Volume 38, Issue 2, Fall 2018

Editor: Jessica B. Schocker Associate Editor: Sarah B. Brooks

Table of Contents ...... 2 Guidelines for Manuscripts ...... 3 Review Panel Members ...... 4 Pennsylvania Council for the Social Studies Information ...... 4 Editors’ Note ...... 5 Articles Civic life in the neighborhood: Leveraging historical context to teach injustice in the elementary grades Anne-Lise Halvorsen, Maribel Santiago, Eliana Castro, and Alyssa Whitford ...... 6

Teaching and learning with indigenous-made films in social studies education Sarah B. Shear ...... 20

Reading and watching like a historian: Using documents to teach Sisters in Freedom Amy Cohen ...... 30

Thoughtful social studies integration: It’s possible! Sara B. Demoiny and Stacie L. Finley ...... 39

National history day: An opportunity for service-learning in social studies teacher education Jennifer Cutsforth Kaschak ...... 48

Social Studies Journal, Fall 2018, Volume 38, Issue 2 2 Guidelines for Manuscripts

Aims and Scope exceptions can be made on a case-by- case basis The Pennsylvania Council for the Social • Follow guidelines of the current Studies seeks to publish manuscripts in the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association Journal that focus on any of the following: • Do not include author name(s) or

other identifying information in the • Creative ways of teaching social text or references of the paper studies at the elementary, secondary, • Include a separate title page that and higher education levels contains the title of the article, • Research articles author(s) name(s), institution(s), and • Explanations of new types of materials email address(es) and/or equipment that directly relate • With submission email, authors must to social studies teaching, particularly attest that the manuscript is original, those developed and/or implemented not under review elsewhere, and not by teachers published previously • Explanations of teacher developed • Papers must be submitted as Word projects that help social studies documents to the editors at: students and teachers work with [email protected] community groups

• Reviews of books and other media that are relevant to the teaching of social Journal Information studies • Analysis of how other academic Social Studies Journal is a biannual disciplines relate to the teaching of publication of the Pennsylvania Council for social studies the Social Studies. The Journal seeks to provide a space for the exchange of ideas among social Instructions for Authors studies educators and scholars in Pennsylvania and beyond. The editors All manuscripts must adhere to the following encourage authors both in and out of formatting guidelines. Manuscripts that do Pennsylvania to submit to the Journal. not meet the guidelines will be returned to the All manuscripts go through a blinded author without going out for peer review. The peer-review process. In order to encourage editors of Social Studies Journal accept and assist writers, the reviewers make submissions on a rolling basis. However, calls suggestions and notations for revisions that for manuscripts are issued for both regular are shared with the author before papers are and special issues. accepted for final publication. The editors encourage authors in both K-12 and higher • Type and double-space submissions education settings to consider submitting to using 12-point font and one-inch Social Studies Journal. margins • Include any figures and/or images at the end of the article • Authors are responsible for obtaining copyright permission for all images

• Average manuscript length is between five and fifteen pages, though

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Social Studies Journal Review Panel

Jill Beccaris-Pescatore, Montgomery County Dennis Henderson, Manchester Academic Community College Charter School Marc Brasof, Arcadia University Dan Krutka, University of North Texas John Broome, University of Mary Washington Theresa McDevitt, Indiana University of Jennifer Burke, Millersville University Pennsylvania Amy Cherwesnowsky, Athens Area School Scott Metzger, Penn State University District Timothy Patterson, Temple University Jeremiah Clabough, The University of Mark Previte, University of Pittsburgh - Alabama - Birmingham Johnstown Stephen Croft, Wilson Area School District Jason Raia, Freedoms Foundation at Valley Jason Endacott, University of Arkansas Forge Thomas Fallace, William Patterson University Nicole Roper, West Catholic Preparatory Rachel Finley-Bowman, Elizabethtown High School College Sarah Shear, Penn State Altoona Anne-Lise Halvorsen, Michigan State Leo West, Retired, East Allegheny Schools University Christine Woyshner, Temple University

Pennsylvania Council for the Social Studies Affiliated with the National Council for the Social Studies

Officers Dennis Henderson, Manchester Academic Charter School President, Amy Cherwesnowky, Athens Jessica B. Schocker, Penn State Berks Area School District 2017-2020 President-Elect, Rachel Finley- Bowman, Joe Anthes, Bethlehem Area School District Elizabethtown College James Kearney, Radnor Township School Executive Secretary, David Trevaskis, District Pennsylvania Bar Association Jason Raia, Freedoms Foundation at Valley Recording Secretary, Kristy L. Snyder, Forge Pocono Mountain School District Cheryl Stropko, Athens Area School District Past President, Nicole Elizabeth Roper, West Kevin Allen Wagner, Carlisle High School Catholic Preparatory High School PCSS Membership and Publication Board of Directors Information

2015-2018 Membership in the Pennsylvania Keith C. Bellinger, Centennial School District Council for the Social Studies is currently free. Sarah B. Brooks, Millersville University Correspondence about membership should go Darla Gerlach, Shaler Area School District to Executive Secretary, David Trevaskis: Mark Previte, University of Pittsburgh- [email protected]. Johnstown The Journal is currently available for Chris Zanoni, Somerset Area School District free, open access on the Pennsylvania Council 2016-2019 for the Social Studies website: Keith Bailey, Congreso de Latinos Unidos www.pcssonline.org. Correspondence about Amy Cohen, History Making Productions editorial matters should be directed to the Harry Cooper, LEAP-Kids editors at: [email protected].

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Social Studies Journal (ISSN 0886-86) is 501(c)(3). A copy of our financial statement is published biannually. Copyright 2010, available upon request from the Executive Pennsylvania Council for the Social Studies, Secretary. Documents and information Indexed by the Current Index to Journals in submitted to the Pennsylvania Department of Education. Listed in Cabell’s Directory of State, Bureau of Charitable Organizations, PO Publishing Opportunities in Education. The BOX 8723, Harrisburg, PA 17105 are available Pennsylvania Council for the Social Studies is from that address for the cost of copying and a non-profit organization under IRS Code postage.

From the Editors

We are excited to share the fall, 2018, empowers students to practice history issue of Social Studies Journal (SSJ), a inquiry and reasoning to make sense of the publication of the Pennsylvania Council for extraordinary actions of Ona Judge, a woman the Social Studies. This issue includes five who escaped her enslavement by President articles – all written by women, a first for SSJ George Washington. Both of these pieces since we have assumed editorship – that outline high quality instructional practices to address important content and pedagogy for support a more inclusive social studies social studies teachers at all levels. curriculum. We are especially thrilled that this The final two articles address the issue features an invited piece by Anne-Lise integration of social studies both across the Halvorsen, Maribel Santiago, Eliana Castro, curriculum and through community and Alyssa Whitford of Michigan State engagement. Sara Demoiny and Stacie Finley University titled, “Civic life in the explore the outcomes of an integrated social neighborhood: Leveraging historical context studies and STEM summer camp in which to teach injustice in the elementary grades.” their preservice teachers participated. They This article centers critical approaches to leverage these experiences to make teaching elementary social studies which is recommendations for integrating social extremely an important contribution to a studies in other academic subjects. Jennifer discipline (and journal) often dominated by Kaschak describes how service learning can secondary methods. be integrated with social studies through a Sarah Shear and Amy Cohen both National History Day (NHD) Project. She authored articles for this issue which invite invites social studies teacher educators to secondary social studies teachers to include consider how teacher candidates might be traditionally marginalized groups of people involved in NHD to develop historical into their curricula in meaningful ways. thinking skills and pedagogical skills, as well Sarah encourages social studies teachers to as meet an actual need of the NHD program. utilize Indigenous-made films to introduce Finally, we would like to thank students to perspectives, histories, Michael Perrotti and Joseph Anthes for their governments, languages, religions, and other support as corresponding editors. We hope cultural elements commonly excluded from you enjoy this issue of SSJ! traditional social studies curriculum. Amy details a Document Based Lesson to support Sincerely, teachers in using the new documentary Jessica B. Schocker, Editor film Sisters of Freedom: The Daring Battle to End Sarah Brooks, Associate Editor Slavery in their classrooms. The lesson

