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Yerevan State University Lusine MAI)ОYAN Yerevan State University ON SOME PSYCHOLINGUISTIC AND SOCIOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF BILINGUALISM Both sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics are relatively recent areas of study and they tend to overlap. Psycholinguistics is interested in when, how and why the individual or the community uses language. Sociolinguistics gives priority to the social context in which the native language or the foreign language is used. One way in which they overlap is in the selection of topics, among them bilingualism- a topic which has been studied from many perspectives. Different people use the term bilingualism in different ways. For some, it means an equal ability to communicate in two languages. For nl hers, bilingualism means the ability to communicate in two languages I >ul with the possibility of greater skills in one language. Below we would like to give definitions of bilingualism by some prominent linguists. “In ... cases where ... perfect foreign-language learning is not ICCOmpanied by loss of the native language, it results in bilingualism, hnlive-like control o f two languages” /Bloomfield, 1935: 55-56/. “The practice of alternatively using two languages will be called ... Kllngualism, and the persons involved bilingual” /Weinreich, 1953:5/. "Milingualism is the condition in which two living languages exist ulili' by side in a country, each spoken by one national group, representing I flllrly large proportion of the people” /Aucamp, 1926; Beziers; Van llvnbeke, 1968: 113/. As we can see these definitions are very vague and give rise to many ijMttMions. I bus, defining bilingualism is problematic, since individuals with VWS 1пц bilingual characteristics may be classified as bilingual. Plflllitions of bilingualism range from a minimal proficiency in two ■lyiliiftcS' to an advanced level of proficiency, which allows the speaker hi flinclion and appear as a native-like speaker of two languages. Some may describe themselves as bilingual but may mean only the Wllty to converse and communicate orally. Others may be proficient in 27 reading in two or more languages (or bi-literate). A person may be bilingual by virtue of having grown up learning and using two languages simultaneously (simultaneous bilingualism), or they may become bilingual by learning a second language sometime after their first language. This is known as sequential bilingualism. As mentioned above, there are two major patterns in bilingual language acquisition: simultaneous bilingualism and sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. For example, an Armenian child raised in Russia may mix the two languages and instead of saying ’ynkav’ (pbl/шф or 'upal ’ (упал) use the incorrect form 'upav' (упав) thus combining the two synonymous words in different languages into one word, or we may come across the form] 'kerelel em' (l]bpb[b[ bit). Unfortunately such mistakes are made not only by children but also by many adults. Mistakes connected with the category of number are quite common in our society, e.g. 'bu/ulj/ibbp’\ (naskiner), 'pjibubp' (jeanser), ‘w ^ fib b p ’ (achkiner), etc. The given examples illustrate a common type of linguistic interference, where the] word of one language is used in the grammatical form of the other] (‘носки’, ‘очки’ in Russian and ‘jeans’ in English are already plural] forms). There may be also phonetic mistakes, for example an Armenian] child brought up in Russia may find it difficult to pronounce such sounds] as 'p\ 'i j ', 'S’ ... and is likely to use 'n\ 'Ju\ instead. | Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction betweenl the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 31 years old, but the child can draw on the knowledge and experience! of the first language while acquiring the second language. Many outstanding linguists, such as E. M. Vereshchagin, Chi Osgood, S. Ervin, differentiate the following types of bilingualism: 1. mixed (when in the same speech situation the person used different languages) and not mixed (when the speaker uses onlyl one of the languages for each particular situation) ! 2. individual, group or social 3. coordinate and subordinate, when the second language id acquired on the bases of the structural characteristics of the firsJ 28 language (according to some linguists this is the result of the grammar-translational teaching method). 4. receptive - the person can only understand die foreign language (passive bilingualism)/Е. Haugen, 1958:4/, reproductive - he can only produce the foreign language and productive, when he can use it creatively /Arakelyan, 2007: 172/. Learning a language and becoming bilingual is also about learning and living in different societies and cultures. It is not just about acquiring a new language, but also about understanding another culture and developing another identity. In virtually every country in the world at the inception of the 21s1 century, linguistic minorities can be found. This situation is also true of Armenia. Armenian is the only official language of our country even though Russian is widely used, especially in education, and could be considered as de facto "second language". During the Soviet period Russian was very widespread in our country, l just as it was in all the republics of the former USSR) and the knowledge <il it could even indicate the social status and degree of literacy of the given person. The Russian language has been of high significance in the life and history of the Armenians. The problems of Russian-Armenian bilingualism were of prime interest for the linguists of Armenia, as till 1990 the Russian language was widely applied alongside with the Armenian language. Almost ИГ» of the Armenian population was fluent in Russian /Esadjanyan, 1999/. With the collapse of the Soviet Union the linguistic situation in \imcnia changed a lot and Russian, although remaining quite common in him society, is yielding its place to English, and schools with a Russian I'M-, arc being displaced by those with an English bias. So the next stage ■ •I piesent-day development in Armenia requires study of English at all miIik utional institutions, beginning with the kindergarten and nursery and, ......I'spondingly, in-depth research on the processes and peculiarities of I nglish-Armenian or Armenian-English bilingualism. The latter is of Hllnnst significance for Armenians because of globalization processes in i iimng nowadays. Itilingual education can be defined as an educational programme in wlili li two languages are used to provide instruction. I lie educationalists have developed some productive categories of ■ ■In. it ion programmes. 29 Immersion programmes promote additive bilingualism for majority language speakers. Although teaching is provided in the second language, the teacher knows and may use both languages. Submersion programmes are those where linguistic minorities are taught through the medium of the majority language with minimal or no support to enable learners to understand the language of instruction. Often the minority languages and cultures are not highly valued by the majority group. Maintenance programmes provide teaching in the first language in order to maintain the use of the home language and culture. These programmes are often allied to transitional bilingual education programmes where the learners gradually move towards the full use of the majority language. Transitional bilingual education programmes vary in the amount of first language instruction provided and the duration of die programme. Early exit programmes are where pupils move rapidly to major language only instruction, for example, within the first one or two years. Most bilingual education programmes have two goals; the acquisition of the language of the country and academic success; and the continuing development of the heritage language1 In recent years, researchers have been actively involved in studying bilingual acquisition and, although not all the research evidence is yet in, we now have a more detailed description of important aspects of bilingual development than previously. Concerning the question of how bilingualism affects language development, no final statements can be made. One extreme position, the balance theory, holds that each individual has only a certain amount of language learning ability and if it is divided between two languages, the knowledge of each language will be weaker. Some parents and child care professionals think that learning two languages in childhood is difficult and can result in delays in language development. But as the results of many research works show, children who have regular and rich exposure to both languages 0 11 a daily or weekly basis from parents and other caregivers exhibit the same milestones in language development and at roughly the same ages as monolingual children. It is important to remember that there are large individual differences in language acquisition — some children acquire their first words or use complex utterances much earlier than other children. Delay in the emergence of these milestones does not necessarily 30 mean that there is something seriously wrong; in most cases it simply means that the child has taken longer to reach this stage. The same kinds of differences are characteristic of bilingual children. The most successful second-language
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