBOD Canals (ha) (ha) I 866,061 367919 498142 II 1,123,225 593341 529884 III 1,357,921 828037 529884 IV 1,817,318 1287434* 529884 %62760ha from Pat Ext: to go into Evap: pond. Effluent finding its way into the RBOD consists mostly the excess irrigation water drained from the rice fields. The rice irrigation practices in the area constitute filling of the soil profile uptothe watertableand this water is then periodicallyreplaced. Therefore, the salinity of this effluentcannot be very high. The effluentduring the first month or so is expectedto be slightly more saline as it will carry the salts built up in the soils during preceding 'Rabi" through evaporation. Subsequently,the effluent would be less saline. Similar views are expressed in North Dadu planning reports 1976. The maximumvalue of salinity in these reports has been estimated as 1000 ppm. During RBMP study drainable surplus on monthly basis has been estimated for various drainage units. The effluent is mostly limited to the rice season ie May to October. However, some flow is likely to continueeven beyondthat to drain the area for Dubari crop. Water qualitydata in existingdrainage systems was also observedat various locationsand is reported in RBMP supplementS6.4. Based on these observations and certain assumptions about soils salinity, RBMP report estimatedthe quantity and quality of effluent expected to be drained in Indus river during variousstages of developmentand its impacton qualityof river Indus (Appendix-V). Figure 5.10 summarizesthat analysis and the anticipatedeffect on qualityof river water at Kotri for 1:10 year low flow. Perusal would indicate that anticipateddisposal from RBOD, inclusiveof disposalsalready taking placefrom completedprojects in Punjab, the salt concentrationnever exceeds500 ppm except for the month of October. On the right bank, from Drainage Units 1,5,6,10,11,14and 24 measuringapproximately 0.53 mha area, the drainage effluent is planned to be re-cycled. Effect of this disposal on canal water quality has been studied in RBMPreport and is given in Appendix-V. 5-27 Fig: 5. 10 . 2 500 : 21000 00 100 Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jim Jul Aug Sep Oot Now Des Month --- St.el -- Stage 2 -- 2Stag 3 9-Stlg 4 EFFLUENT FROM RBO1DINTO RIVER INDUS 1000 2000 - Ja feb llbr Apr May Jn J#l Aug B Oct Now Doe Utb CL -8gtq I Stag 2 . Stq 3 -- Stage 4 4000A EFFLUENT FROM R00 UsIO RIVER INDUS E 600 A 200 Jan Flb Mwr Apr May Jun Jul Aug SP Oet NOW DOe - Stge1 --- StageI - S* 2Stng t - '-- a _tg 4 MIXEDN ATERO UAUTY AT IVERIo ftl you lobwflow at Notre 5.5.2 Emuent DiSPOSalfrom NWFP and Punjah Drainage outlet for irrigated areas of NWFP is Indus river either directly or through its tributary Kabul river. Groundwaterin all envisaged projects is usable and therefoki, will be mostly re-used. The drainage effluent in rivers is expected from Mardan and Swabi tile drainage projects which is not likely to affect river water quality. Therefbre, all drainage related to irrigation, from NWFP can continue into the rivers. Except for areas on the right bank Indus, drainage outlet for Punjab is only through Panjnad. As the flow below Panjnad is only limited to high flow period therefore, disposals from completed, on-going and future projects are mosty re-cycled within its own canal irrigated areas. Till disposalof saline effluentoutside the system is arranged, in mid-term, the disposal option which appears feasible for Punjab is as under: a) Disposal from completed and on-going projects may continue as planned. b) Areas on right banklcIndus may be drained into river Indus (DG.Khan &CRBC). c) Areas on left bank Sutlej to be initially drained into ponds as already being done for on-going projects. d) Utilization of saline tubewell drainage projects disposing into river to be regulated keeping in view the water quality limitationsimposed. Total saline effluent from the entire irrigated area of Punjab in need of sub-surfacedrainage, is estimated as 2.94 Maf (Appendix-V) which, is planned for disposal as under: Projects Quantity Destination Status (Maf) Canals River Ponds Completed 1.52 0.39 0.64 0.49 On-going/new 1.42 0.21 0.59 0.62 2.94 0.60 1.23 1.11 Figure 5.6 gives the schematicdiagram, identifyingsaline effluentdisposal points. Effect of these disposals on water quality of rivers at various barrages has been calculated and is given in Appendix-V. River water quality does show deteriorationat various barrages in Punjab. The effect at Guddu is negligible. The analysis given above assumes that: - The entire estimated drainage effluent will reach the outfall and there will be no losses on the way - The entire effluent from all drainage units will reach simultaneously at the outfall point 5-28 - the entire effluent disposed of at the outfall would immediatelyjoin the main river stream without any losses. The redeemingfactor is that none of these assumptionsin actual practice would be true. During low flow the effluent disposedof in the nearby creek would travel several kilometers before reachingthe river mainstreamand considerablequantity is expectedto be lost in river bed through seepage and temporary storage in depressions thus reducing the actual salinity build-up in the river water. The saline effluent thus stored during low flow will be washed away during high flow period. 5.53 EMuent Disposal From Balochistan The Pat feeder canal commandfor drainagepurposes have been divided into four drainage units (Du 1,2,3 & 4) in the RBMP report. Du-I represent present Hairdin project which drains into a pond and the effluentpumped into Kirthar canal. The RBOD in stage-2 (2008) is proposed to be extended to provideoutlet for drainage units I to 3, whereas unit 4 is to drain in an evaporationpond created for this purpose. Pat Feeder canal project is in progress and to delay its drainagetill extensionof RBODis not desireable.In addition, Du-2&3 cannot be efficientlydrained into RBOD against the natural slope. The alternativeavailable is to constructthe Carrier drain-2 along right bankof Kirthar canal and dispose it into the main Nara river channel. The ultimatedestination of part of this effluent is expectedto be the Hamal lake and then to RBOD. Kirthar canal is a contour channel and so would be the Carrier drain-2. For its efficient operationit would be necessaryto pay special attention to its operation and maintenance. Hamal lake currently receives effluentfrom Mirokhan and Shadadkotdrains whose salinity varies from 1000 to 4000 ppm. The quality of effluent from Pat Feeder drainage units is expectedto be less than 3000 ppm, as it would only be the rice drainage. In addition, the effluentis likely to be diluted on way by water from numerousnalas and is not expected to harm the quality of the Hamal lake. S5.A Mid-tern Disposal Strategy From the above discussion and the limited data available, if following disposal option is adopted, no serious water qualityhazards are expectedin the foreseeablefuture ano these are: a) Saline effluent may be recycled, whereverfeasible, maintainingmixed water quality less than 500 ppm; b) Left bank commands of Guddu, Sukkur and Kotri to be drained into sea except Ghotki Saline which may be drained into 'evaporation pond' in Thar desert; c) Right bank commandsof Chashma,Taunsa, Guddu and Sukkurto be drained directly or through RBOD into river Indus; d) Left bank commandsof Sulemanki,Islam and Panjnadto be drained into 'evaporation ponds' in Cholistandesert; 5-29 Fig. 5 .11 NATIONAL SURFACEDRAINAGE SYSTEM . Zw. =NV I }~~~EAPRAOPONDS GROUNDWATERQUALITY MAINLY SALINE (5C°K°~~~~~~~~~PRA. PSETD DeRAINS r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SHMTC Fig: 5.12 SPARECAPACITY IN LBOD FOR DRAINING EVAPORATIONPONDS (STAGE I) 3500- 3000 - - 2500 - - t2000 15000 >L 00 6000-0 _: l 390 300 270 230 1iO 140 130 110 0 Dietance From OutIall (km) SPARE CAPACITY IN LBOD FOR DRAINING S2ooo ig EVAPORATIONPONDS (FINAL) 16000 14000-- 12000-- 10000 : 8000 a0 6000 4000-- 2000 390 300 270 230 150 140 130 110 0 DistanceFromi Outfall (kmn) EJSub-surfaceEffluent rEJ Capacity sea. Maximumflow expected from the upstream areas cannot be nore than 3000 to 4000 cubic feet per second. 5.6 Opportunities for Impact MitigationlEnhancement Environmentalimpact analysis of all projects in operation or on-goingis not possible as the data in that detail is neitherobserved nor available.The studytherefore, was based on sample project analysis for which some data was available and the conclusion drawn are equally applicableto similar other projects in operationor constructedin future. 5.6.1 Adverse Impacts to be Mitigated Adverse impactsto be mitigatedare: a) In fresh groundwaterareas wheretubewell drainage effluent is being used for irrigation salts mobilizedfrom the groundwaterreservoir are partly being retained in the soil profile. A study is required to establishthe reason for and solutions to soil profile salinisationin FGW areas. b) Effluent disposed in canals neither follow any standard nor regulated to control the mixed water quality.At places and times the salt contentof mixed water are quite high (Kirthar capal in Balochistan) and need to be controlled. c) Utilizationof drainagetubewells in SGW zones was to be regulated keeping in view the 10 daily flows in the river so as not to increase the salinity beyond limits specifiedin the planning reports. This is not being done and tubewells are being operatedat randomor subject to availabilityof funds and power supply. The problem may not be acute at this moment but as more effluent is disposedthe situation may worsen. d) Tile drains mode of drainage in areas underlainby highly saline groundwater appears incapableof controllingsoil salinity. The conclusionis based on data which has not been collected under adequately controlled monitoring procedures. Salinity build-up in soils due to high evaporation from groundwater appears to be more than reduced by leaching. Detailed monitoringof tile drains in such areas is urgently required before using this drainage mode in such areas. e) Untreatedand unlawfuldisposal of municipaland industrialwaste into rivers, drains and canals is the single biggest hazard to the envirommentand heaith. It hindersflow, causesstagtation and providesbreeding spots for mosquitoes. It provides opportunityfor injuriouselements to enter into food chain as the water from rivers, drains and canals is used for agriculture.There is need to immediatelyregulate these disposalsbefore it is too late. 5.6.2 Positive Impacts to be Enhanoed Positive impact has been registered in the form of control of watertable, soil reclamnationand increasedagricultural production. However, someareas withinthe projects still have not fully 5-31 recovered. More vigilant operationand maintenanceof drainage projects can go a long way. to enhance these effects. Drainage is only a pre-requisitefor developmentof agricultureand is to be followedby other measures to achieve the required objectives.Agricultural development is slow and needs to be accelerated. 5.63 Preventive Approach to Drainage Preventiveapproach to drainagemeans non-structuraland structural interventionswhich may reduce the drainable surplus from the area. The single most important componentof the drainable surplus is the seepage from irrigation water conveyance system and fields. Magnitude of this componentis directly dependenton the quantity of water in-put into the area. Higher the in-put more will be the drainable surplus. The preventive optioas may include: a) Adjust the water in-put to a level where the net recharge at the watertable depth to be maintained,is reduced b) Prevent the recharge by controlling or intercepting seepage loss from the system. Applicabilityof these optionsto an area, in additionto their economicviability, depends upon other constraints as well. Under the first option reductionof existing irrigationwater supply to a developedarea will result in an unacceptableoutput and incomelosses. However, as a matter of rule existingsupply to an area underlainby SGW should not be increased, as this will increasethe drainagehazards. The second option reduces the drainage requirements but will also increase the water availabilityat the field thereby, to someextent, defeatingthe objective. The best option is the combinationof the two ie; preventingseepage loss and reducing the water allocation to the extent of saving. Applicationof preventiveapproach to FGW areas may be uncaHedfor, as it would reduce the rechargewith consequentreduction in pumpage.To sustainthe developmentalready taken place and to meet the shortfall in pumpage, canal capacitiesmay have to be increased. Seepage losses causing recharge can be distinctlydivided into three portions namely: a) Above Mogha- from main canals, distributariesand minors; b) Below Mogha- from Sarkari Khal and farmer's ditches; c) Below Field Nakka- from farmer's fields. Scope of application of preventive strategy in each portion and its impact on reducing drainage requirementsis looked into in the fbllowing. 5-32 a) Above Mogha Seepage loss from main canals and distributaries can only be prevented through effective canal lining and not simply by lining. Losses from the canal system are highly variable depending on its size and the soil texture through which it is passing. The average loss is normally taken as about 25% of the diversion at head, of which, 75% can be cut-off by lining. The average delivery efficiency for the unlined canal is thus 75% and with effective fiint it can be increasedto 93%. Interceptor drains,as an alternative to lining, are also being suggested. Percent of seepage which these can effectivelyrecover depends upon tleir depth and distance from the canal and the nature and geometry of the aquifer. Field observationsare not available to support any estimate. However, in view of high costs of lining and difficulty in its implementationthis alternative needs detailed technical and economicevaluation based on accurate monitoringof the projects on LBOD where interceptor drains have been recently constructed. b) Below Mogha Large number of loss measurementsin various lengths of watercourses are available but cannot be effectively used to determine the total loss from a watercourse. Operational loss studies over the full warabandi period has been carried out only on 5 watercourses and the average losses are reported as under (CSU report Nr.52): Type of Losses Sarkari Khal Farfner's Ditch ) Steady state seepage 20.16 15.84 Surface Evaporation 0.21 0.09 Visible Leakage 0.63 0.57 Dead Storage 2.20 1.50 Breaches etc. 0.40 0.30 Transient seepage wetting & drying of banks 1.40 0.90 Total 25.00 19.00 Delivery efficiency of the conveyancesystem below mogha is 75% at Farm Nakka and 56% at the Field Nakka. To what extent the efficiency can be increaseddepends upon the extent of measures taken. All actionstaken so far are mostly limitedto the Sarkari Khal. It appears that with the current level of interventionbelow moghathe efficiency can hardly be increased from 56% to 62% only and most of this improvement may be coming from avoiding dead storage (2.2%), breaches (0.4%) and visible leakage (0.63%) and very little from steady- state seepage. What percent of steady-state seepage loss contributes to the groundwater recharge and consequentlyto the drainage requirement is not exactly known. The only potential to reduce drainage requirement would be to prevent steady-stateseepage loss through use of appropriate technology, if its contribution to drainage turns out to be significant. 5-33 c) Below Field Nakka Losses below field nakka are the water application losses and depend upon the method of irrigation, water applied, land levelling, etc. Planners have been assuming67.5 to 75 percent applicationefficiency. Water supplied to the farmers in canal irrigated areas is much less than optimum required to support the existing cropping intensity. Therefore, chances of deep percolation are very limited. Precision land levelling may help more uniform applicationof water and improving yield but has less likelihood of improving overall application efficiency and reducing the drainage requirements. The above discussionleads to the conclusionthat the only suitable preventivemeasure appears to be effective canal lining. However, the economicsof canal lining with drainage will be the controlling factor to decide the cut-off seepage rate beyond which it may become unviable. The cut-off seepage rate is expected to be lower if: - the area is underlain by SGW and has high costs for disposal of saline effluent the water saved is allocated to an area where its marginal cost is higher. 5-34 Appendix - V TABLE V-I Quaity of EMlust fr SumpNri (S-IA) mdin Pipe Dmis. (Dnaie 1 Pipe DrdinNO. Maew ASILUMP-A B C F.ce USC MR ECe |C SR C I RUSC| SAl EC_ RSC SAR 7187 2100.0 12 63 ZOQ0 3. 8.4 8 21SO.0 O 6h5 2900.0 6.0 12.0 9 1780.o 0.0 3.7 3300.0 5.0 113 0o 1780.0 0o 5.0 3400. 4.2 1o 4150.0 2.3 113 It 1930LO 0.0 4.5 3630.0 0O. 10.1 4400.0 0.0 12.4 12 227no0 0.0 63 330O. 43 11.7 4600.0 6.0 15.9 118 20s. 0.0 3.1 3750.0 1.4 10o 4300.0 0.0 6.8 2 2170o. o0. 52 3730.0 3.4 12.7 4600. 4.2 14.5 3 2300o. 0.8 72 3300. 4.6 13.0 4600.0 9.0 19.2 4 2200.0 2.2 9A 3600.0 8.0 18.1 4400.0 10.8 23.9 5 2330o. 2.0 9. 4200.0 9.4 19.5 450o.0 11.2 23.7 6 2400.0 .6 9.0 4100.0 7.0 15.9 4400.0 9.2 20.0 7 3800.0 6.8 16.1 1980.0 02 7.6 3250.0 6.0 14.8 4250.0 10.8 20.7 8 3300.0 5.0 14.4 9 3450.0 4.4 12.8 10 3620.0 2.6 13A 11 3790.0 3.0 15.5 1)59 3020.0 2.7 13.5 2 30o 3.0 15.7 3520.0 1.6 132 3800.0 34 16.2 4450.0 6. 22.8 3 3950.0 2.7 16.5 3800.0 2.5 16.1 3930. 3.7 18.2 4600.0 1. 21.7 4 4100o 10.5 21.7 5 3970.0 11.0 203 3920.0 8.5 21.5 3860.0 10.5 10.5 4450.0 12.3 24.2 6 3520.0 9.8 22.0 7 4150.0 11.0 20.6 398O 11.2 19.4 4150.0 11.9 21.1 4300.0 12.6 23.1 8 4730O 6.8 20.0 9 3900.0 99 18.1 10 4000.0 1OA 19.0 11 4200.0 10.8 203 12 4200.0 10.4 19.8 1U90 4150O 11.6 21.4 5 4750.0 9.4 243 6 3300.0 12.8 19.8 11 4900.0 72 20.9 5200.0 L6 22.3 1 TABLE V-2 Water Quality of sumps discharge EKTD Project ------Conductivity (micro mhos/cm) ------Date Sump 7 Sump 16 11/85 6500 11000 5/86 6500 13000 7 3750 5600 8 5800 7500 9 5200 32000 10 5200 11000 11 5000 13000 12 5000 12700 1/87 5400 lZooo 2 3 5600 11000 4 5400 14500 5 4780 14000 6 4560. 12000 7 4500 11000 8 4600 12000 9 4950 12000 10 4800 11000 11 12 4800 7500 -/88 3960 10530 -/89 4900 9360 -/90 3840 9500 Source:SMO (South Directorate). 2 Table V-3 Annual Operation & Naintenance Costs and Revenue Receipts ------__-_ FY83 FY84 FY85 I. O&K Expenditure (Rs Million) (a) Punjab Province Surface System 583 639 680 SCARP TWs 701 724 790 Total: 1,284 1,363 1,470 (b) Pakistan Surface System 1,055 1,172 1,284 SCARP TWs 874 903 985 Total: 1,929 2,075 2,269 (c) Punjab as % of Pakistan Surface System 55 55 53 SCARP TWs 80 80 80 Total: 66 66 65 (d) SCARP O&M as % Total O&M Punjab 55 53 54 Pakistan 45 44 43 II. Irrigation Receipts (Rs million) (a) Punjab Province Surface System 519 594 611 SCARP TWs 142 167 172 Total: 661 761 783 (b) Pakistan Surface System 759 859 897 SCARP TWs 144 169 197 Total: 903 1,028 1,094 III. Receipts as % of 0&M Expenditures (a) Punjab Surface System 89 93 90 SCARP TWs 20 23 22 Total: 51 56 53 (b) Pakistan Surface System 72 73 70 SCARP TWs 16 19 20 Total: 47 50 48 Source: IBRD report Nr. P-4273-PAK 3 Table V-4 Effect on Drained Land Quality Project Area with DTW Area free from Profiles free Area < 5 feet Surface Salinity from Sal:/Sod: Yr. % Yr TubBvell Drainage SCARP-I Pre-proj: 1961 13.5 1953-65 64 34 Post-proj: 1990 0.3 1977-78 86 70 SCARP-II(NS) Pre-proj: 1964 11.0 1953-65 62 58 Post-proj: 1990 4.0 1977-78 83 78 SCARP-II (S) Pre-proj: 1980 20.8 1953-65 57 43 Post-proj: 1990 6.4 1977-78 87 65 SCARP-III Pre-proj: 1969 41.2 1953-65 55 49 Post-proj: 1990 25.4 1977-78 74 69 SCARP Khairpur Pre-proj: 1960 29.7 1953-54 27 - 4 Post-proj: 1990 21.1 1977-79 76 55 SCARP North Rohri Pre-proj: 1986 11.0 1953-54 47 - Post-proj: 1990 9.8 1977-79 77 55 SCARP South Rohri Pre-proj: 1979 3.3 1953-54 63 - Post-proj: 1990 3.0 1978-79 80 61 Ghotki Pre-proj: 1979 26.5 1953-54 5 - Post-proj: 1990 1.3 1977-79 70 33 ------Surface Drainage Larkana Shikarpur(SD) Pre-proj: 1977 43.0 1953-54 14 - Post-proj: 1990 26.0 1977-78 38 33 ------Tile Drainage East Khairpur Pre-proj: 1985 94.0 Post-proj: 1989 81.0 Source: SMO 4 Table V-S Effect on Drained Land Agriculture ------__--- Project Year Cropping Yields Area intensity W R C S M (tons/ha) SCARP-I Pre-proj: 1959-60 80 1.1 1.4 0.5 30 1.1 Post-proj: 1987-88 115 1.8 1.9 1.1 39 1.3 SCARP-II(NS) Pre-proj: Base yr. 94 1.4 1.5 0.6 41 Li Post-proj: 1987-88 121 2 1.8 0.9 39 1.4 SCARP-III Pre-proj: 1968-69 79 1.2 1.2 0.7 29 1.1 Post-proj: 1987-88 123 1.7 2.2 1.7 30 1.3 SCARP Khairpur Pre-proj: 1966-67 89 1.2 0.9 0.6 18 - Post-proj: 1987-88 120 2.2- 2 1 40 SCARP North Rohri Pre-proj: 1972-73 89 1.6 1.4 0.4 27 0.6 Post-proj: 1987-88 .110 2.8 3.7 0.9 74 0.9 East Khairpur Pre-proj: 1979-80 111 0.99 1.12 0.71 18.4 - Post-proj: 1989-90 124 1.53 1.51 0.76 29.0 - Source: SMO 5 TABLE V-6 Existing and Anticipated Saline Effluent and Salts Disposal from Sindh Sub-surface Drainage Projects Planned Efik | Destination/luantitv(a) Salts Projecls pumpage quak canal Drain/ Sea/Lake (Mt) fat) (ppm) I River I SCARP Khairpur (saline wels) C 290,000 8,000 290,000 3.16 East Khairpur Tile Drains C 28,000 4,770 28,000 0.18 LBOD Stage-I Nawab Shah 0 255,000 15,000 255,000 5.20 Sanghar 0 329.000 20,000 329,000 8.95 Mirpur Khas 0 321,000 22,500 321,000 9.82 LBOD Stage-11 South Khairpur P 370,000 7,000 370,000 3.52 Moro P 178,000 7,000 178,000 1.69 Tando Adam P 963,000 15,000 963,000 19.65 Tando M Khan P 721,000 15,000 721;000 14.71 Tando Bhago P 273,000 15,000 273,000 5.57 Khipro P 888,000 15,000 888,000 18.12 Farash P 644,000 17,000 644,000 14.89 Umarkot P 570,000 18,000 570,000 13.95 Ghotki Saline P 500.000 20.000 500.000 13.60 Total Left Bank 6,330,000 318,000 6,012,000 133 RBOD Stage-I 'Larkana Shikarpur (Du 13-17) C 350,000 1,500 196,000 154,000 0.71 North Dadu Sur. Dr. (Du 21 & 22) C 280,000 2,000 280,000 0.76 Begari-Frontier (Du 5,6) P 237,000 2,000 237,000 0.64 Tajodero (Du 23) P 12,400 1,000 12,400 0.02 Dokri (Du 24) P 55,400 1,000 55,400 0.08 Wa ah (Du 20) p 59,900 1,000 59,900 0.08 RBOD Stage-I1 Sultankot (Du 11) P 95,600 1,500 95,600 0.20 Kandkot Thul Shadadkot (Du 7,8,9) P 190,000 1,500 190,000 039 RBOD Stage-HI Ghari Khairo (Du 12) P 110,000 1,000 110,000 0.15 Mauladad (Du 10) P 46,000 1,500 46,000 0.09 Johi (Du 25) P 27,000 3,000 27,000 0.11 (Lake) RBOD Stage-IV SailfuUahMagsi (Du 18) P 68,600 3,000 68,600 028 South Dadu (Du 26) P 102,000 1,500 102,000 021 Total Right Bank 1,633.900 433,000 1.173.900 27,000 3.72 Completed 948,000 514,000 434,000 0 5 Ongoing 905,000 0 0 905,000 24 Planned 6,110,900 237.000 739.900 11.146.000 108 Total: 7,963,900 751.000 1,173,900 12,051,000 137 (C) Compltcd (P) Planned (0) On-going Project * Ater rehabilitation 6 Tble V-7 Antilpatd Saliity of Efnent from Dranage Uniia of MlOD I Salitii ofEEMunt (ppm) Drainage Unit Key Soil, I 1989 19"0 Da a2 | Ane |I Sep I Oct I Nov I Dec Jan IFeb I Mar I Apr I May I Jun Jlul I A Se Rabi Karif Piedmont Hairdin 1 0 37 6W000500 2000 203000 43 00 4O 00 3000A230053000100. 203D000200D0 32000 3,000 DMJ 2 0 3 6 50530023500 2,50D 30o0 4000 4000 3o 2 300001500 20m 3.000 20O 3,000 3.000 Baum 3 0 38 6W000530 2300 2300 3000 4,0004.000 3,0 2300 3,0001513 2 30o0O.0002.003J000 300 Pat Extension 4 0 43 6W0 s5300 2.5W 2 o 3003 4O 4,000.003.0 02W 3.00 1m 232 3,000002,02 3 30 3,00 Saifullab .gmpi 18 0 18 6000 55002500 200 30 4J000400 3O000210 2300002,0003A00 2,000 3000 3DO0 Ua.a Mohmmad 19 0 35 6,000 53023500230 3300 4,O0 40003,000200 30 1500 2,000 3.000 2.000 300 3.000 Job, 25 0 21 6,W00530 230 2300 300 4,0004,000 300 2.500 3.00 1500 2,0 3,0002*00 3JDOD 3.000 Frontier 6 0/1 50 4*0030I 2OW00 2.000D2500302500 1*3002,0 3o000 1*30 135002,000 13002,000 2500 Perennial Bcgari 5 1 45 2.00 2.OW 135W 13500 130013 001 COOW10O0 130 0 500W I.0 1iOO 1*300 130 1500 Khandlcot 7 1 52 2.000 2.00013001300 15001350013001 I 0 500 2,O SW 2.0M 1,000 1,000 1300 1500 Garhi Hassan 8 1 41 1500 130 13W0 13500 150010O 10W 500 135W015W 500 1300a 1.00I00l0-lPW LO Jacobabad 9 1 45 ,20002.0001300 13W 1030 1 1J, 001O 00 500 153 500 1,000 1a000 1*3001300 13w Mauladad 10 1 53 2UO 2.A 135W 1.013 I0S10130013 010003 00 2aw00 500 1*30 1i 1*3001500 1500 Sultankot 11 1 55 2,a0002O1O 1 300 1 15001.a002a 30o 550 1,000 liOOO1*3I01300 1300 Garhi Khairo 12 1 19 I.00 1.000 1000 1OW 500 500 1,W 1000 sLwSW 1o0 SW5w 10 00O lOW1 OW Shikarpur Pumped 13 1 42 22o 2.000 115W 15W w 1500W1000500 130 130W 500 10 l1DLOWO I00130D 1300 Ratodero 14 1 36 2AW 2.000 130 02,0 1300 13500w00 S 55u 13005W Wiood l l Oo Iso1300 z.sow Miro Khan 15 1 20 2UO Z 1.5awW 2oao1300 130w 130w 50w01 1.500 300 1JDOOIAO* 1, W013w 1300 Shabdadkuo 16 1 205s,00 4.W 3 30W, 3w 3003 30500 2Ow 350044300,0W 4PW3,000W3*0W 303w 3w00 Warah 20 1 16 1.m 10w 1000 1,0WID10 1.0w 10 500 500 10 SW 1s0 500 500 1sw00 10aw Tajo Dero 23 1 35 13001 30 1300130015W001*3001 1iOW 5001.01 w 5sw 1wI 1,O0 13Wl01W IOW 143W Dokri 24 1 42 2*3001OOI 30 sw01S131300 13 1,000 sw5 150W 50 1,000 13 00 1OW1)W lAO LO0 Bban Dadu 26 1 49 2,000 1300 130015131300 130 500 130 SW130 5001,000W1000 1001 3w 130w Larkana Pumped 17 1f2 54 200 1w 0 I3 W13 w1300135000 130 50 01300 1300 5W1.00010 lOW 1*30 1300 10 Seasonal Ghar 21 2 31 23w 23 2,00 235W 2W 2500 200 2.000 2,A0 2s0 S 5001,0001300*302500 135W Mehar 22 2 31 33w 330 2*3W 2,00 3*300 330 33w 1000 1*0 lOW 1,00W 10 105W I0 230 2*30W Source: Values cxtrapolated frm RiTMP kicidobservatons monthly valucs crcrlated withsurface salinity and irrigtion methods whereappropriate. Key:0 = Pdmont; 1 -Perennial 2 = Seasonal *2 Sois: * sain or saline sodic soils in top 6' Note: August & September 1989 experienced hbey rainfil. Ught rains fell in Fcbruary 1990. 7 Table V-1 Anticipatd Oumltiqy and Salikity of EMlucnt l fro R8OD 1 liii I ~~~~~~~~~~~~~TTotal Stage EMmtuent Jan Feb Mar pr May I Jun I Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Volume Volume (cusecs) 9 0 0 8 119 710 857 1.959 1.726 593 27 78 0367 Salinity (ppm) t,000 0 0 2,400 1.700 1.700 2.100 2O000 1.900 2.00& 1.000 2.400 2 Volume (cusecs) 21 0 0 11 185 1.173 1.717 3.52S 3381 1,201 165 104 0.693 Salinity (ppm) 1.200 0 0 2.100 1.700 1.800 19M0 1.900 100 1.900 1.900 2.100 3 Volume (cusecs) 25 0 0 11 193 1.249 2.182 5.103 4.530 1.558 209 104 0915 Salinity (ppm) 1.300 0 0 2.1W00 1.70 1.00 100 1.700 1.700 1I00 2000 2.100 4 Volume (cueds) 68 0 0 11 564 1.419 3.000 7.963 6.626 2.775 507 163 1.393 Salinity (ppm) 2.000 0 0 2.100 2.10D 1.700 1.900 2.100 2.100 2.200 2.100 1.7W0 Table V-9 Impact of RBOD emIndus Watcr Quality at Ioiti salinity (PPM) IJan Feb A r M Jun I Jul IA Se Oct N Dec 1.25 year low flw at Kotri E---^ing Salinity ppm 269 284 332 350 341 279 230 217 228 246 270 283 S_e I RBOD 287 284 332 369 372 317 263 249 285 366 278 382 Stag 2 RBOD 289 284 332 371 389 346 289 272 329 460 374 395 S age3 RBOD 289 284 332 371 391 350 299 286 352 497 407 395 Stag-e4 RBOD (ToWalfl 303 284 332 371 S19 3S4 330 350 450 746 585 415 1000csc to LBOD 286 284 332 350 341 302 298 334 420 598 270 283 2000csctoLBOD 286 284 332 350 341 279 265 318 389 417 270 283 1:l0year low flow at Koiri Exiting Sainity ppm 269 272 316 335 320 260 217 208 218 231 253 268 Stue I ROD 270 272 316 342 339 294 233 233 263 309 258 355 Sage 2RBOD 271 272 316 342 348 320 246 251 299 374 316 367 Stage3RBOD 272 272 316 342 350 323 251 262 318 401 336 367 Stag 4 RBOD (Toal fko 284 272 316 342 426 327 267 312 399 581 452 385 I000cacto LBOD 269 272 316 335 320 280 251 300 374 470 253 268 2000cscto tBOD 269 272 316 335 320 260 234 287 348 343 253 268 8 TABLE V-10 Potential Schemes for Reccling Pump Station DU Outfall Catchment Discharge Resultant Salinity Kharif Rabi (ha) (cusecs) (ppm) (ppm) Begari I 5 Begari Sdh 7,056 54.5 204 254 Begar II 5 Begari Sdh 3,556 27.5 202 252 BegariIII 5 Begari 3,744 28.9 204 254 Begari IV S Begari 10,325 79.7 220 270 Toj Wah 5 Toj Wah 8,963 69.2 373 319 Unar I 5 Unar Wah 20,113 155.3 309 359 Unar II 5 Unar Wah 12,319 95.1 423 472 Burdi 6 Fall Raj W 8,050 62.2 282 274 Desert I 6 Desert 21,881 169.0 345 293 Desert II 6 Desert 32,856 253.7 479 335 Frontier I 6 Frontier 5,456 42.1 220 256 Shahi 6 Desert 5,244 40.5 225 257 Ratodero 14 Warah 82,966 640.7 447 393 Sultankot 11 Khirthar 100,374 775.1 695 339 Mauladad 10 Khirthar 48,750 376.4 526 391 Mauladad 10 Khirthar 149,124 1151.5 1019 701 - Sultankot 11 Haridin 1 Khirthar 23,316 265.0 1052 641 Agani 24 Dadu i 2,725 21.0 204 257 Aqil I 24 Dadu ii 425 3.3 205 258 Aqil II 24 Dadu iii 300 2.3 205 258 Aqil m 24 Dadu iv 575 4.4 206 260 Aqil IV 24 Dadu v 400 3.1 207 261 Aqil V 24 Dadu vi 500 3.9 208 262 Karani 24 Dadu vii 4,375 33.8 214 212 Ahamani 24 Dadu viii 4,000 30.9 220 281 Dokri 24 Johi Branch 17,650 136.3 314 429 Source:RBMP Studies Note: Maimum acceptable resultant salinity= 750 ppm 9 TABLE V-11 Exiting amd Anticipated Saline Effluent Disposal from Punjab Projects Project Status Planned Ellk Destination pumpage qual: Canal Drain/ Pond Salts (af) (ppm) River (Mt) SCARP-11 Saline Unit C 501,000 750 258,000 0.26 8,100 243,000 2.68 SCARP-III Alipur Unit Salinewells C 60,000 3,110 60,000 0.25 Saline Unit C 49,000 3,200 49,000 021 SCARP-V Satiana C 60,000 3,000 16,000 44,0O 0.24 Khairwaa Unit C 53,400 2,500 53,400 0.18 Gojra Khewra Phase I C 26,000 2,368 26,000 0.08 FaisalabadCity Dr. C 23,000. 3,000 2,000 0.09 TSMB Link project C 120,000 2,760 39,000 81,000 OA5 Gojra Khewra - 11 0 37,700 2,368 37,700 0.12 DrainageIV 0 75,000 2,350 75,000 024 Shorkot KamaliaSaline 0 96,300 4,600 96,300 0.60 SCARP-VI C 493,000 21,000 493,000 14.08 SCARP VII Pandoki C 65,700 975 20,200 45,530 0.09 CBDC Remaining P 76,700 3,000 76,700 031 SCARPViII Minchinabad(SGW) C 62,000 3,000 62,000 0.25 Fordwah-Sadiqia 11 C 11,000 3,000 11,000 0.04 Eastern-Sadiqia Phase-I (Sur,Dr) 0 I Phase-U (Sub-surf;) P 500,000 4,000 500,000 2.72 a. South b. North Eastern-Sadiqia (Rem) P SCARP D.GXhan D.GXhan Saline P 181,000 1,500 181,000 037 Chashma CAD-111 P 50,000 1,000 50,000 0.07 SCARP Ihal (MuhajirBranch) Hadali Sub-unit 0 46,000 5,000 46,000 0.31 KhusbabSub-unit 0 105,000 5,000 105,000 0.71 Indus-Munda Unit P 36,000 1,500 36,000 0.07 Gn:aterThai P 220,000 1,500 100,000 120.000 0.45 Completed 1,524,100 393,200 637,900 493,000 19 OnloinE/New 1423.700 2,'700 591.000 620.000 6 Total 2.947M800 605S900 1228.900 1.113.000 25 (C) Completed (0) On-going Project (P) PlannedProject 10 Table V-12 Estimated Mixed Water Quality at Various Barrages on Indus River System Trimmu Sidhnai Panjnad Guddu Period Banrage Barrage Barrage Banrage (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppin) Apr 1 437 551 805 187 2 434 508 746 183 3 435 538 762 184 May 1 455 535 879 175 2 505 613 602 171 3 511 552 681 170 Jun 1 425 438 476 166 2 394 415 386 164 3 396 434 377 164 Jul 1 393 431 326 164 2 245 285 377 172 3 203 192 209 185 Aug 1 203 187 209 176 2 217 183 214 181 3 284 226 273 177 Sep 1 385 351 314 171 2 392 391 335 167 3 390 401 364 165 Oct 1 388 409 325 165 2 397 301 404 180 3 435 430 374 167 Nov 1 417 456 407 168 2 417 492 478 169 3 383 432 591 170 Dec 1 410 469 395 170 2 430 516 453 170 3 400 476 845 171 Jan 1 386 354 424 230 2 390 242 511 267 3 423 226 445 229 Feb 1 441 566 467 182 2 .413 436 509 167 3 432 501 772 167 Mar 1 495 128 603 169 2 388 316 1074 169 3 333 229 685 167 11 7hbb V-13 TOTAL DISSOLVED SOUDD(PN ATVAROUS SM HAIR DIN DRNNAOK 1'RIEC Sr.A, P a!oPer Miiion NO SUPNG YEARI Monod _ I I13SJan | Feb I Mar l Ar| May I JunI Jul I Aus I SaoI Oct I Nov iDec I1ib Kheani 1985 - 1S3 BDerre Mixg 1916 167 ------176 200 24B 1U8 180 19!87 21)4 200 32D 236 188 212 " 140 176 - 180 192 1968 152 242 144 ------200 1989 - - 144 152 344 272 340 344 256 280 - - 1990 268 - 204 - - - - 162 180 212 160 164 1991 448 252 368 ------Averna 248 231 236 152 290 230 276 201 203 247 176 184 2 HairDin 1986 ------4750 S060 3890 4880 - PumpSutln 1987 42341 4490 4220 - S5O 5280 2340 24D0 2760 - 3310 3570 198 840 4948 4948 - 192U * 3440 - 3240 - 6532 - 5940 1989 - S280 3082 3240 100600 - 1900 1848 2916 - - 2460 1990 3372 - 3.72 - - - - 3052 2392 2340 1600 2340 1991 - 2400 - - - 2468 ------Averue 18051 4280 3956 3240 11523 3729 2120 3058 3287 3191 3263 2862 3 CarierDrain 1987 - - - - 4160 3990 2270 2210 - - - 15160 ' RD-146 1988 11560 29500' 28390 - 15180 3400 - I - - - - 6262 1989 - 9440 2694 - 1608 1660 1660 1532 2816 3116 - - 1990 3400 - 3568 - - - - 2984 2860 2040 4280. 4380 I991 868 2760 3244 ------Average 6943 13900 9474 - 6983 3017 1965 2242 2838 2578 2140 8601 4 Carrier Drdn 1986 6400 2264 2400 - - - - 8370 - 2970 4680 2470 RD-115 1987 4380D 3640 2930 - 2520 2530 2080 2070 2670 3210 - 2470 1988 7370 2300 2400 - 14480 ------6268 1969 3016 9380 2590 - 1600 - 816 968 2080 1780 - - 1990 3380 - 12928 * 3460 - - - 3640 2140 2044 2528 2628 991 - - 3116 ------Averaw 12793 4396 4394 3460 6200 2530 1448 3762 1723 2501 3604 3459 5 CarerDrain 1985 - - - - RD-82 1986 ------8040 6600 2870 3900 - 1987 4950 S610 2920 - 2530 2520 1600 - 2630 - 3150 3380 1988 3050 12206 12240 - 2632 2792 - 2660 - 5940 - 6360 1989 2400 3564 - 2916 1400 1916 1660 1600 2068 1788 - 2452 1990 3376 - 3568 - - - - 3900 1524 1652 2668 2354 1991 6600 1280 2728 - - 2548 ------Aw. e 4075 5666 5364 2916 2187 2444 1630 4050 3206 3063 3246 3637 6 CwrierDrain 1985 ------RD-22 1986 ------4680 280 3880 4490 - 1987 43700* 4360 8040 - 6530 6330 2210 2200 3110 - 3050 3900 1968 - 4940 4948 - 8040 3052 - - - 6464 - 8440 1989 6268 3280 3020 3032 6268.- 6600 1716 - 3064 - - 1990 3380 - 3568 - - - - 2980 2396 2264 2300 2364 1991 3240 3048 2432 - - 664 ------Avera4 14147 3907 4402 3032 6946 4162 1963 3278 3468 4203 3280 4901 7 KiriarC a 1985 ------1010 960 - - - RD-142 1987 - - - - - 468 ------1968 ------3080 1724 - - - 1969 - 816 - - - - 880 860 368 - - 156 1990 706 ------1991 540s o ------_ _ Averag 624 816 - - - 468 880 1650 1017 - - 1 8 KhrtharCm 1985 - - - - 820 1075 - - - RD-214 1968 ------1704 - - - - 1969 - 780 ------Arae - 780 - - - - - 1262 1075 9 Kirtbar Caial 1985 ------936 - RD-335 1968 ------500 1820 - - - 1989 - 756 - - Aweag - 756 - - - - - 718 1820 - - - *Aceacy of obacion is doutfuL Sour:SMO 12 a at Ut U~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~m ft @9 U 5 65 LAV Al" ml am at a * p *tml as E soK is du am at 00U Os an ct owl cm mitt1 ,u m u suamKS 1 amf @0 ! 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The impactswhich are related to land and water resourceshave been treated earlier (chapter5) and the balance coveringecological, biological, social and other aspects are dealt with in this chapter. The occurrenceof these impactsand considerationof measureswhich can be taken to mitigate the adverseconsequences are intimatelyrelated to someimportant fqctors and processeswhich as an introductionhave first been brought out in the followingsection. 6.2 Factors and Processes 62.1 Assimilation of Pollutants The contaminationof drains by mainlyhuman wastes is an issue throughoutthe whole Indus waterwaysystem, whether one is consideringdrains, canals or, for large cities, in the river itself. Organic pollutants can be degraded biologically, and this process is fairly rapid regardless of the chemical conditionof the recipient water, as both aerobic and anaerobic processes can occur. However, in order to protect other interests in the quality of water, standards are set which define the worst qualityof water wbich is acceptablefor specifictypes of use. Dischargeof wastes into water representsa natural resource, since the ability to assimilateand detoxify them is a valuable property. The assimilativecapacity of drains and drainage water is therefore of some relevanceto any discussionof the contaminationof drainagewater. In the present study, two measuresof assimilativecapacity have been adopted in an attempt to estimatethe impactof organic wastes on drainagewater. The loading of waste which can be accepted by drainage water without reducing the level of dissolvedoxygen in the water below specified environmentalstandards is a routine method for calculating assimilative capacityin waste water treatment.The data obtainedfrom field studies provide an indication of the range of dilution capacitiesexisting in Pakistanidrains, and are entirely compatible with normal ranges for this variable. A second method of calculatingassimilative capacity has been used to attempt to determine the rate at which contaminants are detoxified in drainage water. This has revealed a substantialdifference from the type of resultsnormaily associated with the oxygenmodel. Tbe methodologyallows for dilutionor reductionin flows in drains due to seepageof groundwater into and from the drain, and uses a mass balance equation to compensatefor undetected dilution.Using this methodology,quite differentrates of change (both negativeand positive) 6-1 of each contaminantoccur, even in adjacent sections of the same drain on the same day. When comparedwith the rates obtained in the same sections on a second day, there is no consistencyof pattern. Even more significandy,the results indicatethat negative assinhlafon rates occur, even in the same section of a drain in which positiverates were measuredon a differentday. Whilst pbsitiverates could be accountedfor by dilutionwith relativelyuncontamin groundwater seepage into the drain, negative rates can only develop if there is seepage into the drain of groundwaterbearing an appreciableloading of the contaminant. It is concludedthat, for toxicologicalpurposes relating to the transport of heavy metals, biocide residues and the like, no clear relationship between dilution capacity and transportationpotential can be derived. There is a complexinteraction between point source dischargesor broadcast area contamination(such as the scatteringof biocidesover farm land), translocationto drainagechannels, and the subsequentdynamic exchange of the contaminated water with near-surfaceaquifers close to drainage channels. Drains cannot be regarded as purely transmission channels for pollutants, but as part of a complex system in which contaminantsare both stored in and releasedfrom groundwateraquifers in patterns which are at present completelyunpredictable. 6.2.2 SoilBiodmist Whilstthe detrimentaleffects of waterloggingand salinisationon soil chemistryand physics are widely appreciated, the biological processes - and therefore the biochemical and agronomicimplications - of the drainageof affectedsoils is less well appreciated. 'Te role of soil organisms in recyclingthe stored chemical energy in crop residues after harvesting is complex and not completelyinvestigated, but it is known that soil energy tansfer pathwaysare dramaticallyaffected by changesin the aerationof the soil (particularly by waterlogging),and by salinisation.Since some of these biochemicalprocesses are vital to effective nutrient uptake and the oxidation of crop residues in the soil, three of these procses which are of great economicimportance are considered below in relation to the impact of draining soils. Whilstthese impactsare positive, we considerthat they shouldbe more widely appreciated, and therefore includethem in this Assessment. a) Qxidative decomposition of organic residues Aerobic prmcessesrelated to decay age prevalent in well-drained land, whereas anaerobic processesmay be more importantin waterloggedland. The former involverespiration, which is an oxidativeprocess fuelled by oxygen from the air. They provide an energy-efficient transfer mechanismby whichorganic residuesmay be convertedto forms which can be made availableto subsequentplant growth in the soil. In contat, anaerobicdecay ard recycling draws on the biochemicalprocess of glycolysis. This produces far less amounts of the essentialbiochemical energy trnsmiters (adenosine triphosphate- ATP) than are producedin respiration.The ratio of ATP-productionin aerobic and anaerobicproceses is 18 to 1, although self regulatory processes may compensatefor this to some degree under conditionsof fluctting soil aeration, as fungi switch between respiration and glycolysis. 6-2 Consequendy,the effect of altering the soil oxygenationregime through drainage is the substitution of an energy-efficient transfer pathway for an inefficient pathway. The incorporation of crop residues into the soil becomes far more efficient, and there is a substantialimprovement in energy transfer to subsequentcraps. b) Effects of salinity on nitrogen-firang symbiotic bacteria Many crops and wild plants obtain part of their nitrogen requirements from a symbiotic relationship with bacteria of the genus Rhizobium, which are able to chemically fix atmosphericnitrogen as a primary source for their nitrogen requirements. Moreover, the energy efficiency of this natural biological process, which relies on catalysis by organic intermediateswithin the bacterial cells, is muchgreater than that of the Haber-Boschprocess used in the industrial manufacture of the ammonia which is widely used in fertiliser manufacture. Rhizobiumof various speciesare able to infect their hosts by establishingfunctional colonies within noduleswhich develop on the roots, a process which is fairly species-specificand is controlled by specific chemicals(lectins) similar in functionto antigens, which are secreted by the hostplants (Bauer, 1977).Some thousands of speciesof the sub-familiesPapillionacae, Mimosoideaeand Ceasalpinoideaewithin the familyLeguminosae form this association,and many are both ecologicallyand economicallyimportant in the Pakistan floodplain. TMefamily includesa number of commontrees such as the Acadiaof the riverineforests, and the vetches and clovers which are abundant as agriculturalweeds in crops and also colonise even the small banks which divide the fields. It also comprises valuable crop and fodder plants such as burseem, clovers, alfalfa and lucerne,and chickpeasand other peas and beans used for direct culinarypurposes. Many poor farmers (althoughfew richer ones) use Sesbenia as a green manure in their fields, so obtaining free nitrogen for their soil as well as a substantialyield of fodder for their livestock. Whilst neither the wild legumes nor those of agriculturalimportance may be actually killed by low soil salinities, the ability of Rhizobiumto infect the roots of many legumes is lost (LakshmiKumari and SubbaRao, 1974), and root nodulesmay becomescarce or absentlong before rising salinities exert any direct physiologicaleffect on the plants. Drainage and soil reclamationrestores this ability, and so increasesthe naturalprocesses of nitrogenharvesting which can be put to profitableuse by farmers, and which are also of benefit to naturalplant communities. The developmentof a strong Rhizobiumsymbiosis in legumes results in the fixationof 65- 335 kg/halyearof nitrogen (Alexander, 1977).For a review of research on nitrogen fixation by crop symbionts, see Subba Row, 1988). Not only does this greatly increase the productivityof the plant itself, it also has a substantialbeneficial effect on crops which may subsequentlybe grown on that soil. When leguminouscrops and fodders are harvested, some of the fixed nitrogen remains in the soil, as a componentof the root nodules. After decay of the crop residue, this nitrogenbecomes availableto subsequentcrops, so reducingthe amount of nitrogenousfertilisers required. Moreover,this fixed nitrogen is partially in the form of complexnitrogen-containing organic moleculeswhich are not easily leachedby soil water. In contrast, it is commonfor up to 80% of applied nitrogen to be lost from the soil by leachingbefore it can be used by the crops; 6-3 this can also lead to nitrogen enrichment of ground and drainage water and subsequent problems in the aquatic domain. The re-esablishment of this symbiotic relationship may therefore have important positive economic consequencesfor farmers working reclaimed soils. It can also reduce potential negative downsteam impacts if farmers reduce their use of inorganic fertilisers which are capable of contaminatingdrainage effluents. c) Ihe mycorrhyml association of fungi and forest trees Most trees are capable of forming a commensal relationship with mycorrhyzal fungi. Eualympusand Populus (both widely grown in Pakistan) are known to be capable of symbiosis with both ectomycorrhyzaland endomycorrhyzalfungi, whilst almost all trees associateon occasionswith the VAM (vesiculararbuscular mycorrhyzae). The abilityof many trees to obtain nutrientsfrom the soil is enhancedby this association.VAM have been shown to increasesulphur, phosphorusand zinc uptake in a variety of trees, includingcitrus (Gray and Gerdemann, 1969 and 1973; La Rue et al, 1975). This capability is lost when soil becomes waterlogged,and regained when it is drained. 6.3 Impacts on Biological Resources 6.3.1 Foresty (a) Riverain forests The riverainforests are situatedinside the flood protectionbunds in Sindh, and are in general not exposedto artificialdrainage. The only areas of potential impactare those in which major drains flow to the Indus across the riverain zone. In such cases, seepage may result in locally higher water tables, but this is not detrimentalto the principaltree species, which generally prefer a somewhatdamp soil. (*b) Irrigated forests Irrigated forests benefit considerablyfrom drainage, since it lowers the water table. This promotes the formation of the fungal mycorrhyzal-treeassociation described above, which facilitates the uptake of inorganicnutrients from the soil by trees. (c) Mangroves Firm informationof the impact of drainage on mangrovesis impossibleto obtain. It seems likely that the issue of the possible impactsof drainageis of secondary importancecompared withthe excessiveexploitation of the remnantmangroves for human purposes and the grazing of livestock, particularly camels. At present, the quantitiesof drainagewater that it mightbe possibleto dischargedirectly into the lower Indus appear to be insignificantcompared with the amountswhich would be needed to obtain a significant increase in the amount of water available to the remaining estuarine maifgreves.Ihe decline of the mangrove forests may be only peripherally associatedwith a reduction of the length of the season available for propagules to become establishedafter falling from the mangroves before the onset of the cool season, during which no growth 6-4 occurs. If this is the case, then a moderateincrease in estuarineflows is unlikelyto have any significant effect on their present rate of decline. For this process, it is the length of the period of flooding which is important,and this would not be affectedby modest dry season augmentationof flows. The discharge of drainage water through the LBOD is expected to have locally positive effects, but will not extend to any significantlydistant areas. Under this scenario, whilst dischargesfrom the Left Bank area would not be possible in the Indus due to the aggradedcondition of the channel,the dischargefrom the RightBank Outfall Drain to the lower Indus might have a positive overall benefit, even if the salinity of the drainage water were to reach levels at which it posed some environmentalchallenge to the lower river section ecology. 63.2 Ecology of Project Lands The diversity of the flora over almost the whole Indus Basin has already been severely reduced by human developmentand activities,especially the growth of the irrigation sector. The original extensive thorn scrub, riverine swamps and plains forests have almost disappeared;with their passing, many of the original animal species have been forced out towardsthe desertsand mountainousperipheral lands. Others more dependenton the riverain wetland have either perished or are reduced to relict populations which are severely threatened. One negative aspect of drainageon dryland flora which has been noted is that in some cases wheretubewell drainage is not properly controlled,water tableshave fallen dramatically,and land has become effectivelyoverdrained. In one part of the Central Bari Doab Canal area, the water table was reported to be extremelylow, preventingthe growth of all but the most drought-toleranttrees, such as Kikri (Acaciafarnesiana). Since the plain ecosystem is already greatly altered, the potential for further damage from drainage is extremely limited. The main impact areas are the wetlands(many of which are themselvesrelatively new and exist now only as a direct result of a lack of drainage), which now form refuges for endangeredspecies, and these are discussedbelow. 633 Deterioration of Wetlands and Effects on Aquatic Life It has often been claimed that drainage inevitably produces a severe negative impact on wetlands.This is true for individualwedands, but not quite so serious a matter on the national scale within the present developmentcontext. It is quite clear that, whilst some wetlandsdo face potential extinctionfrom drainage-inducedfalls in the water tables, there is nevertheless continualcreation of new wedands throughoutthe Indus basin which is at least in part self- compensating. On many existing irrigation schemes, the widespreadpoor maintenanceof tubewells results in waterlogging,and the consequentdevelopment or reappearanceof wetlands.New irrigation projects whichdo not have simultaneousdevelopment of drainage also have the potential to create new wetland areas, even if only temporarily. The constructionof large storage dams in the headwaterregions also createslarge new wetlands- for examplethe Mangla reservoir - although these are of a different type to the plains wetlands, and therefore offer different environmentalconditions. Constructingevaporation disposal basins for saline effluents also createsnew and potentiallyvaluable reserves for wildfowl. 6-5 Whilst the decline of an individual wetland may be a disaster to non-mobilespecies or to humans who exist by exploiting its resources, it is less so for mobWespecies such as wildfowl, which are able to move from one site to another relativelyeasily. Where there are specificimportant wetland species conservation issues, wetlandscan be preserved, evenwithin large drainage areas, at the cost of pumping water from the aquifers to top up the wetland basin as it dries out, as is done at Lungh in Sindh. The overall impacts of changes in wedands and their species is extremely difficult, if not impossible,to attributeto the actual drainageprocess. Whilstdrainage certainlycan and does reduce wildlifestocks at specificsites, there have been powerfulpressures againstthe survival of many wedand species over a long period. It is not possible to say that drainage is responsiblefor such declines, only that is it capableof augmentingthe pressuresfrom other directions.A brief assessmentof the trends in major wetland wildlifepopulations is provided below. 63.4 Wetland Wildlife The negative impacts of drainage on wildlife are exerted almost exclusively through the changes in wetlands resulting from the reduction of water tables. A comprehensive examinationof wildlife populations is not possible at this stage, but a summary of the probable impactsof drainage is provided below for the major groups of wildlife. It should not be forgotten that draining wetlands has both beneficial and detrimental effects on resources whichhumans consider useful, and on which some cultures actually depend. (a) Amphibia and reptiles The eliminationof wetlands reduces the area availablefor the breeding of amphibians,but whether this is a potentialor a real impactis debatable. Frogs are able to breed in irrigation ditches and drains almost as easily as in ponds and swamps, and the irrigated farmlands are well provided with both of the latter. However, amphibia are peculiarly susceptibleto toxic biocides, by contactabsorption from the water and by accumulationfrom their diet of small invertebrates. This suggests that there may have been significant declines in populations whereverwetlands have become scarce, reduced in size, or even eliminatedby drainage. The disappearanceof amphibiais currentlythe subject of urgent review, as it is a worldwide phenomenon, and not simply a Pakistani problem. The extension of drainage within their natural ranges could lead to very severe declines in the population of frogs. Since they are important controls of disease vectors such as mosquitoes, this loss would represent an important negative impact of drainage. There is clearly a need to recognise their role in protectinghumans from mosquito-bornediseases, and to adopt an integratedpest management control policy which provides the amphibiawith the maximumpossible protection. Amongstthe reptiEes,both the Indian Pythonand the Mugger (marsh crocodile - Crocodylus palustr) are now confined to small populationsin Sindh and Balochistan. Where their present habitatsare at risk from drainage,they will be eliminatedunless specificconservation measuresare made to either remove them to safer habitats or to protect their existingones. It is difficultto predict at present how the Mugger's favoured habitats in southernSindh may be affectedby LBODdevelopments or other changesin agriculturalactivities, and this subject merits further examination.The antipathy of the resident human populationsto crocodiles 6-6 already subjectsthe remainingsmall populations to somepressures, and carefil consideration to their future protection is urgently required. Eight species of freshwater turtles exist in Pakistan. They are found in most permanent waters, both flowing and static, and drainage of larger waters may affect some populations. Geoclem_ bamiltoniiand Hardellitbhgiii are found mainly in swamps in lower Sindh, and may be affectedby significantdrainage of waters in that region. Turtles quicldy colonisenew drainage systems - for examplethey are now common in irrigationand drainage ditches in the Central Bari Doab Canal area, even on high ground where there was previously no standingwater at all. (b) Aquatic manmals The populationsof the unique blind Indus Do!phin (PlatanistaminQor have been fragmented by the impassablebarrages, but its populationin the SindhRiver Game Reserve increased from a low of 150 in 1972 to 429 by 1986 as a result of effective conservation efforts (PakistanNational Reportto UNCED 1992). Other small and highly endangeredpopulations persist in the Taunsa Barrage Wildlife Sanctuaryand the Chasma Lake Wildlife Sanctuary. It is unlikelyto be affectedby either specificdrainage projects or by any general increasein drainage within the drainagebasin affectingits normal range. The smooth-coatedotter (Lutra perspicillata)is widelydistributed but decliningdue to habitat destruction,especially in the riverine forest areas, but it is able to enter and survive in canals and drains. The major threat from drainage is that it could'be seriously affected by any pesticide residues which may enter drainage waters and pass through the food chain. This emphasisesthe need to control biocide use as a matter of policy which is separate from the specific interests of the drainagesector itself. (c) Riverine and wedland mammals The Fishing Cat (Feis viverrina)is only found in wedandswhere there are dense reed beds, but is believed to be restrictednow to a few localitiesin Lower Sindh and perhaps in central Punjab. It is extremelyscarce, being at the western limit of its range, and could be at risk from drainage actions. Like the otter, it is threatened by biocide concentrationin the food Chain, since it is a fish eater. However, its preferred habitat is likely to be in areas of substantialpermanent wetland in which there are already strong conservationinterests for wildfowl,and any actionstaken to protect these habitatsfor such species would certainlyalso be favourablefor the protectionof this rare and attractiveanimal. The Hog Deer (AxisDorcnu is found in Sindh and Punjab, mainly in dense riverine forest close to water. Few of these areas are subjectto additionalimpact through drainage, although populationsliving in the swampy surroundsnear SandoriLake could be affected if drainage of these peripheral lands developsin the future. (d) Wetland Birds The potential impacts of drainage schemes on wildfowl and wetland birds can be both negative and positive.The balance between positiveand negativeimpacts resulting from the creation of new wetlands, especiallythe larger storage reservoirs, may well depend on the degree of solitude allowed to wildfowl at the new sites. For ezample, plans to develop tourism and recreation at these sites creates a major dilemma, since inappropriate 6-7 developmentof tourism will scare awaythe birds, thus destroyingone of the main resources attractingthe tourists. New wetlands are also created by saline evaporationponds. lbese are in operation at the Hairdin Project in the Pat Feeder commandand in the Panjnad-AbbasiaDrainage Project. These are attracting wildfowl, and populations may increase although the potential environmentalimpact on the existing nucleus wetland of the Beroon-Kirthararea may be adversely affected by changes in salinity around the evaporation ponds which have been proposed for that area. Experiencein Californiasuggests that there may be some risks to wildfowlusing evaporation basins. Under suitable soil conditions, both boron and selenium may be mobilised and accumulatein the brines causingthe death of wildfowl. There are no data availablerelating to boron and selenium mobilisation,so the risks from this process cannot be assessed at present. Persistent biocides may also become concentratedin brines, but in this area also, field data from Pakistan are unavailable. A number of wetlands may be at risk from specific drainage projects, through the lowering of water tables. These are considered individuallyin the Wildfowl section of the Baseline Studies. In general, whilst some adverse effects are almost certainly inevitable,their extent in the long term can be defined only through a comprehensivestudy of the dynamic changes in the wetland distribution. 