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CIVIC LIFE IN THE NEIGHBORHOOD: LEVERAGING HISTORICAL CONTEXT TO TEACH INJUSTICE IN THE ELEMENTARY GRADES

Anne-Lise Halvorsen, Maribel Santiago, Eliana Castro, and Alyssa Whitford Michigan State University

“People have said that I am too young to related to injustice requires careful and have these thoughts on my own. People thoughtful curriculum design and have said that I’m a tool of some nameless adult. It’s not true. My friends and I might instruction. When done effectively, still be 11, and we might still be in children can gain a deep understanding of elementary school, but we know. We the origins of current injustices, why know life isn’t equal for everyone, and we people have different perspectives, know what is right and wrong.” –Naomi and/or why an injustice might not be as Wadler, March for Our Lives, Washington, D.C., March 24, 2018 (Rosenberg, 2018) easily addressed or rectified in reality as it is in children’s minds. Naomi Wadler, an 11-year-old keynote We recognize that people have speaker at the March for Our Lives protest different, often conflicting, ideas of what in March, 2018, is a shining example of the constitutes an injustice. We draw on the power that children have to lead social definition of injustice as a public (rather justice efforts. Naomi, like the Parkland than a familial or private) situation students and other organizers and involving a lack of fairness or justice – e.g., participants of the March for Our Lives when people’s civil liberties are denied; protest, reminds us of the power of when leaders abuse their power; or, when education in general – and social studies in laws or policies designed to increase particular – to encourage children to access and opportunity are broken “read, write, and think deeply; and act in (Teaching Tolerance, 2016). Here, we are ways that promote the common good” not focusing on public issues (matters of (National Council for the Social Studies public concern about which people can [NCSS], 2014, p. 5). Promoting the reasonably disagree). Others, such as common good often involves noticing and Diana Hess and Walter Parker, have confronting injustice. written extensively about the power of Elementary social studies deliberating public issues. Instead, we are educators have always known that young choosing to focus on what we and others children are capable of, and highly have recognized as injustices. Readers engaged by, efforts to understand and may disagree with our stances on the protest injustice both locally and globally. particular injustices we highlight, but we Children are naturally curious and argue that social studies education naturally compassionate. They care requires taking a stand and not attempting deeply about fairness, taking care of the to be politically neutral (Gold, 2016; environment, and the health and well- Journell, 2016). We aim for the ideas here being of those around them (Paley, 1992). to be transferable to your particular Yet, teaching the historical contexts, educational context, which will naturally current complexities, and multiple involve selecting the injustices that are perspectives of events and experiences

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relevant and important to your education that can empower citizens in a communities. democracy. The Vision statement outlines In this article, our goals are to five qualities of powerful and authentic demonstrate the power of engaging social studies: meaningful, integrative, elementary students in responding to value-based, challenging, and active – all instances of injustice and to provide qualities that can easily be infused in the resources for your own enactments. As teaching of injustices. The C3 Framework part of this effort, we offer recommend- speaks to the active role that social studies ations and resources grounded in education can and should play in educational research and theories. First, encouraging students to become engaged we provide a theoretical background and citizens who are able to think critically and a brief review of the relevant literature to knowledgeably. It uses an “inquiry arc” to demonstrate how current practices and help students “recognize societal prob- recommendations are shaped by previous lems; ask good questions and develop scholarship. Second, we describe two case robust investigations into them; consider studies showcasing ways elementary possible solutions and consequences; methods courses and elementary class- separate evidence-based claims from rooms can engage teacher candidates and parochial opinions; and communicate and students in learning about incidents act upon what they learn” (NCSS, 2014, p. involving injustice in historical context. 6). Third, we suggest a framework for Part of developing robust inquiries educators seeking to engage their own requires educators to consider what students in responding proactively to values we teach children. Values are injustice. Fourth, we provide resources to inherent in everything that we teach. Even help you do this work in elementary social trying to “only teach the facts” is rooted in studies methods courses and elementary what teachers value. What facts are we schools. teaching? Where do these facts come from? Whose voices are centered? Whose Theoretical Framework: voices are omitted? These seemingly Grounding Public Issues within benign decisions are crucial to helping Powerful Social Studies and the C3 children understand who and what Framework matters. Values are deeply embedded in discussions about injustices, as these The importance of teaching hidden values send a message to children investigations of and discussions about about when and how to stand up for injustices is rooted in both NCSS’s “A others; in other words, whose lives and Vision of Powerful Teaching and Learning rights are worth defending. in the Social Studies” (2014) and The These considerations are par- College, Career, and Civic Life (C3) ticularly important for social studies Framework for Social Studies State Standards: education, in which children are seeking Guidance for Enhancing the Rigor of K-12 to understand relationships among hu- Civics, Economics, Geography, and History mans, relationships between people and (NCSS, 2013). The Vision and the C3 their environments, and relationships Framework argue for a social studies between the powerful and the powerless.

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The four major disciplines in social studies The goal then is not to be objective, – economics, geography, history, and but rather to present full and complex political science – naturally deal with histories that reveal the good, the bad, and injustice. We use the elements of the in-between. This approach serves meaningful and value-based social studies multiple purposes. First, heroic histories as the basis to argue for a social studies do little to reveal how difficult it can be to education that encourages students and enact change (Alridge, 2006; Woodson, teachers to engage in issues of injustice. 2016). Children and their teachers need Together, the C3 Framework and the examples that are grounded in the past NCSS Vision provide a rationale for that can function as models for how to engaging students and teachers in challenge unjust practices. Related, it is encouraging youth to become active not enough to celebrate omitted and citizens in their schools and communities. undertold histories, but to also interrogate The question then is, active civic them to help students and educators participation for what purpose? This reflect about their own role in question can intimidate educators who perpetuating injustice (Levins Morales, fear being accused of indoctrinating 2016). Youth need to recognize when they students, or fear retribution for being are complicit in systems of oppression and forthcoming with their political views understand that they have the agency to (Romero & Ochoa O’Leary, 2014). change them. Teachers can then “work Histories for healing and with students to critique regressive challenging injustices. Approaching the practices” (Paris & Alim, 2014, p. 92). teaching of injustices through an historical Sustaining heritage and community lens may help ameliorate the political languages, literacies, histories, and concerns teachers face about their practices does not absolve educators from instructional decisions. We draw from the the responsibility of ensuring that they work of historians who argue that all and their students do not repeat damaging histories are purposeful and come from a patterns of interaction. For instance, White point of view (Levins Morales, 2016). We Parkland student organizers recognized draw on this historical approach because their movement as the latest iteration of it directly addresses the misconception youth campaigns against gun violence that history is neutral and points out that and for sensible gun laws. They also history should serve the purpose to heal recognized that previous efforts led by communities. As Levins Morales (2016, p. youth of color in urban cities were 146) states, “Being objective is often overlooked. The White Parkland student understood to mean not taking sides; but organizers acknowledged their racial and failing to take sides when someone economic privilege and then proceeded to is being hurt is immoral . . . We are in the meet with youth of color in Chicago to midst of [history] right this minute and the collaborate (Witt, 2018). This collaboration stances we take matter.” Not taking a ultimately shaped the March for Our Lives stand simply reaffirms existing unjust programming and speaker list, ensuring practices. And as history has proven, not that children like Naomi Wadler could taking a stand can have fatal take center stage. consequences.