63.5 Wildlife of the Periheral Lands Land on the periphery of existing wetlands may be agricultural, seasonally inundated waterlogged(and perhaps also saline and sodic) lands, or dry scrublandor desert. As such, they may containa diversity of flora and fauna differentto that which exists in the cultivated lands. The expansion of human activities inevitablyplaces pressures on these species. For example, many medicinal plants used in traditional healing are in short supply, and only availablefrom the relativelyuninhabited peripheral lands, such as the Thar Desert or the land to the west of the Flood ProtectionBund along the Sindh-Balochistanborder. Populationpressures increase on the peripheral lands as agriculturalland is exploited. For such lands conservationinterests need to be monitored. A second concern for these lands relates to the needs of nomadicpeoples, who may already use them for seasonal grazing. These are consideredlater under the sociological impactsof drainage. 63.6 River Fish Stocks Becausethere have alreadybeen substantialchanges in the areas of floodplainavailable to the river.fish, and a profound disturbanceof synchronicitybetween flood rise and peak spawning potential, the river fish are already under great pressure. The coincident increase in fishing pressure as the human populationexpands is also causingsevere repercussionson the stocks. The discharge of relatively low salinity drainage water to the river below Kotri was consideredduring the preparationof the RightBank MasterPlan (MMI-HTS 1991), and risks to fishery and related interests considered to be a constrainton options for the disposal of saline drainage water from the Right Bank. Consequently,plans for future developmentson 6-8 the Right Bank do not includethe option to dischargeto the Indus below Kotri. The impactof drainageschemes on the nativefish stocks is probably minimalcompared with preses which are presented from other directions.Major carps, especiallythe young fry, are extremely sensitive to salinity, and the maximumpermissible level of salinity for these species should be considered to be around lOOOmgfl.Since this level in the Indus, at least above Kotri, would be unacceptablefor agricultura reasons, it is unlikely that there is any significantthreat to these species. In the Miro Khan Drain, salinities may exceed this level regularly, but the major carp are either absentor extremelyscarce, and drainagewater is not consideredto present any real threat to these fish. The possibilitythat the dicharge of drainage waters to the rivers has caused, or is capable of causing, significantdamage to the river fisheriesin the future, appears to be comparatively small. Certainly any such damage is highly unlikely to be discernible from, or attributable to, this specific cause. Even if damage were to be caused, it would be masked by the far greater impactson the fish stocks caused by the progressivedisturbance to the river regime through past and present abstractionactivities within the irrigation sector. Similarly, in the Indus downstreamof Kotri, the changesachieved in the river regime over the past half century have already altered the fish stocks substantially. Palla (Tenualosa (=HilsaWilisha) have been almost eliminatedfrom all but the lower reaches of the Indus, although a large fishery has been reported to have developedoffshore in recent years. 6.3.7 Fish Stocks in Non-riverine Permanent Inland Waters A potential threat to fish stocks would have been an earlier proposal to store or route saline drainagefrom the Right Bank area in or through MancharLake for subsequentdischarge at Kotri during high flows in the Indus. However, environmentalissues were incorporatedinto the developmentwork for the RBMP from an early stage, and the consequentthreat to the integrity of the Manchar Lake habitats and to its future fishery potential was judged unacceptable. As a result, this option was discarded, and the negative impacts of such a course avoided (MMPIHTS, 1991) The possibilityof using Hamal Lake in a similar way was also examined. In this case, the temporary storage of moderately saline effluent from the Miro Khan drain offers some prospects for environmentalmanagement (by controllingthe spread of the salt-intolerant Iyvba beds) These might be reduced by allowingsalinity to increase locally to around 2- 3000mg/l,which is tolerable to PhMamitesand Juncus- plants which form much less dense stands than the present pure stand of lyp_ia. Many wildfowlprefer slightlysaline lakes, since these areas tend to be highly productiveof the insects on which they depend for food. The fishery interests of Hamal Lake were viewed as secondary, since the fish stocks are mainly species which are tolerant of sligbtlysaline water, and the major carps, which are sensitiveto salinitiesabove around 1000 mg/I, do not normally enter Hamal. Elsewhere, the possibilityexists that specificdrainage projects have affected, and will in the future affect, fish stocks which exist in permanentwater bodies which will dry out if the water table is lowered. In such cases, if these fish stocks are relativelysmall then it is highly unlikely that they will be preserved if the potential agricultural benefits from instling drainage exceedthe losses in the fishery. 6-9 6.4 Impacts on Cultural Properties 6.4.1 Sub-surface Properties (a) Archaeological sites Physical properties include those archaeological remains which have become buried in the ground. The value of drainage in this field is extremely well illustrated by the problems facing the preservationand protection of the ancient city of Moenjodaro in Sindh. The city first came into existence in pre-Harappantimes, probably about 5000 years ago. But by the time that the Aryans arrived in their main migration wave about 3400 years ago, the city was already in decline. The principal cause is believed to have been a rise in the elevation of the lower Indus throngh geologicalaction. This resulted in increased backing up of the floods and overtoppingof the natural floodbanks,causing flooding of the city only 5km from the main Indus channel. The fact that ancient brickworkwas encounteredat depthsof over 20m below present ground level during test drilling in 1966 indicates that there was a very high rate of silt deposition at Moenjodaro during the years from its foundation to its final decline, reinforcing the suggestion that the depositionof silt in the lower Indus valley may have been influenced by recent geological changes. When excavations began in 1922 the water table was 7.5 m below the surface,, but with increased irrigation over the past half century or so the water table rose to 1.5m. Although the Indus channel is close to the site, and recharg6sthe aquifer during floods, a second major source of the excessive groundwaterrecharge has been the Dadu Canal, which flanks the site to the west and contributesto the aquifer throughout the dry season. As a result of the high water table, secondary salinisationdeveloped in the site, causing very severe damage to the stability of the baked mud bricks which are the principal structural materials in the site. The pre-Harappansite which is believed to underlie the main ruins may be severely damaged, and may even be lost. At Moenjodaro, the water table has been lowered by tubewells, in an attempt to prevent further deterioration, illustratingthe value of drainage in preserving ancient archaeological remains and sites. In the arid soils of the floodplain not subject to flooding, archaeological remains may last for very long periods without deterioration,but as soon as soon as moisture permeates, corrosion of metals and disintegrationof clay-basedproducts commences. When salinisationof the soil develops, or saline groundwateris brought close to the surface, oxidative corrosionof metal artifacts may proceed very rapidly, especially where a fluctuating water table allows periodic exposure to saline water and to air. Clearly, any such sites in areas which have become waterlogged are at serious hazard and should be protected by drainage, in order to lower the water table to a level at which damage is minimised. It is of course also very difficult to retrieve artifacts by excavation in waterlogged soils. Drainage of these sites is a primary requirement. Loweringthe watertable by tubewells allows in-situ removal of salts from the saturated bricks below the surface, where they lie buried. Attempting to leach archaeological remains after they are exposed causes very severe and 6-10 immediatedamage through salt crystallisationand the destructionof the mud plaster between the bricks. However, drainage of such sites, as has been found at Moenjodaro,needs to be carried out extremly carefully. Because there is such a high water content in the soils before drainage commences,uneven settlement rates across a site cannot be excluded, and depressingthe water table needs to be carried out under an intensivemonitoring programme. (b) Graveyards A parallel problem exists regarding old and modern graveyards, which have always been situated in dry soils. Whist the need to avoid routing irrigation drains through old and modern graveyardsis now a recognisedrequirement, the effect of rising water tables on the accessibilityof modern burial sites for continueduse, as well as on the integrityof older sites, may present extremelydifficult problems,since burial in waterloggedsoil is unacceptable. Drainage is the only way to avoid or mitigatethis problem. Moreover, the regard in which ancient as well as modern graveyardsare held also makes the developmentof waterlogging in such sites a major sociologicaland psychologicalproblem for communities,and one which shouldbe avoided wherever possible. 6.4.2 Surface Sites The damage which waterloggingand salinisation can do to the remains of sub-surface buildingsis paralleledby that caused to more modernbuildings, both old and new. When the water table rises to a level at which capillaryaction can causegroundwater to enter the lower courses of brickwork, dampness and salinisation in the lower parts of buildings results in severe and widespread damage. Since impermeabledampcourses are virtually unknown in Pakistan, this problem is widespreadthroughout the Indus irrigated commands,and affects many of the most famous and valuable ancientmonuments, as well as modern houses. This Study does not attempt to locate all known sites of archaeological importance, graveyards old and new, or ancient monuments,temples and other religious and secular buildingswhich are at risk from high watertables.The purpose of this section is to indicate and record the positive value of drainage,whether directed primarily at such protection or as an incidentalbenefit of drainagecarried out U_;agricultural purposes. 6.S Impacts on Health Field data on health impactsof drainageare extremelyscarce. Jobin providedan assessment of potential health impacts,for the Bolan Dam in UaIochistan.From this and our own field work, it is clear that the anticipatedpositive benefits to health after drainagemust be viewed as potenial rather than real. 6.5.1 Sanittion The lack of any adequatelycontrolled field trials in this area prevents any clear analysis, and it is ineviable that a number of environmentalfactors are involved in the regulation of diarrboealand related diseases. 6-11 Drainage should materially contributeto improvedsanitation and a consequent reductionin diarrhoeal diseases. However, at present this must be regarded only as a potent:al benefit which in practice may not be realised. The increase in agriculturalemployment after drainage is real, as recorded in field investigations.It promotes an expansion of agricultural labour, and this is associatedwith the amount of promiscuousdefecation in the fields, and especially along drain banks, which offer some degree of privacy. The realisation-ofany potentialbenefits in this area is governed mote by health educationand the provision of better sanitationthan by a lowering of the watertable. In practical terms, there seems little probabilityof any significantgeneral reduction of exposure to infection when the provisiunof such sanitation is omitted in land drainage and reclamationprojects. 6.5.2 Vector Borne Diseases Drainage is capableof reducingthe numbersof vector breeding sites or contaminatedsurface water sites. But if the regular cleaningof drainage channelsis neglected, or if rice cultivation is expanded even over part of the reclaimed area, then the potential reductionof breeding sites, etc, may well not occur. (a) Malaria In malarial areas, the prevalence of the disease may be extremely high, and reflect the indigenousimmunity levels rather than the actual exposure risk. Where the prevalence of infection is at saturation level, then most mosquito attacks may be irrelevant, 'becausethe population already exhibits the maximumpossible prevalence. Under such circumstances, malarial prevalence will only decrease when exposure falls below that needed to maintain saturation. In other words, reducing the number of breeding sites may not have any actual effect until they becomethe limiting factor on infectiouscontact rates. It is importantto realise that, if all other factors are kept constant, the opportunityfor attack by disease-bearing mosquitoes actually increases after drainage, because the population increasesas agriculturalpotential grows. Since it only takes a single infected injectionfrnm a mosquito to pass on these parasitic diseases, and people coming into the area may have lower resistancethan those who are resident, there is a real risk that prevalence will increase, even if some mosquitohabitats are destroyedby drainage. In some areas of the Central Bari Doab Canal Project, higher ground areas which were previously virtually free of malaria were supplied simultaneouslywith both irrigation and drainage systems. If drainageis in itself effectivein reducing malaria in irrigated areas, there should have been at most a small increase in malaria prevalence. In fact, malaria became extremely severe, almost certainly because some areas of the land were used for rice cultivation. In the Sheikhupuraarea of SCARPI, access to health services is ceportedto be limitedto a small local dispensary operated for commercial profit by business entrepreneurs with no medical training. OfficialGovernment reports show a steady increase in Rural Health Units and Dispensaries, but fail to indicate whether these are accessible to small villages, or how wel! trained are the staff. Health planning and support has not been incorporated into any major drainage projects, and it is quite likely that the potential benefits to health from land reclamationmay in fact be elusive. 6-12 It is therefore concludedthat drainage can have a beneficialimpact on malarial and similar diseasesprovided it is accompaniedby a comprehensivedisease control programmeand steps are taken to reduce mosquitohabitats and contactopportunities. However, in most cases this potential benefit is not realised, because the developmentof drainage is never co-ordinated with an integral programmeof disease managementand health education. gb) CutaneousLeshmaniasls Althoughnot a major problem at present, there are locationsat whichcutaneous leishmaniasis ('oriental sore' - a disfiguringfacial ulcerationcaused by a blood parasite carried by biting sandflies) may increaseafter drainage(Jobin suggeststhe Bolan Project in Baluchistanas an example).The change from permanentlysoaked or flooded land to permanentlydamp land favoursthe developmentof sandfly larvae;the possibilitythat immigrationof infectedpeople from outside could introducethis diseasecannot be discounted. 6.53 Other Water-related Parasitic Diseases The absenceof bilharzia in Pakistanis anomalous;bilharzia has been endemic in the Tigris- Euphrates basin for centuries, an area with a very similar climate. The relative rarity of filariasis is also a matter for which complacencyis inappropriate.The present states of both diseases in Pakistan may be related to the relatively low water temperature of the Indus system, which limits the colonisationof the primary river system by their vectors. However, the recent increase in temperatures worldwide may result in the warmer drainage water systems of the irrigated areas exceedingthe threshold for survival of the vectors of these diseases (obin W. pers.comm. September 1992). Increased human mobility presents an increasedrisk that the parasites themselveswill be releasedto the drainagesystem, and there is a possibilitythat recognised or even unrecognisedvectors may complete the cycle of infection,resulting in enhancedrisks in the future. Bulinus(the water snail which is the bilharzia vector) has relatively poor mobilitv, but the blackflieswhich are responsiblefor filarial infectionsmay well extendtheir rangesas climates warm up in future. The latter require fast-flowingwater, and suitablesites are not common in the Indus Plain, being mostly restricted to the splash zones of pumping stations and regulators. It is recommendedthat the WHO ConsultingGroup on WaterborneDisease Vectorsbe asked to assessthe risks posed by environmentalchanges as an essentialguide to managinghealth risks in the drainage sector in the future. 6.S.4 Anaemia Human anaemia may be the result of inadequatediet, and this is clearly a factor which will be gready improved by drainage of the land. However, with the inevitable increase of occupancyof (and labour on) the land, the frequencyof contaminationof land by hookworm ('Guinea worm) will increase, and infestation rates, especially of children, will rise. Consequentlyparasitic anaemia prevalence, especially in youdg children, will increase. Althoughthis is not strictly a water-relateddisease, it is includedhere because it is a little- appreciatedrisk attendanton an increasein rural populationdensity, which is a direct effect of drainage. 6-13 6SS UvestockDiseas The principal diseases of livestock are viral infections(VHS) in cattle, foot and mouth disease, and a wide range of helminth(worm) infestations, some of which are zoonoses (disees transmissiblefrom animalsto man). However, the main factor affecting livestock health in most of Pakistan is the poor quality of their diet, especially on damaged land. Drainage should improve livestockfodder availability,because the agriculturalproductivity should increase, but the relationshipbetween drainage and livestockhealth is dependenton other factors, which may well cause a decrease in animalhealth if they are not mitigated. Large numbers of sheep and goats already are infectedby the trematode fluke Fascioglosis giSjag, which is carried by the freshwatersnail Indgoanorbisin lowlandsites in Pakistan. The reclamationof non-salinewaterlogged land by drainage will increasethe frequency of their habitat, since they prefer permanently flowing water such as is provided by both irrigation and drainage channels. It will also result in an increase in the numbers of their livestockhosts present, since the population of man, and therefore of his livestock, will increase. In saline areas, the parasitewill slowly colonise these new areas, mainly brought in by nomadic flocks or animals being driven to the markets, avd after a few years the frequencyof infestation,and thereforethe magnitudeof the economiclosses resulting from infestation,will rise to similar levels as those in drained areas which were previously non- saline. Jobin estimates that the prevalence of infestation in Baluchistan is around 20%, and the economicloss in the Bolan Dam area alone was of the order of Rs. 200,000 per year (1988 prices). To some extent, the damagecan be reduced by improved diet, but any significant increase in infestation, even in a healthy flock, must represent a substantial loss in profitability. The possibilityof increased prevalenceof other livestock diseases, and the risk of sudden epidemics, must also be considered. With a rise in mobility to and from the improved reclaimedlands, risks of the spread of infectiouslivestock diseases such as anthrax, bovine diarrhoea, rinderpest, etc, as well as parasitic infestationssuch as tlukes, nematode worms, mange or ticks must be greater. 6.5.6 Quantitative Assessmentof Potential Health Risks The only detailed and systematicattempt to predict the probable medical impacts of water- related developmentsuch as those under considerationby this Assessmentfor Pakistan was made by Jobin (1989). Tbis relatedto the assessmentof the probableeffects of a number of options for the devdopment of irrigation associated with the reconstructionof the Bolan Dam in Baluchistan.Although this is not in itself a drainage-relatedprojection, referenceto Jobin's paper is relevant here because the Bolan Project was designedto expand irrigation, and this is of course also one of :he objectivesof drainage. Using his methodologyit is possibleto deduce how changingan area presently affectedby waterlogging (and perhaps also by salination) to one in which large-scale irrigation is eventually reinstated is likely to change the patterns of human and livestock health in that area Althoughwe are coming from the other direction, as it were, - from waterlogginginstead of seasonalarid land agriculture- the final physical environmentwill be the same, and therefore 6-14 the eventualhealth situationis likldyto be very similar. An estimate of the magnitudeof potetial impacts,.on a scale of zero to ten (maximum impact), from drainage (A) waterloggedareas and (B) waterogged and saline areas, based on the work of Jobin, is presented in Table 6.1. This is based on the assumptionthat the magnitudeof health impactsin (B) would be slighty greater than, but in the same direction as in (A). Jobin includes 'herders' and 'uplanders' in his analysis; whilst such groups may be insignificantin many drainage project areas, they have been retained here since they are present in some parts of the country. As brought out in Table 6.1, the overall health impacts from introducing drainage are therefore significantlynegative, and require appropriate attention from the health sector if drainage is not to result in a substantialnet decline in health in the drained areas. The only positiveimpacts relate to Anemia, local health operationcoverage and livestocknutrition. 6.6 Socio-cultural impacts of drainage Sociologicalstudies carried out for the major agriculturaldrainage project of LBOD brings out that improved drainage will have no impact on human behaviour, social structure or on the relationshipsbetween landlords and share-croppers..With regard to incomes, landlords were expected to benefit most as either more land is brought into production or the productivityof existing land improves. On the other hand sharecropperswere likely to benefitto a limitedextent. Thus the differentialsbetween landlords and sharecropperswere, of anything, likely to increase.The same consequences,can be expectedfrom other drainage projects as the socio-economicconditions in the country are not characterisedby a great diversity. In short social impacts of improved drainagemay be summarisedas follows: - substantialbenefit to landlords - limited incomebenefit to share-roppers whose holding size increases - negative impact on women's work load and status in poorer households - reduced out-migrationwhere new holdingsare establishedon reclaimedland: it is most likely that previous wage labourers or share-cropperssons will become new share-croppers - indirect benefits through promoting non-farm employment in related agro-industries. Basedon the LBOD studyit can be concludedthat there will be few health benefitsas a result of improveddrainage as health improvementsare relatedlargely to better education,and by householdincome levels. 6-15 TABLE 6.1 Projected impacts on hunan and animal health from draining waterloggedareas (A) and waterlogged and saline areas (B) Impacts Magnitude Associatedfactors. of change A B Mawaria Farners -3 -4 Populationgrowth Herders -3 4 Increased vector habitats Uplanders 0 0 Increased irrigation intensity Project labour -4 -4 Diarrhoealdiseases Farmers 4 -6 Populationgrowth Herders -8 -8 Increased unprotectedwater Uplanders -4 -4 sources; Increasedaccess of Project labour -4 4 cholera carriers: Lowered immunity to diarrhoeal infection. CutaneousLeishmaniasis Farmers -3 -5 More vector habitats Herders -2 -4 More human and animalreservoirs Uplanders 0 0 Reduced immunity Project labour -4 4 Viral diseases -5 -6 Increased mobilityof hosts Anaemia Malnutrition + 8 +-10 Improvedfood production Hookworm -4 -6 Increased land contamination Access to GovernmentHealth Care system Local -2 -4 Physicalimprovement in access Provincial 0 -1 Health Operationscoverage. Local 0 +2 Little change under past management,but may be improving slowly as a result of nationaldevelopment priorities. Livestockhealth Diseases -3 -6 Increased snail habitats Nutrition +5 +8 Better feedstuffavailability Health care 0 0 Access to veterinary services TOTALS -46 -47 6-16 6.6.1 Direct Effects of Physical Development Socio-cultural impacts may occur when the installation of a drainage system intrudes or disrupts the physical and social operation of communities, as for example when a local religious site is separated by a large drainage channel from the community which it is designed to serve. On a smaller scale, the isolation of farm plots by linear drainage channels without adequate provision for regaining access by the farmer represents a severe problem at the family level. Severing of a dependable surface water source may result in extra work for women, many of whom prefer thcse to tubewell sources for washing clothes. In general, such problems are well recognised at the project level. As such, they are inappropriateto Sectoral Assessment, except in so far as it is worth emphasisingthe need to examine sociological matters sympatheticallyin any ElAs carried out during the planning of projects. A social problem associatedwith drainage schemes which is rather difficult to classify is the disproportionateeffect of belated drainage on different rural landowner classes. When land becomes waterlogged,the smaller landownershave less ability to continue farming, and may be forced to sell their land at very low prices, generally to larger landowners who are more able to invest in this cheap land. When drainage is eventually installed, the value of the land is regained, providing a profitable investmentfor the more astute wealthy landowners. Whilst this practice may not be universal, the possible consequencesof polarising the landowningsector should be borne in mind when planning irrigation schemeswithout appropriately-timeddrainage components. There have been instances of opportunistic purchases of land whose value had declined rapidly after the failure of the drainage system, caused by apparentlyunrelated theft of power wires. In these cases, the new owr ers establishedcommercial businesses on their new lands, despite the expected advantagesof setting them up in tax concessionzones closer to the city. The lack of effective rural planning control and check on industrial effluent discharge provides substantial opportunity for the manipulation of land values by unscrupulous entrepreneurs, and the drainage sector is peculiarly vulnerable in this respect. 6.6.2 Social Constraints on Potential Benefits Whilst there appear to be numerousbenefits availableto the agriculturalcommunity (and also to the non-agriculturalservices in rural areas) from the installationof effective drainage, crop yields generally remain disappointinglylow. This is true even for many larger landowners, who are wealthy enough to buy in expertise to increase their productivity. This suggests that some other factor is operating to maintain the existing status quo. If the productivityof rice or cereal crops, or indeed, several other cash crops, were to be increased significantly, then it is unlikely that this would result in a marked drop in their prices, since they are traded internationally and demand is strong. So the net income from such crops would be higher. If this did occur, then under the existing land c.:ltivation system prevalent in the Indus Basin, dependentsharecroppers would also be better off, and might be expected to repay some or even all of their debts to landowners. 6-17 Tbe relationship between landowners and sharecroppers is founded on debt, and the preservationof an adequatelevel of indebtednessis regarded as desirableby the landowning dass, since it maintains the dependenceof the sharecroppers on them. The LBOD Study suggestedthat the level of indebtednessis strongly reated to the availabilityof credit - in other words, no matter how much a hari families' income improves, it will still borrow as much as it can. But indebtednessis not merelyfinancial, it also includes social indebtedness, and the LWODStudy did not clarify how their respondents' concepts of debt related to financialdebt alone. Whilst we cannot attribute with confidence the failure of the large landowners to take maximum advantage of agricultural expertise to this hypothesis, we consider that the importance of the social element in this area is more significantthan has previously been suggested.The financial value of crops at the markets is not the only benefit which large landowners derive from their holding of land, and it appears that standard agricultural economicevaluations fail to include the hidden socio-culturalvalues of land ownership in their assessmentsof project benefits as perceived by the beneficiariesof different classes. 6.63 Polarisation of Benefits Within the Working Classes In theory at least, the restorationof crop productionshould offer the opportunityof providing general benefits to the whole local economy. Tbe stimulationof the economic base of the village mightbe expectedto increasethe availabilityof non-agriculturalwage labourjobs, and with it provide more employmentopportunity to the landlesslabourers. But intrinsic social constraintsmay well decrease,divert or even abolishthese potentialbenefits, at least to some minorities and groups. The LBOD Study identifiedeight socio-economicfactors which operate at the village level tD produce a disparity in the distribution of benefits arising from the reclamation of waterloggedand saline agriculturalland. These are listed below: (a) Lack of access to marketsand employment. (b) Lack of investmentin agriculture. (c) The sharecroppingrelationship. (d) Lack of cooperationwithin the community. (e) Absenceof influenceat the village level. (f) Educationand health awareness. (g) Low status of women. (h) Indebtedness. The LBOD study consideredthese to be of extreme importance,since they govern the way in which all impactedfamilies are affectedby engineeringdevelopments which, in theory at least, should provide equitable benefits to all. As such, they have a profound effect on the environmental and socio-economic assessment of a development, as they result in a polarisationof benefits - in practice, most benefits are pre-emptedby powerful minoritiesat the expense of the weak. Since this polaisation itself represent a major sociologicalchange, its recognition as a fact of developmentin Pakistan must be taken into accountin all detailed assessmentswhich may be required in the future. The shortageof skldledsociologists able to make these asessment has implicationsfor the revision of Institutionalfacilities and in the training of staff in the future. 6-18 6.6.4 Farner and Community Groups The themes of conmmunitymobiisation, formationof self-help groups and so on have been often repeated in many a proposal document. Yet in Pakistan there have been almost no successes in implementation, and possibly only one: the Agba Khan Rural Support Programmein North-WestFrontier Province. This success is explainedlargely by the social structure and religious base of the localcommunities involved, whichare not typical of much of Pakistan. Anthropologistsclaim that in mnostof Pakistan people are by nature uncooperative, individualisticand status seeking at the expenseof others. For example,credit cooperatives proved disastrouswith loans going only to the most influentialand in any case a high level of defaultingon repaymentsoccurred. Under OFWM,WUAs were formed in theory for several purposesbut in practicethey were formed by leading farmers with the sole objective of obtaining the material benefits of watercourselining. In many cases in Punjaband Sindhit was found that smallerfarmers and share croppers did not even know that they were members of WUAs (see for example Nayman, 1988).Large landlords(Zamindar) dominate in many areas. They may coercetheir sharecroppers (Hans) into "participation' or providing free labour if this is seen as advantageousbut clearly this is not the same as voluntary cooperation. 6.6.5 Women in Farming Communities The greatest potential for forming effectivelocal groups might well exist amongst women, but mainly for non-farm productivepurposes. The RBMP (Vol 8, 1991) found that in the sample of watercoursesstudied, womenconstituted 43% of all familyworkers in agriculture and 76% of those working part time. Many spent up to 4 hours per day specificallydealing with livestock,cutting and preparingfodder. These tasks are of courseadditional to domestic or householdwork which includes collectingwater. Overall, women in poorer households spend substantiallymore time workingthan men. The Left Bank Outfall Drain SociologicalStudies (LBODVol 3, 1991) noted that a woman working in agricultureis generallyperceived as an indicationof poverty and hence low social status of the household. Money earned as wage labour in agriculturewas not consideredto belongto the women who earned it but to the male head of the household. Women in richer farminghouseholds do not normallyundertake agricultural work. However, womenmay gain status through employmentin non-farmactivities. Where land is scarce and holdingshave become smaller, such as due to waterloggingand salinity, there is less agricutual work availableand women are more likelyto seek non-farm employment. A potentialconsequence of improveddrainage is that although more land may be cultivated and hence household incomes may rise, women are likely to work more rather than less in agriculture. In poorer householdsthey would work harder overall but would not benefit directly from the income and their status would decline. It is because of this that potential may exist for formingeffective women's groups aimedultimately at enablingthem to produce saleablecommodities off the farm. Women are therefore likely to benefit most from education. Appropriate education and technicaltraining would enablethem to seek non-farmjobs which would improveboth their incomesand their status. Health educationwould also be of great benefit, especiallyin the 6-19 contextof understandingthe importanceof usingclean, unpollutedwater. The LBODstudies indicate that many poor families spend a high proportion of their income on medicine. Meanwhilericher householdsare less prone to illness due to better sanitation, educationand accessto suitablepotable water sources. In general,the existenceof local educationalfacilities dependsto a large extent on the interestand generosity of the rich landlords. 6.6.6 Nomadic Groups Whilst most social groups, both in the agriculturalsector itself and in the associatedrural service occupations, can be expected to benefit in some way from the reclamation of degraded lands, in a few areas such lands are used by nomadicgroups for seasonal r-azing, taking what poor productionis availablefrom relativelypoor growths of grasses and bushes which develop after rainfall or hill torrent flushes, as for example, in the area to the north and west of the Miro Khan Drain and Hamal Lake. Jobin refers to similar uses in Balochistan,and nomadicinterests may be locallysignificant in Balochistanand NWFP. The seasonal appearanceof flocks kept by nomadicgroups at Sukker has also been recorded. Reclamationof these lands removes access to these resources, and under the World Bank OperationsDirective, any such infringementautomatically places ctevelopmentsin Category A, for which a full EIA is mandatory. 6.7 Mitigation of Negative Impacts 6.7.1 Organic Pollution There is a need to design a long-termprogramme of primary data collection- probablyof the order of at least five years at carefully selectedsites - whichwould be used to investigatethis aspect of surface water contamination.The responsibilityfor this monitoringshould be borne by the Irrigation Department (overall quality of the water which it is supplying to its customers) and by industrial and municipalorganisations (compliance with standards set to regulate their waste discharges). The storage of toxins in groundwater, and their subsequent release to the environment through tubewell irrigation, abstraction of drinking water, or undetected seepage back to drains at a later date, presents some risk to public health, conservationand other related interests. The use of oxygen dilution capacity calculationsfor the disposal of high BOD and similar wastes is clearly unsatisfactory. The anomalous changes in the mass balances of non- degradabletoxins recorded during work on the assimilativecapacity of drains indicatesthat the process of dilution alone is incapable of providing adequate guidance on the pollution load-bearingcapacity of drains. This problem needsto be resolved by undertakinga properly formulatedresearch programme,which will examinethe dynamicsof the interchangebetween drains and aquifers and the risks of recycling toxic components of industrial waste waters through tubewell abstractionfrom contaminatedaquifers. Data from these studies would be incorporated into the major solute transport model if persistent toxins are discovered to present significantpotential for transmissionthrough the Indus System. 6.7.2 Soil Salinity There is a clear need to strengthenthe agriculturalextension service, in order to help farmers avoid practices which promote the developmentof sodicity, and to obtain the best returns 6-20 from their land once ameliorativetechniques have been applied. Unforamately,the response to questions in the field regarding the effectivenessof this service has been uniformly depressing. As a general comment, agricultural extension is widely reported extremely deficient. Indeed, in SCARP-1farmers report that the only interest of extension workers appearedto be the promotionof a few brands of biocidefor use on rice crops - no training in their applicationwas offered, and no monitoringof the results of their use carried out. There is little point in reclaiming land, often at substantial cost, if that land is not subsequentlyput to optimaluse. In general, farm productivity,especially amongst the poorer farmers, is already depressinglylow, and only a very large effort in extension and training will improve productivity, even on the better soils. A thorough review of the agricultural extensionservice is imperative,with the objective of replacingthe existingsystem with one able to provide an effectivesupport and developmentservice. This shouldbe seen as a matter of the utmost urgency - the present rate of increase of the populationwill demand a parallel increase of around 50% in basic productivitywithin the next ten years, and it will take at least that long for any effectivenew systemto becomefirmly established. 6.7.3 The Future Value of Water in the Indus Estuary Discussionof this subject may appear inappropriate,since we have already suggestedthat no adverse impact is expected. However, an EIA only representsan assessmentof the current and foreseeable future situation. Given the present degraded state of the lower riverine ecologicalresources, there may well come a time when it will be necessaryto review the value of protecting some at the expenseof others, or even of attemptingto reinstate them. The mangroves and their associatedestuarine resources are already under severe pressure; clearly, the present and future valuesof these resourceswill continueto change, as also will those of the lower riverine resources. An acceptableresolution of the conflict of interests which exists today may well be differentto that whichwould be appropriateat some time in the future. Indeed, it may be the case that the residual value of the riverine resources is alreadyso low that the interestsof the estuarineresources should receivehigher priority than those of the riverine zone; but the reverse may also be the case. A full assessment of the ecologicaland economicstates and values of all the lower riverine and estuarine resources is essentialif any sort of rational managementstrategy is to be adopted for the future. Such conflicts of interest, whilst central to the planningof future drainage strategies at the national level, are incapableof resolutionat present. WVhatthis Sectoral Assessmentcan do is to identifythe issues, and indicatehow they may be resolved in order to aid Governmental decision-makersto incorporateappropriate strategies and methodologiesinto the management of drainage in the future. It is therefore recommendedthat a detailed ecologicalassessment should be made, involving multi-sectoralanalysis of the stability, economicand physicalvalues of the mangroveforests in the potential target areas as they exist now, of the riverine resources which might be adversely affected by adopting saline drainage water for promoting regeneration of the mangrovesor any other resource managementoption, and of the trends and rates of change in each resource under present and future development scenarios. This would enable a judgemnentto be made regardingwhether drainage water may have a positiveresource value, and if so what actions may need to be taken to utilise it. 6-21 6.7.4 Wetland Ecosystems The dynamic nature of the Indus wetlands demands that an effective National Wetlands Management Plan be adopted, in order to ensure that endangeredhabitats are registered, monitored and managed according to the overall requirements of the wetland species. This requires that a detailed Wetland Survey first be carried out, in order to define the resources presently available, and identify incipient or future changes likely to occur as a result of current trends and anticipated projects in the future. Where the loss of a significant wetland is threatened, the possibilityof augmentingthe water supply locally to maintain at least part shouid be a considered as a primary option. Mobile species which are displaced should be monitoredto establish which alternative wetland they prefer, so that the managementof the new habitat can be tailored to the new situation. Important non-mobilespecies shouldbe protected by appropriate habitat management, or if this is not feasible, by transferring them to locationswhere they can be adequatelyprotected. 6.7.5 Wildlife in Peripheral and Project Lands A major constraint on the survival of animals inhabitingthe peripheral lands, and especially on project lands where they may become surrounded by new developments, is their ability to travel between different parts of their home ranges. The identificationof the preferred habitats and corridors by which they travel from one point to another, and the removal of obstructionsand hazards in these corridors, can remove substantialbarriers to some species. The provision of wildlife dispersion corridors should be an integral part of all wildlife management strategies. Whilst fish passes are widely understood in this context (although those present on the Indus complex - for example at Kotri and Balloki - are totally ineffective), the need of all mobile species for clear dispersal and migration routes seems poorly appreciated. 6.7.6 Rare and Protected Spedes lhe NCS needs to be provided with the same powers presently demanded by the EPAs. A 'Red List' of species and sites of nationalimportance shouldbe compiledand maintained, and all activities which affect these should be first vetted by a technical committee, before any potentially damaging activities by any sector can be commenced. In terms of conservation interests, it is clearly necessary that all drainage programmes should be referred to the appropriate authorities from the start. The WAPDA EnvironmentalCell should be allocated a permanent member on such a vetting committee, since its activitiesoffer great potential for the benefit of conservation interests in Pakistan. 6.7.7. Fush of Peanent Non-riverine Wetlands The possibilityof replacing lost sources of fish by fish farming exists, but the likelihood of success in this field is debatable. In Punjabthere is an excellentdeveloping aquaculture sector which is capable of supporting such new industry, whereas in Sindh the likelihood of generatingequivalent support is virtually absent under present management.It should also be remembered that pond culture raises the water table locally - widespread adoption of such practices may conflict with the agriculturalobjective of lowering it. Moreover, aquaculture 6-22 always concentaes on producing higb-value species, for entirely appropriate financial reasons. It therefore polarises the availabilityof fish, to the detriment of the poorer classes of society. Its value in mnitigatingnegative impactson fisheries is therefore ambivalent. 6.7.8 Nomadic Groups The areas at risk, at least as far as nomadicpeoples are concerned, are geneially on the outskirts of the irrigated plains. Further out, the terrain tends to be vry poor tropical scrub land or desert. We thereforesuggest that it may be technicallyfeasible to run drainagewater over such areas on an annual or twice-annualbasis, even if it bears relativelyhigh loads of salt. The objective would be to provide enough water to saturate the surface sufficiently to encouragea short growth of salt-tolerantgrasses and rushes which could be used for grazing purposes. Such a treatmentneed not add significantamounts of salt to the groundwater,and appears to provide a possible mechanismfor mitigationwhilst using a resource which is presently seen as a disposalproblem. Whilstthe economicreturns from such action,if it is successful,may not be attractive,in this class of activitycost is excludedas a determiningfactor. Where such problemsmay develop, a technicalfeasibility studyfor a pilot project shouldbe conmmissioned. 6.8 Relaation of Constraints 6.8.1 Toxin Transport and Water Quaflty Management Industrialpollution, whilst locally spectacular,does not yet pose serious threats to the aquatic environmentas a whole. But the continuedfailure to implementthe provisionsof the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance is inexcusable.Without statutory authority to enforce, prosecute and deter persistent polluters, the EPA's will remain powerless to interveneeven in the most flagrant cases, and all plans to introduce waste water treatment and enforce environmentalquality standards must be regarded as entirely futile. However, it should not be expected that simply providing effective powers of sanction tO EPAs will in itself enable them to develop their strength as 'watchdog' organisations.Once they becomeinvolved in legal actions, their scientificcredibility will immediatelycome under very strong (and frequendyunreasonable) challenge. Providing sound evidenceand defending it under courtroomconditions requires substantialexperience, which must be availablefrom the start of adoptingsuch measures, and this can only be obtainedby providing at least one officer from each EPA with at least one year's experienceand training in an environmentin which these pressures are routinely experienced. Appropriate organisations would be European EnvironmentalAgencies - for examplein the UK, the National Rivers Authority (NRA), or the AmericanEPA units mightprovide such experience. 6.8.2 Soil Fertility and Nitrogen Harvesting The restorationof nitrogen fixation potentialin agriculturalsoil will not be of benefit unless appropriate techniquesof nitrogen harvestingare adopted. The legume Sesbeniais used by poorer farmersas a (nitrogenrich) green manure and for fodder in some areas (e.g. SCARP 1, CentralBari Doab Canal Area). However, larger farmersprefer to use artificialfertilisers. 6-23 probably because on a large scale cutting and tilling the green manures into farmland is regarded as unacceptablylabour intensive.This could be overcomeby using suitabletractor- based farm equipment.Similarly, the green floatingfern Azoia is common in pools in Sindh, yet its use as a green manure in rice fields is unknownin Pakistan. Such nitrogen harvesting opportunitiesshould be developed and introduced through more effective agricultural extensionand support, since they provide a low cost source of slow release nitrogen presentingvery little hazard to the qualityof groundwatersupplies. On the national scale they have the potential to increase yields very substantially.Research in this field in Pakistan is weak, and liaisonwith bodieswith extensiveexperience in this area should be the first step in developingindigenous capability. This should be followed up by extensive field trials aimed at establishing the levels of nitrogen harvesting which can realistically be made available to the agricultural sector. Appropriate and effective techniquesfor the disseminationof reliable methods of nitrogen harvestingshould also be a identifiedand implemented,since the competenceof the extension services needs to be strengthenedif such potentialbenefits are to be realised. 6.83 Resettlement In general, there seems to be adequatespace for immigrantsto build their houses, but some shortagesof constructionand furniture timber may develop, particularlyon large reclaimed areas. Tree planting is common, but could be considerablyenlarged, and should be an integral part of agriculturaldevelopment. Apart from their (questionable)role in 'biological drainage', trees provide shelter for natural pest control agents such as birds and predatory insects, resources for village craftsmen, constructiontimbers, fruit and nuts for human consumption,and leaves for animal fodder. Opportunisttree planting, social forestry. and commercialtree plantingshould be promoted in drainageproject areas, in collaborationwith the Forestry Department. 6.8.4 Health We have indicatedthat there are major constraints which operate independentlyof drainage itself to reduce the realisationof potential health benefits in Pakistan. If these are addressed as an integral part of drainage projects, through inter-sectoralcollaboration at the project planninglevel, then it is reasonableto supposethat the scale of any detrimentaleffects might be reduced, or, with adequatesupport from appropriatesectors, even reversed. Tabk 6.2 provides an estimate of how individualnegative health impacts might be altered by an integrated approachto project area health, usingJobin's methodology.The magnitudes of the initial negative impactsfor individualfactors are as shownin the precedingTable 6.1, and the probable direction and magnitudeof the appropriate mitigationmeasures is indicated under column M. 6-24 TABLE 6.2 Potential for mitigationof negativehealth effects of drainage. (A) waterloggedareas (B) waterloggedand saline areas (M) mitigationscore Impacts Magnitudeof Mitigationmethod change A B M Malaria Farmers -3 -4 +3 Education; malaria control prog. Herders -3 -4 +2 " Uplanders 0 0 + IU Project labour -4 -4 +3 U In Diarrhoealdiseases Farmers -4 -6 +4 Social awarenessprogramme Herders -8 -8 +4 Sanitary improvement Uplanders -4 -4 +3 Improvedwellhead design Project labour -4 -4 +3 Screeningclinics CutaneousLeishmaniasis Farmers -3 -5 +2 Education Herders -2 -4 +2 Screeningclinics Uplanders 0 0 0 Control programmewhere needed Project labour -4 -4 +2 Viral diseases -5 -6 +2 Screeningclinics Vaccination Anaemia Malnutrition +8 +10 +4 Target special groups Hookworm -4 -6 +2 Education,social awareness Access to GovernmentHealth Care system Local -2 -4 +2 MobiliseHealth Care Auxiliaries Provincial 0 -1 +4 Rural ambulanceservices Health Operationscoverage. Local 0 +2 +6 Rural practice apprenticeships Provincial +2 +3 +6 for health workers. Promote basic health educationand trainingfor traditionalhealers. Livestockhealth Diseases -3 -6 +4 VeterinaryHealth Auxiliaries Nutrition +5 +8 0 Farmer education Health care 0 0 +4 Totals -46 -47 +63 Residual impacts +17 +16 - 6-25 Table 6.2 impliesthat adopting an integratedhealth improvementprogramme within drainage projects would be capable of completelyreversing the balance of potentially harmful health impacts of unsupported drainage development, even where all negative impacts develop to their maximum - i.e even in the 'worst case' scenario. It is of course, improbable that every negative impact would be completely eliminated - once malaria develops in an area, it is unlikely to be totally eliminated. But taken as a whole, any health problems which might develop can be substantially reduced to acceptable levels using appropriate mitigation techniques. Moreover, by providingbetter access to health care facilities, additional benefits will be available (to both humans and livestock) which will actually enhance health, as the final positive mitigated scores above suggest. A health risk evaluation and mitigation study should be added to existing drainage projects as soon as possible, involving collaboration with appropriate health departments and specialists. This should be monitored using valid epidemiologicalmethodology to establish how health risks are affected by the installationof drainage systems. The long-term objective of this study should be to develop guidelines for health protection and improvement in the agriculturalsector which, in associationwith similar guidelinesfor agriculturaldevelopment (e.g. labour development, credit facilitiesfor farmers, women's work groups, etc) will enable the full potential benefits of the improvementof agricultural lands to be gathered. 6.8.5 Social Constraints -Thefailure of agriculturalextension amongstpoorer farmers is probably at least partly related to serious infrastructural shortcomings within the public sector itself, but these could be .emedied by appropriate action within that sector and the provision of credit and supply fecilities for the smaller farmers. But its failure amongst the larger farmers, who control the girater part of agricultural production in Pakistan, suggests that even after a drastic review of extension there might not be a concomitantimprovement on the national scale. In the Consultants' view, this constraint is a major limiting factor on the realisation of the potential benefits which drainage appears to offer. A detailed sociological study is imperative to clarify what social constraints are operating at the village level to obstruct optimal rural development. Such constraints may well be different in relative magnitude in different Provinces, and this problem needs to be investigatedthroughout the country if any significant and relevant changes are to be effective. A number of other social constraints need to be addressed in such studies, as they also affect the development of a balanced and efficient agricultural sector. These are discussed briefly below. (a) Lack of access to markets and employment Those sites which are more distant from drainage development will receive lower and later benefits from increased agricultural production, due to limited marketing and employment opportunities.The net benefits secured will therefore be lower than those secured by villages closer to the main area of influenceof the drainage system and to that part which receives its services earlier. Where market accessibilityis poor, specific small-scale projects should be developed. These should aim to establish suitable facilities at strategic points, and should include attractive short-term incentives for traders to develop their utility for the local population. 