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Last, these histories are meant to not only could be taught in both an elementary expose the disturbing aspects of our social studies methods course and in an histories, but also to help us heal. elementary classroom. Accepting one’s role in unjust practices is part of a healing process to right that Wade-Ins which is wrong. Social studies, but history in particular, has the power to heal Historical context. There is a long communities. History can be medicinal, as history of using wade-ins to protest it can “provide those healing stories that segregated swimming areas in the U.S. can restore the humanity of the Since late 1800s, African Americans were traumatized” (Levins Morales, 2016, p. banned from public beaches and pools. In 135). Eleven-year-old Naomi Wadler many places, there were no designated understood this when she issued a call to Black beaches for decades. One such place her audience at the end of her speech: “I was Broward County, Florida. The county urge everyone here and everyone who did not set aside a Black beach until 1954, hears my voice to join me in telling the and even then, the beach was highly stories that aren’t told” (Rosenberg, 2018). inadequate and inaccessible. The county These undertold and omitted histories are had also enacted a strict “rioter or needed to promote practices that foster disturber of the peace” ordinance, historical and cultural pluralism under ostensibly to curtail the activity of college circumstances that capture and celebrate students visiting during spring break. In the complexity across these differences 1961, Eula Johnson (president of a local (Paris, 2012; Paris & Alim, 2017). Digging National Association for the into the complexity holds promise for Advancement of Colored Peoples empowering youth; in giving historical [NAACP] chapter), Dr. Von Mizell (local context for the public issues of today, Black physician), and Robert Saunders teachers also present models of how (Florida NAACP Field Secretary) led people have resisted oppression in the wade-ins at Ft. Lauderdale public beaches past. Youth can build on these activist from July 4 to August 8. The wade-ins practices in their own efforts to combat grew progressively larger, and many of injustice. In this vision, students are the protesters who joined were local Black affirmed, their agency is recognized, and students (Crawford, 2007). their assets are put to use. Seeing students’ The City of Fort Lauderdale sued potential to think critically about the NAACP, Johnson, Mizell, and complicated social issues is, at the core, Saunders and lost. But the use of wade-ins effecting change. was not new in 1961; similar demonstrations were staged in Santa Case Studies: Wade-ins and Walkouts Monica, California (1927), in Miami-Dade County, Florida (1945), and in Biloxi, In this section, we draw on two Mississippi and Chicago, Illinois (1960). cases that we have found effective in Subsequent wade-ins also took place in teaching about injustice. First, we provide 1964 in St. Augustine, FL. Their outcomes historical context for these instances of varied, and swimming areas nationwide injustice, and then we describe how they were slow to desegregate. The struggle to

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desegregate public swimming spaces is classrooms in regards to political and therefore a phenomenon that spans most social issues (Gold, 2016). Teacher of the twentieth century. The use of candidates also listened to a podcast nonviolent means against this form of episode entitled In the Neighborhood to discrimination unfolded at beaches, in provide historical context about the pools, and on Americans’ television advocacy of Fred Rogers (StoryCorps 462: screens. In the Neighborhood). Teaching this topic to teacher The instructors scaffolded the candidates. In the midst of the connections between Rogers’ actions and controversy over segregated swimming the concept of neutrality in the classroom areas, a children’s show provided a by conducting both small group and striking example of advocacy. Mr. Rogers’ whole class discussions around five Neighborhood, featuring Fred Rogers, was a questions. Specifically, they asked popular program in many homes across students to consider: the country when Rogers asked François Clemmons to join the cast as a singing • What social/political issue did Mr. policeman (StoryCorps 462: In the Rogers address on his television Neighborhood). Clemmons became the program? • What message did this social/political first African American actor to have a issue send to children? recurring role on a children’s television • What message did Mr. Rogers send to show, and he played this role for 25 years. children/viewers regarding this Although this casting alone was issue? groundbreaking, Rogers went even • How did Mr. Rogers enact this further when, for a 1969 episode, he message on his television program? • What gave Mr. Rogers the power/ invited Officer Clemmons to join him in social capital to enact this message? cooling their feet together in a kiddie pool, directly addressing the segregation of Throughout the discussion, swimming spaces. Rogers, a Presbyterian instructors guided teacher candidates to minister, concluded with the biblical see the connections between these gesture of using a towel to dry Officer questions. As a class, they examined how Clemmons’s feet. Powerfully, Rogers the social/political injustice of segregation stated that “just a minute like this can sent a message of inequality that could be make all the difference” (StoryCorps 462: easily internalized by children. They then In the Neighborhood). discussed how Mr. Rogers counteracted Instructors in an elementary social this message with his own, using studies methods course at our institution, purposeful actions to show his young Michigan State University, used Mr. viewers the importance of respect and Rogers’ actions as a template for love across race lines. addressing injustices with young Teaching this topic to elementary students. In preparation for the lesson, students. Using Mr. Rogers’ actions as a teacher candidates read “Shifting Out of template, the teacher educators asked Neutral,” an article that challenges the teacher candidates to consider an assigned assumption that teachers can, or should, current injustice, specifically the maintain neutrality within their separation of parents and children at the

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U.S. border. Within small groups, students highlight Lemlich’s contributions and addressed the following parallel questions advocacy as an immigrant to transition to on a provided handout (see the discussing the modern issue of separation Appendix): at the border. Simulation. In order to send the • What message does this social/ message that all people are deserving of, political message send to students? but don’t always have access to, equal • What message would you want to resources, a group of teacher candidates send to students regarding this issue? • How would you enact this message planned a simulation activity. In this with elementary students? What activity, elementary students will be split activities might you use? into groups. Each group will be given the same task, but given a different amount of Instructors joined group resources. After collaborating within their discussions throughout the activity to groups, the class will discuss their provide informal feedback and challenge experiences together, emphasizing the thinking as needed. During this time, inequality and the difficulties faced by teacher candidates analyzed their roles as those who had fewer resources. This educators, collaborated, developed experience will serve as a foundation for several powerful messages they hoped to discussing inequality within current send to students, and began to plan immigration policy. lessons that aligned with those messages. Building empathy. Several groups Most groups worked to combat the chose to focus on fostering empathy in message of inequality they saw as the their future students. To accomplish this, most pressing social/political message one group planned to integrate writing being sent to young students. To illustrate into their activity, beginning with a this planning process and provide prompt that asks students to consider a examples of how to teach about this time when they felt alone. After writing injustice in elementary classrooms, we and sharing their experiences, students describe three student-designed activities will expand their thoughts to consider below. how they might feel when travelling to a Using history. Several groups new place, and then how they might feel if scaffolded understanding by beginning they were separated from their families with historical instances of injustice. One once in the new place. Through such group chose to send the message that scaffolding and discussions, the teacher there can be a difference between morally candidates plan to connect these emotions right and legally right. To do this, they to the reality of current immigration planned a read-aloud about Clara policy. This activity culminated in the Lemlich, a young immigrant who fought opportunity to respond emotionally for better working conditions in factories through poetry to the idea of familial in the 1920s. Throughout the read-aloud, separation at the border. they planned a class discussion about how abusive factory conditions were legally acceptable at that time while still being morally wrong. They also planned to