6-26 (b) lack of Invatment In agriculture Without a progressive attitude to farm modermisationby wealthy zamindars, the potential benefits from drainagewill be considerablyreduced. Reluctanceto reinvest in agricultureby zamindarsis a major constrainton the rate and effectivenesswith whichthe potentialbenefits of drainagecan be realised.However, the extremelyprecarious financial state of poor farmers who have barely survivedthe loss of productivityof their land because of a lack of drainage must be appreciated.If they are to re-establishtheir agriculturalbusinesses rapidly after the land is drained, then they will need access to credit on very 'soft' terms. An economicappraisal of the needs for credit and a realistic evaluationof farmers' probable ability to repay loans, is needed as an integralpart of any drainageproject. Evidencefor this facility is alreadyavailable on existingdrainage projects, and small-scalepilot schemes could be started in the near future to gain experience in financing small farmers under these conditions. (c) The Sharecropping Relationship Despite the legal protectionof sharecroppers' rights, unscrupulouszamindars will continue to take a disproportionate share of the wealth generated by haris. Some zanindars undoubtedlyexploit the dependencyof their haris on them by the systematicpromotion of indebtedness.It is significantthat in general the degree of indebtednessis not related to the incomeof the hari families, but to the willingnessof a zamindar to advanceloans. The only route by which this relianceof the haris on the zamindarscan be broken is through the expansionof adult educationin practicalvocational fields, and not throughthe imposition of yet more traditional'academic' educationon the young. The educationalneeds of the rural farmers and their familiesneed to be examinedin terms of practicalvocational training and simple farm management,rather than for conventionalacademic education by teachers who have no experienceof running agriculturalbusinesses. (d) Lack of Co-operation within the Community The lack of village cooperationis in great part due to differencesof caste and religion. These differences make corporate action impossible,and simply enhance the power of the local zamindar. Withoutthe formationof effectivecooperative associations by the smallzamindar, hari and wage labourer households, it is difficult to mobilise village resources to take advantages of the potential which large drainage schemes offer for the benefit of the communityas a whole. It is likely that NGOs would be capableof enteringthis difficultfield, and someconsultations with those with experience- successfulor otherwise- of rural cooperativesystems should be sought as an initial step in developingacceptable and effectivelocal organisationsrelatively free from the problems of inter-casteantagonism and religiousdifferences. (e) Absence of Influence at the Village Level The ability to secure access to essential resources is almost universally dependenton the provisionof the appropriatebribe, and this is usuallyonly achievableby a man of influence- generallythe larger zamindars.Whatever the effectof drainson villages,the overallstandard of living will continueto depend on the ability of villagers to influenceoutside agencies, a 6-27 factor presently entirely under the control and at the whim of the local power broker. It may be that developmentof effectivesanctions - perhaps under Sharia Law, coupled with stronger communityorganisations - mightgo some way to weakeningthis system. However, the very complex social relationships implicit in this area make it impossibleto propose specific action within the contextof the present study. (1) Education andHealth Awareness The lack of adult educationhas a marked effect on living standardsand attitudes - far more so than primary education for children, who are generally taught by rote rather than by intellectualstimulation. Poor education,especially of women, increasesthe health risks of the communityin general, and children in particular, since the women are responsiblefor the domesticactivities of the household,including food preparation.It also makessharecroppers more dependenton zamindarsfor loan and repaymentaccounting, and therefore increases their susceptibilityto unscrupulouspractices. Educationin the villagesshould be orientatedtowards vocationaland domesticcompetence, through the developmentof a Health AwarenessProgramme. Health auxiliaries in particular shouldbe given an educativerole, since they are part of the village communitiesand in close touch with those who most need their help and advice. The Health Awareness Programme should utilise the potential for promotingpublic awarenessby using the visual media and running permanent touring roadshows to stimulate interest in matters which are of direct personal interest to every villager. An excellent model is that used in Malawi, in which mobileoutdoor cinemas, based in Landroversor Jeeps and equippedwith films, puppetshows and simple giveawayvisual reminders, tour the villagesto inform and educate the people on basic health awarenessand sanitationpractices. (g) Low Status of Women In zamnindarhouseholds, the link between a girl's educationand her social status is usually appreciated,even if only for the better marriageprospects whichthis may confer. In poorer households, women's education is minimal or totally neglected, leading to poor health awareness and increased child mortality. Without amelioration of this situation, women's status will remain depressed despite any economicbenefits which might be derived from drainage. Under the present social system operating in Pakistan there appears to be little prospect of changing this constraintuntil much more substantialeducation goals have been achieved. (h) Indebtedness At present, increasedincomes in hari householdsare unlikely to reduce indebtedness,since the availableevidence indicates that they borrow accordingto the availabilityof loanswithout any relationship to their actual income level. Wage labourers are less likely to run up unrepayabledebts, since shopkeepersare generallymore cautiouswith their credit. Managersof credit facilitiesproposed elsewheretherefore need to be very a -are of the need for effectivedebt managementservices, and ensurethat farmers understandtheir obligations to the loan agency. Credit facilitiesvia a revolvingfund are more likelyto be effectiveif they are providedto a cohesivesocial group, using caste loyaltyas an incentiveto deter defaulting. There is considerablescope here for innovativeand creative responses to this problem, and such can only be developedby organisationswhich are extremelyfamiliar with social mores 6-28 in the villages. Appropriate NGOs, and organisationssuch as the Aga Khan Foundation, shouldbe consulted for advice and experience in this specificallycultural field. 6.8.6 Aquatic Weed Control When drains are not cleaned, weeds may infest them and reduce their capacity to remove drainageeffluent. In weedydrains, mosquitoesbreod and increasethe health risks in the area. Drain clearance and maintenanceis in the interest of both the public sector and the local populations,and both should play a part in maintainingthem. If the Irrigation Department does not have adequatefunding to clear drains, then it shouldclearly review its requirements and estimates for maintenance, and improve its efficiency in collecting revenue from the beneficiaries. A better understandingof the value of drain maintenanceto the rural communitiesshould also be promoted. If Irrigationhas insufficientlabour to carry out maintenance,then the possibility of developingpaid drain maintenancelabour gangs in collaborationwith local communities should be explored. 6.8.7 Community Participation in Rural Development In Pakistan, public sector technologistsin almost all disciplinesare notoriouslyreluctant to consult with people of lower status in farming communities.Yet there are clear advantages in involvingfarmers at the planning and designstages, and also when undertakingmonitoring and evaluation. Local residents, who are the potential beneficiariesas well as sufferers of projects, have a clear perceptionof their needswhich can often only be articulatedwhen they are provided with uncluttered descriptions of the technical and economic options open to them. Unfortunately,the skills of public communicationare very poorly developedin the country, and this almost invariablyclouds issues rather than clarifiestiem. This situationneeds to be looked into and corrected. In manyrespects, people are knowledgeableabout their environinent.They observe and feel changes and make economicadjustments to cope with these. Officials and techniciansoften assumethat only a sociologistor anthropologistcan tap such sources of public knowXedge- in fact, often all that is required is for these same techniciansand officialsto be prepared to adopt an open consultativeapproach, ask appropriatequestions and listen to the arswers. However, technical staff should be able to communicateeffectively, both withir their own organisationsand outside. Such communicationskills can be taught, and shouldbf an integral part of the in-servicetraining of all public sector personnel, regardless of whether they are likely to meet the public or need to explain their work to their own colleagues.The training of environmentalpersonnel in the Line Ager .-ies and EPAs should includesome element of communicationskill enhancement,since without it field surveys are virtually useless. This is equallyso in presenting courtroom evidence (a topic already mentionedabx ve in relation to the implementationof the PEPO - Section 6.8.1.) The role of Governmentofficials in this context should therefore be to explain technical options and obtain the opinionsof the farming communities.This might be achievedthrough open forum workshops, similar to the workshops organised during the opetation of this Assessment.In these, the standardprotocols adopted universallyin formal Pakistanimeetings b-29 are discarded in favourof protocols which provideequal opportunitiesfor all participantsto record their individualviews effectively. Such forums provide opportunitiesfor potentialbeneficiaries to meet technicalspeci3lists, to express their own views, and to assist in ddining planning priorities. Relevant information to be obtainedcould include, for example, informationand knowledgeof changes in the local environment,with particular,reference to both irrigated agricultureand health perceptionsof the need for drainage - willingnessto participatein or contributeto constructionbeneficial to them and their communities - willingnessto pay for services, O&M, etc. Willingnessto participate, provide labour or contributefinancially is often a good indicator of perceived and real benefits. Despitethe well known failings of Water User Associations (WUAs),their very formationunder the auspicesof tne OFWMprogramme, and the farmers' willingnessto provide labour, is indicativeof their perception ofthe benefits to themnof improved watercourses. Likewise, the willingnessof farmers to pay bribe for increasedwater supply (for which they already pay official water charges)is also indicativeof benefit perceptionrelating to water supply. Against this, however, is the widespread attitude that if water is good then more water must be better, resulting in widespread wastage of water by some and consequent shortagesfaced by less fortunate farmers further down the supply canals. In contrast, in most areas, farmers are unwilling to pay for drainage services and the percentagesuccess of actualrevenue collection is much lowerfor drainagecess than for water charges (see RBMP, 1991). 6.8.8 Farmnes and Community groups The Right Bank Master Plan (RBMP8, 1991)argues that the single most significantbinding link in rural communitiesis debt obligation, especially between sharecroppers and their landlord. Social cohesionand the potentialfor voluntary cooperationin farmingcommunities is only likely to arise in the rare situation where there are several similar sized owner-operatorsfrom one tribe, living in the same village and farming adjacent land. It is therefore concludedthat, althougbfarmers shouldbe consultedand involved in planning and design of drainage, these are likely to be leading members of the communitysuch as large land owners and not necessarilyrepresentative of the majority. Nonetheless, their perception of benefits, willingnessto pay or provide sharecroppersas labour, etc, will be indicativeof local farmer attitudesgenerally. 6-30 REFERENCES 1. Bauer, W.D. (1977). Lectins as determinants of specificty in legume-Rhizobium symbiosis, pp. 283-297. In Genetic Engineering for Nitrogen Fixation, Ed. A Hollaender, Plenum Press, New York. 2. Lakshmi Kumari, M. and Subba Rao, N.S. (1974). Effect of salinity and alkalinity on early phases of infection in lucerne (Medicago sativa): Plant and Soil, 40, 261- 268. 3. Alexander, M. (1977). Introduction to Soil Microbiology, John Wiley & Sons, U.S.A. 4. Gray, L.E. and Gerdemann, J.W. (1969). Uptake of phosphorus-32 by vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae. Plant and Soil, 30, 415-422. 5. Gray, L.E. and Gerdemann, J.W. (1973). Uptake of Sulphur-35 by Vesicular- arbuscular mycorrhizae. Plant and Soi!, 39, 687-689. 6. La Rue, J.H., McClellan, W.D. and Peacock, W.L. (1975). Mycorrhizal fungi and peach nursery nutrition, California Agriculture, 29, 6-7. 7. Mott MacDonald International Limited and Hunting Technical Services Limited. Lower Indus Region. Right Bank Master Plan (I991). 6-31 SECTION HI SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT CHAPTER 7 SECTORAL ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMEN 7.1 Introduction This chapterattempts to draw togetherprincipal issues discussed earlier in this Volume, under five main headings and these include: - Evaluation of the Drainage System, including evaluation of any feasible biological approachesto drainage and the role of water management - Environmental Aspects - Mitigation andlor EnhancementOpportunities - Disposal Options - Sustainability A range of specific recommendationsemerge, which provide some guidelinesfor mid-term and longer-termstrategies in the overall drainage sector. 7-2 Evaluation of Drainage Technologies Drainage technologies which have been adopted in the past and which with needed modificationsmay have to be used in future, have consisted of surface drainage for the removal of excess rainfall runoff or irrigation surpluses from predominantlyrice growing areas and sub-surfacedrainage through tubewellsor tile drains to control watertable below the root zone. These are commentedupon in this section. 7.2.1 Drainage Approaches (a) Surface Drainage Surface drainage in areas affectedby shallowwatertables assist in maintainingwatertables at safe levels by timely removalof excesssurface water. Surfacedrainage can also remove salts from the root zone in areas with high saline watertables. Experience gained from the operationof surface drainage on the Larkana-Shikarpurproject in Sindh (SukkurRight Bank) indicatesthat the inflow of salt from the canal system was 0.5 Mt and outflowwas 0.36 Mt, resulting in an average retention of 0.2 tonnes/acre in the rice areas studied. The direct environmentalimpacts of surfacedrainage projects, which shouldbe positivesince effective drainage removes important constraints on productivity, tend in practice to be reducedor even reversed to negativeimpact in human terms by the lack of attentionto social, human and health factors discussed in Chapter 6. In saline groundwaterrice areas, disposal of drainage effluentcan result in negativeenvironmental impact. Generally the salt content of the effluent is such that disposal into rivers by controlledmixing is acceptable, and may also be permissible,in certain cases, into lakes or wetlands. On the LSK project, the expected rangesof direct impacts, positive and negative, have been observed, roughly in overall balance. The full potential for direct positive impact has probably not been realised because the project has not operated at full efficiency, largely because of poor maintenance(channels silted up and overgrown with weeds). A potentially important enviromental impact is discharge of effluentthrough the Flood Protection Bund into Hamal Lake: this could have had a negative impact but nothing significant has been observed althoughthere has been some increase in salinity in the lake. Had the scheme been operatingat full efficiency,however, the situationmight have been differentsince one branch drain discharges water of comparativelyhigh salinity, and outflow of salts generally would have increased. This possibility has been allowed for in the Right Bank Master Planning Study, which provides for diversion of the most saline effluent into RBOD. This would probably result in a marginallypositive impact in relation to Hamal Lake. (b) Tile Drainage Two tile drainage schemes are operational, in shallow saline groundwater areas - East Khairpur (EKTD) and Drainage IV. Experience indicates somewhat variable results, with reasonablypositive results in the later case and a negativeone on EKTD, after a reasonable start. Chapter 3 reports that, on EKTD, more than 10 tonnes of salt per acre were removed over the period 1986-1990,while at the same time salts in the soil profile increased by over 7.5 tonnes per acre: the system was therefore mobilisingsalts from the deeper watertable. It seems unlikely that the actual techniquewas at fault. The problem is more likely to result from poor water management. T-ile drainage is expensive. It can be effective when operated efficiently, but even so is probablynot an economicallyjustifiable techniqueunless it is appliedto intensive,high value cropping systems. It seems doubtful whether, for these reasons, this technique should be considered for wider application in Pakistan in future, though it may be suitable for specialisedcases. Environmentalimpacts can be expected to be similar to those for surface drainage projects, except that the potentialnegative impactof disposal may be greater because of the somewhat higher salKnitylevels which may be expected. No adverse effects in this context have been observed in the case of the three projects examined. (c) Tubewell Drainage Tubewell drainage has been the predominanttechnique used in Pakistan over the last three decides. As reported in Chapter 3, over 14,996 public sector tubewells have been installed (2279 in SGW) by WAPDA since 1960, and some 280,000 private sector tubewells are in operation. Most of these wells have, for obviousreasons, been insalled in fresh groundwater zones. Installationof tubewells in saline groundwaterzones, where of course they serve only as a means of drainage rather than combiningdrainage with a re-use capability, has been a comparativelyrecent development. 7-2 In fresh groundwaterareas, tubewellsnot only control watertablelevels but the pumpedwater can be used to augment or replace irrigationwater suppliedby the canal system. Potenial problemsanticipated in this contextincluded changes in groundwaterquality (due to leaching of salts from the soil and re-cycling)and salt build-up in the soil profile. There is as yet no evidenceof deteriorationof groundwaterquality but there is now some evidenceof build up of salinity(and in somecases sodicity)in the root zone. In both SCARPI and Mona Projects, salt build-up in the soil profile is occurring, with sodicity also increasing in the former project. The reasons for this deteriorationin the soil profile, whichis obviouslyof critical importance for crop production, are not yet clear. Nor is it yet knownwhether this is a more widespread problem affecting other SCARPs, or in areas where private (and shallower) wells mainly occur. The situationway well relate to inadequatewater managementat farm or watercourse level (mainly, perhaps, inadequateleaching). There is also plainly a net inflow of salts - a build-up of salts - into the system which may particularly affect areas within the largely closed system in the Punjab above Panjnad, since there are virtually no surface flows below this point except in the relativelyshort flood season. It is clearly a matter of some urgency to initiate studies aimed both at determiningwhether the problems noted in SCARP I and Mona are more widespread,and the reasons for their occurrence. Apart from the question which the above problem raises about sustainabilityof tubewell drainagesystems - which could well prove resolvableby improvedwater management- the life of wells has proved less than originallyanticipated. Although introduction of fibre-glass screens improved the situation, other factors, such as bio-fouling,have continuedto,have a negative effect on well-life. Poor maintenancehas also been a contributoryfactor in this context. Increased costs have not been matched by increased revenues. Indeed while costs have increasedrevenues (from reclamationcess and water rates) now only cover 20% of annual O&M expenditure, so that SCARPs not only fail to cover recurrent costs but generate no funds for replacement. Direct environmentalimpact of tubewelldrainage shouldbe positive, and this has generally provedto be the case although, as with other drainage projects, human and social constraints may reduce the overall beneficial impact. The fact that the lowering of watertables under tubewelldrainage is greater than in the case of surface drains means that negative impacton wetlands can be much greater. In saline groundwater areas, efficient control of watertable levels can be achieved by tubewells: sustainability- apart from the question of rapid deterioration of such items of equipmentas pump impellersand shafts, which greatly adds to costs - is more related to the questionof effluent disposalwhich is likely to be more saline oomparedto effluent from tile drains. Where disposal can be direct to the sea, as in the case of those projects served by LBOD, no problem arises. Elsewhere disposal can only be by mixing and discharge into canals or rivers, or into evaporationponds. Althoughthe flexibilityof a tubewellsystem can be used so that potential effluentcan be stored in the groundwaterbody and only discharged at times of high surface flows when mixing is least harmful, such a means of disposal can only be envisagedon a strictlylimited scale if serious environmentaldamage is-to be avoided. Disposal into evaporation ponds also has serious environmentalimplications, and so, in principle, should be consideredas only a temporary solution. For this reason, it would be unwiseto proceed with major developmentof new tubewellschemes in SGW zones, pending 7-3 longer-termor permanentsolutions to effluentdisposal. For the samereason, additionalwater should not, in the short term, be supplied to SGW areas if this would precipitate rapid rise of saline watertables and so generatedemands for urgent action on drainage. Concomitantly high priority should be given in these areas to measures which would reduce the drainable surplus. 7.2.2 Biological Alternatives (a) Introduction Biologicalalternatives are generallymentioned as the possiblemeans for reducingother forms of drainage in the future, either on groundsof damagingenvironmental impact or cost. Two general lines of approach have been indicatedfor some time, by concernedenvironmentalists and others: one covers the use of salt-affectedland by salt tolerant plants (this approach can also include re-use of saline drainage effluentto irrigate such plants); the other covers the possible use of plants, principallytrees, which could exploitland affectedby high levels of groundwater, and at the same time remove a part of the recharge to the aquifer. With the possible exceptionof the use of trees in areas of high watertable, neitherapproach can really be said to offer alternatives to drainage as such: they are predominantlyapproaches to utilization of land which, for the sort of reasons indicated above, cannot be drained by existing techniques. (b) Saline Agriculture It is the term most often used to describethe first of the two biologicalapproaches mentioned above. There are quite a large range of plants adapted to survival, naturally, under saline conditions of various levels of severity. A central problem has been to identify or adapt species capable of producing a useful or economicproduct under such conditions.The most promising approach to the developmentof salt-tolerantcrops with an economicpotential is, at present, via hybridizationor genetic engineeringaimed at producing- in particular - salt- tolerant varieties of wheat. Pakistan is well-placed in this respect, since (i.c.) the Saline Agriculture Cell at the Agricultual University, Faisalabadis actively involved in what is an internationalresearch enterprisecentred on CIMMYT(the internationalorganisation devoted primarily to wheat and maize development) and other research organisations includingthe University College of North Wales, UK. Although current activities in this field are showing promising results (Annex-VI), it will be a long time before salt-tolerantwheats could be offered as a serious, large-scale alternative land-use, to obviate the impacts of drainage deficiencies.The only other salt-tolerantcrops which so far seem to have be tested on a trial basis in Pakistan are a range of species of Atriplex (mainlyof Australian origin) and some grasses, both of which can produce fodder for livestock.Such plants could hardly offer a large-scalealternative to drainage, though they could prove valuablelocally, on a smaller scale. Use of saline effluent to produce commerciallyvaluable crop is another area of research which is being pursued in a numberof countries. Its success seemsto depend largely on soil conditions(essentially on highly permeable,coarse texturedsoils), on extremelysophisticated management,or both. Such soil conditionsare not widespTeadin the Indus plains, though they may occur locally: and it is very difficult to envisage the extremely sophisticated management techniques necessary being available to, or within the capability of, small farmers in Pakistan in the foreseeablefuture. 7-4 There is a strong case for recommendingcontinming and increasedresearch effort in saline agriculture,but as an alternativeto drainageit cannotbe consideredfeasible in the mid-trm contextand probably not, excepton a limitedscale, in the long term. (c) Explitaion of ShualowWatertables by Plants Exploitationof shallow watertablesby, especially, trees, which also has been termed as' biological drainage' has so far attracted less attention. A cental problem here is that trees, in general, are affected by waterlogging, as are fidd crops - including the inhibition of nitrogen - fixing bacteria and mycorrhyzalfungi, as described in Chapter 6. There are of courseexceptions: the indigenousAcacia nilotica.the dominanttree of the floodplain forests, actually requires a period of flooding for optimumgrowth; and some species of Eucaly can exploit permanenthigh levels of groundwater.Selecting tree species which can exploit fresh groundwateris comparativelyeasy. It is much more difficultto find specieswhich can exploit shallowsaline groundwaters,which is of coursethe conditionwhere this 'alternative to drainagewould most criticallyapply. Trials of salt-toleranttrees have been undertakenby a number of organizationsin Pakistan, as described in Annex-Von the BiologicalAlternative and Report on Forestry, but none of these have been on a sufficientscale or maintainedfor long enough to determine whether trees could either control watertablelevels or yield an economicreturn under high (especially saline) watertable conditions,or both. Large-scale trials, at least on the scale of complete watercourses, would be needed. These would constitute major undertakings of a quite different order to anythingattempted so far. The use of trees to control seepage from canals has been advocated.Trees are in fact highly unlikelyto be able to control seepage, thoughthey can certainly exploitgroundwater in areas wherethere is substantialseepage from canals.They can also eliminatestagnant surfacewater resulting from canal seepage, thus also reducing health hazards. There is a good case for encouragingtree planting alongsidecanals, both for commercialand amenitypurposes, and such placting could include extension of line plantations in association with canals, as cufrently practised in parts of Punjab. There is also a case for extending tree plantingon farms, or co-operativelyon a watercoursebasis, as a form of social forestry or simplyas a way of addingvalue on farm land: after all, timber is in very short supply in Pakistan. The proliferationof tree plantingof this kind in NWFPillustrates what could be done, thoughthe speciesgenerally used there (poplar)would not be suitablefurther south. Suitableindigenous and exotic species are available,however. 7.23 Water Management (a) lotroduction Water management,in the present context, covers the whole range from control of canal seepage to on-farm management. Its importance, in relation to sustainabilityof the productivityof the whole irrigationsystem, includingmaximising the benefits from the huge investmentsin drainage,cannot be over emphasized.It will becomemore and more important in the future. Increasingthe efficiencyof water use while at the same time maximisingreurn per unit of water must be over riding objectiveswhen major increases over existingsupplies appear unlikely and population rises rapidly. It is even possible that less water may be availablein the future, if the need for maintainingsalt balances,as discussed later, is shown to be real. 7-5 (b) Seepag rom Canals Seepage from main canals and distributarieshave a major impact on drainage requirements and can also lead to loss of water into groundwater storage. Approximately,55% of the drainage requirement for LBOD was due to main canal seepage:total seepage amountedto 25% of the supply taken from tde river. There seems no practical way of eliminatingsuch losses except by canal lining the costs of which would be prohibitive; but some reduction could be effected by selective lining in high seepagezones in SGW areas. Otherwise measures which seem appropriate would be those which, without actually controlling seepage, reduce any negative impact or exploit seepage areas for productive purposes. Such measurescould includemore intensivecanal bank planting,use of intercepting drains and skimmingwells in identifiablemajor lensesof fresh groundwatercreated by canal seepage. (c) Losses at Watercourse Level Substantiallosses at watercourselevel are reported and there is therefore plenty of room for improvement.There seems to have been, and perhaps stellis, a tendency to concentrateon structural methods for reducing losses, rather than looking at losses as one aspect of increasing efficiency which can relate to a whole range of non-structural factors. These include moving away from supply-orientated towards crop-demand orientated canal management; improvingthe incentivesto farmers to make more efficient use of water via better extension services and/or fiscal measures, improvingtenant farmers',incentives by tackling the disincentivesinherent in the share-croppingsystem-indeed the whole range of social, economicand health issues discussed in Chapter 4 and 5 which tend to prevent the benefits of drainage from being realised and of course operate in the same way in relationto better water managementand agriculturalproductivity. All this emphasises the need for a much more multi-sectoralapproach to the problem of removing constraints and improving incentives towards greater efficiency, which in turn needs much closer contact with and understandingof the farming community.The need for this broader approach has certainly been recognisedbefore, but little action appears to have been taken. 7.3 Environmental impact assessment 7.3.1 Screening This Sectoral Assessmentcovered a wider range of issues than is normal in project-oriented Environmental Assessmentmethodology, since it is aimedat identifyingnot only the direct environmentalimpacts of the activitiesof the drainage sectorbut also the external constraints which may cause that sector to be ineffectiveor only partly capable of achieving its goals. It also examinedthose goals, to determine whether they were in themselvescompatible with the qeeds of those using the services provided. Public participation and awareness The processes of scopingand screening used in the assessmenthave permitted comprehensive coverageof the major issues identifiedby the public in general. The importanceof consulting all sectors, both public and private, in the initial conceptionof development planning is widely recognised elsewherebut poorly appreciatedin Pakistan. 7-6 Public participationshould be an integralpart of all drainageproject planning in future, with intensive field conosultationsby technical, social and health specialists who have received training to understandthe linhges between their disciplines.Equally, there is a substantial lack of communicationskills within departmentsand in their dealings with the public. This needs to be addressed,because it makesinter-sectoral collaboration in planning and attempts to involvethe public in the planning process futile. In all future planning, scopingand screeningtechniques similar to those demonstratedduring this study should be adopted by all departments, and the deficienciesin specific expertise implicit in carrying out comprehensiveEAs rectified. So different sectors may need to strengthen their Environmental Cells by employing staff trained in health and welfare assessment,ecology, institutionalmanagement and sociology.The culturalobstructions facing access to women, especiallyin the rural areas, indicatesthat the EnvironmentalCells should be much more strongly representedby female staff than they are at present. 7.3.2 Criteria Environmentalcriteria can only be establishedafter a clear policy has been formulated. At present, no such policy exists. The primary policy objective must be to achieve sustainable agriculturalproduction across the wholecountry. Tlerefore the criteria adoptedshould reflect this objective, although this does not mean that all other issues should be ignored. In manyrespects, a nationalpolicy would be preferableto sectoralpolicies, because the latter simply reinforcethe old inter-sectoralbarriers to communicationwhich are already stifling effective development planning. A national policy would encompass the PEPO and the NationalConservation Strategy within an overall framework which allows priorities to be allocatedto differentsectors - for example,agriculture, fisheries, conservation,protection of water quality, etc. We have proposed elsewherethat a NationalWetland ManagementPlan be developed, as well as a more specificcomponent aimed at managingthe Indus Flyway. Similarly,there is a need for constraintevaluation of thosefactors whichhave bearing on the valuationof water as a limiting resource in the Lower Indus. All these are import, but must be seen to be subject to the overriding demands of developingsustainable agriculture as rapidly as possible. So each sector shouldadopt policies which reflect the requirementsof a nationalpolicy. In the drainage sector, the criteria will be achievingand maintainingroot zone salt balance appropriatefor agricultural needs. - managing salinity levels in the ransport system which reflect current demands for salinity management and the conservation of downstream resources. - attaining the maximum efficiency of use of water for agriculture and salt leaching. - attaining optimumrealisation of the potentialagricultural benefits of drainage projects. - managingthe reclamz on of land withmaximum provision of facilitiesaimed 7-7 at protectingwildlife and natural resources, providing that this is consistent with the first two criteria above. - incorporating socio-economic,health and cultural issues into the project planningprocess. - reducing the transportation of toxic and hazardous mterials through the drainagesystem by collaboratingwith the EPAs on effluentdischarge control. Whilst some of these criteria may be viewed at present as the responsibilityof some other sector, responsibilityfor them clearly rests at least in part with the drainage sector, and it is therefore appropriate for the sector to accept that it is part of its function to ensure that its work actually does bear fruit, and that this does entail active collaboration with both the public affected by its work and with other government agencies which also have responsibilitiesto the public. 7.3.3 Data gaps Lack of primary data is almostthe rule. Even in such vital fields as the monitoringof salinity in the rivers date have been extrapolatedwithout adequate validity. Similarly, the data widely quoted to support deductionsthat the East Khairpur Tile Drainage Project has mobilisedsalt from the saline reservoirs are of very little practical value, since they were obtained from widely spaced monitoring incidentswhich cannot now be related to any specific pattern of water applicationor other managementpractices. In order for any data collectionto be justified it must be meaningful, and therefore be used for a purpose. The urgency of developinga salinity model dictates that a long-termdatabase of spot salinity measurementsshould be availableas soon as possible on which preliminary conclusionscan be based. The haphazard salinity monitoring in the river system over (at least) the past 14 years makes such an analysis impossibleat the present time, and it will take a number of years of effective monitoringbefore any trend analysis can be made. There are many other environmentalfields in which data are similarly unavailable. The reasons are variously becauseno attempt has been made to collect them - becausesampling programmes have been statistically invalid - because the programmewas incapable of differentiatingbetween the effects of individualvariables when multiplecauses were present. At this point it is impossibleto detail what data should be collected, or the experimental desigp or monitoringpatterns which should be adopted. A thorough review of the existing databasesin all relevantfields is essentialto salvagethose data which are worth retaining, and to indicate where new efforts are needed to remedy defects in recording key relationships which are required to support effectivemanagement planning in the future. 7-8 73.4 Monitoringand evaluation During the present study the lack of monitoringof drainageprojects, especiallyin such fields as health and natural resources, has been a consistent obstacle. Progress in developing appropriate drainage technology in Pakistan is not simply dependent on designing new projects according to standard criteria and expectingthat they will subsequentlybehave in totally predictable fashion. The enigma of the behaviour of the massive geological saline reservoir under the highly variable operationalconditions in Pakistan makes monitoringari. evaluation(M and E) a vital and indispensablepart of public sector expenditureon drainage. Baselineconditions - both physical and socio-biological- in every existingdrainage projects cannot now be assessed. However, the design of adequateM and E studies on them, which aim to reveal how important indicatorsof performance and effectivityvary with different managemnentvariations, is an urgent requirementfor future planning. The SCARPMonitoring Organisations presently carry out some such work, but non-physical monitoringis not includedin their brief; consequently,nor data on.such parametersas disease prevalence, the efficiency of water use in crop production, or the constraintsof marketing agricultural products are available. Existing drainage projects should be regarded as real experimentallaboratories, which are capable of providing new insights into the actual field responsesof the systemin Pakistan.The SMO and other organisationsshould be carrying out an integratedprogramme of M and E which will provide the maximuminformation returns from such experimentationfor the use of all sectors, and not just drainage. 7.3.5 Legislation and Institutions The Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance (1983) has as yet no legal validity. Even if it were to be implementedin the near future, in its present form it would be ineffectivein the vast majority of developmentscenarios. Section 8, para.2 clearly restricts the review powers of the EPAs to action only in the case of 'industrialactivity' (see sections 8(2)(a)and 8(2)(b)). It would be very easy for the drainage sector to claim that its activities do not constitutean 'industrial activity', and thereforethat it does not need to submit Environmental Impact Statements for even the largest of its projects. Other sectors could also use this argumentto avoid liabilityfor environmentalstudies and submissions. Similarly,sections 8(3), 8(4) and 8(5) providethe EPAs only with powers to recommend that an EIS be rejected by the Government.There is no expressedor implicit power of the EPAs to veto projects if the Government over-rides their recommendations,nor is there any prevision in Section 8 for them to actuallybring prosecutionsagainst any organisationwhich develops an environmentally damaging industrial process in defiance of their recommendations. If tbe PEPO is to be effective in curbing the present excesses of industry, and especially if the powers are to be expanded to more general environmental management, then the Ordinanceneeds to be updated to somethingmuch closerto existingenvironmental protection legislationelsewhere - for example, the UK's EnviromnentalProtection Act (1990), or its more restricted predecessor,the Control of PollutionAct (1973). The need for adequate training in the preparation of evidence for prosecutionshas been stressed as an inevitableimplication of the strengtheningof the PEPO (see Section 4.9.1.). 7-9 The present proposed legislationis incapable of providing an adequate foundation for the EPAs to exert any effective regulatoryrole in environmentalmanagement, or to recover its own ostuin case of expensivecourt proceedings. In the same way, the National ConservationStrategy (NCS) cannot be implementedin a positivefashion until it is given an adequatelegal foundationon which regulatoryactions can be based and sanctions exerted on those who wish to ignore it. The hunting of Hubara Bustardand the captureof wild falconsin Balochistanare classic examplesof the exploitation of endangeredspecies by powerful minorities, despite internationalconcern; the issue of fishery licenses for Haleji Lake is a parallel example from the Pakistanipublic sector itself Institutionalstrengthening in environmentalawareness and competenceis a matter of some urgency, since it will take at least three years, and possiblyas long as five, before adequate experiencehas been acquiredto be able to rely on domesticcompetence to carry out the very considerableamount of work which is necessary for balanced developmentthroughout the country. The Governmentshould formulate a NationalEnvironmental Policy, with each public sector adopting compatibleand integratedsectoral policies. Such policies do not cost a great deal to implement,they only require a change in perspectiveand approach in the planning and administrationof more environmentallyaware methods of carrying out normal sectoral activities. For example, in the drainage sector, adopting such policies rmightrequire that contractors wishingto be consideredfor tenderingshould be capableof demonstratingthat they also carry out their businesses in an environmentallyacceptable fashion. Such positive discrimination could lead to profound and rapid changesin the attitudesof industrialiststo the discharge of their untreated wastes, even in the absence of effectivepollution control legislation.Whilst the absence of financial incentives or legal pressure to adopt enviromnentallyfriendly processes cannot be expected to be effective, the withdrawal of access to Government contractsto organisationswhich are responsiblefor careless disposalof their wastes and bye- productswould be an entirely differentmatter. Trainingof both Line Agencystaff who will be responsiblefor carrying out EAs, and of the EPAs and Line Agency EnviromnentalCells which will have to scrutinise these EAs, will require substantialpreparation and support. On-the-jobtraining as counterpartsto international experts in this field is suggestedas one way in which high-levelexperience can be acquired most rapidly, but in-servicetraining on short specialistcourses is also required to establish the competenceof staff new to the conceptsof broad spectrum environmentalanalysis and planning. 7.4 Mitigationand Enhancement Mitigationof the potentiallynegative impact of drainage -that of the transfer of salt through the system- requires that a detailed analysisof the whole salt mobilityproblem in the Indus Basinbe addressedas a matter of urgency. The adoption of a multi-purposehydraulic model which can be used to model salt transfer processes, as well as the investigationof hydraulic managementoptions for the river system as a whole and for more localised water quality management,is recommended.This will allow more effective salt7managementstrategies to be developedfor the future maintenanceof the sustainabilityof the Indus Basin agricultural system. 7-10 Negative impactsneeding attentionelsewhere are mainlyin the ecologicaland health fields. The most widespreadpotential for ecologicalchange is in the wedands and theiraquatic flora and fauna. These can be substantially protected by developing a National Wetland ManagementPlan, aimedat ensuringthat the generalbalance of wetland amenitiesavailable to wildlifein the country is preserved, and that specificsites of unusual conservationvalue are properly identifiedand protected for the future. In the health field, much more attention needs to be paid to epidemiologicalsurveys before and after drainageschemes are commenced.Drainage does not inevitablyresult in a general improvementin health; it may simply exchangeone set of risks for another. Health support must be consideredto be an essentialpart of the planningfor future actions. Enhancement In EnvironmentalAssessment terminology, enhancement is simply another way of describing the process of easing constraintswhich may prevent the full potential benefitsof an activity being realised. Easing or eliminating constraints is an essential process in all fields of developmentplanning. In the drainage sector, the primary objective is not only to regain lost agricultural productivity,but to eliminateas far as possiblethe negativeimpacts (waterloggingand soil salinity)on full agriculturalproductivity which are a side effects of irrigation practice. The same constraints do, of course, act against maximum efficiency in both normal soils and reclaimedsoils; whist we have said that the easing of these constraintsshould be the aim of drainage projects, this aim should naturally be adopted in those areas as well in which drainage itself is not an issue at present. The agriculturalreturns which are possibleby exploitingthe biochemicalchanges in the soil which can occur after soil is drained and reclaimed are very large, and this subject alone merits a major research and developmenteffort within the agriculture sector. This should of course be accompaniedby a radical review and restructuringof agriculturalextension, and by the adoption of effective methods for promoting improved agricultural and health protection activitieswithin the rural communities. Some importantsocio-economic and cultural constraintsreduce the potential benefits which can be obtainedfrom installingdrainage, and these need to be more adequatelyunderstood, so that appropriatedevelopment plans can be made for specificproject areas in which these constraints apply. It seems that at least some cultural constraints,such as the low status of womengenerally, may be incapableof resolutionin the short or mediumterm. In such cases, where inequities of distributionof benefit are known to develop, only unusually creative solutions (such as the type of facilitiesprovided by the Women's Bank) may in the long run prove to be the most effective solution. 7.5 DisposalOptions 7.5.1 Relationship between Disposal Options Disposal,particularly of saline, effluentis a central issueof critical importance,and has been discussed in Chapter 3. The Terms of Reference require disposal options to be considered both in the mid and long term contexts. 7-11 Becausethere has been some confusionof terminologybetween options which truly involve disposal and others which effectivelystore or transfer rather than dispose drainage effluent, the various options are considered in terms of storage, 'cascade' down the system, and ultimate disposal. Figure 7.1 shows the linkagesbetween disposaloptions. Within the Punjab above Panjnad, salt disposal mostly ends into aquifer storage with the exception of SGW schemes such as SCARP VI which pass, or are planned to pass, into evaporationponds. The system above Panjnad is regardedas an essentiallyclosed one, since no water passes below that point for up to nine monthsin the year. This is not whollytrue, of course, since some salt passes out of the system via the river during the few monthsof high river flows, and some may also be transferred via sub-surfaceflows. The dosed system concept is seen as essentially acceptable, however, and it has important implicationsin relation to sustainability. Disposal from Indus Right Bank schemes could be by 'cascade' into the river. Storage of drainage water from deep saline aquifers into evaporation ponds has serious potentialnegative environmental impacts, as earlier discussed.Such disposalshould therefore be considered as a temporary, not a permanent solution. The most promising long term SOlutionin this contextscems to be extendingLBOD northwards,so that saline effluentcould be dischargedinto the sea. This can possiblybe accomplishedwithout enlargementof LBOD, using spare dry season capacity. In case such spare capacityis not available,the enlargement of LBODwould be relativelyeasy since it has been constructedwith spoil bunds only on one side with such a possibilityin mind. Disposal of saline effluentfrom evaporationponds in this way shouldbe looked at seriously for a number of reasons. It would.reduce dangersinherent in such ponds permanentlystoring increasing amountsof salt; they concentratesalts which means that large amountscould be removed in relativelysmall volumes of water; and large amountsof salts could be removed from the system,thus assisting in improvingsalt balance generally. Disposal of saline water stored in evaporationponds directly into the Indus duringperiods of higb flow would offer a much cheaper solutionbut this option has not been evaluated.This needs to be done, but it would appear unlikely to be acceptable, especially as substantial additions of salt from this source could materially affect the viability of present plans to dispose of drainage effluent by cascade from Sindh Right Bank areas. The only schemes involving use of evaporation ponds outside Punjab are in SindhJBalochistan-Hairdinand possiblythe saline area of Ghotki on Left Bank. Hairdin is rather exceptionalin this context, since it is a surface drainagescheme discharging water of much lower salinitiesthan the SGW schemes, and passing effluent either directly, or via an evaporationpond (actuallya natural depressionthrough which the drain passes and partiallydischarges, this part of the depression having now become a relatively fresh water lake with considerable fish and waterbird populations)into the Kirthar Canal. If future drainagedischarges increase in volume and/or salinity, disposalin this way may become untenable- it already has some negative impacts in relation to canal water. Proposals for dealing with this have, however, been submitted, though they are likely to have some negativeimpact on existingwetlands which are important for water birds. 7-12 Fig: 7.1 Linkages between Disposal Options Aquifer (Storage) also D Into Canals, back to Irrigation and partially back to Evaporation (Storage) Aquifer Storage Ponds, Rivers I (Cascade) Sea / (Disposal) 7.52 Pattern of Future Development An overall pattern for drainage effluent disposal could develop as follows: - In FGW areas drained by tubewells, principally in the Punjab above Panjnad but also in parts of Sindh (Sukkur Left Bank), disposal via re-use in the irrigation system, then back into storage. Within the effectively closed system in the Punjab there must be reservations about the longer term sustainabilityof this system. - In SGW areas where drainage by tubewells is ruled out on grounds of inapplicability or serious environmental impact - effectively schemes on the Indus Right Bank through Guddu and Sukkur commands in Sindh - disposal by transfer or 'cascade' into the Indus river subject to river water quality being maintained at acceptable levels. In SGW areas drained by tubewells, disposal direct to the sea in areas served by LBOD; or, elsewhere, into evaporationponds outside the irrigated areas. Such ponds should be regarded as a short or mid term solution only, and at the present time it would appear wise to call a halt to further such schemes (or at least to go ahead only with extreme caution or dealing with particularly urgent situations) until more permanent and less environmentallyhazardous disposal solutions can be found. The most likely such solution appears to be by phaseddischarge to the sea via an enlarged and extended LBOD. 7.5S3 The No-disposal Option-Dry Drainage It has long been noted that, in areas where saline groundwater has risen so high that no agricultural production would seem to be possible, croppingstill persists. Examinationof this :t,lation, in the rice growing areas of the Sukkur Right Bank in Sindh during the LIP studies to formulation of the concept of 'dry drainage'. Since this concept is so often r..Isrepresentedor misunderstood, a brief explanationis relevant here. The fact that land under rice cultivation year after year did not become salinised was explainedby a process which was termed dry drainage. Tne original mechanism was seen as one in which residual salts in the soil profile were washed downwai-dsby heavy initial irrigation, this vertical 'ram' effect displacingsaline groundwater laterally and upwards, with evaporationand depositionof salts in adjacent non-croppedareas which became permanently abandoned. The original LIP model indicated a theoretical stable cultivation intensity of about 80%, the remainder being abandoned. The actual observed proportions of continuouslycultivated and abandoned land were about 60% and 40% respectively (though intensities as high as 78% were recorded near the heads of supply systems) and this situation seemed to have been in effective equilibriumfor a long period. During the period between the LIP studies and those conductedfor the RBMP, the ratio of cultivatedto abandonedland increased to more like the theoretical 80:20 ratio postulatedby LIP. This may have been due partly to more water being available and partly because of pressure to increase cropped area due to rising population. Because some of the cropped land was not maintainedso free of salt, overall production did not increase quite in step with the increased proportion of cultivated land. 7-13 Model simulation developed during the RBMP study has confirmed the dry drainage mechanism,though in a somewhatdifferent way from that originally postulated, and with theoretical intensities of over 80% on heavier soils and as high as 90% on lighter soils. Microreliefwas shown to be an importantfactor in determiningwhere salt accumulates,salts tending to move towards areas of slightlyhigher elevation. The model also indicatedthat the mechanismoperates when crops are grown in both kharif and rabi seasons: indeed it can be observedto be operatingon undrainedfarm land suffering from high saline watertables. The point frequentlymisunderstood is that dry drainagedoes not involvetransportation of salt outside the irrigated area: it concentratessalt on un-used land throughout it, even in such areas as land occupiedby roads. Its relevance, in the present contextis that notwithstanding some loss of land and loss of yield (if the system is pushed too far), the dry drainage mechanismcan develop into a remarkablystable equilibriumsituation and thus provides a breathingspace while the problemsof saline water disposal from SGW areas can be studied and solutionsfound. 