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Walkouts following year in Crystal City, Texas. More recently, students across the country Historical context. Another histor- staged walkouts to protest gun violence in ical event that models student activism schools and to support the campaign for and that teachers can use in the classroom sensible gun reform (Simpson, 2012). is the series of student walkouts (or Teaching this topic to teacher blowouts) that took place in East Los candidates. Since the school shooting in Angeles in 1968. Dissatisfied with the Columbine, Colorado in 1997, over inadequate curriculum, instruction, and 187,000 school children have been exposed facilities in their schools and with school to gun violence (Cox & Woodruff, 2018). segregation in general, young Chicanxs Many children don’t talk about “if” a across the city walked out of their schools shooting will happen at their school but in March, 1968. The March 14, 1968, issue “when” (Zezima, 2018). Preparing teacher of The Los Angeles Times reported that as candidates for this reality is complex. They many as 500 students walked out of need to learn safety measures, how to Edison Junior High School but that a total console children who are scared during of approximately 1,100 students were lockdown drills, and how to respond to “missing” from a student body numbering children who ask, “Will a shooting happen 3,300 (Sosa, 2013). Five days later, students at our school?” They also need to engage presented a list of 39 demands to the Los children in thoughtful dialogue about the Angeles Board of Education. These question on many of their minds: “Why demands included changes to the isn’t anyone doing anything about all the curriculum, discriminatory tracking shootings?” Discussions at the practices, and the staffing of kindergarten level will look different from Mexican/Mexican American/Chicanx- those at the upper elementary level, and majority schools. discussions in communities with active In the short-term, the demands at gun rights advocates will look different the heart of the walkouts/blowouts were from those in pro-gun control not immediately met; the district cited lack communities. of funding for most of the proposed Teacher candidates also need to be initiatives, and the struggle for equitable aware of the powerful ways in which education continues. Over time, however, young people, such as Naomi Wadler and it became evident that this political others, are expressing their concern and movement was a watershed moment in outrage through marches, media, and the development of Chicanx protests including school walkouts. Yet, a consciousness among youth, even those of complication of studying these walkouts is middle school age. If the walkouts’ success the question of why the shootings in is measured in terms of the district’s Parkland drew media and celebrity concessions to the demands, then it was attention and worldwide support when greatly limited. But these youths set a other activists (mainly youth of color) powerful precedent. Other walkouts in have attempted to raise awareness about protest of similar injustices took place injustices through movements such as across the country, including at Chicago’s Black Lives Matter without receiving the Harrison High School in 1968 and the

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same levels of support and often drawing protests such as walkouts among their backlash. own students, the steps they would need In small groups, students read a to take, and the ways in which they would series of articles about the history of youth help ensure students were fully informed activism provided by Rosinbum (2018) in about multiple perspectives on the a lesson plan on placing the National injustice. School Walkout in a historical context. Teaching this topic to elementary They then answered the following students. Some might argue that lower questions: elementary students are not ready for discussions about what is prompting • What challenges did the activists face? political protests. However, we argue, if • What achievements did they make? they are old enough to participate in • How did this activism compare to the lockdown drills, then they are old enough March for Our Lives activism? to learn how young people are organizing • How would you teach this event to elementary students? to challenge injustices. As educator activist Paula Rogovin reflected about Then, using an article from why she felt her first graders were old Vox.com (Lockhart, 2018) that described enough to learn about child labor and the the contrasting public responses to dangerous and horrific conditions faced Parkland and Black Lives Matter, teacher by children, she argued that if young candidates analyzed reasons for these children were being forced into labor then different responses and also ways in young children, like her first graders, were which youth organizers of the March for old enough to learn about the topic Our Lives protests attempted to be (Behind the Label, 2007). Yet, teachers inclusive of diverse people and voices. need to consider children’s developmental Specifically, we asked students to levels and their background experiences consider: and communicate with families prior to engaging students in discussions about ● What movements helped pave the injustices. way for March for Our Lives? Just like students need “mentor

● What was different about the texts” when learning to write a new genre previous movements and March for Our Lives, and how do those (Fletcher, 2011), examples of protests are differences explain the differential critical for helping students to imagine treatments of the two protests? what is possible and what it takes to ● What lessons did March for Our engage in a protest. We argue that Lives protestors draw on from students will be most interested in previous movements? ● Why do you think the March 14 fighting injustices that are authentic and National School Walkout Day real in their lives or communities. drew so many participants from Students may raise their own concerns, diverse locations in the country? but if not, they can be taught to be aware of a particular injustice, by noticing ways Teacher candidates engaged in in which liberties or rights are being dialogue about their responses to these violated. questions. They then began brainstorming if and how they would facilitate political

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We suggest reading to students two and developmentally appropriate for news articles (Breaux, 2018; Kebede, 2018) students. (3) Check in with families to let them about children taking action in their know you will be focusing on this community to protest an injustice injustice. Invite them to share their interviewing youth who have participated experiences and/or expertise if they in protests or walkouts, or watching are comfortable. videos of student protests. Students need (4) Do your research. Find credible sources, both in the media as well as to learn the ways that they can make a first-hand accounts from people with difference in improving their community experiences with and knowledge of through walkouts as well as through other the issue. means of activism such as communicating (5) Know your students. Some injustices with decision-makers (e.g., Serriere, Mitra, may cause trauma for students, particularly if the injustice is & Cody, 2010). They also need to learn something they or their family may why others may oppose student have experienced. Some students may participation in walkouts or protests and want to talk about it; others may not. how to respond in civil and reasoned ways (6) Frame the injustice. Provide historical to questions and opposition. We believe context for both the injustice and attempts to resist the injustice. that if students learn the history of youth (7) Design follow-up questions to activism, when they encounter an injustice stimulate discussion. Consider your in their own lives or communities, they role as facilitator to encourage will have the tools to use to act. students to consider alternative perspectives and how to respond to those who might object to student Framework for Teachers Seeking to resistance to the injustice. Engage Students in Injustices (8) Decide next steps. Often with instances of injustices, there is a great In this section, we offer a deal of talk but little action. Decide as framework to guide teachers in engaging a class if you are going to take action— on a small scale such as reaching out to students in injustices. We conceived of the government representatives, or a framework broadly so that it could be bigger scale such as fund-raising, easily modified depending on the topic creating a Public Service and on the age and interests of the Announcement, writing a book, or students. It is based on our own work as looking inward at one’s own school environment to determine if there are classroom teachers and teacher educators. instances of this injustice occurring and deciding how to take action. (1) Listen to the students. Seek to understand what is on their minds and This is just one possible framework what their questions, concerns, and fears are. Students are often most but one we hope is a jumping-off point for interested in discussing injustices they you to help your students engage, find relevant and meaningful to their authentically, in resisting and fighting lives, although often their concern and injustices that matter to them. curiosity can extend to far reaches of the globe. (2) Decide on the injustice of focus. Select one that is of interest, that is not “overdone,” and that is accessible to

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Resources for Elementary Methods and https://visionsofed.com/2018/10/01 Elementary Classrooms /episode-91-truth-justice-and- reasoning-with-democratic-values- with-anna-lise-halvorsen-david-e- In this section, we conclude by harris-and-paul-f-dain/ providing a list of selected resources for • Levinson, C. (2017). The youngest use in elementary social studies methods marcher: The story of Audrey Faye courses and in elementary school Hendricks, a young civil rights activist. classrooms. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Children’s Publishing. • Libresco, A. (2018). And the children Elementary Methods shall lead: Using the 2018 notable books to nurture young citizen- • Esparza, M., Katz, R., & Olmos, E. J. activists. Social Education, 82(3), 158- (2006). Walkout [Motion picture]. USA: 162. HBO. • Neville, M., Ma, N., & Capotosto, C. • Garofalo, M. (Host). (2018, February). (Producers). (2018). Won’t you be my Story Corps 462: In the neighborhood neighbor? [Motion picture]. USA: [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from Focus Features. https://storycorps.org/podcast/stor • Shear, S.B., Tschida, C. M., Bellows, E., ycorps-462-in-the-neighborhood/ Saylor, E. E., Buchanan, L. B. (2017). • Krutka, D. & Milton, M. (Producers). (Re)imagining Elementary Social Studies: (2016, May 12). Visions of Education A Controversial Issues Reader. Charlotte, episode 8: Teacher political disclosure with NC: Information Age Publishing. Wayne Journell [Audio podcast]. Retrieved from Elementary Classrooms https://visionsofed.com/2016/05/12 /episode-8-teacher-political- • Behar, R. (2018). Lucky Broken Girl. disclosure-with-wayne-journell/ New York, NY: Penguin Random • Krutka, D. & Milton, M. (Producers). House. (2016, May 18). Visions of Education • Delacre, L. (2018). Us, in progress: Short episode 10: C3 frameworks for social stories about Young Latinos. New York, studies with Kathy Swan [Audio NY: Harper Collins Childrens. podcast). Retrieved from • https://visionsofed.com/2016/05/18 Freeman, R. (2018a). One good thing /episode-10-c3-frameworks-for- about America. New York, NY: Holiday social-studies-with-kathy-swan/ House. • • Krutka, D. & Milton, M. (Producers). Freeman, R. (2018b). Educator’s guide (2017, April 26). Visions of Education for One good thing about America. episode 53: Teaching difficult knowledge Retrieved from with Jim Garrett [Audio podcast). https://www.holidayhouse.com/doc Retrieved from s/One%20Good%20Thing%20About https://visionsofed.com/2017/04/26 %20AmericaTG_REVISED_Marla(2).p /episode-53-teaching-difficult- df knowledge-with-jim-garrett/ • Ginsburg, S. J. (n.d.). T. A. P. in to the • Krutka, D. & Milton, M. (Producers). Book: Story T.A.P. Connections. (2018, October 1). Visions of Education Retrieved from episode 91: Truth, justice and reasoning https://static1.squarespace.com/stati with democratic values with Anne-Lise c/5a6fc5f21f318d7069516b0a/t/5ae72 Halvorsen, David E. Harris, and Paul bd18a922de467c69e41/1525099474841 F. Dain [Audio podcast). Retrieved /TAP.intoUSinProgress.pdf from