7.6 Sustainabiity 7.6.1 Salt Balance within the System The overallscope for disposalneeds to be consideredin the light of salt input and export into the Basin as a whole though it must be considered as a series of units embracingdifferent conditionsrather than a singlehomogenous unit, which it is not. Neverthelessthere is concern about build-up of salts within the basin as a whole and whether or not sustainabilityof the present irrigated agriculturalsystem requires achievementof an overall stable salt balance. In practise, it seemsprobable that there has never been such a balance, and that salt has been accumulatingfor a very long time. But the bulk of this salt has, until recently, been immobiised in the deep groundwater.Some of this is now being mobilisedby drainage, and can only be disposedof out of the system through river and LBOD. At present it is not possible to estimate accurately the rate of net build-up of salts in the system, the time which it would take for saturationto be reached, or indeed where, within the system, salt build-up is taking place. Nor is it possibleto offer properly informedopinions about its potential effects on the irrigationsystem. Pendingsuch an evaluation, however, it would be unwise to proceed with any new drainage measures which mobiliseadditional salts from the deep saline groundwaterreservoir, unless disposal can be directly into the sea. A firther, and quite different, considerationis the sustainabilityof disposalby cascade into river Indus. The RBMP study has concludedthat, on the basis of 1:10 year low flows at Kotri, disposalfrom the surfacedrainage systems proposed couldbe dischargedinto the river without raising salinity above acceptablelevels. The effects of adding drainage water from Right Bank schemes above Guddu ( D.G.Khan; C.R.B.C) must be carefully evaluated to avoid raising salinity levels in the river to unacceptablelevels, unless more water was availableto achievefurther dilution. This would imply a sacrifice of water otherwiseused for irrigation in order to engure the viability of dischargevia cascade - a very major implicationindeed. The need for additionalwater, now 7-14 and in the future, in connectionwith water managementhas already been mentionedin 7.2.3, and will be further discussed when consideringthe questionof salt balance in the root zone. Any attempt to move towards an overall salt balance within the system is going to require passing additionalwater out of it unless new techniquesare developed for passing salts into storage out of harm's way. Advocatesof the importanceof achieving an overall salt balance do not always appear to appreciatethis. If a major sacrifice of water is to be made in order to achieve, or even move towards, overall salt balance, then there have to be very major advantages in doing so which by no means are clear. The issue of salt balance at basin level has been attemptedin Figure 7.2, whichgives the salt distribution pattern in the basin alongwithcurrent and anticipateddisposals. Perusal would indicatethat of 15.8 Mt of salt entering variousdoabs in Punjab, 2.2 Mt can be disposed into evaporationponds and can, in future, possiblybe disposed to sea through LBOD. Of the remaining 13.6 Mt, 2.5 Mt currently goes below Panjnad and the rest is stored either in groundwaterreservoir or soils. In order to attain a salt balance in Punjab either this salt is disposed to the sea via LBOD and a system of link drains, or flow through Panjnad be regulated to carry these salts safely to sea without harming the quality of river Indus at Guddu. Presently, the averageanaual flow belowPanjnad is 13 Maf and mostlyconcentrated in kharif season (Figure 7.3), and removes 2.5. Mt of salts. In order to remove the remainirg salt through rivers, additionalwater needs to be routed through various barrages (u/s), and down through Panjnadduring low flow period-an optionvery difficult to attain without conserving and regulatingflood flows. The salts currentlyreaching Guddu is 19 Mt, of which, 7.8 Mt goes on left bank and can be drained into sea. The salt going in on right bank is 3.15 which can be cascadedto the Indus river, even under 1:10 years low flow at Kotri. The remaininggoes below Kotri to the sea. 7.6.2 Salt Balance in the Root Zone Concern about sustainabilityof irrigation and drainage system of the Indus basin has tended to concentrateon the importance- or otherwise- of achievingor moving towards an overall salt balance within the Basin. There is however another salt balance situation- salt balance within the root zone of crops - which is, in theory at least, separate from the issue of salt balance in the basin as a whole but whose maintenance is essential to sustainabilityof irrigated crop production. It could be postulated, for example, that maintainingan overall salt balance, so that salt inflow and outfloware equated, is not relevant to the essentialcondition of maintaininga salt balance in the root zone. Would not salt simply he washed into saline groundwater areas where its presence does not matter since such waters are not being used? In an extreme scenario, it is possible to envisage a situation in which all groundwater is saline, but crop production is maintainedby rigorous water management. In practice, such a situation would be so sensitive to change and the management requirements so exacting that sustainabilitywould be questionable. 7-15 Fig 7.2 INCOMINGSALT DISTRIBUTIONAND SCOPE OF ITS DISPOSAL INDUS NORTHERNZONE 1 17 WESTERNRIVERS 3~~~~~~~~~~~~t 2.8 0.7 11~~~~~~~1 1.5~~~2. SOUTHERNZONE _ 1 [ ~~~~~~4.3 3. rn. 0.6_ ASSUJMPTIONS _ _ 1. SALT CONCENIRAT1 AT RNS STATION 150 Pp. _ 2. SALT CONCENTRATIONAT 0WTR1ZO00wZ S AVERAGEINFLOW 145 MAF 8. | s - -- - ;---; - -t - ; *3'2;8 l~~~~RBA . ,..XSEA -=z. -'--- River Indus At Taunso (Below) Fig: 7.3 Flow tb Soils Oultlow lUll 14 - - _ 3.5. 12 - __ _ -3 10 2. 16 -- - . Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan reb Mlar Month River Chenob At Puninad (Below) 72 Flowit1ll*) Salt. OtfltOw EMIl- ,4 4- ______- 1__ 10 W 44 River Indus At Kotri (Below) 119 Month*- | ~~~~AprMlay JuJn Jul Aug Sep Octl Nov Dec Jnn reb' Mar Fic- ~ ~ 1 r10wI OlMI[ Salt Outflow (4 9-s ,~~~~~~~~~~~~ RIVER FLOWS AND SALT OUTFLOWS AT SELECTED BARRAGE SITES The potentialimportance, or the present worries aboutthe possibleimpact of a worseningsalt balance in the basin as a whole cannot be dismissed.This highlights the importanceof the new or additional modellingwork now proposed. Whateverthe results of such studies, it seems absolutelyclear that improved water management,in all its aspects, must assumevery high, perhaps the highest priority of all, in both the mid-andlong-term. 7.63 Financial Viability Related to the issue of salt balance, for the sustainabilityof irrigated agriculture, is the equallyimportant issue of maintainingthe drainage systemstheir effectiveoperation. It must be recognisedthat drainagesystems would require O&M for all times to come and thus this would mean recurrent allocation of sizeable financial resources. Unless these financial resources could be recouped out of the benefits of drainage, its viability and sustainability would be in jeopardy. Past experiencehas indicatedthat cross subsidizationis not possible to the required extent. 7.7 Towards Mid-Term and Long-Term Drainage Strategies 7.7.1 Overall Objectives The overall long-termaim must be to ensurethe sustainabilityof the systemand to provide the conditionswhich allow the fullest productive use of available water, which must be regarded as a limitingand limited resource.Two principalobjectives can bjeidentified whose attainmentis necessaryto achieve this overall long-termaim achievementof a salt balance in the crop root zone, and - achievementor at least moving,towards a balance, within the basin as a whole, between salinitycoming into the system and salinitydisposed into the sea. The extent to which the second objective can be achieved,or indeed needs to be achievedin attainingthe first, the absolutelyessential one, is not at the present time endrely clear. But it must be correct to move towards correcting what could be an increasingly adverse imbalance(salt build-upwithin the system)or at least to prevent it becomingworse. 7.7.2 Mid-Term Strategy (up to Year 2000) The principalgoverning objectivesof mid-termstrategy should be to promote projects and activities which assist development or remove development constraints without initiating developmentswhich could increasesalt build-up in the system. At the same time studiesand associatedactivities should be initiated,extended and rigorouslypursued to resolve limiting issues, principallyresolution of the basin salt-balancequestion and safe ultimatedisposal of saline drainage effluent. To these ends mid-term strategic componentscould include: 7-16 The main principle governingselection of project in the mid-termshould be that no projects should be undertaken which mobilisesalts from deep groundwaterstorage unless such salts can be safely disposed to the sea; or, at the very least, such projects should be undertaken only with extreme cautionand withdue regard to drainagemitigation. This effectivelymeans that no additional SGW tubewell schemes disposing into temporary storage should be undertaken, and perhapsalso additionalwater - if available- shouldnot be supplied to areas where this could accelerate the need for such drainage. Drainage schemes in the mid-term should therefore concentrateon surface schemes where disposal can be achievedby mixing into river water, thoughinterventions on a smaller scale to tackleparticular problemsin SGW areas need not be excluded.Projects in the mid-term could therefore include: - Tile drainageand surface drainage schemes; - Small schemesto deal with urgent or damaging drainage or public health problemsrelated to severe canal seepage(interceptor drains, skimmingwells and tree plantations),urban or peri-urban drainage, air fields etc. - Mitigatory measures in cases where damaging envirenmental impact on wetlandsor other resourceshas been or can be established. - improvingefficiency of operationof present drainage schemes. Investig!ationsand Studies TMeseshould be concentratedon resolutionof issues affectinglonger-term strategy, and on evaluating drainage related situationsalready identifiedwhich are causing concern. Studies required would include: Modellingstudies in connectionwith evaluatingthe feasibilityand importance of achievingbasin salt balance, with particular reference to the mechanism of salt transfer and storagewithin the basin. This may well be the single most importantrecommendation to be made. Studies to determine the feasibility of disposal to the sea of saline groundwater from areas upstream of Sindh: essentially the extension northwardsand enlargementof LBOD. Studies to determine the reasons for and solutions to the problems of soil profile salinizationin fresh groundwaterareas of Punjab which are drained by tubewells, and their extent beyond areas where they have so far been identified(SCARP I and Mona). Such studies should also determine whether the depth of the fresh/saline groundwater interface has changed since first investigated, in relation to sustainabilityof this hydrologicallyenclosed area. It is in this area, also, that present concerns about salt build-up in the system are strongest and most justifiable,since large amountsof salts are beingmobilised from groundwater by both public and private tubewell systems. 7-17 Expansion and developmentof field trials of salt tolerant crops and trees (large scale in connectionwith trees capableof exploitingor controllinghigh watertables). Determinationof acceptablesalinity levels in river water (which may have to be stricter upstreamthan downstream)in order to ensure stabilityof drainage effluenttransfer into the river. Legislationand Institutions - Pressing for inmmediateformal ratification and implementation of the EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance and the NationalConservation Strategy. - Requiring preparationof EnvironmentImpact Assessments(EIA's) for all major projects proposedboth by public and private sector organizations,and formal incorporationof this requirementin planningproposal document. - Settingup EA cells in all relevant line Departments: - Strengtheningand wideningthe disciplinarycapability of ProvincialEPA's. - Requiring representation of EPA's and line Department EA cells (as appropriate)in Planningand DevelopmentWorking Parties (PDWP's). 7.73 Long-term Strategy (up to 2015) It has been made clear that there are major data and conceptualgaps which need to be filled before the longer-termmeasures neededto ensure sustainabilityand to improve productivity can be clearly identified.The studies proposedare designedto fill such gaps, and may well occupy much of the period up to year 2000. Beforethen, however,studies on LBOD extensionshould have been completed,allowing this developmentto proceed and new SGW drainage projects to be planned. The proviso here must be that, if the studies proposed indicate potential water shortages in the system (for additionaldisposal of salts out of the system in connectionwith establishinga salt-balanceor reducing imbalance,or if more water for leaching is needed for maintainingsalt balance in the root zone, or for other reasons) the relative priority of such projects would have to be reviewed. Longer-termpriorities might thereforeindude - Completion of drainage in SGW areas, both by surface drainage and by tubewells Continued work to increase efficiency of drainage and ensuring its sustainabilityby physical interventionand water management. 7-18 7.7.4 The Need for a Multi-disdplinary approach to Drainage A strategyfor drainagecannot be consideredseparately from one for irrigationand all the activities - technical, economic and social - concerned with agricultural production. As pointed out at the beginningof this section,the countryneeds - as an absolutepriority - to do all in its powerto ensuremaximum productivity from availablewater. This can neverbe achievedunless there is a vastly greater degree of integrationbetween all organization relevgntto this objective.Such integrationwill not be easy to achieve:the sectorapproach is ingrainedin muchof presentthinking - not only in Pakistan,of course.The need for it mustbe understoodand promotedin evervway possible,and at all levels.The participatory approachrecommended in Chapter 10 (Volume2) offersan importantway forwardin this respect. 7-19 CHAPTER8 FRAMEWORK FOR FUTURE ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENTS 8.1 The Need for EnvironmentalPolicies and Basin Management 8.1.1 The Need for Environmental Policies The growing awarenessof the importanceof adopting strategies which have the minimum adverse environmentaleffects indicatesthat environmentalpolicies should be an integral part of the managementof all publicand privatesectors. Environmentalpolicies provide guidelines on which options are acceptableand which need to be revised. The most obviousapplication is the adoption of rules regarding the requirementsfor specific levels of environmental assessmentfor the different activitiesin which the sector is engaged. But environmentalpolicies also relate to more general activities - for example, that power wastage should be reduced or recycled paper be used. Other areas includethe requirement to ensurethat suppliersand contractorsare screened to eliminatethose who do not themselves have a positiveapproach to environmentallyacceptable activities. In WAPDA, environmental policies should relate to all aspects of planning and developmentwhich are now recognised as being capable of affecting the environment- as, for example, those activities which it already recognises as being liable to EA procedures. They should also relate to internal operations and management (O and M), and to the selection of external businesses, contractorsand suppliersduring tendering. 8.1.2 Legislation and the Enforcement of Environmental Policies Effective legislation is the most effective tool in environmentalpolicy implementation.In order to achievethe managementcapability outlined above, the existingenvironment-related legislationneeds to be re-examinedand, where defectiveor inappropriate,suitably amended. It cannot be too strongly stressed that time is of the essence - further interminabledelays could lead to major irreversibleenvironmental calamity throughout the country, because the pressuresof unrestrainedpopulation growth are acceleratingchanges in the social structures of the country. At the April 1992 Lahore Workshop, delegates identifiedthe single most effective action which could be taken in Pakistanto promote effectivegeneral environmental management as the confirmationof Ordinance37, the PakistanEnvironmental Protection Act, 1983 (PEPA). Without full implementationof PEPA, and the strengtheningof the Provincial EPAs, the enforcementof legally binding water quality standardswill remain an impossibletask. So Basin management, and particularly salinity management, will remain an unachievable objective, and the control and managementof drainage effluents impossible. Other environmentallegislation exists, but it is fragmentaryand relativelypoorly appreciated. Nor is there evidence of the existence of any sanctions available to the ordinary people if 8-1 public sctor bodies which are responsiblefor implementingthe law fail to carry out their responsibilities.The office of Ombudsmanhas becomewidely accepted in Europe as one way of bridgingthe interestsof the public in cases in whichthe publicsector servantsneglect their trust in upholdingthe rule of law. There is scope for involvingthe ProvincialOmbudsmen in the settlingof environmentalcomplaints made by the public, since this would provide an alternativemethod of redressingwrongs in cases in which the EPAs, as official regulators, either cannot or refuse to act. Recently,the publichas begunto react stronglyto what it perceivesto be indifferenceby the public sector to the urgency of curbing the excessesof environmentalinsult to which the public are exposed. In Quetta, the preliminary hearingsof four journalists who registered ConstitutionalPetitions under Article 199 in the High Court againsttop officialsof WAPDA (Balochistan),WASA, PakistanTelecommunication Corporation, SUI GAs, and the Traffic Police for 'causing grave health and other hardships to the citizens throughtheir acts' was held on Sth October 1992. At the same time, the Human Rights Commissionof Pakistan threatenedlegal action against the BalochistanGovernment, alleging its failureto provide an adequatemosquito control programmeor sanitationprovisions in Quetta. The absence of ratificationof the PEPO does not therefore necessarilymean that no legal remediesfor the control of pollutionor other enviromnentalinsults are availableto the public. In the absenceof specificlegislation, infbrned membersof the public are increasinglytuming to constitutionalinstruments, to force attention to the need for adequate environmental management. Public sector managers shouldbe aware that such actions can place them and their personal assets at risk. Whereas the PEPO would provide powers only to the public sector itself (only the EPAs wouldbe empoweredto take action against polluters,for example),private sector legal actions allow anyone to hold public and private sector office holders personally accountablefor their failure to protectthe public from hazardscreated by their organisation's actions, or indeed their lack of actions. By adopting sectoral enviromental policies, and requiring their employees,associates and contractorsto work within such guidelines,much of this risk - both corporate and personal- could be avoided. 8.1.3 Integrating EA Methodologyinto National Planning EnvirommentalAssessment (EA) techniquespermit developmentplanning objectives to be balanced,and projects to relate to the interests of all sectors. Their adoptionthroughout the public sector would enablefuture growth to occur with the minimumof detrimentaleffects. In contrast, unbalancedor incompleteapplication will erode potentialachievements in many fields, simply because the impact of unfavourablechanges which may be ignored by one sector may undo much of the positive benefits which might be planned by another. For example, social and medical constraints may limit improvementsin rural welfare and the reaping of benefits which drainage may appear to offer. If EA is to fulfil the essentialplanning role which it is capableof providing,then it must be adopted across the board. It must be immuneto politicalmanipulation, inter-sectoral rivalries and internalmanagement disputes and power ploys.It also needsto be backedup by effective enforcementlegislation and sanctions. In the internationalcontext, projects which do not includeEA where it is considerednecessary cannot be funded- this is an effective sanction, arising out of the perception of their inherent environmentaland social responsibilitiesby Development Organisations. Until this responsibility is acknowledgedand accepted by 8-2 nationaldevelopment sectors, EA will not be effective. 8.1.4 Intra-seclorl Obstucton to Intoated Plnning Even if EA does become universally adopted, the quality of work performed by the practitionerswill not be at its best unless they find themselvesin a working environmentin which they are properly motivated.Many employeesare keen to develop their abilities, as expressedby the generallyexpressed perception of the personal and institutionalvalues of technicaltraining, but in practice the desire to achieveexcellence is tempered by a perceived need for promotion and better working conditions. So poor quality work is frequently ignored,usually with the claim that it is either someoneelse's fault or problem, or that some lack of equipment,funding or opportunityprevents the officer from achievingthose goals which he or she would like to achieve. Post-projectappraisals are almost never carried out adequately, mainly because the problems demonstratedare always dismissed as being the responsibilityof some other person. The root of the widespread disaffection in the public sector, in general, is scarcity of leadership at middle and higher managementlevels. This is compoundedby widespread pressurescaused by the lobbyingof influentialpoliticians and powerfulvested interests.Lack of leadership is explicitly demonstrated by the filure of the Pakistan Environmental ProtectionCouncil to meet and ratify the 1983 Ordinance in the nine years following its promulgation.The formulationof the NationalConservation Strategy as a voluntary code, linked to the. PEPO, also clearly indicatesthat responsibilityhas not been acceptedby the public sector for protectingPakistan's environmentalheritage, despite repeated declarations of high intent. The need to formulate and enforce national strategieswhich are capable of integratingthe many sectoral interests and responsibilitiesshould be a prime priority. Such strategiesare essential in water resource management, to eliminate the divisions between irrigation, drainage and agriculture. 8.1.5 Linkages between the Drainage Sector and other Sectors Within the public sector itself, there will be many occasions when different sectors have to co-operatewith the assessingbody in order to achieve a valid environmentalappraisal of proposals. Unfortunately,there is evidence of a marked lack of inter-sectoralcooperation which will be a major stumbling block in achieving multi-disciplinaryenvironmental managementin Pakistan. This attitude needs to be changedquicidy - single disciplinespecialists should not exercise thei. undoubted technical expertise on challenging multi-dimensionalproblems of the environment, in isolation from the rest of the population. There is almost no interaction between many of these sectors, and it is difficult to comprehend how such a situation developed. Field interviews suggest that there is plenty of room for improvementin the praclicalexercise of manytechnical disciplines within the public sector, regardlessof the area of specialisation.There is, for example, no single authorityresponsible for research on soil salinity and its implications- indeed, the links between the engineering sectors within the water supply infrastructure and agriculture are tenuous at best. Yet the sole purpose of irrigationis to provide a service for the agriculturalbase on which Pakistanis so dependent. 8-3 Under such circumstances,the need for a radicalreorganisation of these sectors, and the developmentof new and appropriateNational Policies, with adequate objectives and goals, is essential.This need goes beyondpurely Sectoral interests. The Indus Basin is a highly complexsystem, involving basic resources,human activities and infrastructures,and some very volatileand vulnerableresources which may requiredisproportionate support. There is a clear needto developan integratedNational Drainage Programme, comprising a programme of activities aimed at reclaiming damaged soils and preventing future accumulationof these same problems.But the environmentalanalysis shows that the Indus Basin and its resourcesshould be treated as a range of interacting,mutually dependent resourceswhich can onlybe protectedor conservedas an integrated system , and not as if each sector were in some way functionallyand administrativelyseparate from the others. Attemptingto developseparate policies for eachsector would be as absurdas havingdifferent repair policiesfor eachof a pair of shoes. 8.1.6 The Need for an Indus Basin Water ResourceManagement Policy The managementof river flows for irrigation is highly developed. However, the fragmentationof the publicsector is extremelysevere, and there is little or no collaboration betweenwater users, eitheron a Provincialor a Nationalscale. Becausewater distribution is controlledby a systemof indents,only those who have alreadybeen allocateda place withinthe indentsystem have any authoritativevoice in the local allocationof water. So whilst agriculturaland, to some extent, hydro-powergenerating interests are able to requisitiontheir ownshares of the commonwater, all otherlegitimate interests have to hope that their needs willbe servedby a fortuitous'trickle down' from agriculture,like crumbs from a benevolentpatron's table. Nearly 40% of the total irrigationwater in the Indus Basin is suppliedfrom groundwater sources,with more than73% of groundwaterbeing supplied from shallowprivate tubewells. Over the past two decades,yields of wheat,rice, cottonand sugar cane have stagnated,in spite of significantincreases in input levelsper hectare.A numberof studieshave cautioned about the potentialdangers from salinitythat might spread as a result of indiscriminate tappingof the groundwater,and recent studieshave shown that 50% of the groundwateris hazardousand another25% is just marginalfor crop productionin Punjab. Salinityand sodicityare being spread by the use of tubewellspumping brackish water, and have caused considerabledamage to the topsoil. In the past, studies by soil scientists identifiedthe problem,but their focuswas on the physicaldamage to the soil, and they did not quantifythe economiccosts, nor the potentialbenefits of changes in public policy.The issue of sustainabilityin the Indus Basin is multidimensionaland interdisciplinary,and problems of this magnitudeand complexitycall for tbe developmentof a new type of multidisciplinary-managementapproach (Akmal Siddiq, 1991). That this systemof water managementis alreadyfailing is quite apparent.Water pumped from the ground to alleviatewaterlogging is recycledas if it were primarilyan irrigation resource, withoutadequate understanding of its drainagefunction, and causingsevere soil degradationthrough the developmentof sodic soils over very large areas. Industrialists dischargeuntreated wastes, often containingextremely toxic materials,inrto surface waters, contaminatingdrains, rivers and groundwateraquifers alike. 8-4 8.1.7 The Hydraulic Model as a Water Management Tool In the physical managementof the Basinunder both normal and extreme conditions,the need for an effective predictive tool is clear. Hydraulic models are designed for use in water managementand flood forecasting, and should be adopted in Pakistan. There are three reasons for recommendingthis: 1. They are widely used throughoutthe world, and have been validated under a large number of operating conditions.Their abilities and limitationsare therefore well appreciated.Their value as a flood control simulationtool is established, and much of the historical baseline gauging data needed for initialcalibration are already availablein Pakistan. 2. Some models have a water quality sub-model which can be linked to the hydraulic base model. This can be used to simulate both salt dispersion thrcughout the Indus system and the more localised dynamics of pollutant disposal, dilution and degradation. 3. Methodologyis available which allows interpretationof the changes in the hydraulic regime of a river system to be applied in a wide range of environmentalfields. In Bangladesh, MIKE-lI General Model is in use and all Environmental Assessments involvingthe Jamuna-Meghna-GangesRiver Complexare ad6pting the interpretivesystem for environmentalanalysis developed by Cross (1992).This methodologypermits the analysis of the implicationsof changes in the hydraulic regimeof the river and floodplainon human and other environmentalinterests. It is now being extended to the fields of agriculture, fisheries,public health, and associatedenvironmental aspects of water management,with far greater reliability. In a major regional study it has been stated clearly that any attemptto carry out EA on projects in which the movement of surface waters is a significant component cannotbe consideredto be acceptableunless it takes into accountthe data availablefrom the application of hydraulic modelling to the examinationof available options. The same conclusionwould be legitimatein Pakistanif such a model were to be adoptedand validated. 8.2 Environmental Capability 8.2.1 Multi-sectoral Development The assessment of impacts and constraints presented in Chapter 6 indicates the inter- dependence of a very wide range of sectors, and the constraints on successful project developmentwhich inadequaciesin even one sector can produce. No drainage project can achieve its full benefits if constraintsin other sectors are not also mitigated. It is thereforeessential that future drainage projectsbe formulatedwith adequateassessment of these constraints, and that implementationshould includeeffective sectoral strengthening and support in such closelyrelated areas as human and livestockhealth and welfare, natural resources, and the socio-economicand cultural aspects appropriateto the specific areas in which they will be located. 8-5 This implies a degree of inter-sertoral collaboration and managementwhich is lacking at present. Barriers to collaboration are built into the public sector, and until an active policy of integration is adopted, project implementationwill continueto be confined in its horizons and achievements. Mobility between sectors should be encouraged and rewarded, since it promotes a wider understandingof the problems and potentials in other sectors. 8.2.2 Constraints or Staff Motivation in the Drainage Sector The existing system of administration in most Government sectors actively promotes the fragmentationof responsibility.Consequently, the skill of active decision-making at all but the highest levels is virtually absent. So data are collectedas if this were an end in itself, and detailed critical appraisal is rare. This has produced the situation in which obvious defects in function in many sectors of the environment are ignored, or not even recognised. At the Training Workshops the constraints imposed by Departmentalstructures and incentives were explored in some detail. The results of the September/October1992 Training Workshops reveal that there is a very strong disaffection amongst public sector staff, not only within the drainage sector but in many others as well. The lack of incentiveto produce quality work, especially amongst highly trained and capable staff, inevitably weakens the sectors, and erodes the personal perceptionsof professionalvalues which in many staff is initially strong. The deficiencies identified at the Workshops reveal poor staff relations and weak leadership throughout the hierarchy. The defect is not purely in under funding - although this naturally has an adverse effect - but in poor coordination, derogation of responsibility, and uncertain promotion mechanisms which appear to many to make all ideas of training pointless. Surprisingly, there is still a very great desire for advancedon-the-job training at almost all levels. This poor motivation and sense of frustration are the root cause of the failure of almost all sectors to progress along lines which are actually very clear to most officers. They present probably the largest obstacle to the development of effective environmental implementation in Pakistan in the immediate future. As a cogent example of the, political weakness evident to all, the lack of completion of the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance is seen by all staff as a clear indication that the will to tackle the environmental problems facing the country is weak or even absent. The preparation of the National Conservation Strategy as a voluntary code, with no effective enforcement procedures is widely recognised as being closely related to this procrastination over environmentalmanagement. Similarly, the failure of the Irrigation Sector even to enforce its own powers to control the discharge of polluting matter to canals and drains under the Canals and Drains Act (1873), an effective power held by that sector for 120 years, erodes the confidenceof the EPAs anti othfergroups that they will ever actually be able to protect the environment as their jobs seem to expect them to do. 8.23 The Need for Sectoral Audits in Pakistan The most effective method for addressingthe problems within the sector is to introduce the use of organisation and management(O and M) Audits in Pakistan. These are not financial 8-6 audits (althoughthey may contain an clement of financial efficiency appraisal). 0 and M audits examine the performanceof an organisationin relation to its own defined objectives. goals, and statutoryobligations. Their purpose is not solely to identifyweaknesses, bottlenecks and inadequatecoverage, or weed out unsuitably placed individualswithin the organisation. They are also aimed at identifyingwhat strengthsare present and how to managethese resourcesto improvethe rest of the organisation's performance. Some years ago, the Punjpb Fisheries Research and TrainingInstitute subjecteditself to such an audit; as a result, it was able to reorganise and rapidly developedinto a leading Centre of Excellencein its field in SouthernAsia. As has been shown in this Study, the compilationof any valid EnvironmentalAssessment requiresthe coordinationof specialistsfrom many disciplines,and impliesthat, once this has been accomplished,some sort of effective control on the adverse impacts expected will be available. Coordinationrequires that each unit within the collaboratinggroups should itself be effective. Untilthe problemof sectoraleffectivity has been addressedand developed,there can be no coordinatedaction to protectthe environment.Sectoral Audits are the only doorway to developingthat capability, since they provide an opportunitytQ develop environmental policieswithin the organisation. It is relevant to point out here that, in many respects, the present Sectoral Environmental Assessmentis closely related to an EnvironmentalAudit. Although it does not examine all aspectsof the drainage sector in full detail, it is not limitedto the assessmentof the physical and dependentconsequences of drainage activities. It also attempts to identifyexternal and internal constraintson sectoral efficiencyand the achievingof specific goals, and indicates in oudine how those defects and problemsmight be overcome in the future. 8.2.4 EnviromenftalResponsibilities of the Drainage Sector Although it is widely discussed, the conceptof an 'environmental policy for drainage' is remarkablydifficult to define. Part of the problem lies in the role of drainageas a mitigating action for irrigation. Drainage is simply concernedwith moving water from a place where it is not wanted. The most pertinent questionat this stage is simply, can the drainage sector properlybe held to be the vehicle for responsibilityfor the problemscaused by deficiencies of other departments? For example, the developmentof soil sodicitywhen slightlysaline effluents are reused over long periodsfbr irrigationcan be highly damaging,but it is not an activitywhich is primarily due to drainage. It is the reuse of this water by the irrigation and agriculture sectors which leads to sodicity, not the action of drainage itself. So responsibilityfor this rests with the irrigation and agriculturesectors, and not drainage. In attemptingto develop an environmentalpol icy for drainage, it is essential to have clear definitionsof which impacts are caused bv drainage and which are not, and which policies are or should be administered by the drainage sector and which are more properly the responsibilityof others. If the Consultantsrecommend a blanket solution, with the drainage sector taking on the whole responsibilityfor all the supposed environmentalimpacts which might be attributed to drainage, then there is a danger that other sectors will feel that such pre-emptionof authority is not acceptable.Still others may find in this an opportunityto abrogatetheir own responsibilities. 8-7 There are clearly a number of issues which require to be clarified by discussion and negotiation across the whole range of the water sector before it will be possible to decide exactly how the water sector as a whole should allocatesuch responsibilities.Some of these issues are difficult, and involve political goals and objectives which cannot at present be changed. In such cases, the questionsneed to be asked, how permanent are these goals, and if they could be revised in the light of new analysis, what are the directions and time scales which might be acceptableto the Governmentof Pakistan? In other cases, we have presented the case for and against a number of issues as being within or without the remit of the drainage sector. Such demarcations are aimed at clarifying responsibilitiesand constraints, not at hiving off drainageresponsibilities onto other sectors. 8.2.5 Responsibility of EPAs for Environmental As _sment At least in the immediateforeseeable future, the EPAs will not have the capacityto carry out full-scaleEAs on all project proposals, nor do we recommendthat they shouldbe steered in that direction.It is normal practice to require that project proposersprovide an Environmental Assessment or Statement when they submit the proposal for scrutiny by the Regulators (EPAs). Whilstthe EPAs then become responsiblefor qualitycontrol, the Line Agenciesare responsiblefor developingtheir capacity for EA work, and should form multi-disciplinary teams able to cope with the projected workloads. Theseteams may be internal - i.e all the members of the tean being employedpermanently by the sector - or they may be intersectoral,and able to provide services to all the component sectors. WAPDAs EnvironmentalCell is an example of an internal unit, but we see no objectionto the formationof intersectoralunits. Such compositegroups could be strengthened on a rotatingbasis by newcomersfrom each sector, who would then be able to take back their experience to their own sectors after a period of 'on-the-job' training, as well as develop closer inter-sectorallinks for the future. 8.2.6 Domestic Capability in Environmental Assessment EnvironmentalAssessment of the standardrequired for major projects funtdedby the principal Lending Agencies requires a very high level of enviromnentalexpert se. This is currendy unavailablein Pakistan, although there is some capabilitywithin individualdisciplines. A major concern is the severe imbalancebetween professional disciplines.Even within the EPAs themselvesthere is a strong preponderanceof engineering graduates and very few qualifiedchemists, biologists, medicalor sociologygraduates. The lack of appreciationof the ecological, epidemiological,social or agriculturalimpacts of even major interventionsis a serious impedimnentto the implementationof environmentallysound developments. Such imbalancesmust not be allowed to develop within the SectoralEnvironmental Cells. The immediateneed to fulfil the requirementsfor EA for donor-fundedprojects means that for some time to come local and foreign consultantsand specialistsjointly will have to lead the assessment teams. To develop environmental assessment capabilities within the departments, specific courses - both external and, more relevantly, internal 'on the job' courses - are needed with adequatecareer structures and incentivesto provide the motivation essentialfor such demandingwork. 8-8 8.2.7 Providing Environmental Assessment Capability There have been numeroussuggestions that EPAs shouldperform all EAs. This is clearly unworkable- there are sinply too many line agenciesproposing projects for which EIAs shouldbe performed. Nor is there the capacitywithin the line agenciesthemselves to do the ElAs. One possible solution would be to establish a Service Unit capable of carrying out multipleEIAs for line agencies,with the EPAs scrutinisingthese studies according to their own standards. This has the advantageof establishingthe EPAs as 'watchdog' organisations,able to carry out qualitycontrol studieson ElAs wheneverthey feel this mightbe appropriate. This would avoid the EPAs becominginvolved in what is basicallya routine service exercise, and also induce a keener awarenessof enviromnentalconcerns withinthe line agencies. Tbe Service Unit could be a specialunit within the Governmentalsystem. The Planningand DevelopmentDepartment seems to be the most appropriateorganisation to take over this role, since it is capable of regulating development according to clear environmental policy guidelines, provided that such environmentalpolicies are formulated and implemented.It should be able to carry out ELAs itself, but also to contract the work out to commercial consultantsif it becomesoverloaded, or where especiallystringent assessment is required for which internationallevel expertiseis necessary. In the EPAs and WAPDA Cell, intensivetraining in more advanced EA techniques is a prerequisitefor carrying out their own EAs, or for evaluatingEAs submittedfor scrutiny by other Line Agencies. An assessmentof the needs for such training is provided under the Training Chapter. 8.2.8 Assessment Team Formation We have indicatedthat Line Agenciesshould establish permanent EA teams for providingthe essential inputs to project preparation. Permanent assessment teams should, wherever possible, be formed from a core of individualswho are able to appreciateat a reasonable level the importance and validity of the data which they obtain in the field and during research. Whilst some degree of expertise is essential, broadly educated people generally provide a better core team than pure specialists. The screening process indicatesvery quicldy which specialistdisciplines cannot be covered by permanentteam members.The ICID Checklistspecifically requires such under-represented fields to be identifiedso that an appropriateexpert can be called in on a short-term basis to make good the deficiency. 8.3 Tools for Managing EnvironmentalPolicies 8.3.1 Methodology The methodologyadopted for thi%Study involved the use of a checklistand specificsystems analysis where remote impactswere possible.The Lahore and Karachi Workshops imparted basic understandingof this method of assessment.Although some participantsinitially found some of the concepts difficult,the Workshopseventually proved to many that they had skills and experience within their own fields which could contribute significantly to multidisciplinaryenvironmental studies. 8-9 Scapingand scroeming using the Checklist teclhnique Checklistmethodology is straightforward,intuitively simple, and appears to have been well- received. Whilstit does not have the apparentsophistication of more complexquasi-numerical methods, it is easy to apply and ensures that all the importantissues are consideredfrom the earliest stages. Tbe use of the alternative matrix methodologyis, in our view, difficult to justify in Pakistan. It implies an often unwarranteddegree of precision, which is difficult to justify under the constraints of lack of data which presemly dominate all attempts to draw conclusionsin environmentalfields. We therefore recommend that initial training in checklist methodology,covering all fields indicated in the ICID Checklistused at the Workshops, should form the foundation of EA training in Pakistan. At a subsequentmore advanced level, the use of systems analysis to define secondaryimpacts and linkages, should be added, since this is of particular relevance to the complexinteractions whichdevelop in the Indus Basin. This is an area in which much could be achieved by suitable training and re-orientation courses. Those people who are interested in a stimulatingchange to a more applied field within their career should be selected, encouraged, and above all supported in moving into environmentalassessment. But the need for improvingtheir job satisfaction is critical. This is even more the case for the few women employed in the public sector; many have remarkablyuseful skills and abilitiesto bring to EIA work. It should never be forgotten that only women have free and relaxed access to women in the field - yet women comprise half of all the potential people exposedto environmentalimpacts from developmentworks which are almost exclusively designedby men. I lie processesused in screeningthe initialrange of concernsexpressed to this Study involved very substantialpublic involvement,not only within the drainagesector but elsewhere with other public sectors, NGOs, and the general public in the field. Opportunitiesfor the latter were not as extensiveas would have been ideal, due in large part to the absenceof adequate sociologicalrepresentation on the team. Such defects emphasisethe need for a reappraisalof attitudes to project evaluation in Pakistan. Screeningmethodology should be broadly based and open ended - there shouldalways be a readinessto expand the field coveredshould scoping and screeningprocesses indicateunusual interests or unexpected implicationsof the proposed project. 83.2 Grading of Projects for their EA Needs Not all projects will produce notable negative impacts. A system of categories into which most types of development will fall, and for which different degrees of detail may be stipulated for EA, would reduce the amount of work which the EnvironmentalCells and EPAs wIll need to carry out. One way in which the worldoad in EA can be reduced is to grade developmentsaccording to their probable need for formal EA. Whlst the World Bank format provides guidelineson the criteria for selecting which projects need EA, this is a fairly inflexiblesystem, as there is no provisionfor carrying out a more restricted scope analysiswhere circumstanceswarrant it. The British ODA guidelinespermit the decision to be deferred until after an initial EnvironmentalStatement has been prepared; if it turns out that a reduced EA will suffice. then this is allowed. 8-10 The main problem in this is in establishingexactly what specificationsmust be appliedto such work. Argumentswith powerful industrialistsover whether or not an 'EA' which they have produced for their proposed developmentis of an acceptablequality can tie up resources interminably.A system of qualitycontrol, with appropriateenforcesK -a powers,is essential to the efficientoperation of this type of monitoring. 833 yield Investigations Whilst standard techniquesare availablefor assessingagricultural, soil, water quality and a range of biological impacts of development,the methodologyavailable for assessmentsof other factrs is less well appreciated. Two important fields which have been almost completelyneglected in Pakistan so far are health and social impacts, and these are briefly dealt with below. (a) Health impact assessment The constraintswhich are exertedon productivityby poor health indicate an urgent need for incorporatingHealth ImpactAssessment as an integralcomponent of ELApractice in Pakistan. It is quite clear that drainageprojects will only attaintheir full beneficial potentialif all tte needs and constraintsoperating in the rural sectors are addressed. The World Health Organisation(WHO) has developeda simple checklist system which can be appliedto any drainage (or indeed any other water sector) development,and the adoption of these guidelinesand methodologyis recommendedas an effective first stage in developing methodologywhich is specifically appropriate to conditions in Pakistan. The system is containedin WHO/CWS/91.3- 'Guidelinesfor forecastingthe vector-borneimplications of water resourcesdevelopment'. Whilst it does not cover problems related to non-vector-borne contactdiseases such as dysentery, cholera,etc, mostof the major disease concernsassociated with land development and reclamation are examined and mitigation recommendations provided. (b) Social impact assessment TMelack of attentionto potentialsocial impacts in previous developmentplanning has been emphasised in Chapter 6, and the correspondingrarity of professional sociologistsin the environment-relatedpublic sector organisationsis a major deficiency in staffing. Sociological surveys are extremely difficult to plan and carry out, because it is very easy to influence public attitudes, distortingresponses and invalidatingconclusions. It is thereforeessential to develop skilledsociological capabilities within the drainagesector, in order to permit adequateconsideration to socio-economicand cultural demandswhich may greatly affect the non-engineeringvalidity of drainage projects. Socio-economicsurveys require substantialstatistical analysis inputs, and training in efficient data processing,using such softwareas 'Epistat' and related epidemiologicalprogrammes, is highly recommended. The need for womensociologists is especiallyimportant in Pakistan, where accessto women in the rural areas is highly problematicalfor male workers, and in both health and sociology there should be a substantialfemale presenceon EA teams. 8-1I (c) Impact asess_met and mitigtion actions The final analysis of EA field data can be accomplishedby the specialists in the EA team, but tie overall assessment requires a breadth of experience that is still not available in Pakistan. Working with internationalexperts on the final synthesisand evaluationof the overall effects of major projects is the only way in which this skill and judgement can be developed. Individuals who have the potential ability to take on such demanding work in the Line Agencies and the EPAs and EnvironmentalCells shouldbe releasedon mediumterm practical training assigments under the wing of competent EnvironmentalAssessment Consultants, with Donor Agency support. Identifyingmitigation actions requires the abilityto comununicate effectivelywith experts in a wide range of fields. Only through this facility will Pakistanistaff have the opportunity to progress in this extremely complex skill. 8.3.4 Environmental Quality Standards in the Drainage Sector Environmentalquality standardsrelating to effluents have alreadybeen adopted by the EPAs, but there are as yet no ambient water quality standards. This situation is obviously unacceptable- it is quite impossibleto protect the health and welfare of the public if there are no officially enforceable standards which can be applied and which would be the yardstick for determining whether enforcementactions can be taken. The imposition of any relevant standards is however, dependenton the final ratificationof PEPA (1983). Ambient quality standardsare in force in many different countries, and usually the standards applied to a specific waterway or source relate to the minimum requirements of the 'most sensitive user'. So if human public health concerns are paramount,because the water source is used extensivelyas a potable supply, then standards designed to prevent significanthealth risks would apply. If elsewherethe 'most sensitive user' is fish, and human health hazards are not significant, then the quality of water required by that type of fish would be applied. This system has the advantage of flexibility, and does not demand unnecessarily high standards of processing where there is not a high enviromnentalrisk. In should be remembered that in general groundwater suppliesfrom relatively deep aquifers, provided they are not saline, are generally of better quality and pose less risk than sirface water supplies. The standards applied should therefore reflect a realistic appreciationof the relative merits of different supplies. 83.5 Protection of Downstream Riparian Interests A knowledge of crop tolerances to the contaminants of irrigation water already provides guidelines on what standards need to be applied to protect different crops at various stages in their development. However, whilst such guidelines are adequate for local, project-level operations, the problem posed by the increasing re-use of effluents as the waters pass down the Indus Basin suggests that applying a single, universal set of standards across the whole country may present difficulties. In order to protect the lower riparians, the salinity of effluents discharged by upper users must not exceed levels which cannot be adequatelydiluted downstreamby low-salinitywater sources. If the downstream riparians are not protected adequately, then they will be forced 8-12 to use water which is unsafefor their needs, resultingin reduced agriculturalproductivity and damageto soils. Settingappropriate guidelines for water quality at the downstreamuser point is not difficult - the same cnteria apply for crops whereverthey are grown. But managingupstream drainage quality to achieve such an end may be a more difficult problem, and one which must be solved within the next decade at most. This may well mean that it may be necessaryto set water quality criteria for drainage effluents(and limits on quantitiesalso) in the higher parts of the Basin which are actually more stringent than those applied downstream. The only managementtool which will Drovidethe guidar.ceto achievethis degree of controlthroughout the Basin is a water quality model. 8.4 External Constaints on Drainage Policies 8.4.1 Long-term Policies and the Future Value of Water Despitetheir recognisedhazards, the re-use of slighty saline waters and appropriateleaching appear to allow for the developmentof applicationregimes which might permit a salt balance in irrigatedland to be developed.This sacrificialwater is not wasted - it is essentialto future agricultural sustainabilitythat an appropriate proportion of the available water supply be allocatedto maintainingthe salt balance in the root zone throughproper salt leaching, and to the transport of salt at acceptabledilutions through the systemto ultimatedisposal in the sea. lhis may implythat on a Basin scale this might require some reductionof the total irrigated area until a balance between water availabilityand salt transport can be achieved. It must be recognisedthat there is an absolute limit to all resouice exploitation,and that for agricultureat least this limit will be set by water availability.The objectiveof the water and agriculturesectors shouldbe to develop an agriculturalsystem in which the productivityper unit of water is used as the criterion of efficiency.If this criterion is valid, then it may be that some areas presendy under irrigation would be viewed as being relatively inappropriatefor irrigation, since they waste water which might be more effectivelyused elsewhere on more suitablesoils. Althoughthis would have extremelyserious socio-economicimplications, the possibilitymust be recognisedthat this issue mighthave to be faced at some time in the not too distantfuture. The need to develop sustainableagriculture, whatever the problemsand objectionswhich may be presentlyvoiced, demandsthat such unpleasantchoices must be faced as early as possible. Unless there is very rapid progress in uprating agriculturalefficiency, population growth and food demand will overtake agriculturalproductivity; if water resources subsequentlyimpose a criticalconstraint on the food production,then a crisis in food productionwill be inevitable. The drainagesector has a vital role to play in supportingthe developmentof more efficient irrigationand agriculturalpractices, since it has the potentialto becomea boundaryconstraint on agriculture. The perception of drainage as an end in itself must be replaced by a recognitionof its controlling influenceon, and linkages with, the managementof the entire agriculturalsector throughoutthe Indus Basin. 8-13 8.42 Population Trends and the Drainage Sedor What relevance does populationgrowth have to drainage? Simply that as the pressure on the resource approaches its limits, demands for even poor quality groundwaterfor recycling to agriculture will increase, despite the well-knownrisks of secondary salinisationand induced sodicity. Unless it is properly managed, the quality of drainage water is likely to become worse. The only way in which this conflictcan be reduced is to learn to use water much more efficiently for agriculture - in other words, to avoid the need for increasing the areas of agriculture beyond the capacity of the availablewater supply when proper regard is given to both crop requirementsand leaching. A second factor related to populationgrowth is also active but largely unappreciated.Whilst population is growing at over 3% per annum, work opportunity in agriculture is increasing much more slowly. In a recent analysis, SayedSabir Shah (The PakistanTimes, 3rd October 1992) compared the projected agriculturaldemand for labour witn the growth in population to the end of the present decade. Using existing estimates of crop-wise employment coefficients, cropping patterns in each agro-ecological zone, changing crop intensities and yields, and existing trends in mechanisation,he suggestedthat a net annual growdxrate of 3.7% can reasonablybe expected in the agriculture sector over the next 8 years. This will increase the labour demand in the agricultuwalsector by 292 million man days per anrn, capable of absorbing the labour of 8.4 million people. The probable population increase in the same time will be 36 million people. He argues that it will not be possibleto absorb the excess -over 25 million people - into urban areas. In other words, rural populationswill inevitably increase faster than their capacity to generate new employmentin agiculture alone. So pressures on water resources will increaserapidly in the agriculturalareas, and especially for the provisionof potable water suppliesto rural townships. Non-agriculturalindustries will proliferate in these locations, placing new constraints on drainage waters, though their uncontrolled discharge of highly polluting effluents. Since we have already observed that polluted water in drainage channels can pass rapidly into the adjacent aquifers in many areas, tubewell drainage is capable of playing an increasing part in the distnbution of toxins over the agricultural land, and into domesticwater supplies. The responsibilityfor this cannot be attributed to the drainage sector, if for no other reasons than that there is simplyno legal provisionby which it is able to regulate such developments. Even the irrigation sector no longer has access to any control over water quality issues, since the recent withdrawingof its powers to prosecute under the 1873 Canals and Drains Act by the High Court (a power which it has never shown the slightest interest in using in any case). Assuming that the PEPO were finally to become effective, it would be the responsibility of the EPAs alone to exert control in this field. The drainage sector's objective should therefore be to lobby for more effective development zone planning and control, to minimisethe inevitableincrease in the risk of exposure of the rural populationsto hazardouscontaminants from future rural industrialexpansion. This must be accompaniedby pressure on the PEPC to ratify the full implementationof PEPO as soon as possible, so that it can work in collaboration with the EPAs to reduce the risks of contaminationat source. 8-14 8.43 The Importance of Intangible Assets-Environmental Quality, Culture and Aesthetic Values The widespreadJack of appreciationthat environmentalquality has a value, even though it may not easily be quantifiablein conventionalfinancial or other measurableterms, suggests that aesthetic values relating to the quality of the environmentmay require special attention if such criteria are to be incorporatedinto formal domesticEIA methodology.Any significant cultural artifacts, regardlessof their specificsocial or religiousorigin, are worth preserving and protecting, and the comprehensiveassessment of prjects requires an appreciationof the need to protect all worthy aesthetic property. This is true whether the assessor is dealing with the impactsof drainage on the stability of sites such as Moenjodaroor the ability of a poor fisherman's wife to make handicraftproducts using materialsshe finds in the forests or wetlands. Conservationissues tend also to fall into this category, and indeed, many conservationinterests are in large part aesthetic in nature. There is therefore a need to incorporate the skills and perceptions of those who have the abilitiesto discern the less tangible abstract values of amstheticproperties, and to allocate these resources appropriateweight within the overall assessmentof project proposals. 8.4.4 Conservation The need for addressing conservation issues has been emphasised above. The guidelines provided by the National Conservation Strategy cover both national interests and those concernsof inernational relevance. Whilst it is felt that the NCS does not go far enough, in that its policies are not enforceable and therefore open to disregard, the approach to conservationis tO be applauded. As far as the drainage sector is concerned, it is almost impossible to separate its responsibilitiesfrom thoseof the irrigationsector. Future drainage schemesshould therefore be appraised from the viewpointsof both sectors, since it is very likely that local sites of special value or interest could be managed effectivelyunder collaborativeaction by both sectors. To assist this process, an audit of all sites which have current or potential value should be made, so that an effective managementstrategy can be developedfor future guidance. This should be carried out under the aegis of the InternationalUnion for the Conservationof Nature (IUCN), to ensure that internationalvalues and concerns are incorporatedinto the classificationof sites of value. 8-15 PLATE I a SALINTY CO. .ROL AND RECLAMATIONPROJECTS PESH ~~~PUNJAB t a 8 '~~~~~~~~~~scarpi1 7. LarkanaPlot 1~~~~~~~~~~oa Scar :Nlon SaM S.4 S~ Ij Bw P.G.W. *j * r!s,Pilwl F 3 Scmp ISa 9. LadksnaShelea 4. Shanour 10. LE.LOD. Coe Progean.ri(pinal o-nl '\ SCa" WNon aune t GM l0J:1. T ( .} J _w \ g : , ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~SWD III Sehn& ~~S. 1Z Gholu F.G.W. ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~7carp"" IV /P713. South Rohn F.G.W. :~~~~~a ltt wrie P'itt?e1, \~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~% zt- i.crnnlt:_ -.,k1 15.Airurhas)9-Iq bS *t/4|| \ CS Konlrtt~6. Suthce Dw 7/ \ &2 :9_C (Pandow Ur 17 Gholl Se I ,~< \ , 13 %' _.r-=d Pilot 18. Wash S.,.S_ I \.R sit -- wn Sar-. 19. SoumtaOW rSLAPAAGOA.It dlt0fwi0vttl1gn Awog I.P.LMh 20. South KtOawpur 5i. nteannoggirng A"ia 1.a.aink 21. Tando Muhanwnad tan 7 :3 -7+ -7a-rar.g Along C.Un& 22.. Tare An. - / 16~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~S7,rms3i 23. Khm.c 19. Soya & t9esa mhP. 24 Parasn - Umatr f a -i /. 2G OanjlnacZaAbban (nui I 25 Right Bmnt Out Fall Drain _7 = <;t , / - .a04hc'e4 26 Morc -a>^. - 2.------ng x 27 Dgn =4-4e !S : Sruncm%..S Par 'afntg TanSoBhagomic. j25- Jw=:r N%na (DOS BALOCHISTAN C- \_J J 25. UarRFamhnafPmnar.nrt;t 2-Z. Shorkt lKama Pakne 2. "aeonl 2- Xs s ra to 29 =B.DC. IFernanengl 3 Podteeder r3Aeu 3 Ei0s*Et Sanqa Pruer! I t , & IGnhwar nd =ette~, ahS, Il L 7rnt N.W.F.P. _ R*Guireo * B32.D.G.eO.mn Salon. 33. Sukh B*" 3SOkB.&SLrkL Phbe - I. Sult' Nad out Fad 1. PCshU- t.Pabbil & IL.Jue Sheiok. 34. nroas MundiLUnauKfuor 0hOt AW.L Along Pasw Wyl _S.*35. 'SerarThatl 2 lanu iX t WTERNATIONA BANK FOR RECONSTRUCMON AND DEVELOPMENT WATER AND POWER DEVEUp?JET AUTHFRTy PAKISTAN - DRAINAGE SECTOR ENVIRONMENTALASSESSMENT NATIONALDRAINAGE PROGRAMME SAUNIlY CONTROLAND RECLAMATION PROJECTS(JUNE 1991) ICILOMKETR . 40 0 40 80 12C KLt!OME?RES * NESPAK- Mont Mac Donald Intemational Miles 30 15 0 30 60 Hles OWN. SAPAAAJED SOURCE DATE WAPDA AMUSUT ggz PLATEI1 ,,_,, az L_- ~ 0 ± )- -> 4. _ ''~~~ * L ' ...... N. N%' X . -. '- '~. 4 , * \..~~~~~~~~~~~~~zav"o rD%. *A*54 / IN~~VTERNATIOAL OUNDARY .- R A *- PRIAL BOUNDARY _, _ CANALS. BARAGES LAXES dl7Ya TOWNS0 OUTfALLDRAIN COMPLETED OUTFALLDRAIN UNDER CONSTRUCTIONP.OPOSED _- _- PROPSEDCANALS COmpLETED PRojECTS ONGING PROJeCTS PLANNED PROCJECTSr r \I~ N ~ ~ ~ ~~~I ...... Khan 7_ .~~~~~~ *., t. ~ ~~~ ,v-t e / ~LEGEND:8 4 INTERNATKINALBOUNOARY * *A RJ ~~~~~PFKVCLLOUNOARY,_ CW\LS. 5aR;^GE( * C C'A5S.. 8AlAGF4 OLTFALL OAN COMPLEl ouTFL ON UNDER CONSTRUCTWN I PPROPOSED__- PREoVJr IOUNOPRECTSw- oNGONGP1ECTSr oly & TOWNS 0~~~~~~~~~~~~ PLANNED. OF4JECTS I ~-E .11 .- vX -'-I =/zE~~-fn k~~~~~A 0~ ANNEXTURES ANNEX - I - ANNEX - I PAKISTAN SECTORAL ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT -NATIONAL DRAINAGE PROGRAM Terms of Reference (Consultancy Services) I. INTRODUCTION 1.01 The Govermmentof Pakistan(GOP) has requestedthe assistanceof the World Bank in undertakinga sector study relatingto the environmentalaspects of drainage programs associated mainly with its irrigated agriculture (approximately16.0 M ha). Further, the Government of Japan has agreed to finance the study and GOP has requested the Bank to manage activitiesrelated to this Japanesefimding. This assessmentis to provide GOP, Provincial,aid donor and other officialswith an overviewof the environmentaleffects of on-going and envisageddrainage projects and programs in Pakistanand. in turn, facilitate preparationof detailed environmenialassessments for individual projects. In addition, the conceptualframework for a possible National Drainage Program will be studied. These terms of reference(TOR) are for the envisagedconsultancy services to undertakethis assessment. 1U.BACKGROUND 2.01 SociolEconomic Pakistanhas a populationof about 105.0 million, which is growing at the rate of slightly over 3% per annum. It is projected that the populationwill be over 140.0 millionby the year 2000. Its averageper capita income is estimatedat USS390.0 (1983 prices) with approximately30% of the populationhaving an incomebelow the absolutepoverty level (JS$ 110.0). Food production during the next 10 Years must increase over 40% to maintain the present calorie intake of its citizens. 2.02 Physical Features Climatein Pakistan's Indus Plain is and (precipitationless than 200 mm and annual pan evaporationover 1,500 mm) and subtropical(temperatures may exceed 45 degrees C). Hence, irrigationis required for agriculturalproduction even though some monsoonrains, for examplein 1988, result in substantialriver and rain flooding. Over 135.0 B M of surface water is divertedannually from the Indus river and tributariesfor irrigationpurposes, as well as 40.0 B MP extractedfrom fresh groundwaterzones. About 50 years ago the groundwaterlevel was at a depth of 10 to 20 m; however with the diversionof surface waters to the plain, the groundwatertable has been rising, until today about22% of the land area (about 3.0 M ha) is within 1.5 m and 42% (about 5.9 M ha) within 3.0 m. GOP defines areas with a premonsoongroundwater level less than 1.5 m as "disaster areas' and eligible for priority drainage treatment. Approximately45% of the Indus groundwater is brackish and unsuitable for direct applicationto irrigate crops. Waterlogging is increasingand along with it the prevalenceof problematicsoils (about40% of the soils are salinity affected). 1 2.03 dAlibiR Agricultureis the lah-gt commodity producingsector in Pakistan: major employer (over 50% of the labour force); most important source of exports and principal market for non-agriculural sectors. Over 90% of the agricutural production comes from irrigated lands. 2.04 Draina 1rgZm Because it was not needed at that time, and hence would have been uneconomic,subsurface drainage systems were not installedduring implementationof irrigation schemes. In the late 1950s, GOP initiated ajarge scale salinity control and reclamationprogram (SCARP).Seven locally financed SCARPprojects have been undertakencovering approximately2.0 M ha. About 12,50 publicly operatea tubewells (I Ws) have been installed in these SCARPs with about 11,000 in fresh groundwater (FGW) and the remaining 1,500 in saline groundwater(SGW) zones. Major benefits were obtained initially from these schemes as the groundwater table was lowered and additional irrigation water was made available from the FGW pumpage. However, sustainabilityof these SCARP projects and related benefits has been poor. Because of inadequate funding for operation and maintenance(O&M), which even so amounts to over Rs 1.5 billion annually,aging equipmentand poor management,the pumpage(estimated at about7.0 B M3 annually) has declined about 5% annually. Tbis has resulted in rising of the groundwater table and commensurateloss of benefits. At the same time over 200,000 privateTWs have been installedand are estimated to be pumping about 5 times that of the public operation. Because of problems associated with publicly operated TWs, and the success of the private TW program'. GOP has establishedthe policy that FGW developmentwill henceforthbe by the private sector and it is in the process of divestingthe public FGW TWs. In recent times, externaldonors have assistedin financing nine subsurfacedrainage projects in Pakistancommanding about 500,000 ha of irrigated land. The surface drainage system in the Indus plain has been installed "piece meal' through the years and is limited to about 15,000 km of main and branch drains. Many of these drains are inadequately designed and maintainedand subdrains are not extended to chaks (tertiary commands) - hence, extensiverain flood damage to crops and infrastructureoccurs during some.monsoon seasons. 2.05 Implementationof on-goingdrainage projects has been extremelyslow. For example SCARP VI (Cr. 744-PAK) and SCARP Mardan (Cr. 877-PAK) have been approved by GOP for constructionfor about 10 years; however, less than 75% of the authorizedworks have been installed. ITis has given rise to WAPDA officials' desire to investigatethe possibilitiesof a program approach as a means to facilitate implementationof drainage measures. Such an approach could conceivably overcomesome of the many start-upproblems associated within individualprojects while at the same time affordingthe governmentadditional flexibility in selecting and treating priority "disaster areas". This conceptis embodiedin the NationalDrainage Program conceptreferred to in this document. 2.06 Eniironme-n The construction,operation and maintenance(O&M) of irrigationand drainageprojects in PakLtan have the potentialto cause a number of negativeenvironmental imacts along with the environmentalbenefits associatedwith enbancing agricultural productivity and its effects on society. These impactsmay affectsignificant environmental resources of Pakistanincluding: (i) wetlands surrounding freshwater and brackish lakes (permanent and temporary) includingthe Hamal Katcheriwedands of Sindh Province, (ii) mangroves and tidal creeks along the Indus delta, (iii) forests, especially riverainforests, (iv) wildlife especially waerfowl and wading birds associatedwith wetlands, 2 (v) endangeredand threatened species induding the Indus dolphin and sea turdes, (vi) lakes, rivers and streams e.g. MancharLake, (vii) fisheries and aquaculture projects including native and commercially important fisheries e.g., pala and shrimp, and (viii) archaeologicaland historical sites. No documentationexists regarding the ecological impact of irrigation and drainage on natural resources in Pakistan. Empirical observationsindicate ecologicaleffects have and will occur from existingand future irrigationand drainage programsand projects. Concern has been expressedthat the proposeddrainage programs will alter the water quantityand water qualityof wetlandsin Pakistan includingthe adverseeffects of the Right BankOutfall Drain (RBOD)on the Hamal Katcheriwetlands of Sindh Province (which are wintering areas for 35 percent of the migratory waterfowl passing throughPakistan), and adverseeffects of Left BankOutfall Drain (LBOD)on the mangrovesand tidal creeks along the Indus delta. In addition, the tidal creeks are being considered for developmentof shrimp aquacultureprojects. Concern has been expressedfor the potential loweringof water quality of the Indus River and subsequenteffects on the Indus dolphin, other riverain wildlifeand on sea turtles nesting and living along the coast. Concern has been raised on the concentrationof toxic chemicalssuch as pesticides,trace metals, and fertilizers in drainage canals and evaporationponds. Drainage and irrigationactivities rlay also cause dirtut effects on the terrestrial enviromnent,e.g., changing local ecology in Cholistan desert by the creation of evaporation ponds or indirectly contributeto other adverse effectson the environment,e.g., the use ofthese canals for the discharge of urban and industrialwastes. In addition the World Bank (O.D. 4.00 Annex A2) has identifieda number of environmentalissues and potential impactsthat could be associatedwith irrigation and drainage projects in Pakistan including: agrochemicals,biological diversity, coastal and marine resource management, cultural properties, induced development, land settlement, tribal peoples, watersheds,wetlands and wildIands. 2.07 The potentialenvironmental impacts of irrigationand/or drainageprojects may include the following: 1X) increasein waterloggingand salinity(soil modification)and their adverseeffects on surrounding land use and terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems,or converselydecrease in such conditions through well designed, constructed, operated and mainained drainagesystems; (ii) loss of habitatand vegetationincluding trees becauseof constructionof watercourses, canals, evaporationponds etc.; (iii) modificationof downstream river and lake ecology because of changes in surface water hydrologyand water qualityfrom irrigation and drainagewaters; Civ) modificationof wetlands includingriverain forests and mangrovesfrom changesin surface water hydrologyand water qualityfrom irrigation and drainagewaters; (v) change in waterfowlmigration patterns because of loss or reductionof wetlandsused as winteringfeeding and resting areas; 3 (vi) loss or damageof archaeological,historical and cultural resources from construction of irrigation and drainagefacilities and/or from changesin soil moisture conditions; (vii) conflictsover water suppliesand land use; (ix) change in migrationpatterns, e.g. immigrationto new agricultura areas because of restored irrigationbrought about by drainage of abandonedlands; (x) change in land use, e.g. fanning of newly restored (drained) agriculturallands; (xi) changes in social structure of communities, i.e. landowners, tenants, labourers, farmer cooperativesystems, water user associations,role of womenetc. with new and restored agriculturallands; (xii) inadequacyof regionaldrainage patterns to prevent flood hazards; (xiii) lowering of surface water qualityof the irrigationand drainage water because of the consequencesof urbanization,e.g. salts, sewage,fertilizers, pesticidesand industrial wastes, and subsequent adverse downstream effects to fisheries, other aquatic organisms, and humans; (xiv) deterioratinggroundwater quality through leachingof agriculturalchemical, recycling of FGW by pumpingand upconing of poorer qualitywater into better qualityupper FGW lenses; (xv) changes in groundwaterflows and levels; and (xvi) increasedseawater encroachmentinto freshwatersystems. 2.08 Public Health Entineering Negative impactsof waterloggedand saline areas on humanand animal health have been mentionedin many reports publishedin and about Pakistan. High prevalencecof malaria and acute diarrhoeal diseases, especiallyin the summer seasons due to the waterloggingand irrigation, have been alluded to in these reports. Reportedly, the major cause of death in children under 5 years of age in Pakistan is due to acutediarrhoeal deseases. 2.09 Malaria is endemic in many areas of the country. There was an epidemic of urban malaria in Karachi in the mid 1960s. The NationalInstitute of MalariaResearch and Trainingreports that malaria positivity rate rose in 1988 from that of the previous year. Those in malaria works are not too optimistic that the rate can be made to decline significandyunder the current environment. There are two principal vectors in Pakistan: Anophelesculicifacies, which is a rural mosquito. It is a clean water breeder, prefers aniials to humans for blood meals, and tolerates lower salinities; Anophelesstephensi which is at home in urban, as well as rural environments.It breeds as %tellin polluted waters, is a more efficient vector, will readily feed on humans, as well as animals. It tolerates waters with higher salt content. Waterlogged lands and poorly maintained drains favour mosquitobreeding. Reductionof waterloggedareas and cleaningof drains to reduce stagnationwill reduce the breeding of vectors. 2.10 Culex mosquitoesare not nuisance mosquitoes,they are also known to transmitother diseaes, e.g. encephalitisand filariasis. If Culex transmitteddiseases are concerns in Pakistan, similar elaborations and interpretationsare to be made. Aede mosquitoesin tropical areas of the world 4 transmitdengue and dengue hemorrhagicfevers. These diseasesare cnownto be present in the Indian sub-continent.A similar evaluationshould be made for the Aede as for the Caule mosquito. 2.11 Water-borne and water-relateddiseases have specific routes of transmission. The etiologicagents differ in their virulence and in their infectivedoses. Subsurfacedrainage water is not likely to have high microorganism concentrationsand the risk associated is not high. However, surface drainage water will have varieties of microorganismsof animal and human origins and can pose problems to the health of a communityparticularly when municipal and industrial wastes are dischargedto the drains, which is a commonpractice in Pakistan. 2.12 Reports by Punjab's Departmentof Animal Husbandry indicate that drainage water may have an influence in the prevalence in the plains and Fasciola hepatica, found at elevations above 1200 m, are the etiologic agents in Pakistan. The disease is widely prevalent in waterlogged, irrigated and riverain areas. 2.13 Constructionof wastewater treatment plants in Pakistan has been neglected. The Instituteof Public Health Engineeringand Research in Lahore has conductedstudies on stabilization ponds, an appropriatetreatnent technology,and evaluatedthe assimilativecapacity of the Ravi River receiving raw sewage from the city of Lahore. While there is an unanimityof opinion on the need for wastewatertreatment in Pakistan, a programto constructplants has not been given higb-priority. Therefore, the irrigation drains in many areas have, in fact, become multipurpose drains. The irrigation drains often do not provide sufficientdilution of the municipalwastewater effluent, hence the assimilativecapacity is exceeded. When the drainage water becomes anaerobic, odors are produced and gases are released that attack concrete, masonry and steel structlres. For some time, the multipurposeuse of irrigation drains may be necessary,but indiscriminateand long-termuse can only spell disaster. 2.14 According to official respondents, there are currently no ambient water quality standardsfor rivers, canals, drains and other bodies of water in Pakistan.The Punjab Envirownental ProtectionAgency (EPA) has, however,drawn up effluentstandards for industrialwastes. This will require the pre-treatment of industrial wastes prior to their discharge since wastewater of most industrieswill exceed set limits. 2.15 There are often expressions of optimismon the preferentialuse of TW water and water at the sumps (horizontaldrains) for domesticuse, e.g. bathingand washing of clothes. Designs to facilitatesuch uses have been suggested.Experience, on the other hand, has shown, even when TW water is available it may not be preferred by the women. It has been noted that when the handpump program was being implemented,village women were seen walkingpast handpumpsproviding potable water to obtain water from a village pond with which to cook. When asked, "Why?", they replied that the lentils would not cook (dal pakda nahin). They were right; there were salts in the handpump water that interferedwith the cooking of lentils. A situationsimilar, to the cookingof fava beans in Egypt has been reported by Katcha e al., Women. Water and Sanitation,an AmericanUniversity, Cario, publication. Usually groundwater is 'harder' than surface waters, which is usually more polluted.If a canal is close by, women will more likely do the washing of clothes with canal water, where the water is 'softer", thus requiring less soap, and sullage is naturally carried away. To them this saves money and energy. 2.16 Institutions. The Water and Power Development Authority(WAPDA) has been charged with the responsibilityof planning and constructingSCARP projects; whereas the O&M responsibility rests with the Provincial Irrigation Departments (PIDs) for both the surface and subsurface drainage programs. WAPDA and the PIDs share responsibilityin the planning and 5 constructionof surface drains. Water User Associations(WUAs-farmers ornizations ahrized under Provincial Ordinances)are responsible for O&M of irrigation channels and surface drains within chams. 2.17 Ihere is increasingenvironmental awareness by GOP and Provincialofficials and this is reflected in the 1983 Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance. The major prov;isios of this Ordinance are: (i)establishment of the Pakistan EnvironmentalProtection Counciland the Pakistan EnvironmentalImpact Statements (EIS) at the time of planningprojects. EPAs have been established in all four Provinces. There are many Federal and Provincialagcncies that manage programs with significant enviromnentalimpacts. WAPDA has recendy establishedan environmentalunit in the Office of the General Manager (Water) Planning. However, progress in implementingthe above Federal Ordinancehas been slow, the staffs of the envirornental agenciesare small and fledglingand the linkages weak between the EAPs and the implementingagencies. m. OBJECTIvES 3.01 The objectivesof the Sectoral EnvironmentAssessment-National Drainage Program are to: (i) provide a macro assessmentof the enviromnentaleffects of envisaged and. on-going subsurfaceand surface drainageprograms; (ii) develop environmentaland other criteria, processes and arrangementsto facilitate preparation of a preliminary proposal of a design concept for an appropriateNational drainage program; and, (iii) promoteeconomic and sustainabledevelopment with appropriateenvironmental safeguards. IV. SCOPEOF WORK Environmental Assessment 4.01 The environmentalassessment is to be a macro overviewof the environmentaleffects of irrigated related drainage in Pakistan includingthat is in-place, under constructionor envisaged to be required by the year 20-15. This overview, among things, will include an assessment of projected drainage requirements; evaluation of various drainage technologies; documentationand evaluation of environmental,health, sanitary, social and economic effects; investigate mitigation opportunities;and study institutionalarrangements with the view that such drainageoperation should become an integral componentof a comprehensivewater managementstrategy for the Nation. It is envisaged that this macro assessment will aid in the preparation of subsequent environmental assessmentfor individualdrainage schemes and projects. This assessmentshall take into accountthe environmentalpolices and guidelinesof GOP, includingits National ConservationStrategy, as well as those of the Bank (O.D. 4.00 Annex A2). The study area includes the Indus Basin and all other areas withir the country with existingand proposed irrigationand drainagefacilities. The study area also includesthe Indus Basinand all natural resourcesareas -djacentto, or affectedby, irrigationand drainage programs and projects. It shall consider engineering,environmental, health, institutional, policy and program matters. 4.02 E:nzineeing Technologiesassociated with the present drainage activity in Pakistan are surface drains, vertical tubewells and horizontal pipe drains. Consultants will be expected to indicate the applicabilityof each method as relatesto successfulcontrol of surface water as well as waterloggingand salinity for Pakistan's irrigated agriculture system. Environmentl evaluationsof existingdrainage networks will be made from presendy availabledata and where critical voids exist some new data may need to be collected. The related potential enviromentl impacts will be 6 evaluatedfor anticipatedsituations encountered in areas where drainagesystems are planned or likely to be planned in the next 10 years (mid-term)and those anticipatedby the year 2015 Oong-term). 4.03 Environmentalimpacts will relate to water qualityand water quantitychanges in rivers and bodies of water receivingor likely to receive drainage effluent, health hazards resulting from problems associated with drainage systems and the deterioration of land quality resulting from irrigation such as waterloggingand increasedsalinity. 4.04 Drainage systemsare installed to dispose of excess water and salt from land being irrigated. Surface water discharge is sometimescaused by excess irrigation, canal spillage, or runoff during rainfall events. Watertablebuildup from deep percolationof excess irrigation, canal seepage and ponded water cause waterloggingwhlich can create salinity or sodicity problemsoften requiring either tubewell or horizontal pipe drainage systemsto maintain a sustainableirrigated agriculture. Effluent from these drainage systems can contain pollutions which have varying degrees of environmental impacts. Planning and design options to minimize pollution from agricultural chemicals, hazardous soil mineralssuch as salts and boron, populationconcentrations and industry should be discussed. Normal disposalsystems for drainage waters involvemaster drains to the sea, evaporation ponds and the return of excess waters to rivers or lakes. These options should be discussed and evaluated in the sectoral environmentalassessment as related to existingoutlets and planned future outlets (mid- and long-term). 4.05 Opportunitiesfor mitigation and enhancementmeasures associatedwith a potential drainageprogram should also be discussed. Mitigationmay includealteration of the project location, relocationof project features, modificationof project designor operatidn. This should include items such as reuse of drainage water, reuse of effluent from wastewater treament plants rather than discharging it to disposal systems and other efforts to minimize drainage water production. The planned reuse of effluents of wastewatertreatment plants has many benefits. It is more likely to be lower in salinity than subsurfacedrainage water and by reuse, pollution of water channels will be averted. However, environmentallyaccepted reuse requires effective treatment,planned scheduleof use, and control over crops to be irrigated. 4.06 To undertakethe engineeringcomponent of the sectoral envirornental assessmentwill require a multi-disciplinarygroup of medium and high level staff for the followingactivities to, (i) evaluate existingdrainage system; (ii) determine potential future drainage requirements (short-term to 2000 and mid-term 2015); (iii) assessment potential environmental impacts of subsurface technologies (vertical and horizontal); (iv) study relationshipof surface and subsurface drainage systems and propose approachto optimize benefits; (v) determinedesirable enhancementand mitigationmeasures; and (vi) determine biological methods and on farm water managementand farming practices which could minimizedrainage requirements. 7 4.07 The analysis must consider degrees of pollution, health degradation and habitat destructionthat are probable under a number of differentscenarios. This informationcan be used in planning and evaluating potential projects for inclusion in the drainage program to minimize environmentaldegradation while sustaininga viable irrigated agriculture. 4.08 Environmonlal. The consultants shall conduct a macroscale environmental (ecological,biological and social) assessmentof the effects of existing and proposed drainage and irrigation programs and projects on importantnatural and cultural resources of Pakistan. They shall collect and analyzeall relevantenvironmental information and conduct the environmentalassessment. The consultantshall collaborateclosely with the planningofficials, especiallythe EnviromnentalUnit of WAPDA and Federal and ProvincialEPAs in conductingthe environmentalassessment. Designated Federal and Provincial officials (see para 5.01) will assist in the information gathering and be involved in the enviromnentalassessment process so that they will understandthe process, provide a Pakistaniperspective and be able to interpret and implementthe proposed recommendations.The consultantshall be solely responsible,however, for the interpretationof all data gatheredand for the findings of the enviromnentalassessment and related recommendations. 4.09 The scope of work involvesseveral tasks induding: (i) informationgathering and documentation.Conduct interviews and discussions with appropriate World Bank, USAID, other donor agencies. GOP, provincial and university forestry, wildlife, fisheries, planning, social soundness and antiquitiesstaff and personnel to obtain relevant information and documentationon potential effects of drainage and irrigation; (ii) coordinate and facilitate environmentalscoping session. Based on Task (i) develop a preliminary list of issues to be addressed in the enviromnental assessment as well as a list of knowledgeableparties from the federal. provincial and local governments, non-governmental organizations, institutionsof higher learning, and other interested parties. In conjunction withWAPDA set-up, conduct and record a scopingmeeting(s) to identifyand prioritize key environmentalissues to be addressed in the environmental assessment; (iii) inventoryingsignificant natural and cultural resourceswithin the study area. Based on information gathered in Task (i) and CiH)and other literature searches, compile a list significantnatural and cultural resourcespotentially affected by irrigation and drainage. Develop a map at an appropriate scale which identifies the general locationof these resources and their geographic relationshipto existingand planned irrigation and drainageprograms and/or projects; (iv) identifyingdrainage and irrigationprogram and project activitiesthat directly and indirecdy effect natural resources. Working with World Bank and WAPDA, identify construction and operation activities of existing and planned irrigationand drainageprograms and projects directly and indirectly effecting natural and cultural resources in Pakistan; (v) preparing criteria for determiningthe significanceof these impactson natural resources. Based on the results of Tasks (i), (ii) and (iv), develop criteria for 8 determining the significant adverse effects considering the likelihood and magnitudeof effects and the potential for successfulmitigation; (vi) determining ecological (including industrial and sewerage effluent) and sociallcultural effects of drainage and irrigation including direct/indirect effects, cumulativeeffects, long-tem/short-term effects, effects from non- project changesto drainageand irrigationprojects. Using the results of Tasks (ii), (iii), (iv), and (v), conductan impact assessmentof existingand planned programs and projects. If possiblethis impactassessment should quantify the nature of these impacts; (vii) identifyingsignificance of effects. Basedon the resultsof Task (vi), identify which effects are significantand adverse. Significanteffects are those effects which involve important cultural and natural resources are of sufficient magnitude to alter the value and conditionof these resources. In addition identify those effects which can be mitigated and those which cannot be mitigated and consider the potential role of the private sector in mitigating these effects. Examinehow drainage effluent can be put to productive use; (viii) preparing ecologically acceptable alternatives and mitigation. Based on preceding tasks identify possible program and project alternatives and mitigationswhich would avoid or reduce the potential for significantadverse effects to cultural and natural resources; (ix) recommendingmonitoring and evaluation procedures. Based on Tasks (vi), (vii), and (viii), identifypossible monitoringprograms to evaluate the status and trends of importantcultural and naturalresources effected by existingand planned programs and projects; (x) determining potential ecological enhancement measures for existing and proposedprograms and projects. For importantnatural and cultural resources which have been significantly affected by existing programs and projects [Tasks (vii) and (viii)], identify potential enhancementprograms to restore and avoid further impactto these resources; and (xi) identifying follow-up studies to fill in critical data gaps for documenting ecologicaleffects and related report preparation. Based on preceding tasks identifysignificant information gaps on the effects of irrigationand drainage requiring documentation. Specify how this information is needed in evaluatingthe effects of irrigation and drainage in Pakistan. 4.10 Environmental Health and Engineering. To carry out the environmentalhealth and engineering components of this assessment will require a high level interdisciplinary cadre of specialiststo undertake the following activities: (i) place in perspective malaria and diarrhoeal diseases as human health concerns; (ii) obtain information on conditions favourable and unfavourable to malaria vectors in relation to irrigation drains, evaporation ponds and the main drains: 9 (iii) secure similar informationon £uaaand other mosquitoesthat are vectors of dengue, dengue haemorrhagicfever and encephalitis; (iv) take appropriate samples of drainage water at representative locations, including in mixing zones where municipal wastewater is discharged to drains, analyze for coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci,and provide interpretation; (v) obtain samplesas in (iv) above, but for physical-chemicalanalyses including the standard sanitary engineeringparaneters, pesticides, and relevant heavy metals and provide interpretation; (vi) select two drains for study of their assimilativecapacities and calculatethe end-of-the-piperequirements of wastewater discharge to the drains (the emphasis in this task is on the developmentof the process of engineering analysis); (vii) evaluatethe potentialfor usingsubsurface drainage water for domesticwater supply in the four Provinces; (viii) assess the effect of drainage programs on fascioliasisin domestic animals; and (ix) assemble information, existing and proposed, on rules and regulations on environmentalprotection as they apply to the waters of the Nation from the EnvironmentalProtection Ordinance, 1983, foreward. 4.11 Institutions. Polices and Procedures. The consultantsare expectedto review, study and make reconmmendationsfor the improvementof institutionsrelated to the environmentalaspects of drainageprograms as follows: (i) linkages between the enviromnentalagencies (specificallythe EPAs) and WAPDA and PIDs; and (ii) interface between WAPDA and PIDs and their program to increase environmentalawareness and capability. 4.12 A major problem facing drainage programs is sustainability.The consultantsare to study this issue and make proposals in the followingareas: ti) rational and equitable cost recovery program, i.e. what shouldbe the level of recovery from beneficiaries and should it be in the form of drainage cesses, part of the irrigation water charges, or some other approach;and tii) approaches for adequateO&M of installed drainage facilities- this should includefunding, staff strengthening,facilities; and equipment. 4.13 Steps need to be taken to improve planning, authorizingand funding processes to ensure that decision-makersand responsibleofficials have adequateinformation available to them in carrying out their enironmental responsibilitiesrelating to drainage. Proposals and items to be studied wouldbe in the following areas. 10 (i) planningprocedures to ensure futl considerationof enronmena impacts. alternativeplans and trade-offs; and CiH) authorizationand funding processes. 4.14 Develop and carry out a training program for GOP and Provincial officials related to water sector planning and development with special emphasis on drainage and environentat related matters; (i) prepare training program, includingtraining materials; and (ii) carry out training program, i.e. 'on-the-job', seminars, workshops, etc. National Dragnage Prom 4.15 The objective of studying approaches for a 'National Drainage Program' is to improveefficiency in the identification,planning, design, constructionand O&M of drainagefacilities by affording GOP and Provincialofficials flexibility in tackling disaster problem areas without the rigidities of projects, i.e. start-up and close down problems,limniting project financingto prescribed areas when the problem is pervasive. For purposes of evaluation of such an approach by GOP, Provincial and aid donor officials, it will be necessary for a concept to be prepared that would prescribe procedures, criteria, guidelinesand organizationframework design. The On-Farm Water ManagementProjects (Cr. 1167 and 1603-PAK)and IrrigationSystems Rehabilitation Projects (Cr. 1239 and 1888-PAK)are examples of successful use of the program approaeh in Pakistan. Even thoughadmittedly they are not as technicallycomplex as subsurfacedrainage projects, the experience of these projects indicatesthat such a concept is worthy of study. The consultantsare to prepare a preliminaryproposal in sufficientdetail enablingan evaluationof such a program. 4.16 The National Drainage Program, when in place, would be expected to contain provisionsto address waterproblems associated with excess surface water as well as subsurfacewater. The program should containprovisions for needed drainageinfrastructure to control surfaceflows as well as waterloggingand salinity. 4.17 The primary activitiesassociated with this assignmentwill involve actions desirable to properly carry out a sustainableand enviromentally acceptabledrainage program. Those actions that are required to convert from the project approachwill be concentratedon. The anticipatedstudy activitiesinclude: (i) analysisof drainagerequirements for Paldstanand a first cut estimateof costs and schedule to complete the drainageprogram; (ii) evaluationof strengthsand weaknessesof present drainageproject approach; Ciii) study of on-goingwater sector initiativesusing the program approach; (iv) preparationof an initial proposalfur staff stengthening program, including the pros and cons of developing a technical career ladder for drainage personnel; (v) suggestionson potentialresearch, technicalassistance, equipmentand facility requirements;and 11 (vi) preparation of a concept framework for a National Drainage Progran induding recommendedprocedures, criteria and guidelines, along with the findings and conclusionson above activities. V. PRODUCTS AND SUMMARYOF ESTIMATED MANPOWER 5.01 Products. There are two major project products to be prepared: (i) Sectoral EnvironmentalAssessment (Drainage), and (ii) FrameworkConcept for a NationalDrainage Program. These two reports will include relevant materials, data, analyses, findings, conclusions and recommendationsrelated to all itemsof work outlinedabove, as well as those the consultantmay feel appropriateto supplement.The implementationschedule is attachedas Appendix B-1. 5.02 Estimated Mannower Reauirenents. It is estimatedthat above 225 staff weeks of manpoweris required to carry out the studiesas outlined.The attachedmanning schedule (Appendix B-2) identifiesprofessional staff, disciplineand schedule of participationof personnel agreed to be assignedto carry out this assignment. 5.03 Only when it is absolutelynecessary will substitutionof new personnelof consultants be consideredfor approval by the Bank and govermment. VI. GOP, PROVINCIAL ORGANIZATION AND ASSISTANCE 6.01 The lead govermnentagency in the study will be WAPDA, more specifically,the Office of the General Manager Planning (Water) and the staff organized to carry out the recently completedWater Sector InvestmentStudy. Among other things, the GM Planning will designatea Chief Engineer as Project Director and personnelfrom the Federal Planning Cell in WAPDA will work with the consultants. At the Provinciallevel, the ProvincialPlanning Cells in the Departments of Planningand Developmentwill coordinateProvincial inputs and participatein the study.These are multi-disciplinarycells with considerablecapability. All study papers, documentsand reports will be reviewedand procesed throughthem. 6.02 GOP and the Provinceshave agreed to provide the consultantswith access to all availabledata relevantto the consultantservices and provide an inventoryof such data. The data shall include,but not be limited to, the following: (i) past reports preparedby or for the governmentagencies relating to irrigated agriculture,drainage, environmentaland health matters and supportingdata; (ii) material relating to surface and groundwater, soils, land-use, water health matters, enviroment, cost recovery, etc; Ciii) information relating to organization, operation and funding of agencies (Federal, Provincialand local) with irrigation, drainage and environmental responsibilities;and (iv) relevantordinances, legislation,regulations, and administrativeorders. 12 6.03 To the extent possible, GOP and the Provinces will provide the above material and data from its own resources as requested by the consultantswithin the first month of the study. Also, to the extent possible, GOP and the Provinces will provide computer assistance to the consultants. VH. TIME SCHEDULE AND REPORTING REQUIREMENTS 7.01 The consultantsshall mobilize their team in Lahore, Pakistan within one week of the agreed starting date. The proposed schedule of study activities and reports are shown on Annex A. 7.02 The consultants shall prepare and submit the following reports to GOP (WAPDA), Provinces and Bank within the time periods and in quantities indicated below: Number of Timing (in Copies Bank months from GOP/Provinces starting Date) InceptionReport 25 10 3 Interim Report 25 10 10 Draft Final Report 25 10 16 Final Reports 100 20* * VWithinthirty calendar days of receipt of comments on the draft Final Reports from GOP, Provinces and the Bank. 7.03 All reports shall be in English and using both metric and English units of measurement. 7.04 InceptionReport shall summarizethe status of mobilization,problems encountered, initial findings, assessment of availabledata and materials. and an outline of the Interim Report. 7.05 Interim Report shall contain a status report. summary of the findings of the consultants, plans to overcome major problems and issues encountered and draft outline for the enviromnentassessment and for the frameworkconcept for a NationalDrainage Program along with a "Sketch proposal' for each of the draft final products. 7.06 The draft Final Reports for both the Sectoral Environment Assessment(Drainage) and Framework Concept for a National Drainage Program shall includethe final analyses. findings, conclusionsand recommendationsof the consultant. 7.07 The Final Reports shall reflect all revisions the consultants deem appropriate after receipt of comments from GOP. Provinces and the Bank on the Draft Final Report. 13 ANNEX - II ANNEB-I DRAINAGETCNOLOGY AND SALT BALANCEISSUES 1. Gewam There are four types of drainage interventions which individuallyor in combination may be appropriate in a particular situation and these are: - natural drainage; - surface drainage; - horizontal sub-surface; - vertical sub-surface. Each type of drainage has its own characteristics with regards to removal of salinity from the soil profile. In the following the salt balance issue with respectto drainage technologies have been attemptedto determine their performance and limitations.The conclusions are indicative only as the data available is limited for any accurate analysis. 2. Natural Drainage The natural processes of drainage for an area involve surface and sub-surface outflows and evaporation from fallow and low lying lands to maintain a desireable balance. In the Indus plain the sub-surface component may be significantlocally but in the context of a large area, the flow out of the area ('down valley flow') is constrained by the low natural gradient. Consequently, fallow areas and low lands turn into sinks for the excess water and salts and through evaporation create a new balance between recharge and discharge in irrigated areas. This new balance may or may not be acceptable at all places and call for artificial drainage support tO provide optimum enviromnentsfor the crop growth. In rice areas of Sindh it is observed that at some places with no artificial drainage a watertableequilibrium seems to have developedwith a well defined annual cycle (HTS/MMP, 1966). Clearly, a mechanismis operatingwhich keeps the surface horizons of cultivated land relativelysalt free while allowinga build up of salt in fallow areas. This mechanismhas been termed 'Dry Drainage". New computer models able to model anisotropic permeabilities and spatial variations of recharge, have been checked againstactual field conditions in parts of the Sukkur right bank command (M IHTS, 1991). This modelling shows that the lateral transfer of salt from heavily irrigated areas to un-irrigatedor even lightly irrigated areas occurs primarily because of layering of satunatedzone (causing anisotrophy), slight variations in surface relief and to a lesser extent the relative timing of irrigation deliveries to different parts of the area. These findings provide a compelling explanation of how some irrigated land remains relatively free of salt while other parts of the same land, perhaps slightlyhigher or simply not irrigated, tend to gather the salinity. Thus, even in the almost level terrain of the Indus Plains, lateral movement of groundwater and salinity within the command allow salts to be stored away in relatively small pockets and marginal areas where it has no direct impact on crop production. I The tendencyunder the 'dry drainage' process for salinityto accumulatein certin areas, leavingtde majorityof the area relativelyfree of salt, is one reasonwhy so littlesalinity is observedin normal soil surveys:much is probablymissed in unused land, along woads,in villagesetc. The conclusionfor this study is that the capacity of the system to absorb and store salt withoutdirect impacton cropproduction is very large and in mostareas the conceptthat the *reservoirwill one day be filled' is a long way off. The possibilityexists therefore, to do nothingand rely on leachingand lateraltasfer of salt to control salinity without drainage. Also where drainage is necessary to alleviate waterloggingthen this need not remove all salinity particularlyif there is no means of disposingof saline drainage effluent. Better that this salinity is containedwhere it does relativelylittle harm rather than causingreal harm in anotherarea. For this reasonthe choiceof drainagetechnologies is not entirelyopen. Technologieswhich avoid mobilisingvast amountsof residentsalinity (generally surface or shallowsub-surface drainage)are boundto be prefferedenvironmentally where disposalis a problem. 3. Surface Drainage Surfacedrains are used eitherto drain predominantlyrice cultivatedareas or save damages to crops in non-rice areas from floodingduring heavy rain storms. In the later case quality of effluentand salt removalis generallyof much less consideration. Major rice areas fall on right bank Indus therefore,Larkana Shikarpur (LSK) project was selectedfor this evaluation.It is partly gravity flow and partly pumpedsurface drainage scheme. The averageannual pumpage(1986-90) from the 8 stationswas 0.102 Maf, with minimum of 0.097 in 1988 and maximumof 0.135 Maf in 1990 (Table 1). Averagegravity, flow of Miro Khanmain drain was 0.09 Maf per year. Salinity of the effluent variid for each station and also during the year. Miro Khan and Larkana North stations pumpedcomparatively more saline water than other stations. The minimum,maximum, mean and weightedaverage value of salinityfor the variouspumping stationsduring 1989-91is givenin Table 2 (1). The irrigationsupply to the projectarea is from Gudduand Sukkurbarrages. Averageinflow of salt from canal supplyto rightbank commandis estimatedat 2.65 milliontonnes (RBMP reports), which comes to annual salt input per acre of 0.7 tonnes. The averageannual salt balancefor the LSK project is therefore,asunder: Inflow Area 0.714 Ma Salt 0.5 (Mt) Outflow AnnualPumpage (Avg) 0.102 Maf Salinity 1524ppm Salts 0.21 (Mt) 2 Mirokhan Dr:flow 0.09 Maf Salinity 1196 (ppm) Salts 0.15 (Mt) Total salt outflow 0.36 (Nt) Salt retention 0.14 (ft) Preliminary analysis given above indicate retention of 0.2 tonnes per acre of salt per year in the project. In non-pancho rice area the situation is likely to be similar. Ihe salt retetion may be slighdy more due to in-frequent removal of water. TABLE I LSK: Project Puping Station Discharge Data Station Annual Pumpage (acre-feet) 1986 1987 1988 1989 Avioap Miro Khan(l) 15712 27914 18346 17480 19863 Larkana (South) 7065 10582 9033 10115 9199 (North) 2532 3302 3550 3667 3263 Naudero 3780 5499 4512 4135 4482 Nusrat 467 267 1660 692 772 Ruk 29620 33257 39428 34514 34205 Garhi Yasin 9824 16472 14306 24203 16201 Sindh Wah 5106 5800 6651 6364 5980 Total: 74106 103093 97486 101170 93964 Source: IPD Sindh (1) Pumps water from the Shahdadkot Branch Drain. TABLE 2 Quality of Drainage Effluent LSK project Station Total Dissolved Solids (ppm) Min Max Mean Weighted (Avg) Garhi Yasin 250 2150 1142 977 Sindh Wah 500 2950 1540 1544 Ruk 230 2110 957 845 Nasrat 190 690 294 392 Naudero 410 1470 597 505 Larkana North 370 5380 2403 1383 South 190 1950 772 715 Miro Khan(P) 1000 4330 3156 3803 Miro Khan Dr. 220 2820 1196 - 3 4. Tile Drinage The three projects currently under operation/construction are: * East Khairpur, covering 0.036 Ma (0.0145 Mba), constructed during 1977- 86; Mardan-I, covering 0.026 Ma (0.001 Mha) and implementedduring 1983-86; e Drainage-IV, covering 0.13 Ma (0.055 Mba) and under construction. In comparative study of these projects IWASRI observes as under (2): "...The systems have not been operated as intended and therefore, there is no valid basis for an evaluation of their performance and beneficial impact' Requisite information for strict salt balance study though not available yet to get a feel of the likely outcome, salt balance studies has been attempted for 'Drainage IV' and 'East Khairpur Tile Drainage" on the basis of available data. 4.1 Drainage-IV Project Drainage IV project is still in constructionstage however, one sump Nr.