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• Levinson, C. (2017). The youngest • Tacke, E., & McCarty, R. (2018). marcher: The story of Audrey Faye Educator’s guide for Lucky Broken Girl. Hendricks, a young civil rights activist. Retrieved New York, NY: Simon & Schuster fromhttp://www.ruthbehar.com/im Children’s Publishing. ages/LuckyBrokenGirl_EducatorsGui • Mateo, J. M. (2014). Migrant. New de_16_5p.pdf York, NY: Abrams Books for Young • Zarnowski, M. (2016). Educator’s Guide for Readers. The youngest marcher. Retrieved from • Nazario, S. (2013a). Enrique’s Journey https://www.teachervision.com/you (the Young Adult Adaptation): The true ngest-marcher-common-core- story of a boy determined to reunite with curriculum-guide his mother. New York, NY: Random House Children’s Books. Additional Websites • Nazario, S. (2013b). Educator’s guide for Enrique’s Journey. Retrieved from • Teaching for Change (2018). Social https://www.penguinrandomhouse. justice books: A Teaching for Change com/books/120434/enriques- project. Retrieved from journey-by-sonia- https://socialjusticebooks.org/bookli nazario/9780812971781/teachers- sts/ guide/ • Southern Poverty Law Center. (2018). • O’Brien, A. S. (2015). I’m new here. Teaching Tolerance. Retrieved from Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge. https://www.tolerance.org/ • Osborne, L. B. (2016). This land is our land: A history of American Immigration. New York, NY: Abrams Books for Young Readers.

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Appendix Sample Handout

Social/Political Injustice:

Message This Injustice Sends to Elementary Children: What conclusions might students draw about this issue? What ideas might be internalized?

Message YOU Will Send to Your Students: How can you counteract negative message students might have internalized? What big idea(s) do you want to send?

How You Will Send This Message: What activity might you use? Does the activity align with your message? How can you make this experience powerful for your elementary students?

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References gender and women’s studies (2nd ed., pp. 134-147). Chichester, West Sussex, UK: Alridge, D. (2006). The limits of master narratives Wiley-Blackwell. in history textbooks: An analysis of Lockhart, P. R. (2018, 24 February), representations of Martin Luther King, Jr. Parkland is sparking a difficult Teachers College Record, 108, 662–686. conversation about race, trauma, and Behind the Label. (2007). Retrieved from public support. Vox. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M https://www.vox.com/identities/2018/2 XBw_9vH8c /24/17044904/parkland-shooting-race- Breaux (2018, February 15). Elementary students trauma-movement-for-black-lives-gun- to board: Make major Muslim holidays violence school holidays. Retrieved from National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). https://www.press- College, career, and civic life (C3) framework citizen.com/story/news/education for social studies state standards: Guidance for 2018/02/15/elementary-students-board- enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, make-major-muslim-holidays-school- geography, and history. Silver Spring, MD: holidays/338821002/ National Council for the Social Studies. Cox, J. W., & Rich, S. (2018, March 21). Scarred by Paley, V. G. (1992). You can’t say you can’t play. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University school shootings. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/grap Press. hics/2018/local/us-school-shootings- Paris, D. (2012). Culturally sustaining pedagogy: history/?utm_term=.9b905259c884 A needed change in stance, terminology, Crawford Jr., W. G. (2007). The long hard fight for and practice. Educational Researcher, 41(3), equal rights: A history of Broward 93–97. County's colored beach and the Fort Paris, D., & Alim, H.S. (Eds.). (2017). Culturally Lauderdale Beach “wade-ins” of the sustaining pedagogies: Teaching and learning summer of 1961. Tequesta, 67, 19-51. for justice in a changing world. New York: Fletcher, R. J. (2011). Mentor author, mentor texts: Teachers College Press. Short texts, craft notes, and practical Romero, A. J. & Ochoa O’Leary, A. (2014). When classroom uses. Portsmouth, NH: you know yourself, you’re more Heinemann. confident:” Resilience and stress of Gold, J. (2016). Shifting out of neutral. The undergraduate students in the face of anti- Education Digest, 81(9), 31. ethnic studies bills. In J. Cammarota & A. Journell, W. (2016). Teacher political disclosure as Romero (eds.), Raza studies: The public parrhēsia. Teachers College Record, option for educational Revolution (pp. 91- 118(5), 1-.36. 106). Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Kebede, L. F. (2018, January 26). Memphis Press. elementary school students take a stand Rosenberg, A. (2018, 25 March). You have to hear against grocery store closing. Chalkbeat. Naomi Wadler's moving March for our Retrieved from Lives speech. Mashable. Retrieved from: https://chalkbeat.org/posts/tn/2018/01 https://mashable.com/2018/03/25/nao /26/memphis-students-take-a-stand- mi-wadler-march-for-our-lives against-grocery-store-closing/ speech/#W6hgZwlCfqqN Kelly, D. M., & Brandes, G. M. (2001). Shifting out Rosinbum, J. (2018, March 13). Placing the of “neutral”: Beginning teachers’ struggles National School Walkout in historical with teaching for social justice. Canadian context: A lesson plan. AHA Today: Journal of Education / Revue Canadienne De Perspectives from History. Retrieved from l'Éducation, 26, 437-454. https://www.historians.org/publication -and-directories/perspectives-on Levins Morales, A. (2016). The historian as curandera. In K. Scott, S. E. Cayleff, history/march-2018/placing-the A.Donadey, & I. Lara (Eds.), Women national-school-walkout-in-historical inculture: An intersectional anthology for context-a-lesson-plan

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Serriere, S., Mitra, D., & Cody, J. (2010). Young Woodson, A. N. (2016). We’re just ordinary citizens take action for better school people: Messianic master narratives and lunches. Social Studies and the Young Black youths’ civic agency. Theory and Learner, 23(2), 4-8. Research in Social Education, 44, 184–211. Simpson, K. (2012, 7 March). East L.A. Zezima, K. (2018, May 19). ‘I was not one bit Blowouts: Walking Out for Justice in surprised that it happened.’ Shock over the Classrooms. KCET. Retrieved school shootings has turned to numbness. from: The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.kcet.org/shows/depar https://www.washingtonpost.com tures/east-la-blowouts-walking-out- for-justice-in-the-classrooms About the Authors: Anne-Lise Halvorsen is Sosa, H. R. (2013). Fragmented diversity: School an Associate Professor of Teacher desegregation, student activism, and busing in Los Angeles, 1963-1982. Education, specializing in Social Studies (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Ann Education, at Michigan State University. Arbor, MI: University of Michigan. She can be reached via email at: Teaching Tolerance (2016). Social justice standards: [email protected]. Maribel Santiago is an The Teaching Tolerance anti-bias Assistant Professor of Teacher Education, framework. Montgomery, AL: Southern Poverty Law Center. specializing in Social Studies Education, at Witt, E. (2018, June 26). Launching a national gun Michigan State University. She can be control coalition, the parkland teens meet reached via email at [email protected]. Chicago’s young activists. Retrieved from Eliana Castro ([email protected]) and https://www.newyorker.com/news/dis Alyssa Whitford ([email protected]) are patch/launching-a-national-gun-control- coalition-the-parkland-teens-meet- doctoral students at Michigan State chicagos-young-activists University.