(S-SIA) constructed as pilot unit had been in operation. In the profile salinity monitoring survey carried out during 1987 and 1991 three bores fall within the sump 8 area and have been considered to represent the salts in the sois of sump-8 area. Tsables3 to 5 give the salt inflow and outflow data and changes in the salt content of the soil. The summary of the result is as under: Salt Inflow (87-91) 1673 tonnes Salt Outflow (87-91) 10791 Salt Removal 9118 Average Salt Content in Soil Profile 1987 13,026 1991 5,460 Change -7,565 Data indicates that 10791 tonnes of salt has been pumped from the sump whereas, the change in profile indicate removal of 7566 tonnes of salt from the soil. The difference between the two figures may be due to the reason that the flow to the tile area may also be coming from beyond the sump boundary. It therefore, appears that tile drains are very effective in removal of salt out of the system and the soil. 4 TABLE 3 saks 1r.w m um,p-gU Total dischrge of outlets(Aql Disty) n 2.06+ 24+ 1.49 = LS9cfs Acre feetlday = 1.98 * 5.95 = 11.78 App.yeady suppies from Aqil Disty = 335 * 11.78 - 3946 acre feet App.yeary supplies from Rakh Branch = 74 acre feet App. Total Supplies = 3946 + 74 = 4020 acre feet Total Area = 2140 acres Stumparea = 975 acres App. yearly suppfies for sump area = 97512140 * 4020 = 1831 acre feet App.yearly supplies for sump area from 1987tol991 = 1831*4 = 7324 acre feet TOS = 168 PPM Sadslacre foot of water = 16 * 0.00136 = 0.22848 tons Total salts inflow = 0.22048 * 7324 = 1673 tons TABLE 4 QmInmy of Saks (orts) Rouwed by DEhake Wanerdou.1m tmqP-8 VFn- Oage Preju) Average Saks in Pumpage Saiks Period TDS tonslacre (acre feet) I removed (PPM) foot of water (tos) JuU87-OecJ87 1982 2.70 429 1156 Jant88-DecJi8 2238 3.04 1117 3400 JanI19-DeW89 2533 3.44 1129 3889 JanrkO-DecI9O 3120 4.24 392 1663 Janl9-Aug9l 1773 2.41 283 682 Tl - 10791 Salts Inflow by Can-alSupplies = 1673 Net Oudlow = 9118 5 TABLES5 DecreaseIn Salts(Tons) during the Period 1987-199 In Sump-S Area FourtbDrainape Project Saltsin TonsPer Doth of Soil Proiletor the Year987 and 1991 Location 0-6' 6'-lS ISf-36' 36-72 Total Salts 1987 1991 1987 191 1987 1991 1987 1991 In PhotoNo Bore Si prtote Decrease No. SP EC Salts SP EC Sals SP EC Salts SP EC Salts SP EC Salts SP eC Salts SP EC Satu SP EC Salts (tons) (tos) (_V-) (Va} (Va.e (Vac) (t/ac) (t/sl AMC) (*VJ5 1987 1991 2 32 57.2 11.7 30 A 9.6 41 11.9 6.24 38 2.8 1.36 40 5.1 3.92 35 1.4 0.94 36 3.4 4.8 36 0.7 0.97 26.6 12.8 13.8 3114160-02 4 33 9.3 1.96 38 1.4 0.34 44 4.8 2.7 33 1 0.42 40 2.1 1.67 34 1.1 0.75 36 2.4 3.41 36 0.6 0.83 9.74 2.34 74 cn 5 37 2A 0.57 37 1.1 0.26 38 1.87 0.91 33 0.8 0.34 40 1.0 0.83j 32 0.5 0.31 39 0.9 1.44 39 0.5 0.75 3.75 1.66 2.09 Total 14.2 10.2 9.85 2.12 6.42 2.0 9.65 2.53 40.09 16.8 23.29 _ _Averse 4.75 3.4 3.28 0.71 2.141 0.67 3.22 0.85I3 36 5.6 7.76 Decase 4.75-3.4=1.33 3.28-0.71 2.57 2.14-0.67-1.47 3.22-085=2.37 per depth TOTALAREA-975acres Tot decreseper depth- 1.36x975 *2.57z975 -1.47x975 *2.37x975 1316tons 2506tons 1433tons 231Itons Total Decreaseof Salts -7.76x975 From Upper6 Feet SoilDepth -7566 tons 4.2 East Mhairpur rie Drainage Project Soils of the EKTD project were initially monitored in 1977-78 and recorded as moderately well to well drained and largely calcareous.Surface and profile salinity status was as under: Surface Salinity Plrofile Salinity Class Percent Class Percent SI 62 NS.NS 29 S2 26 S-NS 30 S3 9 S-S 39 S, 2 NS-S - Misc 1 Misc 2 Repeat soil survey of the project since then has not been carried out. However, SMO (South), in 1986, selected two experimentalplots in each of the 37 sumps to monitor the effect of tile drains on normal, saline and saline sodic soils. One borehole in each plot was drilled to a depth of 150 cm to determine soils reclamation progress. Data of scil sample analysis was obtained for evaluation. It was observed that saturation percentage of the samples was unrealisticallyhigh in 1990's analysis. As this is function of soil's texture and more or less to remain constant therefore, for our analysis it was assumed that saturation percentage of 1986 remains unchanged. Classification of soil's profiles was then carried out and is given in Table 6. Assumingthat these 74 plots data represent the project area, sait content changes in the soil has been estimated and summarised in Table 7 and detailed in Tables 8 & 9. Certain gaps in the monitoring data existed and the salt balance study could only be done with the following assumptions: t. Salt outflow in the period Jan to Jun 87 is the same as in Jul to Dec 87 (as no data available). TABLE 6 Status of soil profiles in EKTD ------Classification Percent Profiles ______1977 1986 1990 ------NS-NS 29 51 31 S-NS 30 23 9 S-S 39 24 53 NS-S - 2 7 7 TABLE 7 Average Salt budget for selected plots Layer (cm) Avg: Salt (t/a) Change (t/ac) 1986 1990 (-) (+) ------0-30 4.1 5.4 1.3 30-60 3.4 4.9 1.5 60-90 4.0 4.8 0.8 90-150 5.1 9.1 4.0 ------Total 16.6 24.2 7.6 ii. Pumpagefrom sumps during Jan to Dec 90 is the same as in Jan to Dec 89 (as no data available). iii. Saturationpercentage of the soil samplesobtained in 1990survey is the same as that of samplesobtained in 1986 survey (as the soil texture remains largely unchanged). With these assumptionsthe salt balance for the EKTD projectfor the period 1986-90is as under: Salt Inflow (tonnes) Canal Water (1.16 Maf) 4,22,600 Salt Outflow Sumppumpage 7,81,300 Salt Removal from Systemn 3,58,700 The salt balance indicatethat nearly 0.36 milliontonnes of salt has been removedfrom the project area in a period of four years i.e; 10.2 tonnesper acre (358700/35100).The change in salt contentsof the soil profiles however,show an increasefrom 16.6 to 24.2 tonnes per acre. Soil profile classificationdata indicatethat normal profiles in pre-projectperiod were 29 percentwhich increasedto 51 percent in 1986and then again decreasedto 31 percent. The resalinationof soil profiles is hard to explain in the face of removal of 0.36 million tonnes of salt from the project area. One probable explanationis that either most of the salt removalis from the groundwaterbelow the drain or resalinationmay have occurred through evaporationfrom the groundwaterreservoir. 5. Tubewell Drainage (FGW) Salt balance in respect of tubewelldrainage can be looked into from two context: a) changes in groundwaterquality due to leachingof salts in the soil and re- cyclingof groundwater; 8 TA13LE8 Sall Ckfb ln EKrD ftofeiri by Pumpage of Sumps h'Ohsw JUU087-DEC/87 JGMreO-Dales Janffg-Dac/9 Jan/90-Dadg90 SUPAVERACGE SALTS1^.F IPUMPAOE I SALTS JAVERAGe ' SALTSIA.F IPU14PACGI SA^LTS AVERAGE ISALTS/1A.F PuMNtPAOI SALTS AVERAG IeSALT^FA PMPAGI SALTS HOTDS OF WAT6ER (A.F.) OUTFLO10TDS OFWATF-R (A.F.) IOUTFIOW TDS O AR .F UTL OS OFWA ER (A.F.) OTFLOW (PPM) (fon)t (o) (10 iPPM) (4els) (long) (PPM) l) (ton.) itantX IPPMI erns I Isis 2.47 194 479.7 2341 3.46 513 1772.e 2t60 2.94 toss 297s.e 11011 2 SOJ0 6,e4 26s fO 12.8 easi 6.60 oe6 5845.3 4125 S.71 1315 ?SO?.? 2176 2.S6 1315 ses1 .6 J 2ee6 *.92 440 IT7r.0 2317 3.15 3ST6 4307.6 18si 2.46 2053 5056.3 Isle 2.62 2053 5522.7 415 2530 3.58 448 1602.4 10s4 2.50 lool 27e4.s 1590 2.16 21S9 4755.1 M?o 2.16 2199 4746.1 e 3155 4.29 311 1334.4 2042 3.01 578 3393.6 2790 t.7 1303 4944.1 2732 3.74 1303 48?5.8 t 3160 4.3 1 237 10211.1 253i4 J 45 Ila 3o790.9 sss6 4.26 1655 7058.5 2450 3.34 StSS 3532.5 U114 S2US S.23 423 2212.5 3066 4.17 440 1834.7 2iss 3.7s 1090 409008 S219 4.38 1090 47?1.0 9 7872 10.11 283 302S.6 7744 10.53 MY 9023.0 6732 9.1o 1361 14334.2 4160 5.66 lssi 8531.5 ' o 5632 7.65e 215 1554.5 4704 5.40 554 3735.1 8285 ?.Io 1?42 12523.2 39S1 4.20 1742 7322.9 11 42115 3.e3 152 a8s.4 2704 3J7s 27S 1041.2 4064 S.SJ I?OO s3se o 3480 4.74 1700 ooe4.3 12 7615 WoAS 293 S032.5 82s5 11.23 e74 gea3.4 7040 9.57 1902 10210.S [s704 9.23 1S02 17540.5 Islis 7e72 10.70 Ill 1029 7 4eoo 6.33 402 2524.3 35eZ *.e7 1411 een7.6 4992 is.7s 1411 957S.4 I 424, 10.09 331 333S.8 6739 9.17 673 616e.1 S090 e.1s 1254 10215.6 ooo0 0.27 1254 10369.1 1 7 1O404 25.63 104 2665.5 14sso 20.33 54S 11141.9 12750 I?,36 11S07 226S5.4 oo 1 ^*44.5 1307 18998.1 I 0 4454 6.0e 251 1321.1 3S04 5.31 543 2603.0 4572 6.3S 155i 10045.5 3802 S.A7 lssi 0174 I 9 ?S39 10.25 2 20.3 911 12.40 * - 17920 24.37 280 5523.9 144O ss.sI 280 5483.5 20 44to 6.10 36 219.6 5440 ?.40 351a02 5.27 1422 7488.1 2714 3.09 1422 3248.? tW:t ~~~ ~~~~213:142 7.sz so 200.3 15349 a.os I7S 1493.0 5261 7.15 1690 12091.9 45es 6.21 1090 10487.5 22 4e71 e3 aso 451.0 5357 7.22 162 11eo.3 S069 6.82 - .0 2000 S.92 - O0 23 M?1 S.68 151 1461.s5 5212 0.53 290 2473.7 6509 U.s i223 10826.3 4104 6.40 1223 7024.11 24 3389 7.33 194 14211.8 590 8.15 542 4413.3 3498 T.48 er5 0318.3 49|5 0.6s e4s s640.3 25 s553 ?J73 36? 2036.5 4461 6.07 474 287s.7 s330 7.25 1929 11Js3s se27 4sJ3 1920 9515.2 26 4110 6.41 275 1176111 6314 e.67 742 5432.1 s6ss 7.6S 130os 11Soo.o 3s65 4.85 1sos 72s6.e 27 5445 ?.4 I 307 2271.a $024 6.e3 691 4721.4 3402 7.35 1522 111181.7 4109 S.SS 1522 8505.S 2a 4330 5.93 556 3295.3 ST60 7.03 763 5977.0 5677 7.72 1419 10955.7 5695 7.75 1419 10292.4 29 4506 6.13 242 114eJ.0 MO4 5.22 454 2423.2 4934 S.? 1 1120 7515.5 2043 sss 1120 402s.5 30 eew3 2.25 231 213?.2 6528 o.eo 569 s0ss 5 7117 s.eo 1285 12437.7 4435 6.03 1285 nso0.e 31 3718 3.06 355f 1195i.0 325i 4.42 3116 1397.1 25T5 3.54 952 3499s0 5056 GAS Sl2 65US4 32 4445 5.05 ISO 907.4 E240 e.49 257 21011. 4J71 5.24 1064 6325.0 4275 s.or 1064 618f6.1 33 5338 1.25 552 40T.3 5933 a.cy 5ss 4510.5 5626 7.75 1505 11658.6 2906 J95 lsas 5940.0 34 7872 10.71 327 3500.8 4355 5 93 778 461I. I 403a 5.49 11201 5SS5.S 507S 6.20 1201 828B9.3 35 4000 5.44 511 2rY9.6 J#42 6.424 10a9 6276.7 4041J 5.35 IStO 8713.6 4304 3.96 1580 9420.3 3S 2336 J.1S sSOB 1804.s 377S 514 613 $148.0 4OOS S.SS 1242 9696.? 2579 3.51 1242 43S5.2 37 2556 3.61 353 1273.1 '2464 3.35 1063 3362.2 2963 4.03 1187 4753.2 Igoll UTJ Ila? 1822.4 35 213i 2.90 436 1263.t5 2099 2.0s ilgo 3397.0 227a 3.10 1122 3475.0 2405 3.2T 1122 367z:M 39 1907 2.59 394 1021.0 2374 3.23 11161 $3620 * 3142 4.27 1178 5033.7 3328 4.53 II11 ss31.r 40 2970 J.04 Igo 605.9 3430 4.05 605 2622.2 3571 4.66 1247 SO55.A 2537 S.S9 124? 4472.1 642115.0 144473.9 315016.3 2S69202 Gtond Tolsl. -781329.11 3olls Inflow in E.K.T.P Avtrge Bals Canal Sell# TDS 1.nl supplies Inflow Net Outlolw 781229 * 422363 (Pppm) (A.F) (tons) v 350N56 Tons 260 0.364 ilGOOD? 4 22553 I's?, 1-tit c-oct I'll f-ft ot #Ice Uff of O'Pc f'ot OP Use 0 to DP C'L0 I'IL LP 1,LC Wito Lo ilte solos It C'st $111 It OP ?'I$ L'901 I'tl I'S I is I'ag olpt I I I'll 9161 I p 6-19 0-It I t 9-01 WII Ot L-Vt O'Et It 0-9 1.11 I t o-ol t I t t st cc 1.199 9,91 1'19 L't I op NIP I'P 91 I'll olvi 09 4,9 tlc L9 C'SI L't I 09 9'C 6,C at I't folol to S'l Irt Is it else o,P - - CIO O'Pl of $1 olt 9c CIO 7191 00 l'O 0 9 99 C'l ft'll I I LI? 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Ii Li OS SI I ' 'S 0 It C'L OiCl LI ?I'S OC10 t Ci Si'lL It L It It it S'S I'L5 L'5 i't Olt'i C9 Sit eIL eI 1c I'l Iti S'S i'll to Olt CIO op I'L alit it Ole cO't Li iit oSt II Ii0 1 00d WeI7 D dU5 WI18 - d WI' *10 de 01, WI2 Mam !'ii't d I tdp" £O 1 I' II*[email protected] ("Pluo:))6 w,evi b) salt build up in soil matrix due to reuse of drainage effluent for irrigation directly or indirecdy. Limited monitoring data is available in this respecttherefore, in the following data observed by SCARP Monitoring Organization from time to time for selected projects have been reviewed. The conclusions drawns are equally applicable to other'SCARP areas operating under similar environments. 5.1 Groundwater The salt build up in the groundwater is expected through vertical and lateral movement of more mineralized water and recycling. The rate of build up through recycling will depend how effectively the soil profile leaching process has been established. Malmberg (3) in examiningthe changesthat has occurred in the groundwaterquality of SCARP-Iconcluded, that it has deterioratedthrough groundwater movement established as a result of pumpingand not by recycling. He based his conclusionson the absence of relative increase in the pumped water of highly soluble chlorideand sulphate salts. The changes in groundwater quality have been monitored more extensively in Mona Reclamation ExperimentalProject since its operation in July 1965. Haider Ali et al (4), in analysingthe changes have observed that the concentrationand areal extent of sodium relative to that of calcium and magnesiumhas increased. Bicarbonateis, and has been predominant among the anions, and the chloride and sulphate types of water have tended to increase in areal extent and concentration. The gradual changes in the areal extent of various types of water in the Mona ReclamationExperimental Project are given in Table 10. TABLE 10 Changes in Areal Extent of Various Types of Waters in Nona Reclamation Experimental Project Area percent Sr. Type of Water ------No. 1964 1966 1968 1970 ------1. Sodium bicarbonate water 64 74 77 77 2. Calcium-Magnesium bicarbonate water 28 17 14 10 3. Sodium chloride/sulphate water 8 9 9 13 Before the project went into operation the sodium bicarbonate waters covered most of the central part of theproject area. The water which recharged this area came from river and canal seepage, but during its travel to the central part, a base exchange resulted causing replacementof (Ca+ Mg) ion by (Na) ion, thus creating sodium bicarbonate waters. Water along the canals is still calcium-magnesiumbicarbonate type. However, due to pumping along the canals, the fresh recharge is being intercepted allowing the sodium bicarbonatetype water in the central part of theproject area to expand, and encroach on the previouslyfresh recharge areas. The expansion in the sodium chloride-sulphatewaters can be attnbuted to adjustmentas a result of pumpage pattern in the adjoining areas. Of all the 138 project wells, 57 have been producing five types of waters with stable composition 12 between 1964-1970.Tbese tubewellsare scatered througbout the project area and it appears that there is no significant change in recharge to cause variation in their geochemical composit;on. Too low build up of the salinity in SCARP groundwater, therefore, may have been due to low recydicg than envisaged. If recycling establishes fully, then the rate of salt buid up would be much larger, becase the canal water supply assumed in salt balance study (5) was 1.5 to 2 times the groundwater, against the actual of less than I in SC&RP areas. 52 Soil Matrix As changes in the groundwater quality observed so far are attnbutable to its movement establisbed in response to extensivepumpage from the aroundwater reservoir, therefore, the question arises as to where the salts being dumped on the soils by the groundwater are accumulating.Answer to this question may be partially available from net salt input in an area from canal and tubewdl water and associated changes in the salt content of the soils. An earlier study for SCARP-1 indicatesthat salts are being added at the rate of more than 2 tons per acre per year as given below: Inflow Surface water = 0.17 million tons Tubewell water = 245 million tons Total: 2.62 million tons outflow Drains = 0.04 million tons Table 11 gives the soil classificationdata for SCARP-I, which indicatesthat soil profiles after reclamation are being re-affected. It wDl be further observed that it is not simple "salinity' but *Sodicity' which is increasing. TABLE 11 Sumary of clear and affected profiles(%) Profiles NS S SS+ (Nr) NS NS NSS SCARP-I 62-63 1929 34 5 54 77-78 1898 70 2 26 81-82 2042 60 2 37 86-88 2003 63 2 35 A similar study for Mona project indicate that the average canal diversion to the area was 1,49,600 acre feet per year. Average annual supply from public and private tubewellswas 1,10,750 and 18,000 acre feet respectively.Outflow through drains was 19,000 acre feet per year. The approximate salt budget for the root zone given in Tables 12 to 14 is as under: 13 TABLE 12 Salts Inflow in Mona Project 1977-85 Souce Average Salts Irrigation Salks TOS t.af Supplies Inflow (ppm) Water (A.F) (tons) Publr - - 886020 721397 TubeweEs Private 452 0.615 144000 88560 Tubewells Canal 168 0.226 1196836 272878 Total 1082835 Salts InflowNYear 135354 Salts Outflow Budget Source Average Sakts I rgation Salts TDS taf Water (ppm) Water (A.F) (tons) Sakls infw 550 0.748 7000 5236 by Chat Drain SaksOutflow 1178 1.6 26000 41600 by Mona Drain Net Outflow = 41600 - 5236 = 36364 Net Saks Remained in Project Area = 135354-36364 = 98990 SaksJAcre =989901111500= 0.89 tons 14 TABLE 13 Saks Tvantewed in Mama Pmjn n by Pu TtTS Sak in Pumpage Total Saks Sr. T.W. Average Tonsawe during Trankferred No. No. TDS foot Of 1977-78 tO in Soks (PPM) water 1994-85 (Tons) ______(Acrefeet) 1 1 328 0.446 10,507 4,687 2 2 416 0.566 8,383 4,743 3 3 560 0.762 8,499 6,473 4 4 586 0.797 5,594 4,458 5 5 282 0.384 6,892 27643 6 6 348 0.473 6,740 3,190 7 7 351 0.477 7,236 3,454 8 8 339 0.461 5,772 2,661 9 9 365 0.496 7,011 3,480 10 10 184 0250 9,874 2,471 11 11 195 0.265 7,863 2,095 1 2 12 332 0-452 4,757 2,148 13 13 794 1.080 6,680 7,213 14 1 4 320 0.435 9,270 4,034 15 15 1,175 1.598 4,786 7,646 16 16 1,496 2.035 4,707 9,576 17 17 995 1.353 4,935 6,678 18 18 990 1.346 4,339 5,842 19 19 714 0.971 7,144 6,937 20 20 616 0p838 6,900 5,781 21 21 586 0.797 6,128 4,884 22 22 488 0.664 8,971 5,954 23 23 261 0.355 6,827 2,423 24 24 325 0.442 10,262 4,536 25 25 1,410 1.918 4,516 8,660 26 26 747 1.016 6,706 6,813 27 27 225 0.306 4,322 1,322 28 28 276 0.375 8,905 3,343 29 29 1,009 1.372 9,836 13,498 30 31 1,000 1.360 8,642 11,754 31 32 920 1.251 8,751 10,950 .32 42 1,950 2.652 1,721 4,565 33 46 1,363 1.854 8,008 14,845 34 47 436 0.593 8,112 4,810 35 50 1,380 1.877 9,161 17.193 36 51 1,320 1.795 8,038 14,430 37 52 1,355 1.843 6,427 11,844 38 53 470 0.639 3,891 2487 39 54 392 0.533 10,134 5,403 40 55 983 1.337 7,322 9,789 41 56 876 1191 8,549 10,185 TABLE 13 (Conti.) Sais T6nsfeu3ed hm Una Phiojxm Irma by PFbb5 TubeweO I I Sak in Pumnpage Tota Salts Sr. T.W. Average Tonshucre during Transferred No. No. TDS fatoof 1977-78to in Sails (PPb2 watr 1984-85 (Tons) I (Acrefeet) 42 57 990 1-346 6,664 8.972 43 59 1,366 1 858 7,708 14,320 44 60 561 0.763 9,877 7.536 45 61 1,127 1.533 6,122 9,383 46 62 846 1.151 8,506 9,787 47 63 644 0.876 7,593 6,650 48 64 958 1.303 5,010 6,527 49 65 702 0.955 9,l 99 8,782 50 66 712 0.968 6,032 5,841 51 67 386 0.525 8,355 4,386 52 68 381 0.51B 8,647 4,481 53 69 693 0.942 8,108 7,642 54 TO 458 0.623 6,632 4,131 55 71 609 0.828 9,410 7,794 56 72 480 0.653 5,941 3,878 57 74 392 0.533 7,912 4,218 59 75 554 0.753 6,086 4,585 59 76 298 0.405 4,025 1,631 60 77 676 0.919 6,983 6,420 61 78 329 0.447 7,619 3,409 62 79 234 0.318 7,600 2,419 63 E1 252 0.343 8,414 2,884 64 82 340 0.462 6,344 &33 65 91 1,393 1.894 5,629 ,664 66 92 1,583 2.153 5,180 11,152 67 93 1,330 1.809 6,778 12,260 68 95 1,410 1.918 6,526 12,514 69 96 236 0.321 9,319 2,991 70 97 242 0.329 10,598 3,488 71 98 656 0.892 11,707 10,445 72 99 214 0.291 8,961 2,608 73 100 308 0.419 152 64 74 101 953 1.296 2.579 3,343 75 102 1,068 1.452 3,663 5,320 76 103 582 0.792 9,697 7,675 77 104 250 0.340 2,484 845 78 105 305 0.415 6,361 2,639 79 106 310 0.422 5,399 2,276 80 107 720 0.979 7,190 7,040 E1 108 366 0.498 8,602 4,282 82 109 356 0.484 6,174 2,989 16 TABLE13 (Contdi Salts Transferred in MonaProject Areaby PublicTubowells Salt in Pumpage Total Saks Sr. T-W. Average Tonsacre during Transfened NO. No. TDS foot Of 1977-78 to in Sois (PPM) water 1984-85 (Tons) (Acrefeet) 83 110 415 0.564 5,544 3,129 84 111 470 0.639 5,591 3,574 85 112 400 0.544 7,677 4,176 86 113 218 0.296 3,484 1,033 87 114 426 0.579 8,935 5,177 88 115 355 0.483 6,945 3,353 89 117 349 0.475 6,727 3,193 90 118 304 0.413 6,852 2,833 91 119 268 0.364 8,029 2,926 92 120 304 0.413 8,382 3,465 93 121 774 1.053 8,301 8,738 94 122 404 0.549 8,831 4,852 95 123 340 0.462 7,621 3,524 96 124 288 0.392 6,039 2,365 97 125 280 0.381 9,718 3,701 98 126 248 0.337 7,678 2,590 99 127 256 0.348 9,436 3,285 100 128 298 0.405 8,230 3,335 101 129 288 0.392 7,780 3,047 102 130 378 0.514 9,834 5,055 103 131 344 0.468 8,322 3,893 104 132 428 0.582 10,195 5,934 105 133 684 0.930 12,591 11,713 106 134 488 0.664 6,041 4,009 107 135 548 0.745 7,813 5,823 108 136 844 1.148 9,238 10,604 109 137 625 0.850 9,505 8,079 110 138 1,900 2.584 7,560 19,535 111 139 1,029 1.399 8,046 11,260 112 140 770 1.047 9,190 9,624 113 141 578 0.786 10,251 8,058 114 142 414 0.563 9,790 5,512 115 143 434 0.590 10,190 6,015 116 144 414 0.563 8,215 4,625 117 145 733 0.997 6,818 6,797 118 146 689 0.937 7,296 6,837 119 -147 680 0.925 6,838 6,324 120 148 612 0.832 7,585 6,313 986,020 721,397 17 TABLE 14 Pta9.le Wltey DurwyDate.Of Mons R.dws.iloe Ptoj.c% Photo B.Pao8. 17?191 il198597 19 77 1985 1977 1955 97 197791 19 ie 85Ily?1977? 1985 19715 197 197 1977551 1985 198;117 1977 1915 olings gap Aces No. No.I -9377 1 995 I 3~1.i64 I 3211-65 7 35 30 1.44 0.60 0.33 0.12 35 30 0.40 0.50 0.18 0.19 3? 33 4.50 0.25 3.41 0.22 SB 33 1.70 0.25 2.55 0.44 6.47 0.97 I a 2 * 10 38 30 0150 0.40 0.12 0.08 35 30 0.40 0.50 0.18 0.19 S7 33 0.60 0.40 0.41 0.25 36 33 0.40 0.40 0.51 0.51 1.25 1.03 3 * 3 * II 35 25 0.40 0.40 0.09 0.07 38 30 6.00 0.41 2.92 0.17 15 3s 4.00 0.80 2.89 0.51I 0.00 0 00 5.7 0.75 4 32211-66 1 3211-65 9 24 25 0.90 0.90 0.20 0.14 33 25 0.54 1.80 0.24 0.51 37 25 0.52 1.05 0.37 0,50 38 25 4.30 1.00 5.27 0.96 7.08 2.12 S 2 I 8 .19 28 1.00 1.40 0.75 0.25 15 25 0.62 0.70 0.37 0.22 16 26 1.10 0.75 0.90 0 40 I0 21 1.00DOS 2.61 0.01 4964 0.93 8 3 wi1-G? 7 ST 28 1.70 0.53 1.35 0.10 33 28 8.00 0.80 2.51 0.29 37 28 1.05 0.70 0.75 0.28 33 28 8.10 0 50 8 24 0.54 12.87 1.1 ? 4 ' 90 33 28 8.00 1.20 1.89 0.22 33 28 9.00 1.20 3.80 0.42 33 25 12.00 0.31 75 051os 0.00 0,00 13.09 1.15 * * II1 35 28 7.00 1.50 1.17 0.27 35 28 8.00 1.20 3.58 0 42 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 5.91 0.? 9 3211-68 t 3211-64 8 24 33 0.95 0.55 0.15 0.12 12 28 2.50 0.10 1.41 0.1 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.58 0.1 10 3291-70 I * 1 37 31 1.00 1.20 0.24 0.25 31 28 1.62 0.80 0 64 0.29 25 28 2 20 1.70 1.06 0.99 0.00 0.00 9.34 1.45 19 1210-112 1 3210-177 4 33 21 0.12 0.15 0.07 0.06' 39 25 0.20 0 45 0.10 0.94 35 2? 0.80 0.35 0.14 0.98 37 30 0.20 0.30 0.43 0.j1 1.9 0.71 92 3120.978 I 5 29310 0.90 2.20 0.J9 0.44 25 30 0.15 4.25 0.19 1.63 28 15 1.70 4.80 0.91 1.23 30 40 2.90 1.60 3.14 5.51 4.48 10.81 is ' 2 ' 6 28 10 0.50 1.00 0.09 0.19 42 10 0.52 0.55 0.28 0.21 30 32 0.45 0 45 0 28 0.28 27 10 0130 0.50 0.11 0.581 0.94 1.28 14 3 7 29 35 0.40 0.65 0.07 0.15 25 37 0.90 0.65 0.29 0.311 21 26 0.50 0.78 0.A2 0.14 20 25 0.25 0.80 0.40 9.08 0.3 2 07 Is A 6 25 15 S.00 2,00 0.80 0.4 21 10 0.75 0.70 0 24 0.27 0 00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.04 0.72 1s 32`10.`176 2 9 36 30 0.28 1.O 0.08 0.29 36 20 0.20 1.00 0.09 0.18 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 0.16 0.6 iT * S 90 SS 10 .1.0 4.00 9.94 0.7? 12 31 0.95 I 00 0.27 0.40 31 30 0.32 0.90 0.20 0.52 0.00 0.00 1 62 1.881 isi 4 g ii 11 21 0.70 1.00 0.15 0.16 56 25 0.37 0.60 0.17 0.192 15 28 9.60 0.50 1.01 0.27 37 28 4.40 0.45 6.21 0.48 7.58 9.1 19 4 92 28 15 0.45 0.45 0.08 0.90 S3 18 0.24 0.20 0.10 0.15 45 41 1.25 0.21 1.08 0.21 49 45 1.10 0.25 2.82 0.60 4 08 1.06 20 * 5 3120-175 9 33 10 0.99 7.10 0.99 1.44 32 28 0.62 3.60 0 26 9.26 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 45 2,6 21 6 * 2 52 25 0.34 0.70 0.07 0 99 33 25 0.25 0.45 0.11 0.94 35 21 0.25 0.40 0.97 0.19 33 25 0.10 0.40 0.18 0.58 0.72 0.81 22 T 3 33 40 0.24 2.40 0.05 0.89 32 28 0.20 0.30 0.08 0.32 12 28 0.30 0.50 0.98 0.27 0.00 0 00 0.12 1.29 21 4 12 27 0.13 0.45 0.91 0 08 55 27 0.25 0.235 0.1I1 0.12 33 27 0.10 0.10 0.19 0.16 37 25 0.27 0.15 0.18 0.18 0.8 0.73 24 * 9 5 33 28 0.40 6.50 0.05 1.16 16 25 0.25 2.20 0.12 0 82 28 28 0.28 9850 0.16 0.97 25 25 1.00 1.01 1.14 1.913 1.72 4.09 25 * 0 * 33 30 0.15 0.50 0.07 0.90 22 10 0.38 0.10 0.98 0.19 38 30 9.90 0.10 0.50 0.29 33 10 9.72 0.50 2.18 0.58 1.21 1.15 26 3120-174 8 7 27 12 0.32 1.90 0.06 0.23 23 10 0.40 0.55 0.913 0.21 28 31 0.60 0.45 0.32 0.27 25 30 1.72 0.15 1.65 0.40 2.16 1.11 2? * * 29 10 0.47 0.61 0.09 0.92 25 27 0.18 0.85 fl 12 0.22 28 27 060 0530 0.30 0.26 28 10 0.30 0.40 0.32 0 46 0.81 1.07 28 a 7 9 28 26 0.16 0.58 0.06 0.90 21 27 0.15 0.15 0.19 0.19 25 28 0 23 0.15 0.12 0.17 21 27 0.26 0.33 0.25 0.17 0.11 1.04 29 * 8 i1 27 37 0.40 0.75 0.07 0.15 21 10 0.70 0.73 0,22 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.47 s0 * 3 11 35 18 0.22 0.95 0.07 0.22 25 33 0.16 1.20 0.18 0.51 24 30 0.60 1.40 0.28 0.81 25 10 0.50 1.00 0.46 1.15 1.01 2.? 31 g 90 * 12 30 28 0.26 0.70 0.09 0.11 40 28 0.50 1.45 0,26 0.52 30 28 0.14 1.50 0.25 1.7? 0.00 0.00 0 6 2.42 32 * 2 3210-173 I 26 23 0.80 1.20 0.14 0.22 40 1319.30 0.90 0.67 0.40 30 35 1.90 0.55 0.62 0.57 0 00 0.00 1.44 1.2 33 * I * 2 26 10 0.48 0.75 0.08 0.14 25 28 0.19 1.20 0.12 0.41 27 28 0.21 1.10 0.18 0.70 0.00 0.00 0.16 1.27 14 * 3 2 29 25 0.52 0.71 0.10 0.92 12 28 0 47 0.85 0.19 0.22 30 21 0.38 0.80 0.29 0.56 30 28 0.34 0.75 0.62 0691 1.12 1.14 55 * 4 4 25 SO 0.46 0.50 0.07 0.10 28 28 0.40 0.45 0.94 0.18 26 30 0.10 0.35 0.16 0.20 30 30 0.15 0.41 0.40 0.52 0.7 0O6 36 3120-172 90 5 25 53 0.60 1.05 0.10 0.22 2? 10 0.45 0.85 0,17 0.25 28 33 1.17 0.70 0.6 0.44 21 10 0.40 0.50 0.15 0.58 1.12 1.49 3? a 6 56 28 0.26 0.60 0.09 0,94 21 20 0.25 OIS5 0.08 0.29 17 33 0130 0.25 0.21 0.16 38 35 0.11 0.10 0.51 0.67 0.9 1.18 38 * 7 7 31 11 0.56 1.10 0.11 0.22 31 50 0.35 0.90 014 0.35 33 30 0.38 0.35 0.23 0.12 35 29 0.47 0.55 0.63 0,611 1.11 1.49 39 * 6 * 8 30 27 0.52 9.30 0.90 0.22 51 17 0.18 0.50 0.18 0.24 32 40 0.23 0.55 0.91 0.42 12 43 0.31 0.10 0.38 0.61 0,79 1.79 40 2 2 33 30 0.60 0.75 0.1 0,14 12 30 0.55 0.65 0.21 0.23 3 310 0.43 0.55 0.27 0.32 29 32 0.42 1.20 0.50 1.47 9.112 2.18 41 1 10 31 10 0535 0.85 0.91 0.96 22 30 0.10 0 65 0.20 0.25 30 30 0152 1.90 0.10 0.62 31 36 06 0.71J 1.02 1.04 1.64 2.06 42 * 4 II1 10 s0 0.50 1.00 0.10 0.12 10 d5 0.45 0.90 0.97? 0.52 29 JS 0.61 9.00 0.24 0.86 31 45 0.97 0.80. 9.15 1.15 9.76 2 01 41 * 12 32 33 0.65 0.80 0,94 0.97 12 30 0.52 0.80 0.21 0131 33 20 017T 1.SS 0.21 0.78 0.00 0.00 0.59 1.25 44 12 13I 27 34 0.60 0.80 0.10 017T 28 10 0.12 9.70 0 11 0.85 29 32 2.20 0860 1.22 0137 28 30 2.50 0.50 2.69 0.58 4.91 1.77 45 9 14 40 40 0.45 1,00 0.92 0.26 30 37 0.12 9.110 0.12 0.52 30 37 0.319 1.50 0.18 1.07 32 11 0.31 1.10 0,65 1.55 1.0O? 1.36 TABLE IA(Contd..) PvcpfIaWaleky Surmv 0CaROfMons RadamaulanPvajedc at. MasterPlanning MAE1u,vuy 0-6 n.ha, 6.is inches . i;36inchas 116723 Inchus JTotl.vltok No. Sywv.y(17I7 BI S (1955Bc81 sf 3 TC 4f PE. LE I Dali Infli P,dala Phato I. Photo B. p97? lees 1977 1368 1977 1965 119?? 1985 1977 1985 I19?7 1985 1977 1985 1q77 1905 1977 1985 1377 l986 1377 1985 197? 1985 (Iona .All" jo~. No.I1it; 1963g 46 3210-110 1 3210-171 1 26 50 0.90 2.00 0.21 0.64 3? 55 0.40 1.10 0.19 0.17 23 45 0.40 1.00 0.25 0.92 35 43 0A8 1.40 1.32 2.31 1.V 4.65 4? 2 * 2 35 33 0.40 0.90 0.03 0.19 33 45 0.43 0.70 0.18 0.40 14 40 0.700.30 0.45 0.3s o.oo o.oo 0.73 0.96 48 * * 15 25 0.50 0.90 0.11 0,14 33 25 105 0.70 0 44 0.22 33 23 0.30 0.10 0.19 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.61 49 3210.17213 ' 4 25 25 1.80 0.80 0.29 0O13 25 33 0530 0.45 0.16 0.19 26 30 0.500.50 0.26 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.7 061 50 I1 I 5 26 20 0.55 2.00 0.09 0.16 ST 28 0.41 0.55 0.14 0.A8 25 28 0138 0.75 0.18 0.40 26 35 0.75 1.10 0.78 2.48 1.2 2.42 51 I a 35 25 2.80 0.60 0.63 0.13 33 23 4.00 0.60 1.69 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.12 0.322 62 3209.116 7 3219-117 1 40 35 30.00 5.00 7.681 1.12 37 30 3.60 0.65 1.80 0.33 26 30 11.0 0.75 6.03 0.42 25 30 5.40 8.00 7.26 9.22 24.76 It109 53 II 2 26 27 0.70 0.65 0.13 0.J5 30 27 0.36 0.55 0.15 0.19 29 32 0.37 0.50 0.21 0.51 25 27 0.60 0.55 0.58 0.57 1.05 1.21 54 * 3 3 57 36 6.00 0.60 1.2 0.11 53 26 2.90 0.90 0.97 0.30 55 27 1.80 0.65 1.14 0.34 33 27 0.60 0.35 1.01 0.5? 4.51 1.31 a 2 4 33 25 9.00 20.00 1.90 3.20 33 25 2.90 4.10 1.22 1.31 37 45 5.00 1.75 1.55 1.81 55 34 0,60 2.60 1.06 8339 7.78 9.42 so 4 a 5 53 27 3.40 240 0.72 0.41 33 25 1.2 1.70 0.51 0.54 83 25 4 40 1 70 2.79 0.82 33 30 7.00 2.20 8.67 2.65 12.61 4.42 31 3209-118 5 a 6 321 60 0.70 2.95 0.14 1.13 32 55 0.30 I 00 0.12 0.70 33 50 0.74 0.70 0.47 0.57 000 0.00 0.73 2.S2 55 4 7 ST 20 0.40 1.20 0.09 0.23 33 27 0.60 2.01. 0.34 0 63 32 30 1.50 1.50 0.92 0.66 0.00 0.00 1.35 1.79 a9s 3 8 35 28 0.60 1.20 0.13 0.29 S5 30 0.43 0.75 0.19 0 29 36 32 0 44 1.50 030 0.92 0.00 0.00 0.63 1.5 60 * 9 34 48 3.40 5.50 0.74 1.76 35 45 0,60 1.65 0.27 0.95 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.01 2.73 61 I 10 34 49 0.50 1.00 0.11 0.31 23 46 0.43 260 0.16 1.60 35 3i 0.60 0.70 0.40 042 000 0.00 0.69 2.33 62 I 11I 35 53 1.15 0.70 0.24 0.24 32 43 5.50 0.40 2.25 0.22 53 50 0.65 0.40 0.54 0.36 0.00 0.00 3.03 0.84 a3s 2 * 12 33 42 1.15 0.80 0.24 0.22 34 45 0.70 0.70 0.30 0.40 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.55 0.62 ta 64 3209-114 2 3209-115 I 36 40 0.60 0.45 0.14 0.12 33 40 0.45 0.45 0.19 0.23 33 35 0 46 0.40 0.30 0.29 35 29 0.76 0.40 1.05 0.60 1.66 1.24 65 S 2 36 25 0.35 1.60 0.08 0.40 35 25 1.20 3.00 0.54 1.34 33 40 3.00 3.70 1.90 2.64 35 41 2.1 2.90 2.82 4.57 5.34 9.15 66 A 3 35 10 1.60 1.50 0.40 0.29 35 20 2.00 1.6 0.84 0.69 35 30 1.90 3.80 U.2 2.19 36 55 1.30 3.60 1.60 4.84 4.32 6.01 5? 3209-116 6 4 23 28 7.00 0.85 1.48 0.15 37 27 1.70 0.75 0.61 0.26 37 23 0.60 0.80 0.57 0.36 38 25 1.00 0.70 1.45 0.67 4.31 1.47 88 a 5 5 37 40 1.10 1.30 0.11 0.32 13 38 1.00 1.00 0.42 0.49 35 35 8.60 1.00 5.78 0.73 23 39 7.5'.0.60 9.50 0.90 16.01 2.45 69 320209.14 S 6 37 25 2.10 1.50 0.50 0.24 33 29 2.20 1.50 0.93 0.56 33 25 1.70 1290 1.06 0 65 35 30 1.90 1.20 2.13 1.J8 5.06 2.82 T0o 6 T 26 28 1IS0 1.10 0.35 0.20 23 25 0.52 1.10 0.22 0.35 55 25 0.46 1.00 0.31 048 36 30 0130 1.20 0.41 1.36 1.29 2.41 71, a8 40 28 0.26 1.50 0.07 0,27 26 25 0.30 1.10 0.14 0.35 39 28 0.30 1.20 0.22 0.65 41 25 1.10 1.00 1.73 1.06 2.15 2.54 72 3209-116 9 * 9 28 29 2.50 1.70 0.45 0.32 30 29 0.90 1.10 0.35 0.88 28 25 1.10 1.60 0.53 077 28 38 0.60 0.70 0.65 1.02 2.03 3.66 73 ' 2 10 24 25 5.70 6.00 1.24 0.96 37 33 1.60 1.20 0.85 0.51 0.00 0.00 'i.00 0.00 2.02 1.47 74 a II 20. 30 2.00 1.0 0.26 0.19 25 10 0.52 0.40' 0.21 0.51 40 35 0.70 0.70 0.14 0.47 25 33 4.40 0.60 4.22 1.01 168 1.36 i5 I to 12 29 33 1.80 0.60 0.12 0.12 27 35 2.60 0.10 0.90 0.27 30 38 180 1.10 6.64 0.80 29 26 2.90 2.50 3.22 3.55 13.1 4.65 76 3209-112 6 3209-113 1 321 45 0.60 0.55 0.16 0.15 30 4 5 0.60 0.60 0.2 0.46 50 45 1.70 0.65 0.96 0.55 SI1 46 0.93 0.75 1.11 1.38 2.48 2.56 a? * 2 S3 5o 0.72 0.15 0.15 0.14 32 37 0.52 0.45 0.21 0.21 22 40 2 40 0.80 1.47' 0.3 32 41 0.70 0.45 CM1 0.71 2.7 1.44 la 12 a 6 29 40 0.15 0.JO 0.09 0.20 34 42 0.11 0.55 0.16 0.30 36 45 0.29 0.50 0.20 0.43 35 44 0.25 0.55 0.34 0.93 0.78 1.66 79 I5 * 4 34 30 0.60 1.30 0.17 0.25 35 26 1.00 i.10 0.45 0.29 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.62 0.64 so 14 5 22 30 0.40 0.70 0.08 0.11 35 311 0.20 0.55 0.12 0.22 37 29 0.39 0.50 0.28 0.28 36 30 0.25 0.80 0.35 0.88 084 1.21 61 I10 6 21 25 0.60 0.70 0.12 0.11 30 26 0.46 0.35 0.18 0.12 50 26 0.42 0.30 0.21 u.18s 0.00 0.00 0.25 0.28 62 S209-114 13 7 33 26 0.70 0.90 0.15 0.15 51 27 0.50 0.60 0.21 0.21 64 25 0.70 0.50 0.46 0.24 55 26 0.45 0.70 0.60 0.70 1.42 1.1 63 7 6 33 26 0.42 1.70 0.09 0.30 52 33 0.40 1.30 0.17 0.3555 533 0.15 150 0.24 1.53 23 83 0.40 4.20 0.51 6.815 1 10.93 84 * 12 * 9 34 26 0.65 2.40 0.14 043 37 25 3 10 1.20 1.47 0.38 371 29 0 61 1.00 0.43 056 0.00 0.00 2.04 1.37 65 a 10 10 40 0.41 2.50 0.08 0.72 3I 59 0.45 1.50 0.18 0.75 35 43 0.58 3.40 0.39 2.51 35 45 2.40 360 1.23 6.57 1.67 10.64 I60 II 51 41 0.50 1.40 0.10 0.27 32 40 0.19 1.20 0,18 0.61 33 45 0.45 0.90 0.29 0.76 361 53 0.40 2.50 0.45 5.09 J.03 6.55 B? 9 12 23 30 0.52 1.60 0.11 0.51 56 35 0.75 2.30 0.35 I05 37 35 2.20 2.65 1.56 1.76 S1 23 110 2.60 2.26 4.86 4.26 7.66 684 3209.112 11 13 55 32 0.25 0.50 0.0" 0.11 26 25 0.17 0.40 0.18 0.18 40 25 0.27 0.50 0.21 0.24 41 25 0.70 0.80 1.10 0.7? 1.37 1.29 69 3209-114 1 14 40 40 0.78 1.15 0.19 0.29 35 40 0.42 1.60 0.19 0.92 27 45 0 40 i1.0 0.28 1 47 39 48 0.54 1.50 0.81 2.76 1.47 5.45 90 3209.112 I 3209-111 6 30 33 11.20 0.65 2.15 0.14 32 50 81.50 0.25 3.48 0.10 33 30 7.00 0.55 4.44 0 20 42 25 1.3 0.35 2.10 0.47' 12.A6 0.91 TABLE14(Contri..) Profile S.daltyllmm Data Of MonaRodamaimi PRoljc Be. Matter PIuu.IingmiE Isulwy 0-6 Inchoi 1-15 incha. 10-35Itschog 36-721huhs ToIa salt. No. Surve(O137 (1985 Sp act slol I/uc Sp ageo Sall(Vu._ SP Egoa Sail Sp Erco 3.11 aClithe Profile Pht No. Nooa. fif 1965119710 1 loss90i1377 1B31 9?185I17 gs 971$ liii?19 1 197 1936 19 1065117713551 1355iesyL No. Nooo. 177 '77 1 10717 lSS'17 01 96' 5137 107? 11 31 ' 2 7 51 35 0.02 0.65 0.11 0.10 26 25 0,62 0.60 0.20 0.27 13 40 2.00 0.55 I.50 0.42 40 45 1.60 0.75 2.46 ISO0 4.15 2.16 02 7 g 8 31 43 0.60 2.20 0.17 0.61 24 35 0.62 2.30 0.27 1.03 32 37 1.00 1.50 0.11 1.07 23 42 1.22 0.00 1.55 1.43 2.6 4.10 ;I a~~ * 322 43 0.40 0.00 0.01 0.25 31 40 0.41 0.45 0.16 0.23 24 us t.So0.41 0.95 0.2 15 37 1.52 0.15 2.04 0.50 U.2 1.24 34 * 4 * 10 35 43 0,52 0.61 0.12 0.22 St 40 0.27 0.31 0.15 0149 22 40 0.26 ISO0 0.17 1.15 11 48 0.20 2.10 0.16 2.6? 0.73 1.74 35 a If So 35 2.10 0.70 0.66 0.16 23 5 2 .20 0.40 1.60 0.10 35 53 5.505.00 2.60 5.03 oco0 0.00 66 1 .44 26 13I 12 33 26 0.10 0.70 0.10 0.1P 0.00 000 33 26 1.41 0.70 0.92 0.26 33 25 1.60 0.65 2.02 0.62 3.14 1.322 37 5 IS 32 21 0.40 0.60 0.06 0.11 13 25 0.15 0.11 0.15 0.11 34 16 0.50 0.60 0.22 0.44 33 43 0.61 1.20 0.77 2.15 1.12 2.32 36 1206.20 1 1208-22 3 20 15 8350 1.00 1.61 1.J2 33 42 6.00 16.00 2.28 4.30 32 40 1.20 7.00 2.00 1.35 27 42 1.60 1.10 2.16 6.57 3.66 19.67 99 a 4 ' 4 14 16 0.90 0.60 0.20 0.19 3a 32 0.70 0.60 0.14 0.21 33 29 0.46 0.50 0.29 0.17 41 44 0.62 0.60 1.23 1.01 1.12 1.70 100 1208-08 1 1 213 35 0.70 1.40 0.11 0.11 15 16 0.6 0.7 0.16 0.14 33 21 0.71 0.60 0.46 0.40 32 44 0 60 0.50 0.71 0.64 1.74 Ii9 101 a 2 a 5 35 SS 0.60 0.10 0.13 0.11 40 36 0.40 0.10 0.20 0.24 17 35 0.50 0.60 0.16 0 40 36 46 2.90 1.10 4.01 lid4 4.16 2.7 102 * 10 a 7 37 26 1.20 2.60 0.76 0.66 36 45 2.40 2.110 1.11 1.44 33 47 2.40 2.10 1.12 1.90 35 A6 2.60 2.00 .1.76 3.51 7.15 7.15 103 7 8 40 35 1.40 1,20 0.11 0.27 41 14 0.50 0.45 0.21 0.20 0.00 0 00 0.00 0.00 0.67 0.45 104 B 9 40 40 0.10 1.20 0.13 0.315 19 40 1.10 0.30 0.11 0.15 0.00 0,00 0.00 0.00 0.75 0.14 101 II 10 17 12 055 0.70 0.11 0.15 15 40 0.22 0.60 0.10 0.41 15 A5 0.12 0.60 0.21 0.74 0.00 0.00 0.49 1.22 1o6 3 11 22 45 0.80 1.40 0.17 0.40 12 26 0.70 0.61 0.20 0.32 35 A8 2.00 0.15 1.14 01so 9 46 1.00 0.30 1.10 1.19 1.311 2.91 107 3206-30 1 2208-20 12 15 40 0.40 0.50 0.00 0.20 30 40 0.32 0.65 0.12 0.44 21 40 0.11 0.50 0.21 0.46 0ado 0.00 0.42 1.1 106 3206-25 II 3200-27 I 32 26 0.50 0.90 0.16 0.16 33 25 0.62 0.65 0.26 0.21 32 32 1.20 0.70 0.74 0.44 36 28 0.92 1.30 1.14 1.90 2.11 2.71 0D 109 ' ' 2 40 35 0.60 31.60 0.20 0.61 23 35 0.60 2.10 0.21 1.16 32 45 0.50 2.00 0.25 1.71 33 40 0.60 1.60 0.76 2.76 1.1 ISI1 110 a * 3 ST 25 0.90 2.20 0.21 0.29 41 33 1.40 1.10 0.72 0.49 42 25 1.25 1.01 1.03 0.71 3S 21 0.60 0.70 0.76 0.67 2.74 2.26 III * I 4 33 15 0.10 0.71 0.11 0.17 15 25 0.42 0.50 0.139 0.22 3i 35 0.5Z 0.45 0.11 0.20 35 40 0.32 0.40 0.44 0.61 1.05 1.311 112 * 4 a 1 37 43 0.561 0.10 0.14 0.11 27 40 U14 0.50 0.20 0.26 36 41 0.98 0.35 0.72 0.26 40 33 1.20 0.15 2.00 0.70 2.15 1.14 iII 3208-26 7 6 12 25 0.40 9.00 0.06 2.19 30 16 0.60 5.60 0.31 2.62 30 33 0.41 1.10 0.26 2.70 32 32 2.40 4.10 2.35 5.20 1.6 i3i 114 a S 7 32 26 2.14 12.00 0.52 2.11 32 20 0.92 0.15 0.239 0.21 31 32 2.40 0.15 2.02 0.15 31 20 1.00 0.75 5.05 0.01 6.60 1.17 itS * I * 32 35 ' :,'1 - 0.15 0.31 31 30 0.62 0.60 0.21 0.11 12 35 0.11 0.60 0.11 0 40 12 33 0.62 0.50 0.50 0.61 1.55 1.66 116 * 6 9 10 32 1.10 0 60 0.21 0.11 20 SO 0.50 0.71 0.19 0.29 22 33 0.45 0.15 0.28 ~0.311S1 40 1.70 0.95 2.02 1.46 2.? 2.22 fly 2 * 10 14 10 0.70 2.10 0.11 0.40 14 10 1.00 1.40 1.31 0.14 14 30 2.60 2.90 1.70 1.57 35 30 0.60 4.00 1.06 4.61 4.23 7.22 115I 1 If1 SS AS 0.60 0.45 0.17 0.14 12 45 0.42 0.40 0.17 0.22 20 45 0.45 0.50 0.26 0.41 33 1S 0.40 0.10 0.14 0.92 1.14 1.72 119 * 10 * 12 16 26 0.43 0.60 0.10 0.15 31 36 0.15 0.40 0.15 0.16 36 35 0.60 0.60 0.35 0.40 37 42 0.10 1.10 0.41 2.43 1.02 3.21 120 1208.26 14 13 10 40 0.70 0.10 0.13 0.13 20 25 1,40 0.10 0.54 0.22 I1 45 1 40 1.10 2.02 1.12 22 48 4.20 2.60 1.16 1.16 7.65 6.54 12 32205-26 331206-21 1 15 33 0.52 2.00 0.12 0.42 36 41 0.62 1.60 0.23 0.99 14 46 0.73 1.70 0.45 2.41 14 48 1.11 1.00 1.07 392 2.65 14.04 12. 3205-24 1 * 2 43 54 11.00 41.00 4.11 11.15 40 43 10.00 11.00 1.12 7,49 33 45 11. 8.20 10.08 4.4 3 1 13 1.00 2.50 4.49 . .09 23.62 12.62 123 2206-26 4 * 33 43 1.20 6.10 0.21 1.79331 41 2i90 7.60 1.22 4.61 10 45 2.40 6.00 1.26 6.01 12 42 2.20 7.10 2.70 12.16 SAO I1.63 124 0 4 33 40 0.35 1.50 0.07 1.41 36 40 0.40 1.10 0.16 1.10 35 40L 1.14 1.00 C.?? 2.10 * 33 10 1.10 2.00 1.71 3.00 2.77 6.1 125 * I * 13 24 0.15 1.20 0.09 0.26 26 30 2.20 0.60 1.07 0.21 35 33 1.60 1.70 1.21 1.06 37 37 0 90 1.70 1.28 2.42 1.75 4.06 126 1205-24 is 5 20 37 0.39 1.20 0.12 0.26 27 37 0.22 1.50 0.25 0.71 26 40 1.20 1.60 0.65 1.22 25 40 0.19 1.40 0.17 2.15 1.19 4.17 127 14 * 7 27 30 0.60 1.31 0.14 0.10 28 10 0.92 1.30 0.21 0.50 25 26 0.12 0.90 0.06 0.45 26 10 2.00 1.00 2.15 1.15 2.568 2.41 126 12 6 31 42 0.63 2.00 0.13 0.14 35 A1 1.20 2.10 0.84 1.31 33 45 1,00 2,00 O.62 1.71 10 46 0500 2.00 1.14 3.11 2.9 7.11 120 is 9 30 11 0.50 1.22 0.12 0.26 35 30 0.85 1.00 0.26 0.15 3S 35 0.63 1.80 0.44 1.21 21 16 1.20 11.45 1.11 2.00 2 06 1.66 110 4 * 10 25 42 6.00 1.65 1.46 0.50 33 26 4.00 1.10 2 00 0.54 000o 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.46 1.02 III 3 11 51 23 11.00 0.60 2.46 0.11 40 26 6.80 0.70 4.2 0.25 35 22 1.50 0.60 1.21 0.49 37 20 1.50 1.10 2.13 1.27 10.16 2.16 1322 2 12 16 2 31.00 1.30 1.22 0.31 36 31 0.90 1.70 0.44 0.57 15 30 0.00 1.10 0.60 0.62 35 31 1.02 2.40 1.27 2.66 3.63 4.112 II3 15I 3206-23 1 30 40 0i0 1.00 0.10 0.77 23 42 0.10 4.00 0.13 2.20 SI 45 0.50 5.50 0 30 4.71 0 00 0.00 0.56 7.72 124 it 2 10 41 0.11 1.00 0,11 1.21 33 41 1.20 0.90 0,11 0 47 11 43 1.12 0682 0.71 0.58 40 4S 2.30 O.7: 4.45 1.10 1.76 1.76 125 a 3 32 35 1.00 1.70 0.21 0.36 34 30 1.10 2.00 0.65 0.77 35 20 '1.90 0.95 1.39 0.11 0.00 0.00 2.21 1.7 TABLE14 (CoRld..) PvaIlIcSJiRIIy Suiv.y DoleOf Momsi Redaet.ime Piajodl I3. S 4 39 30 4.00 1.15 1.00 0.22 40 33 1.00 0.45 0.51 0.19 38 30 0.80 1.05 0.55 0.50 35 30 0160 0.45 1.00 0.532 3.1? 1.53 13?7 7 * 32325 1.20 13.00 0.27 2.91 33 28 3.00 15.00 i.27 7.30 32 45 9.10 12.0 S584 110.37 31 53 11.0 8.00 13.09 16.20 20.45 27.47 138 6 6 37 30 1.00 4.50 0.24 CM5 41 3s 1.20 0.85 0.63 0.35 55 88 1.20 0.35 0.87 0.26 0.00 0.00 1.74 1.3 1am 3205-22 12 T 25 15 0.40 0.70 0.06 0.25 20 40 0.43 0.50 0.17 0.26 29 43 0.30 0 40 0.17 0.33 0.00 000 0.4 0.63 140 I 8 3230a 1,05 0.55 0.22 0.11 35 50 0aSO 0.35 0.22 0.22 25 30 0.42 0.65 0.20 0.57 0.00 0.00 0.64 0.7 141 * 123 9 29 40 0.50 0.90 0.09 0.23 30 45 0.35 0.55 0.13 0.32 25 30 0689 1.60 0.43 0.92 32 45 040 1.40 0.51 242 1.11 3.83 142 3200.22 2 10' 35 25 0 20 0.45 0.04 0.07 35 25 0.52 0.40 0.23 0.13 53 25 0.30 0.40 0.19 0 19 0.00 0.00 0.47 0.33 143 * II * 1 29 35 0.72 0.20 0.13 0.20 28 27 0 45 0.55 0.16 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.29 0.39 Ill 3208-24 9 a 12 St 40 C,31 2.30 0.26 0.89 0.00 0.00 45 50 6.30 6.00 5.44 5.71 45 60 2.20 2.50 3650 6.06 9.5 14.41 145 10 g I3 35 25 1.00 0.45 0.22 0.10 37 36 0.80 0.45 0 35 0.21 36 42 4.00. 0 35 2.92 0 26 33 3? 3.70 0.35 4.69 0.50 6.21 1.09 146 3206-22 6 14 25 34 0.44 4.00 0.07 0.67 25 25 0.52 1.20 0.1? 0.54 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.24 1.41 147 9 15I 26 25 0.37 0.60 0.06 0.135 28 25 0.47 0.70 0.11 0.22 26 25 0.40 0.65 0.20 0O4t 27 33 to. 0.90 0.28 1.14 0.71 1.3 148 7 16 25 34 0.70 0.60 0.11 0,17 28 35 1.20 0.70 0.43 0.31 2? 35 0.40 0.50 0.21 0.32 0.00 0.00 0.71 0.6 149 10 * IT 30 46 0.45 1.30 0,09 0.44 30 45 0 43 1.00 0.17 0.56 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 0.25 1.02 ISO ' 1I 32 44 0.A0 1.60 0.06 0.51 33 35 0.54 0.60 0.23 0.27 0.00 0.00 0.00 000 0.31 0.78 151 * 14 3208.21 1 27 33 0.40 0.60 0.07 0.13 26 38 0.25 0,50 0.10 0.24 0.00 0.00 0.00 0 00 0.17 0.37 152 ' 13 2 39 25 0,90 6,50 0.17 1.36 30 40 0,40 2,30 0.15 1.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 000 0.22 2.14 1533 19 ' 3 25 SO5 0.72 0.50 0.16 0.16 32 55 0.46 0.70 0.19 0.49 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.35 0.85 154 to6 4 32 28 0.90 0.60 0.18 0.15 30 45 0.90 0.60 0CBS 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.53 0.43 ~. 165 3206-20 5 * 5 30 30 0.65 0.55 0.16 0.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.16 0.11 JA 157 I?1 a 7 35 s0 0.70 17.00 0.16 5.44 34 36 1.00 7.50 0.44 3.65 33 35 0.10 3.90 0.44 2.62 0.00 0.00 1.04 11.71 156O 4 6 35 35 0.95 0.45 0.21 0.10 30 SS- 1.20 0.45 0.46 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0657 0.3 160 16 10 35 30 0.40 0.60 0.08 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.08 0.12 14* 8 1 14 35 0.40 7.00 0.09 1.57 35 45 0.30 3.20 0.13 1.64 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.22 3.41 152 * 6 ' 12 26 30 15.00 1.60 2.50 0.25 25 20 3.60 1.50 1.115 0.58 21 42 1.50 1.10 0.78 0.69 0.00 0.00 4.42 1.61 161 5 * 1325 27 0.44 0.50 0.10 0.09 36 25 0.23 0.50 0.10 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.2 0.25 164 3208-20 I 14 31 56 2.60 1.70 0.86 0.41 37 35 0.60 1.10 0.25 0.49 26 39 1.5 0.60 0.15 0.45 36 ST 0.40 0.60 OSS5 0.05 2.34 2.21 165 2 IS 35 37 0.62 0.70 0.19 0.1? 25 30 0.54 0.510 0.24 0.19 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.43 0.36 1SO 3 16 3a 11 0.40 0.60 0.10 0.13 45 28 1.90 0.30 1.09 0.168 40 26 I 90 0.0 1.46 0.22 0.00 0.00 2.63 0.52 16? 3201-166 14 3201-165 1 33 45 1.60 15.00 1.16 2.74 51 42 6.50 10.00 3.2 5.36 29 49 4.60 14.0 2.67 12.17 34 I5 3.20 14.5 4.18 30.62 11.41 52392 168 I Is 2 35 25 10.00 11.00 2.24 U.S 35 25 1.70 2.00 0.76 0.64 33 25 1.40 2.30 069 1.10 32 25 1.00 4.00 1.22 3.84 5.12 1.54 169 32207.164 5 2 40 25 4.60 4.00 1.23 0,90 52 42 3.20 2.00 2.13 1.10 46 60 2.60 1.70 2.47 1S6 AS 25 f110 1.50 2.2f 1.44 8.04 5.4 170 1I 4 ST 3I 2.60 6.50 0.62 1.69 32 28 0.60 0.54 0.33 0.20 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 014 1.69 17II 2 i 31 25 1.30 2.00 0.27 0.22 30 28 0.70 1.00 0.2? 0.22 34 25 0.65 0.65 0.42 0.41 0.00 0.00 0.97 1.08 172 3207-166 6 6 33 37 0 05 4,25 0.18 1.01 32 31I 1.50 1.65 0.53 0.65 32 20 1.10 1.45S 0.70 0.64 31 33 1.20 2.10 1.43 2.82 2.64 53 2 173 7 * 3d 35 2.46 21.00 0.14 5.10 2 1 34 12.00 3.50 4.76 1.52 30 25 4.40 1.10 2.13 1.01 33 35 1.35 1.50 1.71 1.71 9.55 9.811 174 * I 6 27 27 0.62 1.10 0.11 0.19 25 26 3.40 0.65 0.77 0.30 26 25 2.61 0.7S 1.40 0.36 26 2s 2.22 1.00 2.22 0.96 4.43 1.81 115 3201-166 2 3207-Il? 1 26 26 1.00 4.00 0.24 0.72 27 29 0.60 1.00 0.25 0.37 2? 35 0.84 0.60 0.29 0.14 * 0.00 0.00 039 1.63 176 3 2 27 20 0.12 2.00 0.09 0.36 28 28 0.40 1.20 0.14 0.42 24 26 0.60 0.80 0.26 0.42 25 50 0.50 1.00 0.48 1.15 039 2.4 17? * 3 28 25 012 0.95 0 16 0.15 20 25 0.40 0.60 0.15 0.26 26 25 0.41 0.9 0.22 0.42 29 60 0.60 1S0 0.67 4.28 1.21 5.22 176 3207-I0l 10 * 4 33 35 0.95 55.00 0.20 12.32 35 26 0.46 4.20 0.22 2,04 25 23 1.10 I1.40 0.74 0.69 23 40 015 0.30 1.20 1.58 22 111I3A 179 13I 5 31 25 15.00 2.30 2.06 0 41 35 26 8.10 2.10 2.28 0.75 0.00 0.00 11 so 11.28 1.65 1.72 1I0 6.36 3.07 1GO I I 6 32 25 0.55 0.90 0.12 0.16 33 26 0.65 0.85 0.3 0.30 33 26 015 1.00 0.34 0154 31 20 0.35 2.00 1.113 2.15 1394 2.15 III S20T-166 7 * 7 30 20 1.02 1.60 0.20 0.31 36 26 0.30 2.00 0.15 0.72 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.34 102 162 14 6 59 35 2.20 0800 0.55 0.16 40 36 1.70 0.70 0.87 0.32 41 40 1.90 1.30 1.50 1.00 42 33 8.30 1.40 6.29 1.77 9.21 3.2? TABLEU(Conld..) .Profila SWinky9wrigyDcteOfMoneRadamadeeProject Be. GolatP14LAning Mir Sufv4y - 0-6 Inchas 6-16 lochgo - 18-36inchts 35-72inchas Total Belts No. Fvgv(19711 ltills) i act (tiecl SP Ect = -Smlt (Vac) Sp I Ecti I Sell Sp Ect ::: 8411 tuacl- In the Poo(sto phow B. Photo B.. 197? 1055 1 12?? 11255I 127? 1253 1127? 1285 loss I IS?? 1235 19?? 1083 W? 191531 IS?? 1955 1977 ises IP? 12851 19?7 loss (fatmeser Acre) No.I No 1977 I logs IN 13 9 39 5 0.80 1,05 0.20 0,03 35 33 0.60 0.65 0 22 0.2? 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.49 0.31 iti 3207-154 12 10 34 27 0.74 1.10 0.15 0.19 33 28 0.85 0.80 0.35 0.29 33 28 0.7S 0.60 0.46 0.32 35 28 O.4? 0.70 0.63 0.73 1.12 1.55 lb5 4 11 26 22 0.60 0.10 0.10 0.13 30 23 0 20 0,20 0.33 0.29 29 29 0.35 1.10 0.20 0.51 26 26 0.43 1.10 0.45 1.10 1.13 2A ieG 5 12 2? 23 0.50 9.70 0.09 0.40 28 30 0.54 , 9.30 0.19 3.37 26 ST 2.28 13.0 1.14 10.66 25 33 0.00 10,0 0..66 13.44 2.28 28.05 Ill? 2 13 28 25 11.00 22,00 1.27 3.52 20 21 0 60 1.40 0.22 0.30 30 26 0.20 0.00 0.12 0.40 26 27 1.40 OJO 1.40 0.63 3.71 3.13 lea 3 14 28 20 1.42 2 50 0.25 0,47 27 37 0.00 2.20 0.28 1.04 29 30 1.00 1.30 0.36 0.75 0.00 0.00 1.02 2 26 189 6 13 25 23 0.70 30.00 0.11 4.60 32 28 6.00 V.50 2.45 13.44 30 38 3.00 24.5 1.73 17.58 3 1 33 3.40 3.70 4.52 4.97 8.82 4 1.09 120 9 I 6 32 4 3 1.60 19.00 0.33 3.47 33 35 2.40 0.00 1.01 3.50 3 3 4 5 2.50 3.50 1AS 4.75 34 43 2,60 3,30 3,39 6.05 6.32 19.86 tot Sao?-ad 332OT-ST 2 30 30 0.30 1.10 0.10 0.21 29 30 0.32 0.90 0.19 0 33 28 3D 0.32 0.50 0.17 0.35 0.00 0.00 0.45 0.2 192 2 3 30 33 2.30 0.60 0.45 0.13 30 30 0.50 0.50 0 23 0.23 30 32 2.00 0.40 1.15 0.25 0.00 0.00 1.94 O.Gi 103 is 4 32 36 0.40 0.60 0.08 0.18 38 33 0.36 0.60 0.18 0.23 36 38 1.70 2.00 11.16 1.45 35 39 2.00 3.00 2.52 4.49 4.12 6.39 194 12 3 31 31 2.50 1.00 0.30 0.20 30 32 0.60 0.70 0.23 0.29 31 30 0,90 0.60 O.S6 0.35 33 31 0.35 0.60 0.44 0.7 1 1.53 1.54 195 I I 6 32 32 0.60 3.00 0.16 0.18 33 83 3JO 3.60 1.36 I .70 28 33 2.00 4.60 1.08 3.09 0.00 a Do 2.8 5.57 106 14 7 35 30 0.70 0.70 0.16 0.13 30 30 0-IS 0.55 0.22 0.21 32 30 0.56 0.70 0.34 0.40 30 30 0.53 0.30 0.61 0.36 1.4 1.32 191 3207-166 11 8 39 40 4.00 0.70 1.00 0.18 39 44 2,20 0.50 1.10 0.28 0.00 0,00 0.00 0.00 2.1 0.46 128 12 6 9 3? 43 1.25 2.00 0.30 2 40 36 40 IJO 5.00 038 3.0? 38 53 0.00 6.00 0.38 6.1 1 39 31 1.30 6.00 i.95 I 1.73 3.61 23.4 ISO a I0 29 as 0.50 1.80 0.11 0,29 28 25 0.45 2.20 0.16 0.10 30 25 0.34 1.40 0.31 OAT 0.00 0.00 0.55 1.56 200 I 0 111 37 29 15.00 3 60 3.55 0.57 36 30 15.00 3.50 6.21 1 46 39 30 13.5 4.00 10.11 2.SO 30 SO 13.5 16.0 ISJO 20.74 40.27 25.tr 201 6 12 27 25 0.50 0.55 0.10 0.02 28 23 6.20 0.60 2.22 0.19 30 23 2.70 0 50 1.56 0,24 31 25 1.20 0.30 1.43 0.48 3.31 1 202 2 13 3 5 40 1.05 0.20 0.24 0.23 32 33 0.70 0.60 0.20 0.22 33 40 0.50 0.30 0.38 0.38 37 38 0.56 0.50 0.60 0.73 I.T 1.51 203 4 14 25 3 S 1.00 1.00 0,29 0.22 32 35 0.60 030 0.33 0.34 25 40 0.80 0.80 0.38 0.51 25 35 0.60 1.00 0.55 1.34 IJO 2.52 204 1 I 5 30 28 0.73 1.00 0.14 0.16 29 23 1.03 0.90 0.33 0.29 26 23 0.90 1.70 0.45 0.02 0.00 0.00 0.11? 1.26 205 3207-114 23207-85 7 35 35 2.60 OJO 0.38 0.16 43 43 5.00 030 3.30 0.36 40 40 2.40 0.90 1.04 0.69 38 38 S.50 0.80 8.03 1.17 1833 2.4 206 3 3 35 33 330 0.70 0.53 0.16 20 28 1.60 0.40 0,51 0.14 21 27 1.40 0.55 0.73 0.10 30 30 4.50 0.60 5.18 0.69 ?.SI 1.17 207 4 6 24 24 5.30 0.50 0.81 008 27 2? 1.20 0.50 0.55 O.I? 2S 25 0.02 0.10 0.39 0.34 0.00 0.00 1.66 0.59 206 3207-66 3 2 32 32 2.70 9.10 0.33 1.88 33 33 CIS 4.30 0.49 2.73 33 33 SAO 4.30 3.01 2.55 0.00 0.00 'S.11 7.46 202 I 0 3 30 30 0.20 1.10 0.04 0.33 32 32 0.30 1.75 0.20 0 12 30 30 0.93 1.50 0.35 OAS 0.00 000 0.79 III 210 9 4 35 35 0.95 1.20 0.21 0.27 34 34 0.70 1.00 0.30 0.44 40 40 0.20 0.80 0.69 0.61 0.00 0 00 1.21 1.32 Iii 5 5 30 30 0 56 1.60 0.11 0.31 32 32 1.10 1.30 0.10 0.61 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.81 0.92 all! 320?-04 A t 33 35 0. 5.0 1.10 0.11 0.23 30 30 0.30 O.SO 0.12 0.19 3 1 31 0.33 0.30 0.21 0.30 0.00 0.00 0.44 0.74 20 5$201-83 12 25 2 5 3.00 1.20 0.46 0.12 27 27 1.50 0.60 0.52 0.28 2 5 23 2.00 2.00 0.26 OAS 0.00 0.00 11.14 1.43 214 7 I 13 3A 34 0.00 1 30 0.17 0.28 30 30 0.60 030 0.23 0.27 3 3 33 c.70 IJO 0.44 1.08 33 33 0.62 1.20 0.79 1.32 1.63 3.15 20 6 0 I 4 32 32 2.20 0.90 0.45 0.15 25 25 1.10 0.60 0.32 0.12 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.04 O'd 216 3206-M 43206-52 1 30 25 0.60 0.50 0.12 OAS 3 1 2 3 0.52 0.40 0.21 0.13 24 25 0.55 0.30 0.25 024 20 23 0.50 0.30 0.54 0.29 m i 0.74 217 5 2 46 36 1.60 1.70 0.49 0.39 46 ST 0.80 0.40 O-4? 0.36 50 40 0.60 0.50 O.S 0.30 45 33 0.60 0.60 1.04 D." US 2.03 210 3206-60 1 86 Al 38 0.00 0.60 0.2t 0.13 42 34 1.20 0.60 0.65 0.25 40 45 0,20 0.70 0.89 0.60 45 40 0.70 0.60 1.21 1.11 2.76 2.12 212. a 2 4 48 40 1.20 1.70 0.37 0.44 41 48 0.90 3.70 0.54 1.55 45 45 0.60 0.60 0.60 0.62 45 30 0.45 1.10 0.78 1.61 2.29 4.39 220 320i-SO 10 5 3? 40 0.50 1.45 0.12 O.3? 45 41 0.68 2.85 0.39 1.50 45 43 1.05 2.30 0.91 1.20 45 40 0.60 1.00 1.04 1.04 2 AS 361 221 6 6 5 40 38 0 55 0 90 0.14 0.22 37 38 0.50 1.33 O.'a4 0,65 40 40 0,50 0,63 0.46 OAS OPO 0.00 0.94 1.33 223 3203-60 3 7 41 39 0.40 0.05 0.12 0.2i 45 40 0.70 0.35 0.40 OAS 45 42 0.70 0.50 0.60 0.40 49 40 0.55 0.55 1.03 0.04 2 16 1.64 223 3205-50 T 0 37 41 2,30 6.00 0.34 1.51 33 35 1.40 2.00 0.63 0,90 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.17 SAY 225 0 9 3206-OS2 10 35 38 0.99 0.70 0.22 OAT 39 30 0.35 2.70 0.17 1.31 40 41 0.30 1.60 0.23 1.25 41 33 0.31 1.30 0.49 1.73 1.11 4.49 226 a a I 1 30 2a 0.70 0.80 -0.17 0,14 35 30 1 00 0 50 0 46 O19 30 43 0.50 0.55 _0.36 0.43 38 45 0.40 0 50 O.11111 1.04 I.54 1.83 20.65 43.03 130.0? i60.36 201.23 226.23_ - 205.11 368.02 19S.03 697.67 inflow Canals(168ppm)... 34,110 tons SCARPwells ... 90,170 tons Private wells(452) 11,070 tons 1,35,350 tons Outflow Drains 36,360 tons Net addition 98,990 tons Nearly 0.099 million tons (0.89 tons per acre) of salt per year is being added to the soils in the project area. Table 15 summarizesthe averagechange in salt contentof the soil profiles of Shahkotscheme of SCARP-Iand Mona project. TABLE 15 Average Change in salt content of soil profiles Ctonsfac/I.9m depth) ------__ Year 0-15cm 15-45 45-90 90-180 Total ------Shahkot 1962-63 1.12 1.39 1.83 3.10 7.44 1977-78 0.77 0.70 1.23 2.00 4.70 1981-82 0.87 0.99 1.50 2.73 6.09 1984-86 0.88 1.00 1.45 2.65 5.98 Kona 77-78 0.40 0.61 1.06 2.05 4.12 85-86 0.63 0.71 1.19 2.56 5.09 ------ The soil classificationdata for Mona (Table 16) does not indicate any resalination like SCARP-I.One reason may be the average groundwaterquality in Mona project which is 500 ppm as comparedto 900 ppm in SCARP-I.The quantityof salt in the profile has increased by about 24% 1(5.094.12)/4.121over the period 1977-85. Againstthe average annualsalt input per acre of about 0.89 tons, 0.12 tons (14%)is retained in the top 1.8 meter of the soil profile. No data is available to confirm the location of the remaining salt. One likely to be serious implicationof increased salt input is the gradual salt build-up, especiallythe sodicity, which in the long run may render the soils in-fertile. 6. Recycling of Drainage EMuent For want of cost effective disposal arrangementsnearly 0.86 Maf of saline effluent from surface and sub-surfacedrainage projects in SGW zones (Table 17), is being re-cycled by pumping it into canals. It means that salt removed from one project is being redistributedin another. 23 Recyclingwherever, feasibleis an efficientuse of a scarce resource however, not withoutrisk of mismanagement.By controllingthe dilutionratio the detrimentaleffect on soils and crops from increasedsalt concentrationcan be minimized.Planners when making proposals have not adopted any uniform criteria for the mixed water quality as would be clear from the following: lroject Mixed water quality SCARP-II (saline) Watercourses 700 ppm Distributaries 400 SCARP-V; Lower Rechna (remn) CanallDisty: 480 ppm In case of effluentfrom tubewelldrainage projects pumped directly into canal other pollutions may be insignificant.However, when pumping from 'evaporation ponds" (Hairdin) or surface drains (Larkana Shikarpur), the effluent may be polluted from municipal and industrialwaste disposalinto drains. Another0.86 Maf (0.61 from T/ws & 0.25 from dr.) of saline drainage effluentis disposed into rivers. As rivers are used for irrigationsupply, the salts disposedin river also find their way to the soils. The planners to determine monthlyutilizations of drainage wells for these projects made followingcriteria to keep the salinityof receiving waters within limits: froift Mixing Ratio Ouality Location (min) (max) SCARP-I(s.z) 60 300 ppm Trimmu-U/S SCARP-V;Lower Rechna 34 380 -do- SCARPThal; Hadali - 480 -do- Drains generally outfall into nearby creek and the effluentmay have to travel several miles beforejoining the main river stream. During low flow, part of the effluentis expectedto seep into the bed and some may be retained in depressions.This effluentwhich does not reach the main stream would be washed during high flow period without causing any untowardeffect on river water quality. TABLE 16 Sumary of clear and affected profiles(%) ------_ Prof iles NS S SS+ (Nr) NS NS NSS ------Mona Pr: 62-65 231 45 10 45 77-78 226 73 2 24 84-85 226 78 2 20 24 TABLE 17 Existing Saline EMuent Disposals Project Planed Pumpage Disposal (000 af) (000 af) Canals Drains-Destination I.Tubewell Projects SCARP-fl(S) 501 258 243-River SCARP-m Saline 49 49 Alipur unit 60 - 60-River SCARP-V Satiana 60 16 44-River KhairWalaUnit 53.4 - 53.4-River FaisalabadCity 23 - 23-River Goj;Khewra-I 26 26 TSMB Link 120 39 81-LinklRiv SCARP-VI 493 - 493-Evapond SCARP-V1I Pondoki 65.7 20 45.5-River Minchinabad(SGW) 62 - 62-River FordwahSadiqia n 11 11 - KhairpurSaline 290 290 - HI.SurfaceDrainage ILarkana-Shikarpur* 183 73 1 IO-Hamal I-Man: NorthDadu* 140 - 141-Manchar -Riv Hairdin I&II 48 48 mI.Tile Drainage East Khairpur T.Dr 28 28 - 2213.1 858 1355(8624Riv) Disposalsbefore rehabilitation. 7. Salt Balance Studies The concept of 'control of waterlogging and salinity' hitherto had been limited to the immediateproblem of removalof excess of soil moisture in the root zone. The leachingof salts from the root zone was mostly the by-product of drainage and tubewell water made available,where ever feasible, to supplementthe existing irrigation supplies. Pre-occupationwith immediateproblem and area specific development,the long term issues of drainageon the basin or regional levelattracted less attention. Annually,37 milliontonnes of salt is brougt into the basin by rivers, most of which is retained within the basin. In addition, in FGW zones tubewell irrigation is mobilizinghuge quantities of salts from the groundwater reservoir which hitherto were dormant and not in circulation. Some of the questionswhich need to be answeredare: Where the salts appliedthrough canal and tubewellwater are accumulating; How the quality of groundwaterin FGW zones will vary through continueduse and 25 cycdinr, - How the increasedsalt inputin FGW zonesthrough tubewels and evaporationfrom shallow grouwater in SGW zones will dfect soil health and sustainabilityof agriclturl production; - Quantityand qualityof saline drainageeffluent from FGW zones, if these become brackishdtrough re-cycling; - Significanceof salt balanceissue on the Basinand area level etc: - Scopeof mitigationof negativeimpacts. Two studiesare cumendyavailable to examinethe issuesraised above and are brieflyreported in the following. 7.1 Study Nr.A Tbis study was carried out as part of White House Panel Report by the 'Harvard Study Group'(1964)to determinesalt build-upin groundwaterreservoir under its long term use, withthe followingassumptions: i), All the residualsalt of the appliedirrigation water is completelyleached to the groundwaterreservoir; ii) The ratio of the groundwaterto canalwater is 1:1.5 to 1:2; iii) Zero to ten per cent of the pumpedgroundwater is removed out of the project; iv) The ratio of horizontaland verticalpermeability is equalto ten; and v) The recyclingis withinthe cone of influenceof each well. The results for various options are given in Figure 1&2 and major conclusionsand recomnmendationssummarized as under: a) The rate of salt build up increasesin inverseproportion to depthof well. b) The rate of salt build up increasesvery nearly in direct proportionto the pumpingrate, other factors beingheld constant. c) Surfacedrainage of about 10% of tubewellpumpage over a 50 year period is neededto precludeeventual salt accumulationin root zone of the crops. More than 15% is unnecessaryand less than 5% ineffective. d) In many cases the pumps-to-drainflow can be delayedfor 10 or even 20 years withoutexcessive salt build up providedthat total drainagein 50 years is equal to 10% of total pumpage. e) Deep wells shouldbe used in all areas wherethere is 60 or more tons per acre of salt on the ground surfaceand in upper layers of the soil. 26 Fig. I Q CANAL INFLOW NET EVAPORATION y-z z DRAINAGE y RETURN Y | vs Xu-llhlr-r-;- r[vs. TUBEWELL EFFLUENT NETTHROUGH- PUT, ,GROUND WATER (TABLE CONSTANT (U+W+r'-V) v EVAPORATION, FROM GROUND WATER (u-ut )= EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (r-r';-*EVAPORATION AND EVAPOTRANSPIRATIONFROM RAINFALL r = RAINFALL w = LEAKAGE TO GROUND WATER FROM CANALS, AND WATERCOURSES us = THROUGH-PUT FROM IRRIGATION WATER r' = THROUGH-PUT FROM RAINFALL SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF SALT FLOW MODEL Fig. 2 150Cr INgiI~~~~~~~~~~~141rAI.GROUND WArEN CONCENrRa-1 3000 TIN -IOOO*w.i | % a, lNOtXCtS5 SALT ON SURFACE COI C£ETRATIDO OF CANAL AER _-250 Poo E~~~~~f______E 500 -- -- 0. 1000 0. Sooi ;1 to s0,0o1op iooo YEARS I .° / INITIAL GROUNO WAEC CONCErrA TION - 1000 mm.. 3001) - go T/ACRE-SALT On SURfAC-e CONCtENrtATtN OP CANALWATER - 250 Poo * 0 -- - / 4 I-~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~~~~~~~~~N- u 1500C_~o*i ~- - 100 100 100 10,000 SALT CONCENTRATION OF APPLIED IRRIGATION WATER =ft ~~~~~~~ _= i*it I The predictions of this model have not turred out to be true inspite of the fact that for nearly 30 years now no groundwater in SCARP-I is being pumped to waste. One possible explanation is that leaching and recycling envisaged has not been fully established. Another imnportantobservation of this model is that shallower the well depth more quicidy the groundwater salinity is likely to increase through recycling. lhis is particularly to be noted with respect to the "SCARP Transition" program and large scale private tubewell pumpage. Shallow groundwater quality is not being monitored by any agency therefore, no detailed evaluation of private tubewell pumpage on shallow groundwater quality is possible. 7.2 Study Nr.2 A more recent study (6) is carried out by the Environment department of the World Bank with the Indus Basin Model Revised (IBMR). which in additionto others also examine water and salt balance issues. The model has the facility and data to operate on agro-climatic zones basis. Salt build-up in two sample areas, one each in FGW and SGW zones is given in Table 18. TABLE 3.8 Dynamics of the Balt Transport Iodel ------Salt addition(Mt) to: Salinity of (ppm) Soils Gw Soils GW ------PSW Fresh Initial Condition 1280 900 1988 5.03 -3.32 2156 897 1989 2.13 -0.42 2528 900 1990 0.91 0.80 2687 905 1991 0.41 1.31 2757 912 1992 0.20 1.51 2792 919 1993 0.12 1.59 2813- 926 1994 0.09 1.62 2828 933 1995 0.08 1.63 2843 940 SRWS Saline Initial 5620 4000 1988 12.47 -9.31 8183 3943 1989 10.74 -7.58 10391 3907 1990 7.40 -4.24 11912 3887 1991 4.91 -1.75 12920 3879 1992 3.26 -0.10 13590 3878 1993 2.19 0.97 14040 3883 1994 1.49 1.67 14347 3891 1995 1.05 2.11 14562 3900 ------PSW.... Punjab sugarcane-wheat zone; SRWS..Sind rice-wheat south; 27 Majorobservation of the studyare: Water Balance 1. As of now useable groundwater areas do not appear under any significantpressure leading to waterlogging. 2. Evaporationfrom shallowwatertable in saline zones is movingsubstantial quantityof salts into the soils. 3. Seepagefrom canals and watercourses(mcluding fields) are the main cause of waterlogging. 4. Losses needsto be addressedif cosdy drainageis to be avoidedor delayed. Salt Balane - Zone Level 1. In useablegroundwater areas: a) Tubewellwithdrawls redistribute the salts from groundwaterto the top soilsand emphasizes the needfor sufficientsurface water supplies to offset the effect. b) As most of the salts remain in soil therefbre, concentrationof groundwaterincreases at a nominalrate. 2. In saline groundwaterareas: a) The onerouseffects of high evaporationfrom groundwater results in redistnrbutionof salts from groundwaterin the top soils through capillaryaction. 3. As salts in groundwatermove throughcapillary into the soilsthe qualityof groundwaterimproves marginally. Salt Balance - Basin LIvel Nearly24.4 Mt of net salt is added into the basin through surfacewater annually. About25% of this goes ino the soils and 75% in the groundwater.Slighdy more than half ends up in fresh groundwateraquifers. Increasing salinity of saline groundwateris of no consequence,but that of fresh water, whichsupplies about one- third of total crop requirements,certainly is. 7.3 Salt Build-up Model for MonaProject Salts in the soil profilewere monitoredin 1977and then in 1985. Table 15 indicatehtetotal amount of salt were 0.45 Mt in 1977 increasingto 0.56 Mt in 1985. As the water inflow/outflowand its qualitydata is available,an efort has been made to make a salt build up model for the area to predict the long term trend. The salinitybuild-up model and the rechargeassumptions are given in Table 19. 28 TABLE 19 Mona - Simulated Salinity Build-up Model Section 1: INPUT DATA - Basic Parameers A. Gross Area 0.11 MA E. Storage Co-efficient 0.25 Depth of soil profile 6 Feet Aquifer Depth 400 it. Saturation Porosity 0.33 GW. Salt Concentration 500 PPM Field Capacity 0.20 Depth to walertable 6.00 iL ECeof soil 1.60 Volumeof Groundwater 10.96 Mal Weight o0water /(at 1360 tons Salts In Groundwater 7.47 M.tons Weight ot soil I (af) 2000 tons B.Volumeotsollwater 0.13 MAF F.ScarpTIWpumpage 0.89 Mal PPM of soit water Private T/W Pumpage 0.15 Mal Salts in soil water 0.45 C. Rainfall Runoff iraction 0.150 G. Recharge from Scap TIWs 0.190 fraction Recharge fraction 0.096 Recharge from Priv TIWs 0.075 fraction D. Canal Water (Rechauge% of Canal head) Main & Br. Canals 0.150 H. Pan Evaporation inches Distributaries 0.085 GW. Evaporation (96 of Pan) 96 Watercourse 0.077 Fields 0.034 L. Net Recharge to project -0.31 Mal Section 2: Salt Transport (all flows are in Mal and salts in Million tons; period 1977-8 Rain Rain 1/ Surface GW.Evap- Tubewell River 61 Row Runoff Water oration Pumpage seepage Sum Total Inflow (Mal) 1.60 0.24 1.20 0.01 1.04 0.00 SeepagetoGroundwater (Maf) 0.13 - 0.42 - 0.18 0.00 0.73 Salt Concentration (PPM) 0 1200 168 500 500 500 Salt addition soil-water (Mt) 0.00 -0.39 0.27 , 0.01 0.71 - Volumeofsoil-Water(Maf) 1.49 - - 1.33 - 1.17 New salt contents of soil water 2/ 0.45 - 0.73 - 1.16 - SaltssempedtoGW31 0.04 - 0.23 - 0.18 0.00 Salt additions To soil 41 -0.04 -0.39 0.05 0.01 0.53 - 0.15 To Groundwater 5t 0.04 - 0.23 -0.01 -0.53 0.00 -0.27 Tosoil&GWsystemn 0.00 -0.39 0.27 - 0.00 0.00 -0.12 Santsper acre 0.00 -3.51 2.46 - 0.00 0.00 -1.05 Section 3: Salt Balnce Assunpti Inflow/outltow conditions remain same as in period 1977-85. soil Salts in Mtons PPM ECe Volume Ground ndwater Mat M.tons PPM Year 1977 0.45 1024.00 1.60 10.98 7.47 500.00 1985 0.60 1369.96 2.14 10.67 7.28 501.74 1993 0.67 152&20 2.38 10.36 7.13 506.05 2001 0.70 1593.60 2.49 10.05 7.00 512.15 2009 0.72 1625.60 2.54 9.74 6.88 519.39 2017 0.72 1638.40 2.56 9.43 6.76 527.10 2025 0.73 1644.80 2.57 9.12 6.64 535.35 Notes:1 15% Oftotal rainfall goes to runoff and the rest infiltrates into the soil. 2/ Original salt contents from section 1 plus the salts brought by this component. 3t Salts moved by the seepage to GW with concentration of the soil-water mix eg. in case of surface water. 41 Salts addition to soil-water minus the salt seeped to GW. Sf Not salt additon. salts seeped minus salt withdrawl in case of evaporation and tubewell pumpage. 6/ Rivers move salts directly in and out of groundwater reservoir. 71 Ec - PiMl640 29 For calibrationonly two readingsat 8 year interval were availabletherefbre, future prediction is also based on 8 year's steps. The results indicatevery slow build-up of salinity in the soils. Many natural events ie, heavy storms may further slow down the salts accumulation. 7.4 Long Term Salt Balance Issues 7.4.1 Basin or Regional Level Salt balance on basin or regional level, considered as an indicator of salt accumulationor removal, is inadequate as it hardly indicates where the incoming%alts are accumulatingand where from the outgoing salts are being removed because: quality and quantityof water input on basin or regional level is variable and so is the salt input; * mixing and movementof groundwater is so slow that removal of salt from one place hardly makes any difference in the salt balance of another distant area; * drainage technologiesused vary and have their own characteristics with respect to removal of salt; * retention and build up of salts in the soils depends upon the irrigation practices, quality of underlain groundwater and evaporationfrom groundwater;etc, all vary from place to place. Table 20 gives an estimated net salt input, from surface water alone, for FGW and SGW areas of agro-cimaticzones. The perusal would indicate that the net salt input varies from area to area and points towards the need to look into the salt balance on area to area basis. 7.4.2 Project Area or Canal Command Level As the water input data is maintained and generally available on canal command basis therefore, the best watch over salt accumulationcan be kept on canal command basis. The two major sources of salts for an area are the canal water and groundwater. In FGW zones the groundwater used for irrigation mobilize the salts from reservoir and brings it to surface. In SGW zones and where tubewell irrigation is not practiced capillary movementand evaporation can bring salt into the soils if watertable is shallow. 30 TABLE 20 Sources of SaLinity Addition A. Fresh Areas P1HW PCW PSW PRW SCUN SRWN SCUSPunjab Sindh Gross Areas (Na) 2.35 9.87 3.52 3.14 2.07 1.81 0.45 18.88 4.33 Salinity concentrationof: Surface water 200 200 200 200 250 250 250 200 250 Groundwater 900 900 900 900 1200 1500 1000 - - Surface Drainage water 403 400 402 398 473 460 551 Relevant flows (NAF) Canal Diversions 3.85 24.84 6.85 6.06 6.14 4.44 1.40 41.60 11.98 Link canal losses 0.26 0.40 1.08 0.83 - - - 2.57 - Rainfall Runoff 0.31 1.12 0.64 0.72 0.14 0.08 0.04 2.80 0.25 River Losses -0.14 -0.32 -0.10 -0.70 0.30 0.13 0.03 -1.26 0.47 Salt addition (million tons) from: Surface Water 1.12 6.86 2.15 1.87 2.09 1.51 0.48 12.01 4.07 Rain runoff -0.17 -0.61 -0.35 -0.39 -0.09 0.05 -0.03 -1.52 -0.17 River Losses 0.10 -0.22 -0.09 -0.43 0.04 0.04 0.01 -0.83 0.05 Net per zone 0.85 6.04 1.71 1.05 2.04 1.50 0.46 9.66 3.95 Net per acre 0.36 0.62 0.48 0.33 0.96 0.81 1.02 0.51 0.91 B. Satine Areas PHU PCU PSW PRW SCUN SRUN SCUSPunjab Sindh Salinity concentrationof: Surface water 200 200 200 200 250 250 250 200 250 Groundwater 3000 3000 3000 3000 4000 4000 4000 3000 4000 Surface Drainage Water 919 1389 2757 2535 288 551 Relevant flows (MAF) Canal Diversions 1.52 7.78 3.02 6.32 8.97 8.03 9.95 12.32 33.26 Link canal losses 0.08 0.11 0.47 - - - - 0.66 - Rainfall Runoff 0.10 0.31 0.28 0.14 0.14 0.22 0.32 0.69 0.80 Rivers -0.04 -0.09 -0.04 0.29 0.23 0.20 - -0.18 0.72 Drainage - -0.21 -0.04 -0.11 - -0.13 - -0.25 -0.24 SaLt addition (million tons) from: Surface Water 0.44 2.15 0.95 2.15 3.05 2.73 3.38 3.53 11.31 Rain runoff -0.05 -0.17 -0.15 -1.00 -0.09 -0.15 -0.22 -0.37 -0.54 River seepage -0.11 -0.21 -0.16 -0.19 -0.20 -0.06 0.00 -0.48 -0.46 Drainage - -0.86 -0.14 -0.60 -- 0.73 - -1.00 -0.13 Net per zone 0.28 0.91 0.50 1.26 2.76 1.79 3.16 1.68 8.98 Net per acre 0.38 0.33 0.33 0.65 0.85 0.69 1.06 0.33 0.83 Source: IBNR run WSISRGIA. 31 Drainage technologies and the salt balance issues, already discussed, indicate that areas threatened are the FGW zones where tubewell urigation is practiced and SGW zones with shallow watertable where no drainage facilities have been provided. Groundwater used for irrigation is adding about I to 2 tons of salts per acre (dependingupon quality of underlain groundwater). Some of these salts are being retained in the soil profile. Against the average annua salt input per acre of about 0.89 tons in Mona project, 0.12 tons (14%)is retained in the top 1.8 meter of the soil profile. A preliminary study (6) indicates that most of the salts brought in end up in groundwater. Major addition to soils underlain by saline groundwater are from evaporation of grounwater reservoir (Table 21). Table 21 Net Annual salt Input per acre (t) and its Distribution (*) ------__- Aqro-Cimatic Areas Underlain by Zones FGW SGW ------soils GW soils GW PMW 0.005 0.367 0.13 0.25 PCW 0.04 0.57 0.21 0.13 PSW 0.023 0.464 0.27 0.06 PRW 0.092 0.244 - - SCWN 0.061 0.923 0.26 0.42 SRWN 0.17 0.632 0.47 0.38 SCWS 0.13 0.89 0.24 0.46 SRWS - - 0.35 0.71 * Masood Ahmed etal; IBRD What happens on long term basis to soils and groundwater is difficult to predict ?s the mechanism of salt movement through soil and water is not known. However, on basis of preliminary studies it appears that the system would tend towards a balance which may not be equally detrimental at all places. It is recommendedthat repeat soil salinity surveys be carried out every 10 years to monitor the salt position in the soils. Areas which show salt build up tendency may be specifically monitored more frequendy to determine the rate and cause to take remedial action. The mechanismof salt movement cannot be studied in isolation without the water balance of the area. Current knowledge in water balance is highly deficient and is based on empirical coefficients most of which do not have any research support. Situation further worsens due to lack of adequate monitoring data. Some of the unknowns are: - - watercourse losses which form part of the groundwater reservoir; - deep percolation from irrigated fields supporting different crops; - role played by shallow groundwatr qualityin buildingsoil saliniy; - recharge from rainfall and salts removed by surface rnoff from an area; - water budget of an area on monthly basis; etc. 32 8. Summary of Conduions Surface drains in rice drainage area remove the salts from the soils and the system quite effectively. Where tubewell effluentis being re-used for irrigation direcdy or indirectly, salts are being retained by the soils. Whereastile drains in Sump Nr.8 (Drainage IV) appears efficient in removing salts from the soils and the system their performance in EKTD project is questionable. Controlled monitoring of EKTD project is necessary to determine cause of resalination of soil profiles. Recycling of saline drainage effluent, wherever feasible, is an efficient way of using scarce resource. However, due care is necessary in regulating effluent disposal to keep the mixed water quality within permissible limits. Salt balance on basin or regional level is irrelevant as the salt removal from one area is not going to affectthe balance of a distant area due to slow movement and mixing.. of groundwater. Salt balance in the soils and the groundwater needs to be monitored on area to area basis. Preliminary studiesindicate that system tends towards a balance which may not be equally detrimentalat all places. Increasing salinity of SGW is of no consequences, but that of fresh water, which supplies about one third of total crop water requirements, certainly is. 33 Bibliography 1. MMIIHTS; 1990: 'Drainage Supporting Data; SupplementS6.4"; Right Bank Master Plan Study; Lower Indus Region. 2. IWASRI; 1990: 'Comparative Study of East Khairpur, Mardan & Drainage-IV pipe drainage projects; Publication Nr.8. 3. Malmberg, G.T, et al, 1968: 'Change in chemical quality of groundwater in SCARP- 1, Rechna Doab, 1960 through 1967" WASID publication Nr.58. 4. Shah Haider. A and Paul, R. Seaber; 1972 "Chemical quality of groundwater in Mona project area Punjab, (1964-70)". 5. White House Department of Interior Panel on waterloggingand salinity in Pakistan; 1964: 'Report on Land and Water Development in the Indus Plain" 6. Masood Ahmed, etal; 1991: "Environmental Considerations in Irrigation Planning; A case Study of Indus Basin". Enviromnent Department, World Bank. 7. M.Latif etal; 1990:"Modelling Soil Profile Distribution for Conjunctive use Irrigation' 14th congress ICID, 1990. 34 ANNEX - II ANNEX - MI WATER CONSERVATION THROUGH WATERCOURSE IPROVEMENT' 1. INTRODUCIMON 1.1 Purpose and Scope Water management studies were initiated in 1973 by WAPDA at its Mona Reclamation Experimental Project (MREP) with the assistance of Colorado State University (CSU). Conveyancelosses in over 250 sections of 9 watercourseswere measured through inflow outflow method. It was found that the loss percentagewas much more than earlier assumed figure of 10% used for design purposes. In view of these findings the Government of Pakistan initiated pilot On-Farm Water Management(OFWM) programme which included watercourse improvement. Monitoring and evaluationof this programmewas carried out by various agenciesand wide varietyof benefits are being claimed. The purpose of this paper is to make a critical review of the information available and determine order of magnitude of water conservationthat can be achieved through current procedures of watercourse improvement. 1.2 Delivery System Below Mogha The command of a distributary/minor, for purposes of further distribution of irrigation supplies, is divided into sub-commands,known as outlet chak. The size of chak varies from 300 to 900 acres and is served by an outlet also called "Mogha" Canal commandsin which land originallybelonged to the state, the outletschaks were divided in squares or rectangles.An earthenchannel from the outlet, knownby different names such as wwatercourse","sanctioned watercourse" or 'sarkari khal", was laid in such a fashionthat it passes by each square. Positionof a water offtake point in this earthen channelis identified and fixed for each square of land or holding and is called 'nakka' or 'sanctioned nakka' for that square of land or holding. The position of sarkari khal and nakka cannot be altered by the farmers and its maintenance is the joint responsibilityof the share holders. Water from sarkari khal is diverted by each farmer, through nakka assignedto him, to another channel, called farmer's channelor 'field channel' for irrigating his field. The maintenance of this channel is his individual responsibility. The water delivery system below outlet is thus basically divided into two parts i.e. sarkari khal and the farmer's channel. The original intent of the sarkari khal was to deliver water to Note: This paper was originallypublished in PakistanEngg: CongressProceedings, 1986-87.It has been re-edited for this report. 1 a side or corner of each farmer's land from which he would build his own channel to cafry water to his fields. Over time, with land subdivisionsand ownership changes, the strict differentiationbetween sarkari khal and farmer's channelhas obliterated.However, there is still an understanding among the farmers about portion of the watercourse system which belongs to the communityor governmentand which are their own channels. The water from the sarkari khal is taken according to a schedule known as 'warabundi", which prescribes turn and the time for each share holder. Normally, one complete cycle of warabundihas 7 days duration. 13 General Statistics The total length of sarkari varies accordingto sije of the outlet chak. It may have one or more branches dependingupon the layout controlled by topographicfeatures. The general designyard stick is that the sarkari khal or any of its branch shouldnot be more than 10.000 feet long. The average length of water channels per acre is about 150 to 200 feet, of which, 15% is the sarkari khal and 85% is the farmer's channel. Nearly 80% of the channelutilized to reach any one field is sarkari khal. In each warabundi cycle whole of sarkari khal and 40 to 60 percent of farmer's chanpels comes under use, but for different lengths of time, to irrigate about 20 percent of the commandedland. Utilizationof sarkari khal and farmer's channel of five sample outlets, based on an operationalloss study data is given in Table 1. Data of 108 sarkari khals was collectedalongwith their warabundischedule during planning of Lower Rechna Remaining (LOR) and pilot 'CommandWater Management' projects,and the relevant statistics are given in Table 2. The effective length defined as 'the equivalent l',ngth which if remains in use for entire warabandiperiod would result in the same water 'oss as occurring in the full length during the same period' has been calculatedby the equation (1). The effectivelength as percent of total length for sampled oudets varied from 18 to 35 percent with a weighted average of 21 percent. E LI t, L,. = (1) L where; L. = effective length; L, = length of sarkari khal remained in use for period t, t, = time for which sarkari khal length 1, remained in use; L = Total length of sarkari khal 2 TABLE-1 Utilizationof watrcoue chamois mime fine perationamly studied wateourms (71 Length Percent of weighted of Average Distribution Percent Channels ------of Usage time of Watercourse UtiLized Total Charnel Channel Section Channets Length Usage Utilized Utilized (m) CX) Cm) CX) CX) TW 81-R Sarkari KhaL 3400 100 1310 80 39 Farmer's Branches 7900 41 330 20 2 Total 11300 141 1640 7 TIK/1 Sarkari Khal 4900 100 1155 80 24 Farmer's Branches 16900 67 290 20 1 TotaL 21600 167 1445 5 MP/6* Sarkari KhaL 3260 100 1340 87 41 Farmer's Branches 8390 55 196 13 1 Total 11650 155 1536 8 MP/35* Sarkari KhaL 980 100 346 50 44 Farmer's Branches 3350 27 300 20 2 Total 7010 43 1520 9 MP/52* Sarkari KhaL 3660 92 1220 80 31 Farmer's Branches 3350 27 300 20 2 Total 7010 43 1520 9 Average Sarkari KhaL 3240 98 1090 75 36 Farmer's Brr.nches 8980 52 310 25 2 Total 12200 60 1400 7 * Average of three weeks (3 warabundi cycles) of data. TARLE-2 Summaryof SampledSerkrn KwhalDab No a CCA Average Length Cft) Length Canal of CCfs) Cac) ------per acre USC CAvg) (Avg) Total Longest-Br Effective (ft) ______- _- ______- ______-__-__-____-_ …__- _- ______-__-______6-R 10 1.62 418 11899 7952 4214 29 Pakpattan 15 1.62 452 17885 9744 5085 39 Shahkot 9 1.95 728 19964 9307 4781 27 Naulakhi 15 1.5 480 24439 10527 5402 51 Sehra 20 1.36 494 32480 11348 5967 66 Warsak 10 1.7 294 20278 7773 4015 69 14 distys (LRR) 29 - 443 19980 - 5165 45 3 1.4 On-Farm Water Management Programme In 1977, GOP initiated a USAID financedOFWM programme for implementationthrough the Provincial agriculture departmentsunder the overall control of the Federal Ministry of Food and Agriculture& Co-operatives.The other institutionalarrangements included creation of Federal Water ManagementCell in the ministryand establishmentof OFWM directorates in the Provincialagriculture departments. The OFWM programme components,in general; included earthen-cum-liningimprovement of the sarkari khal and providing cement concrete nakkas; precision land levelling, demonstrationplots and training. The broad objective of this programme was to increase water availsbilityat the farmgatethrough reducing the losses in the conveyancesystem and at the field thus increasingagricultural production and prosperityof the farming community. The watercourse improvementprogrammes pursued includedtwo types of improvements: a) Regular Technology: It includeddemolition and complete rebuildingof the sarkari khal after removatof trees and bushes, constructionof culvert%at major crossingsand buffalow-wallows,lining of some percent (10 to 30%) of the sarkari khal and installationof prefabricatednakkas at junctions and authorisedwater off-take points. b) Accelerated Technology: This earthen improvementincluded removal of trees and bushes; desilting of channels, strengthening,straightening and raising the banks at required places, restoring a relatively uniform cross-sectionand improvement of deterioratedjunction pointsalongwith installation of limitednumbers of prefabricated nakkas. The USAIDfinanced OFWMprogramme was followedby other similarprogrammes through World Bank(IDA/IFAD), Asian DevelopmentBank (ADB) etc. As the programmecontinued, watercourseinprovement was also made an essentialcomponent in someof the on-goingand new SCARPprojects. 2. CONVEYANCE LOSSES BELOW MOGHA 2.1 LeAsMeasurenent Units Factors effecting losses from the watercourses are numerous and have been thoroughly discussedby Thomas J. Trout (6). Of the several different units to describe water losses the most prominentare: - Loss per unit area of wetted perimeter; - Percent of inflow lost in the system; - Loss per unit length of the system. All the aboveunits have inherentweaknesses. The seepage into the wetted perimetersassumes that infiltrationrate in the wetted perimeter is uniform, a conditionusually applicable to large canals and not necessarilytrue in case of watercourses. Similarly,the percent of inflowloss unit is system specific and cannot be generalized. It is most useful for describing the efficiencyof a conveyancesystem and least usefil for understandingwater losses. Though loss per unit length is a more representative unit yet it also suffers from the disadvantageof its inabilityto comparelosses from channels of differentsizes and capacities. 4 However, this unit has the added advantageof being the actual measuredparameter in most cases and can be generalizedto determinesteady state seepagelosses for a given conveyance system by knowingthe system length and the time utilized. 2.2 Types of Loss Losses from the water courses were earlier consideredonly as the steady state seepage loss from the wetted perimeter. To determinethese losses generally pondingstudies were carried in a uniform well defined straight reach of a watercourse. The operationallosses in a watercoursehowever, comprisemany componentssuch as steady state and transient seepage into the wetted perimeter, leakagethrough rat holes, spillagedue to over topping and water retained as dead storage after portion of the water channel is drained etc. The watercourselosses in the recent past, therefore, have been studied from a differentangle ie; to measure the losses, as it is, in a running watercoursethrough inflow-outflowmethod and without preventingleakages through spongy banks or spillage due to over topping of poorly maintainedwatercourses. The argumentis that in addition to genuine seepagelosses, avoidablelosses occur due to poor watercoursemaintenance by the farmers and does reduce the amountof water reaching nakkas. To determineoperational losses for a watercourse,loss measurementis required to be carried out over a complete warabandi cycle, which is time consumingand cannot be utilized for every watercourse.Two such studies carried out on 5 watercoursesare available(7 & 10). The various types of losses estimatedwere as given below: Type of Losses Losses (% of inflow) Barkari Ihal Farmer's channels Steady-state seepage 20.16 15.84 Surface evaporation 0.21 0.09 Visible leakage 0.63 0.57 Dead storage 2.20 1.50 Breaches 0.40 0.30 Transient seepage 1.40 0.90 ______25.00 19.00 23 Review of Lsses Measurements Many agencieshave made sporadic measurements,some of which are poorly recorded, and all sorts of losses magnitudeare now available.However, certain specialsurveys specifically designedfor the purpose have now generateda data base which can be relied upon for losses informationand are: 1. Losses measurementon 29 sample watercoursesduring planning of Lower Rechna RemainingProject (1977-78); 2. 61 watercoursesurvey carried for RevisedAction Planning (1978); 3. Pre-project bench mark data of 45 sample watercourses selected for post project monitoringof USAID Pilot Project (1980); 4. Pre-projectbench mark data of 45 watercourses(20 for regular technologyand 25 for acceleratedtechnology), selected for post project monitoringof IDA/IFADOn-Farm Water ManagerientProgramrrc, rnase-I. 5 In study 2 to 4 the water loss estimationis based on deliveryefficiency of the sample farms selected at head, middle and tail of the watercourses, while in study I loss per unit length concepthas been used. The loss data of the studies'3' and '4 therefore, has been reanalysed to detmine the loss per unit length. The variation in loss per 1000 feet with discharge and the length over whichmeasured are given in Table 3 & 4. The perusal of these tables would indicate that there is wide variation in loss rate and rightly so as there are innumerable physical and human factors which can affect the rate. Regressionanalysis of several stepwisemuliple regressionmodels were used to ascertainthe most importantfactors explainingvariation in loss rate per 1000 feet. The factors in order of importanceare the length over whichthe loss is measuredand the mogha discharge. TAI3LE - 3 Varipation in loss rate with distance (without improvement) ------Distance over which Loss Rate (Cfs/1000 feet) loss observed ------(ft) LRR. Proj USAID (OFWM) ------<500 500 - 1000 - (4) 0.297 1001 - 2000 (1) 0.130 (8) 0.204 2001 - 3000 (10) 0.110 (12) 0.132 3001 - 4000 (13) 0.120 (15) 0.104 4001 - 5000 (5) 0.060 (12) 0.141: 5001 - 6000 (15) 0.080 (10) 0.149 6001 - 7000 (7) 0.070 (7) 0.105 7001 - 8000 (4) 0.065 (5) 0.106 8001 - 9000 (3) 0.100 (6) 0.162 9001 - 10000 (2) 0.087 (3) 0.142 >10000 (5) 0.036 (5) 0.181 ------_.------Weighted (Avg:) 0.090 0.147 ------No. of measurements. TABLE - 4 Variation in loss rate with inflow discharge (without improvemfnt) ------Discharge range Loss Rate (Cfs/1000 feet) ______(cfs) LRR. Project USAID (OFWM) < 1.0 (9) 0.048 (9) 0.054 1.1 to 1.5 (19) 0.057 (17) 0.081 1.6 to 2.0 (18) 0.100 (20) 0.102 2.1 to 2.5 (10) 0.108 (5) 0.118 2.6 to 3.0 (2) 0.050 (8) 0.210 3.1 to 4.0 (5) 0.190 (5) 0.152 4.1 to 5.0 - (10) 0.243 > 5 - (8) 0.348 ------( ) No. of measurements. 6 Regressionanalysis of the conveyanceefficiency data both linearly and exponentiallywith distancewas also carriedout. The two modelsdescribed the data equallywell however, it was found that the relationshipbetween loss rate and normal inflow rate is best describedby the followingequation (7): Q, = Q;R, (2) where; Q. = discharge at distance 'x' from the source. Qo= discharge at inflowpoint; 'R' loss exponent considered constant over the length 'x'; 'xb length (000 ft) of section over which loss measured. Equation (2) can be rearrangedto determinethe loss exponent (R) and the loss rate (qj per 1000 feet: R = In 010 (3) x Q. - Q.(l-e_) (4) Loss exponentdetermined from the data of variousstudies is given in Table 5. It is observed that the value of 'R' is higher for smallerdistances. One apparent cause for higher values is the difficultyin accuratelymeasuring small changes in discharge with the cut throat flume under field conditions.In IDA/IFAD project(regular) more than 50% measurementsare for distance less than 3000 feet and thus do not represent average condition. Neglectingodd measurementsthe averagevalue of loss exponentfor SarkariKbal (R) from these studiescan be take as 064. Insertingthis value in equation(4) the averageloss rate in Sarkari Khal (qLs) per 1000feet is given by the following equation: qLs = .062 Q. (5) Tbe average loss per 1000 feet from equation (5) comes to 6.2% of the inflow discharge which comparesfavourably with 6% determinedin study carried out in Sahiwaldistrict (3). The data analysedand given here is basedon the steady-sate measurementsmade at one point of time and therefore, does not record: * transientseepage into wetted perimeter; * dead storage; 7 TABLE- 5 Variationof LoN Exponent(Rs) - With distancein SarkariKhal (withoutimprovement) Distance from Loss Exponent 'R' Head ------IDA/IFAD (OFWM) LRR. Project USAID (OFWM) ------(ft) Regular Accelerated < 1000 (4) 0.090 (14)* 0.168 (11) 0.200 1000 - 2000 (1) 0.065 (9) 0.134 (17)* 0.121 (8) 0.092 2000 - 3000 (10) 0.053 (12) 0.056 (22) 0.109 (12) 0.088 3000 - 4000 (13) 0.091 (15) 0.070 (14) 0.089 (14) 0.078 4000 - 5000 (5) 0.047 (12) 0.062 (5) 0.074 (13) 0.075 5000 - 6000 (15) 0.049 (10) 0.056 (8) 0.065 (10) 0.078 6000 - 7000 (7) 0.062 (1) 0.039 (2) 0.042 (9) 0.095 7000 - 8000 (4) 0.051 (5) 0.041 (4) 0.049 (5) 0.076 8000 - 9000 (3) 0.057 (5) 0.055 (1) 0.050 (4) 0.060 9000 - 10000 (2) 0.033 (3) 0.058 (4) 0.040 (1) 0.045 10000 - 11000 (5) 0.026 (5) 0.072 - (2) 0.042 & above 0.053 0.067 0.064- 0.073 * neglected ( ) No. of measurements. 2.4 Effective Length Concept of Loss Estimation Estimationof total losses {ie;operationallosses) is only possible if these are measured over 2-3 warabandi cycles continuouslyfollowing the water where it goes. As this is a time consumingprocess therefore, effective length concept of Sarkari Khal can be used for total loss estimation. In the operational loss study reported above (sec 2.2) the effective length of sarkari khar was 1090 meter (3574 feet). Reference equation (5) the percent water lost in this effective length can be calculated as: % Water lost = 6.2 x 3.574 = 22.2% of Q. This represents the steady state seepage loss, and compares favourably with 21.4% reported in actual study. It is, therefore, concluded that the steady state seepage loss for any unimproved Sarkari Khal can be estimated if its average loss exponent and effective length is available. For total operational loss another 3 to 4% may be added to account for other losses. On the basis of similar analysis as done for Sarkari Khal the ave-age loss exponent (Re)for the farmer's channel is given in Table 6. 8 TABLE - 6 variation of Loss Exponent 'Ri' with distance in Farmer's Channel (without improvement) Distance from IFAD/IDA (OFWM)-1 head USAID (OFWM) Regular Acc. (ft) ------ No. Rf No. Rf No. Rf < 500 (11) 0.360 (8) 0.694 (16) 0.453 501 - 1000 (25) 0.239 (24) 0.291 (24) 0.388 1001 - 1500 (16) 0.187 (9) 0.303 (7) 0.166 1501 - 2000 (10) 0.166 (6) 0.180 (7) 0.179 2001 - 2500 (5) 0.117 (3) 0.164 J2) 0.130 2501 - 3000 (3) 0.131 (1) 0.108 - - 3001 - 4000 (3) 0.097 (3) 0.119 (1) 0.058 > 4000 (3) 0.038 (1) 0.090 - - Avg: 0.167 0.243 0.229 The average value of 'Rf' for farmer's channels is 0.213. Equation for farmer's channel can be arranged as: qf Qf(= -e_(1 213) - 0.192 Qr where; qLr = average loss per 1000 feet in farmer's channel Qf = discharge delivered to farmer's channel From the above it is estimatedthat the steady state seepage loss per 1000 feet in the farmer's channel is 19.2 percent of water delivered to farmer's channel. The effective length of farmer's channel is only 310 m (1016 ft) and the percent loss will be as under %water lost = 19.2 x 1.016 - 19.5% of Qr Converting this to Mogha discharge (Qr = 0.75 Q.)it comes to 14.6% as comparedto 16.6% recorded in the operationalloss study. To determinetotal loss in farmer's channels nearly 3% other losses may be added. 9 2.4 Total l1e The steadystate and transient seepageloss estimatedfor the sarkari khal and farmer's channel is as under: Sarkari Khal = 22.20 percent Farmer's channel = 14.6 percent Total = 36.80 percent Nearly 6 to 7% other losses covering dead storage, etc. are to be added to the steady state seepage losses bringing the total loss 42 to 43 percent which is quite comparable to the operationloss study results. It is, therefore, concludedthat through determiningaverage loss exponent (R) for Sarkari Khal and farmer's channel and knowing effective length of Sarkari Khal and authorized discharge, it is possible to predict the operationallosses. 3. WATERCOURSE MONITORING RESULTS 3.1 General In order to monitorthe benefits of the OFWM programme monitoringand vwaluationwas considerednecessary both to satisfy the donor agenciesand also for continuedimprovement of the programme.Two OFWM projectsone funded by USAID and the other by IDA/IFAD were picked up for the purpose. Three stage random samplingwas made to select distributaries, watercoursesand farms. In all 45 watercourses under USAID project (including9 control) and 45 under IDAIIFAD project (20 for regular and 25 for accelerated)were selected. Pre and post project monitoringand evaluationwas carried out and reports published. The monitoring, in addition to agro-socio-economicimpact, also observed the improvementin delivery efficiencies and the resultant water saving. Main observations with respect to Improvementand water saving are summarisedin the following sections. 3.2 Watecourse Improvement Watercourseimprovement included part lining, earthen improvement,installation of precast nakkas and culverts. 3.2.1 Delivery Efficiency To determine the pre and post improvementdata on water losses, instead of measuring the losses over a complete warabandi cycle, only spot measurementswere made with respect to the farms selected at head, middle and tail. Three flumes were used one at the head to determine inflow, one at farm nakka to determine water going to farmer's channel and the third at the point where water enters the field. It further appears that in case of branched watercoursesonly main branch of the watercoursewas observedas the data only reports the efficiencyof 'main watercourse'. 10 Delivery efficiencycalculated from flume at the head and at farm nakka has been termed as delivery efficiencyof 'main watercourse".The efficiencycalculated from flume at head and at field naidkahas been termed as 'overall'. The delivery efficiencyreportedly increased from 63% to 74% in case of sarkari khal (main watercourse) and from 61% to 72% overallfor USAID project. For 1FADllDAsample the improvementwas from 66% to 70% for sarkari khal and 64% to 74% overall. The resuts of the two studies are given in Table 7. 3.2.2 Water Saving On the basis of pre and post delivery efficiency, increasesin supply through saving in losses in main watercourseand farmer's channelwas estimatedas 126 acre feet per year (12, 13). Results of the study are given in Table 8. 3.2.3 Optimization of Watercourse Improvements In resource scarce environmentsit is necessarythat envisagedimprovements be optimizedto obtain the desirablereturn. However, watercourseimprovements were carried out at random and included lining a part of the watercourse and earthen improvement of the remaining portion. The questionarises as to whichpart of the watercourseshould be lined and at what point the lining should give way to earthen improvement. The answer to this questioncan be found in the conventionaleconomic theory i.e. one would only wish to apply these to reaches on which the net return is positive. Based on the linear loss modelthe time for which a part of the channelshould remain in use during a warabundi tojustify lining is given by the followingequation (5): 168 (c'-cs) t = (6) VKQ. (F' - F") TABL - 7 Water Supply I-provement IFAD/IDA Items USAID Project ------Regular Accelerated 1. Average Mogha discharge 2.68 1.72 1.65 2. Pre-Improvement Efficiency Main W.C 70% 73 74 Overall 61% 64 67 Average Supply available: Farm Nakka 1.88 1.26 1.22 Field Nakka 1.63 1.1 1.1 3. Post-Improvement Efficiency Main W.C 80% 80 77 Overall 72% 74 72 Average Supply available: Farm Nakka 2.14 1.38 1.27 Field Nakka 1.93 1.27 1.19 4. Change in Water Supply (*i Farm Nakka 14% 10% 4% Field Nakka 18% 15% 8% …___--______-…------ 11 TABLE 8 IIlAIIFAD PriM IPrnoe ,mmp S.'vinnIns v fIll It? FiPidNakkN) Nogha FieldMakka Effici:Losses Savingof Losses Saving Period DischargeDischarge Ed(%) X Losses (cfs) (ofs) X Caf) Caf) Regular Technotogy Pre-Iprovemmnt 1.72 1.05 64 36 - 194* CRabi1982-83) C232) Post-lpIovea"nt (Kharif1984) 1.70 1.24 74 26 28 167 65 CRabi1984-85) 1.66 1.22 73 27 25 133* 61 SeasonaL 63 Arual 126 Accelerated Technology Pre-iwprovement 1.65 1.1 67 33 - 167' - CRabi 1982-83) t199) Post-liprovement CKharif1984) 1.71 1.21 72 28 15 181 18 CRlbi 1984-85) 1.59 1.15 72 28 15 133* 34 Seasonal 26 adjusted for Rabi closure; C ) for Kharifcomparison; AnnuaL 52 where; Q = Mogha discharge (cfs); t = time in hours the channel should remain in continuoususe during a warabandi period; =-' = Annual cost of lining (Rslfoot); C = Annualcost of earthen improvement(Rs/foot); t = percent of losses saved by lining; " = percent of losses saved by earthen improvement; K = percent loss rate per 1000 feet; V = marginalvalue of water (Rs/acre foot). The percent of length qualifyingfor lining decreases with decrease in Mogha discharge and increase in number of branch watercourses. A situation may arise where even earthen improvementstrictly from economic stand point may not remain justified. The hours of continuous operation to justify earthen improvementcan be calculated from the following equation: t = 168 c/Vf"K Q 4. REVIEW OF IMPROVEMENT AND WATER CONSERVATION 4.1 Watercourselmprovement The perusal of the monitoring data (Table 9) indicates that sarkari khal were improved partially leaving their substantialparts unimproved. In the USAID-OFWMproject on the average lining was done of 9% and earthen improvementof 69% leaving nearly 22% of the watercourseunimproved. Lining was mainlyconcentrated on the main branch. Thoughbranch watercoursecovered 36% of the total length, yet on the average only 2% was lined. It als8 appears that the precast nakkas were not installed in the entire watercourse as only 25 per watercourse provided under USAID-OFWMproject as comparedto 34 under IDAIIFAD- Phase I project. In the IDA/IFAD Phase-I Project, under regular technology lining on the average was provided for 13% length and earthen improvement for 33%, leaving 54% Sarkari Khal lengthsas unimproved.In acceleratedtechnology only 22% length was provided with earthen improvementleaving 78% unimprovedand nakka provided were only 8 per watercourse. 12 TABLE 9 WatercourseData and Imprnvements I2. 131 Project Watercourse Data Improvements Total Average Earthen Nakka Lengtth Length Lining (m) Improved Installed No. (m) (m) (m) L (%) L l%) No. (Avg/Wc) 1. USAID NWFP 4 17,400 4,350 1868 (11) 12434 (71) 174 44 Punjab 18 89,179 4,954 5414 *(8) 69453 (78) 338 19 Sindh 7 28,823 3,403 2953 (12) 8206 **(34) 226 32 ------29 135,402 4,497 10253 (9) 90093 (69) 738 25 2. IhAD/IDA-I - Regular NWFP 2 9,912 4,960 698 (7) - 81 41 Punjab 14 60,954 4,350 8826 (15) 23843 (39) 422 30 Sindh 4 14,477 3,620 1474 (10) 3959 (27) 180 45 20 85,343 4,267 10998 (13) 27802 (33) 683 34 ------Accelerated NWFP 3 10,491 3,500 - - - - Punjab 19 74,353 3,910 - 20470 (28) 207 11 sindh 3 11,127 3,710 - 337 (3) ------25 95,943 3,840 - 20807 (22) 2G7 8 ---- D---ta---of---4----aterco------es----not----a--aila-----le.-- ** Data of 4 watercourses not available. **Data of 2 watercourses not available. It is, therefore, obviousthat watercourseimprovement programme proceeded under invisible stresses and strains and was not implementedin a manner to cover the entire sarkari khal includingbranches. 4.2 Monitoring Data Basic objective of watercourse improvementprogramme was to reduce losses and improve water availability. As delivery efficiency is function of distance therefore, for proper evaluationof improvementand water conservationtwo options were available: 1. To measure losses during the entire warabandi period before and after improvement; 2. To determinethe average percent water loss per 1000 feet and then estimate the total loss by using the effectiveequivalent length concept. Monitoring and evaiuation of OFWM programmes carried out by WAPDA, the only well organized effort to estimate the post-project improvements,included four major monitoring components: a. Improvementof watercourses, b. Precision land levelling, c. Sociologicalaspects, d. Evaluation of training as well as overall programme. 13 In view of concentratingon collectionof a large volume of data not directly connectedwith actual objective of water saving , important informationregarding identificationof sarkari khal, farmereschannel, numberand locationof sanctionednakkas, sanctionedwarabandi etc. were poorly attended. Average delivery efficiency, before and after improvement, for sanpled forms at head, middle and tail was calculated and called delivery efficiency of the amain watercourse, without identifying what the main watercourse means and why its results be taken as representativeof the entire watercourse. Savingof losses by lined and earthen improvedsections was not determinedseparately which could provide data for subsequenteconomic evaluation and to see if this was the optimum arrangement or more benefits could have been derived by adopting different improvement pattern. For optimizationor suggestingchange in technologythe values of percent of losses saved by lining (f) and earthen improvement(f"), usefullife of improvement,marginal value of water (V) etc; were not determinedbecause of too much attention to other aspects. The overall delivery efficiency is given by the equation: Ed. = EE E (8) where; E& = overall delivery efficiency E&, delivery efficiencyof main watercourse E, delivery efficiencyof farmer's channel From equation(8) and usingdata given in Table 7 the deliveryefficiency of farmer's channel calculated varies from 87% before improvementto 90 to 93% after improvement. This indirect value of 'En,' derived for the farmer's channelshow an improvementof about 3% whereas, no phsical works were carriedout in the farmer's channels, which points towards some deficiency in data. It can be argued that as more water was delivered to the farmers channeltherefore, this improvementhas occurred. This reasoning is also not correct as the loss rate tends to increasewith increasein discharge (Table 4). 4.3 Estimation of Water Saving In Table 8 an estimate of water saved per watercourse under regular and accelerated technologyis given. The water saving is estimatedat field nakka instead of farm nakka upto which only the improvementwas carried out. The saving at the farm nakka is 82 and 34 acre feet respectivelyfor regular and acceleratedtechnologies as shown in Table 10. TABLE-I WaterSaving per Watercourse (acre feet) at FarmNakka ------r------Nogha Delivery Savingof water Item dischargeEfficiency Losse Lasss Lossess Saving (cfs) CS) tX) X) Catf) (a.f) 1. Regular Techrotogy Pre-imrovemnt 1.72 73 27 - 316 - Post-iqlrovement - so 20 26 234 82 Accelerated Technoogy Pre-Improvement 1.65 74 26 - 292 - Post-lWrovmnt - 77 23 12 258 34 !340days of workingper year assuniled 14 It is, therefore, obvious that water conservationthrough watercourse improvementis being over estimated even in the most careful monitoringstudy. Estimatesof water saving on a country level is even more exaggeratedand bears no relationshipwith the improvement. According to the information available the target and achievement of watercourse improvementof various programmessince 1976 are summarisedbelow: Type of Target Achievement Improvement (C187) Regular 12586 9016 Accelerated 20718 19971 If all the target is presumed to have been achievedby end of 6th Plan (June 1988) even then the maximumanticipated saving neglecting the post improvementdeterioration would be 1.73 Maf against 3.57 Maf estimatedby end of 5th plan increasingto 5.62 Maf by end of 6th plan. Regular 12586x 82 = 1.03 maf Accelerated 20718 x 34 = 0.70 maf Total: 1.73 maf 4A Case Study Watercoursecode Nr. 15 has been picked up at randomto explainthe processof measurement adopted. The discharge at head (Q), at farm nakka (Qf,) and at field nakka (Qft were measuredfor each of the selectedsample farm. The distance from head to farm nakka ( 1q.) and farm nakka to field nakka () during pre and post measurementsand the dischargesare summarizedin Table 11. TABLE 11 Summaryof Field Dataand Analysis Loss exponent Delivery efficiency Farm fs OQf afd Lfu Lfd ------No. Main Farmer OveratL Main Farmer OveraLt t cfs )C ( ) Br. Br. CRs') (Rf) CRo) A. BeforeImprovement 1. 1.02 1.02 0.84 - 671 - 0.092 0.092 82 - 82 2. 0.99 0.99 0.58 - 806 - 0.175 0.175 63 - 63 3. 2.39 1.70 1.50 960 120 0.096 0.268 0.121 74 90 67 4. 1.05 0.80 0.56 1061 335 0.078 0.318 0.137 76 70 54 5. 1.00 1.86 0.74 1397 135 0.029 0.370 0.060 86 85 74 6. 0.90 0.80 0.75 1412 235 0.025 0.084 0.034 89 76 66 7. 0.90 0.80 0.65 1412 430 0.025 0.046 0.054 CAvg) 1.21 1.03 0.82 805 400 0.057 0.215 0.105 78 78 68 B. Afterluprovement (l1l) 1. 1.97 1.79 1.46 274 243 0.11 0.380 0.177 91 81 74 2. 1.97 1.79 1.4 274 317 0.11 0.196 0.176 91 72 66 3. 1.b 1.6 1.3 685 707 0.052 0.089 0.071 89 78 70 4. 1.8 1.7 1.38 685 707 0.025 0.090 0.058 94 75 70 5. 1.9 1.7 1.62 990 350 0.034 0.042 0.036 89 69 61 6. 2.3 2.2 1.88 1348 181 0.01 0.265 0.040 97 88 84 2.3 2.2 2.05 1348 810 0.01 0.059 0.016 2.3 2.2 2.1 1357 600 0.01 0.024 0.014 CAvg) 1.96 1.80 1.53 710 476 0.057 0.152 0.090 92 77 71 15 The loss exponent (R) and deliveryefficiencies for each sectionhas been determinedfor pre and post improvementperiod and are also given in Table 11. Pre and post improvementcomparison can be made through many indicatorsas: - Loss exponent*R' - Delivery efficiency - Loss per 1000 feet before and after. ReferenceTable 11, the loss exponentof main water course remains unchangedindicating no improvement.On the contrary the delivery efficiencyconcept shows that it has improved from 78 to 92%. If the simpleloss per 1000 feet conceptis used then the losses were 0.068 cfs (.18/2640)before improvementand remains 0.068 cfs (.16/2328)after improvementthus indicatingno effect. The above analysistherefore, brings out that some thinkingis required to see which indicator shouldbe adopted. Delivery efficiencygives the total percent water loss and is function of discharge and the length measured. Unless the measurementbefore and after is made for nearly same discharge and length it cannot be used as an indicatorof water saving. Also as the effective length of the watercoursemay or may not comparewith the length over which the delivery efficiency has been measured therefore, again it may not represent the true condition. Loss exponent 'R' can be used to determine percent of inflow lost per 1000 feet from equation(4). The percent of inflowlost per 1000 feet, in main watercorse, for this case using R = 0.057 is 5.5% both before and after improvement.In absoluteterm using the inflowof 1.21 and 1.96 cfs before and after imroveinentthe loss per 1000feet would be .066 and .108 cfs respectively. This indicates that the loss rate has increased.Therefore, again here the necessityto have more or less same order of inflow before and after is very vital. This method,however, has the advantageof applying this rate of loss to the effectivelength of the sarkari khal to determine total saving. The perusal of basic data and the analysisgiven above indicatethat: 1. No distinctionbetween sarkari khal and farmer's channelhas been maintained during measurement.Term main watercourse is hypothetical and neither signify sarkari kbal or its portion nor the farmer's channelbut include both at times. 2. Delivery efficiencyis function of distance but the measurementsbefore and after do not representthe same lengths. The averagelength measured before and after for main watercourseand farmer's branch are: Main W.C Farmer's branch Total Before 805 m 400 m 1205 m After 710 m 476 m 1186 m 3. Cut troat flume under submergedcondition has been used because of very flat slopes. The flume workingunder such conditionis insensitivespecifically for low dischargesas would be clear from the following: 16 Range of . Rangeof Ih.r) Disd (ft) (ft) (cfs) 0.02 to 0.14 0.02 to O.4 0 0.3 to 0.38 0.08 to 0.4 0.2 0.6 to 0.64 0.16 to 0.4 0.6 h...head uls; hb,..headdis S. CONCLUSIONS Onthe basis of analysis presentedin the paper, followingconclusions can be drawn: I. Watercourseimprovement under USAIDproject provided 9% liningand 69% earthen improvementleaving 22% lengthof watercoursesunimproved. Under IDA/IFAD Phase-I project 13% lining and 33% earthen improvementwas provided leaving54% length of watercoursesunimproved. The watercourse improvementis not being planned in a manner to optimisethe benefits. 2. The water conservationassumed through watercourse improvement in various 5 year plans is over optimisticand not commensuratewith the watercourse improvementprogramme or the savings anticipated. 3. Too much attention in monitoring is being paid to collectionof infoFnation not directly related.thus diluting the effort of accurate determinationof the water conservation. 4. The delivery efficiency concept to estimate the total losses and water conservationis not an accurate procedure. Total water losses and savings can be fairly accurately determined by using the effective length concept and percent loss rate. 5. If the effective length of the Sarkari Khal is known, the effective length of the farmer's channelscan be estimatedas 1/3rd of the effective length of the Sarkari Khal. 6. To estimatesteady state conveyancelosses in unimprovedwatercourses the loss exponent for the Sarkari Khal and farmer's channel with fair accuracy can be assumedas 0.06 and 0.21 respectively. 6. RECOMMENDATIONS 1. In order to fully understand the magnitude of water conservation from watercourseimprovement a few improvedwatercourses need to be monitored for water loss through a complete warabandicycle. 2. In order to optimise improvement, the monitoring should concentrate in determining the saving in losses through lining and earthen improvement separately. 17 3. Before undertakingany monitoringmeasurements, watercourse map clearly indicatingSarkari Khal and farmer's channelshould be prepared. 4. Water availabilityat farm level is estimatedon basis of manyassumptions which may not be entirely valid. In the 5 year plans, therefore,the water availabilityshould be limitedupto head of the watercourse. 18 UBLIOGRAPHY 1. HuntingTechn;cal Services 'Distribution Losses", Lower lndus ReportVolume 17. 2. LowdermilkB.K. et al, 1980 "FarmIrrigation Constraints and Farmer'sResponses". Water Management Technical Report No. 48; ColoradoState University. 3. OFWM- Punjab, 1981 "Watercourselosses in SahiwalTehsil". 4. PunjabIrrigation Research Institute, 1972 'Studies on Water lossesfrom Watercoursesand their lining measures". 5. ReussJ., 1979 "Optimizationof Lengths of AlternativeWatercourse Improvement in Pakistan". Water ManagementProgress Report No. II ColoradoState University. 6. Trout T. J., 1979 'Factors affectingLosses from IndusBasin Irrigation Channels" Water Management. TechnicalReport No. 50, ColoradoState University. 7. 1979 "OperationalIrrigation Evaluation of PakistanWatercourses Conveyance, Systems" Water ManagementReport No. 52, ColoradoState University. 8. WAPDA, 1978 "FeasibilityReport Lower RechnaRemaining" Planning and Design Organization, Water Central Lahore. 9. 1980 'On-FarmWater Management"Supporting Report, RevisedAction Programme for IrrigatedAgriculture. 10. 1978 'Operational Irrigation Evaluation of three Watercourse Systems" Survey and ResearchPublication No. 1. 11. 1983 "Feasibility Report Command Water ManagementProject" Planning Division, WAPDA, Lahore. 12. 1984 "Monitoringand Evaluationof On-FarmWater ManagementProgramme" USAID Project, P&I PublicationNo. 293. 13. 1985 'Monitoring and Evaluation of OFWM Programme-I' IDA/IFAD Project, P&I PublicationNo. 304. 14. 1987 "Reportof the Comuitteeon WaterResources Regarding 7th Five Year Plan (1988 93)" Draft unpublished. 19 ANNEX - IV ANNEX - IV IRRIGATION RELATED DRAINAGE AND ENVIRONMENT 1. Genema Food and fiber are the basic requirementfor human being to survive. Man since-his creation has been toiling to increase productionof food and fiber through various means. Increasing area under crop and efforts to harness more and more water are witness to his desire. Recent efibrts involve nuclear and bio-technologyto develop seeds which can increaseyield per unit area. To remove nutritionaldeficiency of soils and save crops from pest attacks, use of agro-chemicalsis on increase. However, human achievementsare still much short of its requirements. Research and developmentwill continueto find ways and means to increaseproduction, but the question arises is; Are our developmentssustainable? What environmentaleffects these developmentsare going to have on other resourceswhich may also be equallyimportant for human survival. Irrigation and drainageare complementaryprocesses for agriculturaldevelopment. An effort, in the following pages, is made to determine likely impact of drainage of irrigated areas in face of ever increasinguse of agro-chemicals. 2. The Agrochemicals and their Likely Impact 2.1 Pestiddes The pesticides used at present are mostly synthetic organic compounds. The principal processesthat influencetheir potentialfor loss from soil to groundwaterare volatilization(and subsequentdiffusion), decomposition, retention by the soil, and transport by water. Synthetic organic pesticides applied to plant foliage or the soil surface are broken down rapidly by sunlight.Those applied to soilshave more potential for decompositionand finding their way to the groundwater. Some organic pesticides such as chlordane, DDT and dieldrin, decomposevery slowly and may persist for years. These pesticides are relatively insoluble in water and are of little concern as groundwatercontaminants however, these are retained stronglyby the soils. The soil constituent of greatest importance in retaining pesticides is the organic matter. Bindingto the organic matter decreases their potential for downward movementin soils. The capacity of the soil to hold positively charged ions in exchangeableform is important in retainingparaquat and other pesticidesthat are positivelycharged. The principal mechanismby which pesticidesare transported from soil to groundwateris the downward percolation of water containingdissolved pesticides. The relative potential for I movement of various pesticides to groundwater in different soils may be estimated by applying known quantitiesof the pesticidesto the soils, adding equal quantitiesof water, and measuring the contents of various pesticidesin the drainagewater or the distance to which these have moved in the soil. The potentials found from above experiments depend mostly upon the retention of the pesticidesby the soil. They exceed the 'worst case' sitations for comparablethicknesses of soil in the field because the experiments do not allow for the full effects of loss by volatilizationand decompositionby microorganisms. An EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) official has estimated that as many as 50 of the more than 1,000 registeredpesticides possess the potentialfor detection in groundwaterunder conditionsconducive to downward movement(Table 1). 2.2 Fertilizers Most of the chemical ions added in fertilizers are retained by soils as a result of chemical interactions, except a few. Of those not retained, nitrate, nitrite and phosphates are of concern. Phosphatesare immobilein soil and can move with surface runoff going into drains. Nitrate and nitrite can be leached with the moving water into shallow ground water used for drinking. Althoughloss of nitrate from soils to groundwateris a natural process, the potential loss may increase in local areas by high concentrationof livestockand in much of the crop land by nitrogenfertilizers. TABLE1 Summaryof ProminantFacts about the Constituentsof Principal Concernin GroundwaterUnderlying Cropland Constituent Sources Soil Processes Tendencyto Comments Affecting the MoveDowuward AnmoumtLost to through SoiLs Groundwater in Percolating Water SoLubteSatts IrrigationWater Precipitation ard High Must be Leached organicmateriaLs dissotution of from irrigated Fertilizers carbonatesand soiLsto maintain Weatheringof sulfates cropproduction. soit mineraLs Rainfall. Nitrate Nitrogen Production and High Loss to fertiLizers removalby groundwateris Organic mnterials microorganisms identical to water Atmospheric RemovaLby pLants movementand is nitrogen fixed by Loss to crop tegumesRainfaLtl potentiaL. Pesticides Comuerical Retention by soil Varies widety Principot products Decosposition aong Pesticides occurence in Votatitization and soils groundwater RemovaLby pLants resutts from pesticides that remain in soLution in the soiL are not decomposed rapidLy, and are apptied to sandy soitswith groundwater near the surface and with muchwater movementthrough the soil to groundater. 