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TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH INDIGENOUS-MADE FILMS IN SOCIAL STUDIES EDUCATION

Sarah B. Shear Pennsylvania State University-Altoona

“Help me blow the nose of George significant showing. Other films on the list Washington at Rushmore for our people, that included, at least in part, Indigenous give them a good laugh, maybe that’s all we need.” – Mogie Yellow Lodge in Chris characters included The Mission (4.8%), Eyre’s Skins 1492 (3.6%), Christopher Columbus (2.4%), Little Big Man (2.4%), Lewis and Clark All social studies education takes (1.2%), Pow Wow Highway (1.2%), Squanto: place on Indigenous1 lands. If we are A Warrior’s Tale (1.2%), Rabbit Proof Fence going to teach honestly, we need to begin (1.2%), Westward Expansion (1.2%), and with this truth. Just as we are looking at Whale Rider (1.2%). our state standards, textbooks, and other Films have become so integral to curricular resources to trouble and rethink our lives—Americans and Canadians how we teach and learn about Indigenous bought over a billion movie tickets in peoples and Native nations (Calderón, 2009—and to our memories of historical 2014; Chandler, 2010; Chappell, 2010; events that people find it difficult to let go Rains, 2003, 2006; Sabzalian, in press; of movie versions of stories even when Sabzalian & Shear, 2018; Shear, 2015; presented with proof to the contrary Shear, Knowles, Soden, & Castro, 2015; (Nathan, 2017). In a 2006 national survey Shear & Stanton, 2018; Stanton, 2012), we (Russell, 2012), 63% of 8th grade social also need to trouble and rethink how we studies teachers used videos and/or films use films in our classrooms to present the as a part of their teaching. By extension, histories and cultures of the Native and considering the statistics previously nations of Turtle Island.2 In a 2004 survey stated, the popularity of films depicting of Connecticut and Wisconsin social Indigenous peoples in social studies has a studies teachers, 92% used feature films in negative history that needs to be their classrooms at least once a week problematized. McCoy (2018) noted, “too (Marcus & Stoddard, 2007). Of the feature often, the primary opportunities for non- films listed in the study, 25% of teachers Natives to see Native peoples comes from reported showing Dances with Wolves and Hollywood cinema, appropriated tribal 19% showed The Last of the Mohicans. These motifs in fashion, and (frequently were the only films with Indigenous disembodied) warrior imagery at sports characters and/or storylines that had any games” (p. 260). As such this article will

1 I recommend educators follow the lead of how 2 I recognize nation state names like the United Indigenous peoples and their sovereign nations States and Canada, and indeed all the name themselves. I use Indigenous and Native “Americas,” are colonized understandings of the throughout this article (unless otherwise quoted) lands upon which we live and teach. I wish to when referring to the collective of peoples who begin this article by acknowledging the sovereign have lived on these lands since time immemorial nations who call Turtle Island home. (Sabzalian & Shear, 2018; Shear & Stanton, 2018).

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discuss the history of Indigeneity on film Shohat and Stam further argued in the United States and provide teachers that Eurocentric story lines legitimized a rationale and examples for opening casting White actors in the role of teaching and learning spaces that Indigenous characters well into the 1990s challenge settler colonial narratives using with two notable films: Dances with Wolves Indigenous-made films. and The Last of the Mohicans. As these films were also the most popular in the Hollywood Problems and Possibilities: previously mentioned 2007 survey of A Brief History of Indigeneity on Film teachers, it is important to highlight the problems of these two films. Dances with In his 1915 essay criticizing Wolves and The Last of the Mohicans are Hollywood’s attempts to cast Indigenous notable because of the narratives actors as Indigenous characters, Ernest A. underlying the casting of White actors Dench argued Indigenous actors posed a (Kevin Costner and Daniel Day Lewis) in threat to White actors because of their too- the role of Americans-turning-Indigenous. realistic use of clubs and tomahawks, as Prats (1998) commented that in Kevin well as the inclination of Indigenous actors Costner’s John Dunbar we see the “full to drink too much on set (Singer, 2001). measure of the refigured Indian. His Dench concluded that White actors should cultural conversion is meant to be so be cast in Indigenous roles because “to act complete as to render him thoroughly and as an Indian is the easiest thing possible unambiguously Lakota. It is to him that for the Redskin is practically motionless” we look for the whole image and (p. 17). Shohat and Stam (1994) provided a expression of the new and refigured myriad of examples of White actors Indian” (p. 5). playing Indigenous roles, noting “Rock Prats further noted the idea of a Hudson, Joey Bishop, Boris Karloff, Tom long forgotten “wild and free” Indigenous Mix, Elvis Presley, Anne Bancroft…are person was at the heart of Costner’s among the many Euro-American actors intention for the storyline—a storyline who have represented Native American told through the eyes, ears, and feeling of roles. Movie-goers were, and sometimes the “White-man-become-Indian” (p. 7). continue to be, most comfortable with two Similarly, Daniel Day Lewis’s Hawkeye in versions of Indigenous characters: Noble The Last of the Mohicans is a White-become- Savages and violent warriors (McCoy, Indigenous-become-White again charac- 2018). The release of Nanook of the North in ter. In the film, Hawkeye was raised 1922 challenged both viewers and movie Mohican and sent to the Reverend executives. While the film’s depictions of Wheelock’s school to learn English by the Indigenous characters conflicted “with “multiculturally-aware Chingachgook” [the] images of warring Indians in the (Edgerton, 1994, p. 14). Hawkeye’s Plains which American executives at the adopted Mohican family—Uncas and time were comfortable [seeing],” it was a Chingachgook—are secondary characters smashing success worldwide (Singer, to Hawkeye’s transformative journey. In 2001, p. 17). Despite the success of Nanook depicting the stories this way, we see the the casting of White actors in Indigenous creation of the Indigenous characters roles continued.

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framed within White, Euro-American eyes the stereotypes created by earlier movies. and a White, Euro-American ideal. As Lawson (2013) notes, “this myth of the Both films also pit the Noble ‘vanishing race’ is a myth that Savage and the violent warrior against contemporary Native American film- each other, ultimately leading to the makers often work very hard against” (p. demise of all Indigenous peoples. This 207). Lawson goes on to highlight that demise, Gerster (2013) argues, remain a Indigenous-made films work to counter staple “of the still-popular saga of White narratives of history “by making manifest destiny from a white male films about contemporary Native protagonist’s point of view” (p. 144). In Americans proving that Native Americans her analysis of students’ engagement with have not vanished and are not defeated” Indigenous characters in Hollywood (p. 207). films, Gerster further argued, Preparing to Teach Against Colonialism While exploring how Hollywood films Using Indigenous-made Films encourage viewers to lament the passing of innocent Noble Savages (Lakota Sioux in Dances with Wolves) and rejoice in the Despite the problematic history of killing of vicious Hostile Savages (Pawnee Indigeneity on film, using Indigenous- in Dances with Wolves), students can realize made films in social studies classrooms the role of Hollywood films in establishing can introduce students to perspectives, the invisibility of contemporary Indians. histories, governments, languages, (p. 144) religions, and additional cultural

practices. As such, it is critical for teachers This gaze of a stereotype comes at great to carefully and conscientiously prepare expense. Corbin (2013) noted that in both themselves and students for viewing films films, “viewers may feel sympathetic depicting Indigenous storylines and toward the Native characters, but the characters. Russell (2012) noted films have viewing position remains resolutely the power to connect with students on an outside the Native cultural landscape” (p. emotional level, thus helping them 177). For both Dances with Wolves and Last connect on deeper levels with specific of the Mohicans, the story remains one of content. In order to optimize the power of impending White expansion and the film as a teaching and learning tool, refusal of Native sovereignty. Stoddard, Marcus, and Hicks (2014) Hollywood films started to change suggested, “teachers need to consider the in the late 1990s and early 2000s with perspectives of the films and other media Indigenous filmmakers and storytellers they engage students with and provide finding success at the box office. students with the opportunity to analyze, Indigenous stories told by Indigenous interpret, and contextualize the stories filmmakers and featuring Indigenous that are being told” (p. 16). actors were showcased in movies like In choosing films created by Smoke Signals (1998), Atanarjuat: The Fast Indigenous filmmakers, I recommend Runner (2001), Rabbit-Proof Fence (2002), teachers engage the wealth of literature the Oscar-nominated Whale Rider (2004), available about Indigeneity on film. In and Older than America (2008). These and addition to addressing problems and other Indigenous-made films challenged

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potentials in film, many of these texts (see distinguish between the anomalous, which Table 1) also provide much needed reinforces expectations, and the unexpected, which resists categorization background knowledge teachers can use and, thereby, questions expectation itself. in planning lessons about Indigenous (p. 11) cultures, histories, and current sovereignty movements. I heed McCoy’s In taking up Deloria’s call, we can create (2018) call to action: “Teacher have great learning experiences for students that power when it comes to shaping students’ upend the expectations of “manifest perceptions of themselves and others” (p. destiny”—a way of being and knowing 263). As social studies educators shape that supports White supremacy, which their curriculum to address various also exists in social studies curriculum. aspects of history, geography, civics, economics, and other social sciences, we Challenging Colonialism: Using Chris must also address our own blind spots Eyre’s Skins in Secondary Social Studies when it comes to content and perspectives. This is especially important To begin changing the ways when choosing films, as Waters and Indigeneity is presented in social studies Russell (2017) noted: “The sometimes- using film, I offer an example for shocking number of incidences revolving secondary social studies education. The around teachers mishandling films in the following commentary and table provide classroom highlights the need for content and connections to the College, additional training and professional Career, and Civic Life (C3) Framework development” (p. 4). (NCSS, 2013) for Chris Eyre’s 2002 release The need for teachers to dedicate of the motion picture Skins. Capitalizing time to their own learning is vital to on the inquiry arc, teachers can engage appropriately engaging Indigenous students in learning from the Indigenous counter narratives with students. It is perspectives in the films and in asking important to acknowledge, as educators critical and creative questions. These open spaces to learn from Indigenous questions can focus on the historical and filmmakers, that settler colonialism is a contemporary lives of Indigenous peoples structure undergirding the United States. and the relationships their sovereign This structure seeks to deny Indigenous nations have with the United States. As peoples their identities and lands—settler secondary students delve deeper into their colonialism is not a singular event studies of American history, civics, and confined to history books (Sabzalian & government, it is vital they engage in a Shear, 2018; Tuck & Yang, 2012; Wolfe, more critical study of the impact of 2006). Deloria (2004) calls on us to, manifest destiny’s racist colonial traditions in seeking to deny Native Think of expectations in terms of the nations their sovereignty and Indigenous colonial and imperial relations of power and domination existing between Indian peoples their Native identities. Raheja people and the United States. You might (2010) wrote that the intersections of “race, see in expectation the ways in which identity, representation, and literature popular culture works to produce—and remain an important and unresolved (and sometimes to compromise—racism and perhaps unresolvable) feature of the field misogyny. And I would, finally, like you to

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of Native American studies… The inappropriate representations” (emphasis question of who controls Native American in original, p. 121). Using Indigenous representation is central to the debate and counternarratives, such as those posed in is… tricky—if not impossible—to answer” Skins, opens social studies classrooms to (p. 110). needed reflexive evaluations of dominant This question of representation and White discourses of history and current who has the right to represent Indigenous events. As Stanton and colleagues further experiences is central to the narrative of argued, “critical evaluation of mainstream Chris Eyre’s Skins, which tells the story of films can help students (and teachers) Mogie and Rudy Yellow Lodge on the think about colonization and genocide, as present-day Pine Ridge Reservation in well as the lasting effects of historical South Dakota. These two central trauma and forced assimilation” (p. 122). I characters embody the conflict of would extend their discussion to say that expectation of identity, and their story Indigenous-made films also provide redefines Indigenous experiences on film. students and teachers the ability to learn Skins plays on mainstream stereotypes of from ongoing Indigenous resistance. Indigenous peoples, especially the Lakota It is my goal that Table 2 serve as a (Sioux), to highlight the realities of starting point for teachers to consider the contemporary reservation life. Deloria ways Indigenous-made film can be (2004) discusses the collision of cultural included in their teaching of secondary expectations and stereotypes to social studies, especially as they relate to understand the power they have over the United States history and government. At sovereignty of identity. Having the same time, elements of geography, Indigenous voices central to the telling of religion, current events, and economics the experiences of Lakota characters in are also embedded in these larger Skins is a major step in reshaping how questions and topics. In thinking about the non-Indigenous Americans see, hear, and complexities presented in Skins, I recall learn from Indigenous perspectives. Raheja (2010) The opportunities abound in Skins, not only for U.S. history courses, but also Native American media-makers on the in civics/government courses at the virtual reservation also challenge and complicate representations of Indigenous secondary level. Skins engages students people by voicing dissent, offering not only in content learning, but in inquiry counternarratives that reveal the often into issues related to stereotypes, dismal and depressing aspect of inhabiting sovereignty, settler colonialism, poverty, homelands that are still colonized in an and resilience (as seen in Table 2), all of otherwise seemingly postcolonial world. (p. 155) which provide students opportunities to challenge the problems inherent in Skins offers teachers and students the traditional social studies learning about opportunity not only to challenge Indigenous peoples. Stanton, LeClair- traditional, Euro-American versions of Diaz, Hall, and Ricciardelli (2017) history, but also inquire into the lasting articulated, “Careful questioning can also impact that history has on Indigenous help students recognize the ongoing peoples and their efforts to reclaim and influence of difficult history and redefine their own sovereignty.

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that teaching students visual literacy Concluding Thoughts using Indigenous-made films “can help them understand their significance in It is the goal of this article to engage terms of self-representation. It is all too teachers in re-thinking the ways in which easy for most students to take Indigeneity, past and present, enter social representation for granted, since they studies classrooms through film. While have some sort of realistic semblance of not exhaustive, the commentary and themselves on screen—but Native examples are provided in the hope that Americans have not” (p. 220). Teaching we, as educators, engage our own learning and learning from Indigenous-made films and the learning of our students with rich help social studies educators fight against storytelling and compelling questions tokenism and cultural tourism and instead from Indigenous-made films, told from create spaces where historical Indigenous perspectives and portrayed by misrepresentations and white-washed, Indigenous actors. Lawson (2013) argues traditional social studies become undone.