2 23 Inorpnic Soil Ammendments These include limestone and other materials that neutralize soil acidity; sulfur and other materials that acidifysoils and gypsumwhich improve soil structure of sodic soils. Acidifying materials and gypsum have the potential of increasing the soluble salt content of the groundwater. Both neutralizing and acidifying materials may also influence to some degree the reactions pesticidesundergo in soils and the potential for transfer of these substancesto groundwater. 2.4 Organic Residues Organicmaterials used as soil conditionerand fertilizerinclude crop residues, food processing wastes, animal manures and sewage sludges. These materials have the potential for contaminating shallow groundwater with nitrates and bacteria. some shallow tUrm wells located near livestock quarters may get contaminatedwith 'fecal coliform bacteria'. 3. Use of Agrochemicals in Pakistan 3.1 Pesticides In Pakistan pesticide usage started in 1954 and in 1980 its import and distribution responsibilitywas transferred to the private sector. Since then its consumptionhas increased five folds whereas its cost has gone up by about 19 times. This representsboth inflation over the years and also the shift from cheaper organo-chlorinesto costly organo-phosphates, carbamates and pyrethriods (Table 2). The sprayed area has increased from 1.8 million hectare to about 5.5 million hectare. TABLE 2 Pesticide Consumption in Pakistan (000 kg/lit a.i.) ------1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 ------Insecticide 952 2162 3480 4173 4265 (74) (88) (87) (85) (85) Fungicide 171 204 283 277 365 (13) (8) (7) (6) (7) Herbicide 94 102 162 277 365 (7) (4) (4) (6) (7) Acaricide 3 51 81 82 - (-) (2) (2) (2) Rodenticide 69 25 41 44 27 (6) (1) (1) (1) (1) ------Total 1289 2544 4047 4853 5022 Value (m Rs.) 200 1120 2933 4021 4581 ------Date Source: Kafi and Baig, (1987) - Jabbar et al., (1988) Pakistan Agricultural Pesticide Association, (1991) * values in parenthsis represent percent of the total. 3 Insecticides make up 85% of the total pesticides and berbicides as 6%. Upto 75% of insecticidesare used on cotton crop alone and the rest is used on crops like rice, sugarcane, maize, vegetables etc. Herbicide use though proportionallysmall is increasing.There is more or less a steady import of fungicideshowever, the proportionalshare is deceasing. Use of rodenticide and fwnigants, though considered a small components, is also increasing. The research findings on the agrochemicalsindicate that long term exposures to pesticides (particularly persistent classes) is resulting in carcinogenic, mutagenic, and teratogenic consequences. Deaths due to pesticides can also result from cardiac failure, failhin- of respiratory cenres, paralysis of the respiratory musculature and broncho constriction, etc., (Muhammad ad Borstel, 1985). 3.2 Fertilzer The fertilizer consumptionworldwide has been steadily increasingover the years (Table 3). The total consumptionin the world which was 115.16 m ton in 1981, has increased to 145:64 m ton nutrients by 1988. Likewise in Pakistan the fertilizer consumptionwhich was 1.08 m ton in 1981 has increased to 1.74 m ton by 1988. Nitrogen fertilziers are the main component (Table 4). TABLE 3 World fertilizer consumption (000 mt) 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 World 108757 116798 115018 130546 132361 145642 Africa 2653 3294 3448 3441 3556 3725 North America 24291 25636 21196 24794 22475 22909 South America 4235 5291 3669 4567 5494 5829 Asia 25655 30974 33730 40832 40337 51851 Europe 31822 31196 31205 32070 32352 32272 Oceania 1690 1651 1626 1771 1641 1869 USSR 18412 18756 20144 23071 26506 27187 Pakistan 880 1080 1244 1253 1785 1740 ------ The felizer consumptionper hectare of agricultural area of Pakistan is given in Table S. Tie fertilizer usage in irrigated area is higher and on the average in Punjab 104 nutrient kg/ha are applied as against 76, 57 and 12 nutrient kg/ha in Sindh, NWFP and Balochistan, respectively. The average fertilizer consumptionon Pakistan basis in 1989 was @ 86 kg/ha. Annually around 2 million nutrient tons of fertilizers are used in Pakistan. 4 4. Irrigtion Reated draiae 4.1 Need for Irrigation and Drainage Irrigationand drainage are complementaryprocesses of equal importance.Whereas,irrigation is required to supplementthe natural rainfall to remove the soil moisturedeficiency, drainage is necessary to ensure a satisfactory balance between moisture, aeration and salt concentrationin the root zone. To achieve this the root zone should remain sufficiently moist to allow crops to extract the water required for transpiration easily but at the same time the zone should not remain saturated (i.e. waterlogged)for extendedperiods. The zone should also remain relativelysalt free. In areas which have significantvariation of relief, natural drainage ie; surface and sub-surface flow out of the area maintain the desireable balance. In others supplementary drainge measures are required to attain the objectives. TABLE 4 Fertilizers consumption in Pakistan (000 mt) 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 Nitrogen Fertilizers Total 1128 1333 1282 1325 Ammonium sulphate 19 22 20 - Ammonium nitrate 132 110 87 - Urea 765 1000 968 - Ammonium phosphate 89 116 99 - Other 93 85 108 - Phosphatic fertilizers Total P2 05 21 20 19 - Concen Superphos 7 8 14 - Ammonium phosphate 228 295 253 - Other 9 9 11 - Potash fertilizers Total 33 43 45 25 Potassium Sulphate 24 29 32 - Other 10 14 13 ------ 5 TABLE 5 Consumption of fertilizer/hectare of agriucltural area in Pakistan ------Fertilzer Consumption in kgs 1973 1978 1983 1988 %age Nitrogen 14 27.4 36.1 51.2 76.19 Phosphate 2.4 7.5 10.3 15.1 22.47 Potash 0.1 0.3 1.1 0.9 1.34 Total 16.5 35.2 47.2 67.2 ------Ref: FAO, (1990). 4.2. The Drainage Water Irrigation water appliedto crops is partly used by the crops and the remaining infiltrates deep into the soil beyond the root zone. During successive applications of irrigation water, the excesswater, called 'drainage water' is partly retained by the soil below root zones and the remaining finds its way to the drainage facilities provided either directly (ie; tile drains & surface drains) or through grounwater reservoir (ie; tubewells). Drainage water is also generated in the form of surface flow during heavy rains on irrigated areas and or rice irrigation (ie; pancho). The drainage water, irrespective of its source, carries alongwith it some of the salts already present in the soils and also the agrochemicalsapplied to the crop in the form of fertilizer and pesticide. 4.3. Scope of Environmental Effect of Drainage Water Excess irrigation water appearing as drainage water can cause environmental impact in a number of ways as under: 1. Drainage water which is retained in the soil below root zone, in case of water deficiencv, is sucked up for consumptionby the crop. The fertilizer and pesticide residue therefore, may enter into the crops alongwithwater. If the crop is a food crop then these residues enter into the food chain thus creating health hazardis. 2. The drainage water, which reaches the watertable, can cause pollution of the shallow groundwater reservoir, generally used for domestic water supply. Fertilizer aqd pesticide residues therefore, can enter into food and human body through use of polluted grounwater and cause health hazard. 3. Surface runoff recieved in the natural and man made drainage channels can be used, at places, for agriculture and also by animals for drinking. In some cases drainage water is pumpedback into the canal system for downstream use, both for agriculture and in some cases for drinking (Hairdin). The drainage water when flowing in drains also recharge local aquifer and can pollute the shallow grounwater reservoir used for domestic consumption. 6 4. Sub-surfacedrainage, where necessary,removes either the leachingwater passed the root zone (tile drains) or removegroundwater from the aquifer (tubewells)to control the watertableaffecting crops. This drainagewater is recycled either throughdirect use for agriculture(FGW zones) or disposed into drains/rivers (SGW zones) for re- use downstream. Agro-chemicalsresidues present in the drainage water also get recycled and find their way to food or drinkingwater affectinghuman hea!th. 5. Studies Available To determinethe current statusof this pollutionvery limitedinformation is available,which is discussed in the followingparagraphs. 5.1 Study Nr.1 A study titled "Effect of Pesticides and Fertilizers on Shallow Groundwater Quality' sponsoredby PCRWRwas carried out jointly by NationalAgricultural Research Centre of PARC and Departmentof Earth Sciences Quaid Azam Universityduring 1990-91(1). The studyarea of 700 sq.km, about 30 km southof Faisalabadnear Sammundri,was selected as it recieved maximuminputs in the form of fertilizersand pesticides.Tables 6 to 8 gives vital statisticsabout agriculture and agro-chemicalusage in the area. 5.1.1 Contamination by Pesticides To determine contaminationof shallowgroundwater, seven water samplesfrom hand pumps (30-40 feet deep) in the cotton growing area of the project were collected . Three samples were also collectedfrom Kala Shah Kaku industrialarea for comparison.Seven samplesout of these ten were found to be contaminatedwith one or more pesticides(Table 9). For determiningcontamination of soils and downwardmovement of the residue, soil samples from 5 sites in cotton/wheatgrowing area were collectedfrom 3 depths ie; 1.2 and 3 feet. Results of the analysis, given in Tables 10, indicatethat all soil samples were contaminated to varying amounts by different pesticides. Residues of organo-phosphatesand pyrethroid insecticides, currently in use, were restricted to top I foot soil, whereas organo-chlorine insecticides.extensivelyused in 1960's and 1970's and now banned, had moved to lower layers. TABLE 6 Cumulative (%) data of land use Land holding %age Major crops %g < 5 ha 47 Wheat 84 5-10 ha 47 Sugarcane 11 > 10 ha 11 Mustard 5 Cotton 100 7 TABLE 7 Cumulative (%) data on pesticide usage Plant protection measures % Advisory service % Yes 88 Yes 40 No 12 No 60 Mechenical weeding in wheat 100 Use of pesticide 100 Herbicide in wheat 47 Insecticides in cotton 89 No of insecticide Insecticide in Sugarcane 47 sprays on cotton 4 13 Pesticide application 4-5 7 - according to schedule 100 5 40 - recommended dose 100 5-6 33 6 7 Spray as mode of application 100 TABLE 8 Cumulative C') data on fertilizer usage Fertilzer bags Fertilizer bags % (Nr) (Nr.) DAP 1 61 NP 1 44 2 6 2 6 AN 1 11 K 1 11 2 17 2 6 Urea 1 44 SSP 1 6 2 33 4 11 3 22 8 6 Goara 1 11 TABLE 9 Pesticides residue in groundwater Location Depth Pesticide detected Quantity (ft) (ppm) Faisalabad 1. Chak 452 G.B 40 Monocrotophs (Nuvacron/ 0.04 Azodrin) Endrin 0.0002 2. 455 G.B 45 Monocrotophs ( _n_ ) 0.06 Cyhalothrin (Karate ) Traces 3. 542 G.B 45 Monocrotophs (Nuva/Azo) 0.05 Endrin 0.0001 4. 543 G.B 45 -Nil- -Nil- 5. 204 G.B 45 Cyhalothrin (Karate ) Traces 6. 477 G.B 35 Endrin 0.0002 7. 478 G.B 30 -Nil- -Nil- Kala Shah Kaku 8. Rice research instt: Cyhalothrin Traces 9. Near Ittehad chemical _n_ 0.0002 10. Near ravi Engg: -Nil- -Nil- 8 Table 10 Pesticide residue (ppm) in soils Location Pesticide Quantity (ppm) at depth below surface (ft). 1 2 3 Chak 452 GB Monocrotophs 0.3331 - - Cyhalothrin traces - p,p'-DDE - traces - Aldrin 0.0018 0.0004 Dieldrin - 0.0096 0.0011 Chak 547 GB Dimethoate 0.3858 - Fenvelerate traces - Profenophos - 0.0007 - Aldrin - - 0.0004 Dieldrin - - 0.0011 ,p-DDD - 0.0020 - p,pt-DDE - 0.0020 - p,pt-DDT - traces 0.0002 Chak 550 GB Monocrotophs 0.6429 -- Cypermethrin traces - Aldrin - 0.0013 - Dieldrin - 0.0031 - Endrin - 0.0002 traces p,p'-DDD - - traces p,p'-DDE - - 0.0037 p,p'-DDT - - traces Chak 499 GB Cyhalothrin 0.1932 - Profenophos traces - - Endrin 0.0006 0.0002 p,p'-DDD - traces - p,p'-DDE - 0.0021 0.0001 Chak 498 GB Prophenophos traces - - Cypermethrin traces - - Aldrin - 0.0004 Dieldrin - - 0.0103 Endrin 0.0003 0.0040 9 5.1.2 Contamination by Fertilizers Continuous use of fertilizer can pollute shallow groundwater and soils either through the major constituents such as nitrates and nitrites or by trace metals. Water samples were collected from randomly selected hand pumps (25-40 ft deep) from each village in the study area. Results show that in all water samples nitrates were below toxic level, both for human beings and animals. Fields having cotton-wheat or sugarcane-wheat rotation for the last 6 to 10 years were selected for soil sampling. Fifty soil samples were drawn from 0-6, 6-12, 12-24, 24-48 and 48-72 inches depth after wheat crop. The increase in soil pH and EC with depth indicate flushing of salt from surface to lower depths with irrigation. Water soluble nitrate contents were directly related to crop rotation, higher nitrate contents were found where cotton wheat rotation was followed. Top 0-6 inch soil had nitrates as 27.4 ppm which gradually decreased to 4.4 ppm in 48-72 inches depth. Concentration of sodium in 24-48 inches depth was 3-5 times higher than at 12-24 inches depth indicating flushing down of sodium during desalination process in the area. 5.1.3 Summary and Discussion The study concludes that soil and groundwater in the study area has been contaminatedby agrochemicalsto varying degree. Nitrates are accumulatingin soils and these may reach the groundwater. Insecticides have reached shallow grounwater. Another paper read at the 4th National Congress of Soil Science (1992), based on 15 year's study, opins that use of fertilizer per hactre in Pakistan is much less than developedcountries of the world and in our situation its use have not added to the problem of environmental pollution. The drainage though not directy responsible for the pollution yet in mitigating the negative effects of irrigation (ie; waterlogging)is likely to recieve these pollutants in drainage water and transfer and spread these in the process of disposal of the drainage effluent. 10 ANNEX - V ANNEX - V THE ASSIMIATIVE CAPACITY OF DRAINS Assinilation of contaminants. When some pollutants are mixed with water, chemical and biological changes may occur which result in their gradual breakdownto less complexand generally less dangerousones. The rates at which differentchemicals and biologicalpollutants are detoxifiedor brokendown depends on many different factors, particularly the temperature, dilution and amount of oxygenavailable, but many detoxificationprocesses can proceed under anaerobicconditions. However, whilst some pollutants- for example, simple ionic salts of metals such as copper or chromium- may be detoxifiedby absorptionby activesoil particlesor by plankton, others are not degraded by any chemicalor biochemicalprocesses. In this Assessment,the most significantcontaminant of water in the latter class is salt - sodiumchloride. Salt can only be dilutedwith freshwater if its effects on the environmentare to be reduced. The ability of the water in drains to provide the conditionswhich allow these processes to occur determinesthe assimilativecapacity (AC) of a drain. The process is one in which the concentrationof a pollutant is reduced by natural processes to a level which is below that which would have occurred due to simple dilutionalone. The dimensionsap,propriate to this propertyare therefore mass/unitvolume of waterltime- for example,grammes of biochemical oxygendemand (BOD) per cubic metre per day, gBOD/cumec,or some such unit. Since the water is moving, there is clearly also a relationshipbetween the absolute rate of degradation and the distance downstreamthat the water mass travels, and this can also be incorporated to provide a practically useful dimensionas, for example, g/cumeclkm. Types of contaminant. Not all contaminantsare broken down by the same processes. Therefore, the assimilative capacityof any watercourse must be expressed according to the values which refer to each of the individualcontaminants. If chemicaltoxins reduce or eliminatethe bacteria which are responsiblefor reducing BOD, for example, then the AC for the toxins may be high whilst that fbr BOD may be very low. So the existing quality of the water before an effluent is dischargedto it, and the actual mixtureof contaminantsin the effluentitself, determine the residual AC available for detoxifyingany new effluent. Since the AC also dependson living organisms- bacteria, algae, etc - for the detoxification of the contaminants,factors such as temperatureand light intensityare also important, and these are of course variable both diurnallyand seasonally.This means that AC is site-specific and conditional- it is not possibleto derive a single value which will be appropriate for all pollutantsat all times. And since detoxificationproceeds at differentrates, each individualAC value will change at a different rate as the water flows down the drain. Methodology In the present study, the concentrationsof pollutantsin a numberof water samplestaken from three drains on at least two differentoccasions have been determined.Additional relevant site I data for the determinationof AC values are the amount of water passing throughthe system, the distanceapart of the samplingsites, and the temperatureof the water. The sampleswere taken, preserved, stored and analysed accordingto standard procedures. Null hypothesis. In order to calculatethe AC for any chemicalcontaminant, a null hypothesisis first adopted, then tested to discoverwhether or not the predictionsmade are bome out by the analysis.In the present case, the null hypothesisis that the same mass of the contaminantwhich enters the system at one point in the drain will leave it at a lower point. So regardlessof dilution, if the appropriate quantity of the contaminantis detected at both the upstream and the downstreamsites, then no degradationhas occurred, and the AC value for that contaminant is zero. If, however, there is an unaccountableloss as revealed by analysis of the downstreanwater sample, then some form of degradationhas occurred, and the drain has a positiveAC value for that oontaminantand under the ambientconditions. An increase, denotinga negativeAC value, is only possibleif there is no breakdownand a reductionin dilution- this would occur for salt in an evaporationpond, for example. Calculating the AC value for a contaminant. In order to detect whether there is a positiveAC value for any contaminat,it is necessaryto constructa mass balance equation.This treats whatever is happeningupstream of the initial samplingsite as a 'black box' - as long as we know the parameters for the samplingsite itself, what happens upstream is considered to be unrelated to downstreamprocesses. All inputs and outputs between the upstream and the downstream sites must be measured, includingsuch mass transfers as seepageinto or out of the drain itself. The difference(if any) between the input and output sides of the equationrepresents the AC for that contaminant. Basic mass balance for the Sammundri Main Drain. The schematiclayout of the Shikarpur Branch Drain, SammundriMain Drain and Raiwind Main Drains are shown in Figures A-I, A-II and A-M. In this, the course of the drain is representedby the horizontal line. All known sources of water flowing into or out of the drain are represented by arrows above and towards the dram (gains) or arrows below and away from it (osses). Samplingpoints are marked as points, whilst measured flows in the drain and feeders are shown in cumecs. The distancesbetween samplingpoints are shown in kilometres. Choice of analytical section (Summandri Main Drain) A number of effluents are dischargedto the Drain at its upper end, includingthose from at least three mills dischargingwater presumed to originatefrom tubewells in the area. These discharge above the uppermostsampling points (FD 1). In addition, a substantialamount of sewerageeffluent runs to the drain from Faisalabadimmediately upstream of samplesites FD 3 and FD 4. There is marked seepage into the Drain between FD 1 and FD 2, which can be deduced at around 5 cusecs by simple subtraction. The volume of the first Faisalabad discharge is deduced to be in the region of 49.3 cusecs,but the volume of the secondcannot be deduced. This is because there is a very substantialloss of drainwaterbetween FD 3 and FD 4, despite the contributionfrom this second effluent. 2 It is clear therefore that it is not appropriateto attemptto calculatethe AC value above FD 4, since the data on mass flows are incomplete. BetweenFD 4 and FD 6 the only surface water source is a small link drain running from the vicinity of the Chenab Canal, for which both the discharge and the compositionare known. BelowFD 6, seepage and surface rainfall runoff is knownto enter the Drain above FD 8, but the dischargesat FD 6 and FD 8 indicatea very substantialmass loss from the Drain channel between the two samplingpoints. This shows that seepageout of the Drain excedes seepage and run-off into it. The magnitude of neither of these flows is known, and it must be appreciated that the quality of water flowing from the ground into the drain is certainly different from that flowing out by seepage. Tlerefore, the mass transport of contaminants through the system cannot be determined, and the section between FD 6 and FD 8 is unsuitablefor analysisof the AC values. Below FD 8, seepage losses and gains are inferred rather than measured direcdy. Initially, at least, therefore, the section between FD 4 and FD 6 appears to provide the best conditions for calculatingthe AC values. The discharge of the Chenabdrain is small comparedwith the main Drain flow, and contaminantsare low in concentration.In addition, the samplingpoint FD 6 is sufficientlyclose to the discharge for the pointsto be treated as one, in the sense that any seepage gains or losses in the immediatevicinity are unlikelyto be significant. Calculating the mass balance for section FD 4 - FD 6. The masses of the contaminantsin FD 5 contribute to those in FD 6.. But since these samplingpoints are so close together, deductingthe masses of FD 5 from those in FD 6 will provide a good approximationof the residual concentrationsof the contaminantsfrom FD 4 at that point in the drain. The difference between the two points, expressed for each contaminantas (PD 4 * flow) - ((FD 6 * flow) - (FD 5 * flow)) represents the change in mass of each over the 7km section of the Drain. Under the null hypothesisthe mass values at FD 4 and FD 6 respectivelyshould be identical, after making allowancesfor other gains and losses. So to express the masses in an appropriate dimension, (FDn * flow) = Mn * Vn g/sec where M is the mass of the contaminantin g/1000 I/sec and V is the volume in thousandlitres/sec (Note:- mg/I = g/cubic metre) 3 E.Idlig So at FD 4, for BOD: (M4 * V4) = 320 x 0.57 a 182.4 g/cumec At FD 6, for BOD: (M4 * V4) = (M6 * V6) - (M5 * V5) = (99.3 x 1.8) - (31 x 0.046) = 177.31 g/cumec Thereforethe rate of degradationof BOD is 182.4 - 177.31 = 5.09 g/cumec Since FD 4 and FD 6 are 7kn apart, the AC for BOD is 0.73 g/cumecJkm Second Trip So at FD 4, for BOD: (M4 *V4) = 140 x 0.50 = 70.2 g/cumec At FD 6, for BOD: (M4V4) = (M6 * V6) - (M5 * V5) - (225 x 0.971) - (85 x 0.034) = 218.57 - 2.89 = 215.68 g/cumec Therefore the rate of degradationof BOD is 70.2 - 215.68 = -145.48 g/cumec. Since FD 4 and FD 6 are 7 kn apart, the AC for BOD is -20.783 glcumec/lam. Valuesfor other chemnicaland biological contaminants. Using this methodology,the followingAC values are obtainedfor this section of the Drain on the two visits: Choice of Analysical Section (Raiwind Main Drain) A number of effluents are dischargedto the drain at its different ends includingthose from textile mill, at the samplingpoint (RD-2), ROCCO Ice Factory at the samplingpoint (RD-3) and effluentfrom centery boards, textile mill and sulfuric acid factory at the samplingpoint ( The points RD-2, RD-3, RD-6 and Rd-7 providesthe best conditionsfor calculatingthe AC values. The points RD-2 and RD-3 are sufficientlyclose to each other, the points RD-3 and RD-6 are not so close to each and the po;nts RD-6 and RD-7 are very close to each other. 4 Calculating the mass balance for section RD2-RD3,R)3-RD6 and RD6-RD7 Under the null hypothesisthe mass values at RD-2, RD-3, RD-6 and RD-7 respectively should be identical, after making allowances for other gains and losses. So to express the masses in appropriatedimension, (RD. x flow) = M. x V. glsec First Wrip At RD-2, for BOD: (M2x V2 ) = 93 x 0.514 = 47.83 g/cumec At Rd-3, for BOD (M3 x V3) = 107 x 0.7i4 = 76.43 g/cumec At Rd-6, for BOD (M x V) = 370x 1 = 370 g/cumec At Rd-7, for BOD ( 7x V7) = 530x 1.029 = 545.14 g/cumec Iherefore the rate of degradationof BOD in RD2-RD3,RD3-RD6 and RD6-Rd7are 47.83- 76.43 = -28.6 g/cumec, 76.43-370 = -293.57 g/cumec and 370-545.14 = -174.14 g/cumec respectively. Since RD-2, RD-3 are 10.3 km apart, the AC for BOD is -2.78 g/cumec/km, RD-3, RD-6 are 20.2 kn apart, the AC for BOD is -14.53 g/cumec/km,and RD-6, RD-7 are 0.969 km apart, the AC for BOD is -179.7 g/cumec/km. Second TriR At RD-2, for BOD: (M2 x V2) = 101 x 0.457 = 50.29 g/cumnec At Rd-3, for BOD (M x V3) = 115 x 0.571 = 65.71 g/cumec I 5 At Rd-6, for BOD (M%x V6) = 390 x 0.857 = 334.29 g/cumec At Rd-7, for BOD (M 7 X V7 ) = 520 x 0.943 = 490.29 g/cumec Therefore the rate of degradationof BOD in RI)2-RD3, RD3-RD6and RD6-Rd7are 50.29- 65.71 = -15.42 g/cumec, 65.71-334.29 = -268.58 g/cumec and 334.29-490.29 = -156 glcumec respectively. Since RD-2, RD-3 are 10.3 km apart, the AC for BOD is -1.50 g/cumec/km, RD-3, RD-6 are 20.2 km apart, the AC for BOD is -13.30 g/cumec/km, and RD-6, RD-7 are 0.969 km apart, the AC for BOD is -505.98 g/cumec/km. Values for other chemical and biological contaminants: Using this methodology,the followingAC values are obtainedfor the three sections of the drain in the two visits. Choiceof Analysical Section (Raiwind Main Drain) A number of effluents are dischargedto the drain at its differentends includingthe sewerage pumped at samplingpoint SK-3 and at samplingpoint SK-5. The points SK-3, SK-2, SK-5 and SK-6 provides the best conditionsfor calculatingthe AC values. The points SK-3, SK-2 are very close, SK-2, SK-6 and SK-5, SK-6 are close to some extent respectively. Calculating the mass balance for section RD2-RD3, RD3-RD6and RD6-RD7 Under the null hypothesisthe mass values at SK-3, SK-2, SK-5 and SK-6 respectivelyshould be identical, after making allowancesfor other gains and losses. So to express the masses in appropriate dimension, (SK. x flow) = M, x V. g/sec First Trip At SK-3, for BOD: (M 3 X V3) = 280 x 0.006 = 1.68 g/cumec At SK-2, for BOD (M2 x V) = 115 x 0.543 = 62.45 gJcumec 6 At SK-5, for BOD (MsXV; = 350x0.281 = 98.4 g/cumec At SK-6, for BOD (MxV) = 145x1.49 = 215.43 gIcunmc Therefore the rate of degradationof BOD in SK3-SK-2,SK2-SK6 and SK5-SK-6are 1.68- 62.45 = -60.77 g/cumec, 62.45-215.43 = -152.98 g/cumec and 98.4-215.43 = -117.03 glcumec respectively. Since SK-3, SK-2 are 2.5 km apart, the AC for BOD is -24.32 g/cumeclkm,SK-2, SK-6 are 12.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -12.75 glcumec/km, and SK-5, SK-6 are 11.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -10.64 g/cumeclkm. Second Trip At SK-3, for BOD: (M3 XV3 ) = 280x0.006 = 1.68 glcumec At SK-2, for BOD (M 2 xV2 ) = IlOxO.55 = 60.5 glcumec At SK-5, for BOD (M5 x V5) 370 x 1.668 - 617.16 g/cumec At SK-6, for BOD (M 6 xV = 130x4.743 = 616.59 g/cumec Therefore, the rate of degradationof BOD in SK3-SK-2,SK2-SK6 and SK5-SK-6are 1.68- 60.5 = -58.82 g/cumec, 60.5-616.59 = -556.09 glcumec and 617.16-616.59 = 0.57 g/cumec respectively. Since SK-3, SK-2 are 2.5 km apart, the AC for BOD is -23.53 glcumec/km,SK-2, SK-6 are 12.0 km apart, the AC for BOD is -46.34 g/cumec/lkm,and SK-5.SK-6 are 11.0 Ikmapart, the AC for BOD is 0.052 g/cumec/km. Values for other chemical and biological contaminants: Using this methodology,the tollowing AC values are obtained for the three sections of the drain in the two visits. 7 Discussion (0) ShikarpurBranch Drain The results of the analysis of the Shikarpur Branch Drain in the Table A-la are ambiguous. All the values in the both trips are negative in three sections. This indicate that the Drain has an apparent negative AC for all contaminants, indicatingthat their masses are higher at the lower samplingpoint (SK-2) than at the higher (SK-3) in section I, point (SK-6) than at the higher (SK-2) Section III, point (SK-6 than t the higher than at the higher (SK-5) Section II. Whilst the relatively low values for grease and oil, detergents and ammonia nitrogen may be considered to be inconclusivefor the both trip of three sections. BOD, COD and Coliform counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions. (i) Summandri Main Drain The results of the analysis of the SummandriMain Drain in the Table A-Ha are ambiguous. Whilst the expectedpositive values for AC are obtained for BOD, COD and Coliforms, in the first trip and expected positive values for AC are obtained for coliforms in the second trip, all other values in the both trips are negative. The latter indicate that the Drain has an apparent negative AC for all other contaminants,indicating that their masses are higher at the lower sampling point (FD 6) than at the higher (FD 4), even after taking into account any potential additionsfrom the side drain (sample point FD 5). Whilst the relatively low values for grease and oil, detergents and ammonia nitrogen may be considered to be inconclusive for the first trip and detergents and ammonia nitgoren may be considered to be inconclusive for the second trip, those for chromium, copper and nickel suggest that there is a major additional source of these metals which is causing invisible pollution of the water. BOD, COD and Coliform counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions. (iii) Raiwind Main Drain The results of the analysis of the Shikarpur Branch Drain in the Table A-lila are ambiguous. Whilst the expected positive values for AC are obtained for in Ammonia Nitrogen in the II, In Sections of both the trips. All other values in the both trips are negative. This indicatethat the Drain has an apparent negative AC for all other contaminants, indicatingthat their masses are higher at the lower sampling point (RD-3) than at the higher (RD-2) in section I, point (RD-6) than at the higher (RD-3), point (RD-7) than at the higher (RD-6). Whilst the relatively low values for grease and oil, detergentsand ammonia nitrogen may be considered to be inconclusive, for the first trip and secondtrip. Those for chromium, copper and nickel suggest that there is only in chromium, a major addition metal which is causing invisible pollution of the water. BOD, COD and Coliform counts can be expected to reduce quite quickly under normal conditions. Since we are not dealing with an evaporation pond here, two possible explanations are availableto suggestthe source of this anomaly.Either the effect is an artefact of the sampling procedure, or the effect is real. 8 Sampling procedure. i) Swunmandri Main Drain If the analyses of the contaminantsat FD 4 are biassed towards lower values than the true concentrations,then the calculationsof the AC values are invalid. No detailed analyses of the contents of the two major Faisalabad drains were carried out, so it is not possible to determine whether either, and especially the one discharging into the Main Drain above FD 4, was heavily contaminated with metals. So if the sampling point FD 4 was located inappropriately, so that full mixingof the incoming drainage with the existing water in the Main Drain was incomplete, and if the bias resulted in taking a sample which was mainly relativelyuncontaminated effluent from the main Drain upstreamof the site, then PD 4 could have much lower values than would have resulted from samplingat a fully mixed site. However, examination of the data for sample FD 3 indicatesa substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants there and below the second Faisalabad outfall, at FD 4. It seems unlikely, therefbre, that the anomalyis due to a major samplingerror. (i) Shikarpur Branch Drain If the analyses of the contaminantsat SK-3 to SK-2, Section 1, SK-2 to SK-6 of Section HI and SK-5 to SK-6 of Section 11are biassed, then the calculationsof the AC values are invalid. At point (SK-6) the sampling was after mixing of the two drains and no individual of the branch drain, so it is not possible to determine whether either, which one is more polluted at the mixing point. However, examninationof the data of three sections indicates a substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the anomaly is due to a major samplingerror. (ii) Raiwiud Main Drain If the analyses of the contaminantsat RD-2 to RD-3 Section I, RD-3 to RD-6 of Section II and RD-6 to RD-7 of Section m are biassed, then the calculations of the AC values are invalid. At point (RD-6) the industrialwaste was mixed and chromiumis added. However, examination of the data of three sections indicates a substantial similarity in the levels of contaminants except addition of chromium in Section III there and below. It seems unlikely, therefore, that the anomaly is due to a major samplingerror. 2. Additional source(s) of contamination If the anomaly cannot be ascnbed to sampling error, then the change in contaminantmasses is real, and an additional source or sources of contaminationmust exist between FD 4 and PD 6. Since the levels of contaminants in FD 5 are known, and cannot account for the additional masses, some other undetectedsource of contaminationis implied. If the anomaly cannw.-). ascribedto samplingerror, then the change in contaminantmasses is real, and an additivu4 source or sources of contaminationmust exist between different 9 samplingpoints of three sectionof Raiwindand Shikarpur. Some other undetectedsource of contaminationis implied. The anomalousAC values for the other contaminantsindicate that there is some relatively major source of additional pollutionwhich is not evident on the ground. The increases in chloride, hardness and sulphate are suggestiveof groundwater seepage into the Drain, and the most likely origin for the apparentadditional contaminant masses must be considered to be groundwaterseepage into the Drain. The flow data for each samplingstation show very clearly that seepage both into and out of the Drain is substantial, and that it is neither predictablenor direcdy measurable.Indeed, it appearsperfectly possible that seepage in both directions could occur at very closely spaced points - evento the extent that the directionsmight be in oppositedirections on opposite sides of the same section of the Drain. The abstractionof water from the near-surfaceaquifer on one side of the Drain, for agriculturaluse, but not on the other side could produce lateral flows withinthe aquifer. The presenceif seepage both into and from the Drain impliesthat it may well not be possible to assign any meaningfulAC valuesto any Drain which is not completelywatertight. Where seepageoutwards occurs, then water containingunspecified quantities of contaminantswould be capableof entering the aquifersclose to the Drain, leadingto an apparentsubstantial mass loss, and therefore suggestinga high positiveAC value. f this flow is subsequentlyreversed, for examplewhen irrigationabstractioq is reduced, then this contaminatedaquifer would then start to drain back to the Drain, returning any unchangedcontaminiant to the Drain. This would then result in a reversal of the AC value to negative, as the Drain becomes loaded with contaminantsstored temporarilyin the adjacent aquifers. Under this scenario, the apparent positivevalues for the AC of BOD, COD and Coliforms becomeintelligible on the first samplingof SummandriMain Drain. Two of these variables - BOD and COD -are subject to rapid degradationby oxidation, and analysisreveals that the dissolvedoxygen conditions in the Drain were extremelyfavourable at the time of sampling. Coliformsare rapidly removed by biological agents which feed on bacteria, and again the conditionsin the Drain were suitablefor this to occur. So despite the complicationscaused by seepage into and from the Drain, the concentrationsof these factors are unlikely to be affectedin the same way as relativelymore recalcitrant dissolvedcontaminants, especially the toxic metals. Unforunately, no data on the concentrations of relevant contaminants in the adjacent groundwaterexceot Shikarpur,some sampling was done in whichsome coliforms were found. But even if they were, the difficultyin actually measuring the movementof water into and out of the drain, as well as the lack of any informationabout its previoushistory, would still not make it possible to construct a viable mass balance equationfor any single contaminant. Implcations This process has very important implicationsfor environmentalmanagement and pollution throughoutthe irrigated areas of Pakistan. Instead of regarding drains as passive systems in which effluents undergo (relatively) predictable dilution and degradation as they pass downs=tam,they must now be viewedas a highly dynamicsystem in whichthe active lateral 10 mass transport of contaminantsinto and out of the adjacent aquifers is a major factor. Therefore, to the more traditionallyaccepted detoxification mechanisms operating on soluble contaminantsof freshwatersystems - oxidation,glycolysis, adsorption, etc - we must now add those processes, generally chemicalrather than biochemical,which may affect the stability and translocationof contaminantsin the groundwater-soilsystem. Since in manycases oxygen availabilitymay be very low, anaerobic chemical(and probably to a much reduced degree, biochemical)processes must be presumedto exert a significantimpact on the overalltransport of pollutantsthrough the irrigation-drainage-riverinesystem. From this point on, the dynamic linkagesbetween the groundwateraquifers and the surface channelsof the Pakistanirrigation and drainagesystem wfll have to be consideredin any developmentplanning which involves the disposal of any type of contaminatedeffluent. The conceptof AssimilativeCapacity as a practical measure of the potentialvalue of drains for pollutionloading, under the field conditionsprevailing in the Indus Valley, musttherefore be abandoned. 11 ANNEX - VI ANNEX - VI THE 'BIOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVE' TO DRAINAGE 1. Introduction Both potential environmentaldamage resulting from drainage and its very high cost have stimulated interest in possible alternativesto drainage, or the hydrological or engineering approach to it. Coveringthe 'biological' alternativeis required by the TOR - Scopeof Work Section 4.06 (vi) 'determinebiological methods and on-farmwater managementand farming practices which minimizedrainage requirements'. 2. Rationale for the BiologicalApproach The developmentof salt-tolerantor salt-adaptedplants, or possibleuse of natural halophytes, would allow land unsuited to normal crops due to soil salinity to-be utilised which, at least in areas of high watertablelevel - an expandingproblem - can only be reclaimedby providing watertable control via drainage. Similarly, if plants adapted to -high watertables could-be successfully identified or developed, the need for drainage could be directly avoided. Development of crop plants (field, forage or tree crops) adapted to both saline and waterloggedconditions would provide even greater flexibilityin land utilization,but present much more difficult problems. Overall build-upof salt in the Indus basin system, coupledwith a general trend towards rising watertables, seems likely to demand an expandedprogramme of drainage installation,with associatedexpanding costs th for constructionand maintenance)and potentiallyincreasing environmentaldamage, especially in relationto disposalof salinedrainage effluent.Emphasis on meansof reducingthe need for drainagetherefore seems likely to be necessary. One such means is the developmentof saline or high watertableadapted crop, forage or tree cultivation systems. 3. Salt Tolerant Crops There are several approachesto developingsalt tolerant crops. The simplest involves screening existing varieties for salt-tolerance and using them for selective breeding. Usually, however, the range of tolerance in commercialvarieties in this respect is quite restricted, salt tolerance not having been a factor in their selection. Another approachcan be back crossing with wild ancestorswhich could have salt-tolerance, or with un-improved old races or varieties which may have developed such tolerance. Unfortunatelysugar beet (Beta vulfaris} and its relativesare the only group of crops denved from a halophyticancestor. Some old varieties of barley (Hordeum)show considerablesalt- tolerance: barley is in any case the most salt-tolerantof the main annual grain crops. A third approach is that of hybridizationwith related wild species which show the necessary tolerance. This has been attemptedboth with tomatoes and wheat, with some reasonably promisingresults. I The most recent approach has been that of genetic engineeing, involvingthe identification of the gene or genes associatedwith resistance to salt (specificallyblockdng the intake of sodium(Na) and chloride (a) ions in the case of grasses. The mechanismof salt tolerance is quite different in the chenopods,a familywhich includesmany naturallysalt, tolerant or halophyticspecies). Substantialwork has been done, in this connection,on wheat. 4. Development of Sat-toleant Wheats Wheat is now probably the most importantfood crop in Pakistan. Its level of salt-tolerance is low, as it is also to waterlogging.Large scale screening of existing varieties is being undertaken, both in Pakistan and elsewhere, but it is not expected that improvement in tolerance generatedby this process will be very great. Another approach is to exploit the salt-tolerant capacity of wild relatives or ancestors of modern wheat some of these 'wheat grasses' (Tritiaceae) can survive levels of salinity as high as that of sea-water. Salt-tolerantprogeny have been producedby transferof mostof the chromosomesof the wheat grass lbinopyrum ponticum.A salt tolerant amphiploidhas also been producedusing the related species T. -elonam as a parent. Salt-tolerantamphiploids have also been produced using species of Agmpyron and Elymus as parents. The Saline AgricultureCell at the Universityof Agriculture,Faisalabad, advises that, thoughthese latter amphiploidsgrow well in saline soils, in Pakistan conditionstheir growth rate is rather slow so that they flower when the weather is too hot for effectivesetting of seed. Nevertheless,this approach remains a promisingone. The most ambitious approach involvesgenetic engineering,including the direct transfer of single or multiplegenes. This approacbhas becomefeasible with the increasedsophistication of genetic engineering techniques, but the lack of biochemical, physical and anatomical knowledgeof salt tolerance constitutesa major difficulty. Although understandingof the fiundamentalprocess has advancedrapidly recently,there are few specificand defined aspects whichcoud be susceptibleto geneticengineering. Nevertheless there is food reasonto expect major developmentsin the area of salt tolerance of crop plants in the near future. S. The present collaborative Programme for developng salt tolerant wheat Studiesby the Centre for Arid Zone studies, Universityof North Wales, Bangor are being carried out as part of an ODA (British Technical Assistance)sponsored progranune with CIMMYT and with the Plant Breeding Istitute (PBI) at Cambridge. This programme is aimingat the recognitionof potential sources of salt tolerance within the wild wheat grasses for the crossing programmes of collaboratingagencies - which include the University of Agriculture at Faisalabad - and the screening progeny of such crossing programmes for acquisitionof salt tolerance and other desired characteristics. A primary survey for salt tolerance identifieda mnmberof potential donor species. The most notableof these are Thino_grumbessarabicum, A gnin jpnceum. and Elymus farcus. In an associatedprogramme with Dr. Riaz Qureshi at Faisalabad,a Survey of Pakistan wheat varieties has shown that salt tolerance is most closely associatedwith low Na and Ca levels in young leaves. The wild wheat grass T.bessarabicurnhas this character in a far move prononncet (legree than in either commercialwheats or the less salt-tolerantwild wheat grasses. 2 The transfer of these - and other - potentiallyvaluable characteristicshas boen approached in two ways. At PBI, Cambridge, an amphidiploidhybrid of T. bI arabicum with the hexaploidwheat Chinese Spring has been generated. The responsesto salinityof this hybrid has been compared with Chinese Spring and with the reputedly salt-tolerantlocal variety Karchia. The hybrid has been shownto be much more tolerant than either wheat variety and has inheritedthe capacity of its wild parent to maintainlow Na and Cl levels in the leaves. A second approach to genetic transfer from the wild wheat grasses has been pursued at CIMMYT,where the hybridizedmaterial was back-crossedinto a current wheat variety.After further back crossing or self-fertilisationmaterial was subjectedto screening in Bangor in hydroponicculture for salt tolerance. Results from this work and else-wherehold out real hope for breeding wheat with improvedsalt tolerance characters.On the basis of existingdata it seems possible that grain yields of around 2-3 tonnes per hectare could be obtained at salinities up to ECe values of 18-20. Such yields would be about one-third of the yield obtainable under ideal conditions, and could make a significant impact on the agricultural potential of saline land. It should be pointed out, however, that although it may be possible to breed for greater salt tolerance, irrigationpractises which continuallyadd to the salt load could lead to the negationof such advances. The developmentof commerciallyviable salt-tolerantwheats must inevitablybe a somewhat- slow process. Even the necessary resources, the view at Faisalabadwas that the time scale mightbe 5-10 years. This is probablyoptimistic, though it is not widelydifferent from views expressed at PBI three years ago. 6. Tolerance of wheat to high watertables While development of characteristicssuch as salt and drought tolerance in wheat may be possible through genetic engineering,resistance to high watertable conditionsis not likely. At Faisalabad, an approach to this problem has been initiated-employingcultivation techniques. This seems to consist essentially of growing wheat on what are effectively raised beds with channels between. Results seem to be encouraging,but the technique would not apply under saline conditions and it remains to be seen whether or not it will prove practicablefrom the farmer's point of view. 7. Salt-tolerant Fodder Crops Some trials in this connectionhave been stared at Faisalabad, at their stage on dry saline soils. Trials centre on species of Atriplex. 16 species of which have been imported from Australia. This has been arranged via a co-operativeprogramme between Australia and the Universityof Karachi, which also has trials in Sindh (CmKotri Command).Of the 16 species tested at Faisalabad,two have proved outstanding:T. leutiformus& T. amnicola.The former wakes a large woody bush up so 6 ft. high and spreadingalmost 10 ft wide. The latter has a smaller, more prostrate form, up to 5-6 ft across. T. leutiformus also seeds freely, and regenecatesnatually. Both produce useful fodder. Controlled feeding trials on goats have shown that Atriplex fodder cannot be used unmixed, but when fed as an additionto normal fodder (about 25%), its use resulted in improvementsboth in weight gain and meat quality. Trials are now being started on larger animals. No yield information is get available, but plants from well through the winter and can apparently stand 34 years of cutting before needing renewal. Trial plots are on substantially saline soil, irrigation is used only for establishment,then discontinued.Although Atriplex is both salt and drought resistant, it is extremely susceptibleto high watertables. Another chenopod from Australia - 'blue-bus', 3 similar in appearance to Suaea - has also been planted, but seems rather less promising. 8. Fodder Crops and High Watertables Specifictrials in this area have not yet been undertaken.The most promising availableplant is probably Kalar grass LLeptochloaf&&j), an indigenousspecies which is both salt (and allali) tolerant and also is tolerant of high watertables.It is a fall grass, alreadyused on salt- affected land in Pakistan, which can be cut for fodder or grazed directy at certain stages of growth. No other grasses seem to have been specificallylooked at in this connection, at least at Faisalabad,though some QyMI&ndacylon (of Americanorigin) has been plantedunder trees on the research farm there (see ). As this is a indigenousgrass in Pakistan, and is used in irrigatedpastures, it would seem possiblethat salt-tolerant,or relativelysalt-tolerant, forms might be collectedand propagatedlocally. Perennialspecies of Suaea, tolerantof both salt and waterlogging,are indigenousto Pakistan but seem unlikely to be of much value as fodder - though some are browzed by camels in their wild state. 9. Salt-tolerant trees A number of indigenous and exotic species have been indicated in this connection.The research farm at Faisalabad has establishedtrials involving9 species, 7 indigenousand 2 exotic. These are: Indigenousspp. Exotic spp. Acacia uilotica Eucalyptuscamaldulensis Albizzia lebbek Leucaena leucoceDhalo Parkinsomiaaculeata Pongomiapinnata Prosopis lineraria Tamarix aphyla Terminaliaariuna These trials were on replicatedtrials on saline soils, two sets, one on finer textured soil than the other. Growth rates and yields were measuredafter 7 ' years. The best yields were from Eucalyptus (almost twice that of the next best species, Acacia and Albizzial. Later trials (using irrigation only for establishmentand the first six months) on saline soils with a deep watertable (c. 40 ft) confirmedthe predominanceof Eucolyvtuscamneldulensis, though both Tanarix and Leu a showed more promise. Other eucolypts have been tried, with less success. Euclypu Camaldulensiscan be coppiced,an advantagesince several crops can be taken without replanting. Leucaena regeneratesreadily from seed. 10. Trees resistant to waterlogging, or able to exploit shallow groundwater No formal trials are known to have been undertaken in this respect in Pakistan. Several species have possible potential in fresh groundwaterareas. These include E. camaldulensis, 4 Acacia Albizzia and Terminalia. A species of iasunarpossibly Cobe or L.gImLaG sed of which has been acquired from western could vdke reasonable growth underslamne watable conditionsare muchlesseasy to identify, thoughboth Eucaly=XsCamaldulensis and the Casuarin mentionedabove seem to have some potential.There are also some fruit trees which might be used, most notably the date palm. So far most attention has, quite reasonably, been directed towards tree species which could not only grow in waterloggedconditions but which also produce an economicreturn. It may e that consideration should be given also to species which can simply help to control watertable levels through transiration: acting as natural 'pumps'. This is fact is a characteristicsof certain encolypts,of which Eucalyptuscamaldulensis is a notableexample - in this case a species also producing9 useful products. Experiencein Western Australia has demonstratedclearly this kind of effect: removal of eucelyptusforests has resulted in rising watertables and soil salinization,a process now being reversed by re-plantingthe trees. 11. Trees undersown with Fodder Crops This could be a useful combination.Limited trials have been started at Faisalabad. Bothgrass (cyodon and Atriplex have been tried. The most promisingcombinaton seems at present to be Eucyptus undersowwith grass. 12. Salt-tolerant Crops and the Dry Drainage Concept Growingsalt-tolerant crops-perhaps fodder crops such as Atriplexwhich tolerate dry as well as saline conditions, could possibly be integrated with a cropping septum based on dry drainage. This seems a possibilityworth investigating,and has been suggested to the Saline AgricultureCell in Hyderabad. 13- Development of present work at Faisalabad The present ODA-supportedwheat programme finishes in early 1993. A follow-up project has been prepared by the SalineAgriculture Cell and submittedboth to Centre for Arid Zone Studies at Bangor and to ODA. This would involve extendingpresent experimentalwork to farmer level, based on a selectedgroup of 50 farmers. Such an extensionshould certainlybe supported. 14. Conclusions The most promising line, in saline agriculture, currently being pursued seems to be the developmentof salt tolerance in wheat; followed by the development of the potential for growing trees or fodder crops on saline soils. . Alternativecrops for land with very high watertableshas so far receivedless formal attention: research is much less advanced, especially in relation to saline groundwater evidence, but withou, so far, any substantialdata from specific trials, which suggest useful potential using a number of tree species, bodt indigenousand exotic. Formal trials seem to be badly needed, and would probably have to be undertakenon a fairly large scale: it is difficult to see how small plot trials could produce meaningful results unless the aquifer could some how be artificially confined. Finding ways of taclding alternativeproduction from land with high saline watertables-has proved much more difficult, not surprisingly- unforunately this is perhaps the situation where the 'biological' alternativecould have the greatest impact. There 5 are some indications tha certain tree species such as Eucalyt camaldulsis coold successtllly exploitmoderately saline groundwaters.It will be importantto draw on overseas experience in this context, perhaps especiallyin WestermAustralia. Expanding the present liaison there with the Universitiesof Karachi and Faisaabad could be very important.There may also be valuable experience to be topped in south-westernU.S.A., in States such as Californiaand Colorado. There are rather strong indicationsthat it would be in the fiture national interestto give much more attention, in funding and staffing, to this overall sector. It is also one which could probably auract expanded external funding. This paper necessarilyconstitutes only a brief and somewhatgeneral overview. lt is based on the consultant's own background and experience, some limited use of relevant published materi and only a single visit - to Faisalabad-during this study period so far. For a fuller evaluation, more time would be needed to examine more closely the work being done at Faisalabad,and to check out other work being done by the Universityof Karachi, NIAB, and other organisations,as well as much wider search for and study of relevant research outside Pakistan. 6 Relemce 1. Jones, R. Gareth Wgn and Gorham J. Centre for Arid Zone Studies, University College of North Wales, Bangor. The Potential for Ehancing the Salt Tolerance of wheat and other Important Crop Plants. 2. Qureshi R. H. Nawaz S., and Mahmood T. Saline Agriculture Research Cell, Universityof Agriculture, Faisalabad. Performanceof SelectedWoody Tree Species under Saline-SodicField Conditionsin Pakistan. Draft of paper presented to the first ASWAS Conference Dec. 1990, Al Aim University, U.A.E. To be published in Vol 2 (Agriculture and Forestry under Marginal Soil Conditions)of book entitled 'Towards Rational Use of High Salinity Tolerant Plants', to be published 1992 by Kluer Academic Publishers. Dorloccht, The Netherlands 3. Regenerationof Saline Lands Proceedings of a Workshop held at the Institute for Irrigation and Salinity Research. Tatura, Victoria. Australia. Department of Agricultureand Rural Affairs, Victoria. 1990. 7