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Table 1. Recommend Books for Teacher Professional Development Title Author/Editor

“All the real Indians died off” and 20 other myths about Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz & Dina Gilio-Whitaker Native Americans (Beacon Press, 2016) (Colville Confederated Tribes)

An Indigenous Peoples’ History of the United States Roxanne Dunbar Ortiz (Beacon Press, 2014)

Do all Indians live in tipis?: Questions and answers Contributors to the text include Mary Ahenakew from the National Museum of the American Indian (Cherokee), Stephanie Betancourt (Seneca), (Smithsonian, 2007) Miranda Belarde-Lewis (Tlingit/Zuni), Jennifer Erdrich (Turtle Mountain Chippewa descent), Liz Hill (Red Lake Band of Ojibwe), Nema Magovern (Osage), Rico Newman (Piscataway/Conoy), Arwen Nuttall (Cherokee), Edwin Shupman (Muscogee), Georgetta Stonefish Ryan (Delaware), Tanya Thrasher (Cherokee Nation of Oklahoma)

Everything You Ever Wanted to Know about Indians Anton Treuer (Ojibwe) (Borealis Books, 2012)

Indians in Unexpected Places (University of Kansas Philip J. Deloria (Dakota) Press, 2004)

Indians on Display (Left Coast Press, 2013) Norman Denzin

Native Americans on Film: Conversations, Teaching, M. Elise Marubbio & Eric L. Buffalohead (Ponca and Theory (University Press of Kentucky, 2018) Tribe of White Eagle, OK)

Native Features: Indigenous Films from Around the Houston Wood World (Continuum, 2008)

Playing Indian (Yale Historical Publications, 1999) Philip J. Deloria (Dakota)

Reservation Reelism: Redfacing, Visual Sovereignty, Michelle H. Raheja and Representations of Native Americans in Film (University of Nebraska Press, 2010)

Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Ella Shohat & Robert Stam Media (Routledge, 1994)

Wiping the War Paint Off the Lens: Native American Beverly Singer (Santa Clara/Diné) Film and Video (University of Minnesota Press, 2001)

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Table 2. Content, Questions, and C3 Connections for Chris Eyre’s Skins Content in Questions for Teachers and Students to Connections to C3 Framework Skins Consider

Sovereignty How do the Lakota and other Native D2.Civ.1.9-12. Distinguish the powers and and treaty nations view sovereignty and their past, responsibilities of local, state, tribal, rights current, and future relationships with the national, and international civic and United States? political institutions. In what ways do the roles of Mogie and D2.Civ.12.9-12. Analyze how people use Rudy Yellow Lodge exemplify the and challenge local, state, national, and struggle for treaty rights? Why is this international laws to address a variety of narrative central to the story of Skins? public issues.

Massacre at In what ways did the Massacre at D2.Geo.6.9-12. Evaluate the impact of Wounded Wounded Knee and other massacres of human settlement activities on the Knee Indigenous peoples shape present environmental and cultural characteristics relations between Native nations and the of specific places and regions. United States? D2.His.3.9-12. Use questions generated While Skins takes place in the present- about individuals and groups to assess how day, why does the Massacre play a the significance of their actions changes over central role in both Mogie and Rudy’s time and is shaped by the historical context. character development throughout the D2.His.5.9-12. Analyze how historical film? Why do you think Chris Eyre contexts shaped and continue to shape includes this history in the film? people’s perspectives.

Mount What is the historical and current D2.His.16.9-12. Integrate evidence from Rushmore relationship the Lakota have to the Black multiple relevant historical sources and and the Hills? In what ways is the carving of the interpretations into a reasoned argument Black Hills presidents on Mount Rushmore a about the past. violation of Indigenous sovereignty? D2.His.7.9-12. Explain how the perspectives The closing scene of Skins marks a of people in the present shape pivotal turn in the character interpretations of the past. development of Mogie and Rudy. Why D2.Geo.2.9-12. Use maps, satellite images, did Chris Eyre’s choose to end the film photographs, and other representations to this way? explain relationships between the locations of places and regions and their political, cultural, and economic dynamics

Social issues In what ways did/do settler colonialism D2.Civ.13.9-12. Evaluate public policies in and and the reservation system impact the terms of intended and unintended outcomes, resilience lives of the Lakota and other Indigenous and related consequences. peoples? D2.Eco.15.9-12. Explain how current Are Rudy and Mogie heroes or victims in globalization trends and policies affect the film Skins? Why do you think Eyre economic growth, labor markets, rights of presents the characters in these ways? citizens, the environment, and resource and income distribution in different nations. How have Indigenous peoples worked to protect their rights and homelands from D2.His.12.9-12. Use questions generated about multiple historical sources to pursue further further encroachment by the U.S. and inquiry and investigate additional sources Canada? (e.g. #NoDAPL Movement)

Social Studies Journal, Fall 2018, Volume 38, Issue 2 27 References Lexington, KY: University Press of Kentucky. Marcus, A.S., & Stoddard, J.D. (2007). Tinsel town Calderón, D. (2014). Uncovering settler grammars in curriculum. Educational Studies: A as teacher: Hollywood film in the high Journal of the American Educational Studies school classroom. The History Teacher, Association, 50(4), 313-338. doi: 40(3), 303-330. 10.1080/00131946.2014.926904 Martinez, A., Beach, A., Peterson, A., Harrison, D., Chandler, P. T. (2010). Critical race theory and Walker, C. (Producers) & Lightening, G. social studies: Centering the Native (Director). (2008). Older than America American experience. The Journal of Social [Motion Picture]. United States: Tribal Studies Research, 34, 29–58. Retrieved from Alliance Productions. http://www.thejssr.com/ McCoy, M.L. (2018). Preparing preservice Chappell, D. (2010). Training Americans: Ideology, educators to teach American Indian performance, and social studies textbooks. boarding school histories. In S.B. Shear, Theory & Research in Social Education, 38, C.M. Tschida, E. Bellows, L.B. Buchanan, 248–269. & E.E. Saylor (Eds.), (Re)imagining doi:10.1080/00933104.2010.10473424 elementary social studies: A controversial Corbin, A. (2013). Geographies of identity and issues reader (pp. 255-277). Charlotte, NC: belonging in Sherman Alexie’s The Information Age Publishing. Business of Fancydancing. In M.E. Marubbio Nathan, J.R. (2017). Movies and suggestibility: & E.L. Buffalohead (Eds.), Native Americans “This is your brain on movies.” In W.B. on film: Conversations, teaching, and theory Russell, III & S. Waters (Eds.), Cinematic (pp. 175-201). Lexington, KY: University social studies (pp. 37-54). Charlotte, NC: Press of Kentucky. Information Age Publishing. Deloria, P.J. (2004). Indians in unexpected places. National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS) Lawrence, KS: University of Kansas Press. (2013). The College, career, and civic life (C3) Edgerton, G. (1994). A breed apart: Hollywood, framework for social studies state standards: racial stereotyping, and the promise of Guidance for enhancing the rigor of K-12 revisionism in The Last of the Mohicans. civics, economics, geography, and history. Journal of American Culture, 17(2), 1-20. Silver Spring, MD: NCSS. Eyre, C., Morris, B., Bressler, C., Skinner, D., Estes, Noyce, P., Olsen, C., Winter, J. (Producers) & L. (Producers) & Eyre, C. (Director). (1998). Noyce, P. (Director). (2002). Rabbit-Proof Smoke Signals [Motion picture]. United Fence [Motion Picture]. United States: States: Miramax Films. Miramax. Eyre, C., Pomier, D., Kilik, J. (Producers) & Eyre, C. Prats, A.J. (1998). The image of the Other and the (Director). (2002). Skins [Motion picture]. other Dances with Wolves: The refigured United States: Starz Encore Entertainment. Indian and the textual supplement. Journal Gerster, C. (2013). Native resistance to of Film and Video, 50, 3-19. Hollywood’s persistence of vision: Rains, F.V. (2003). To greet the dawn with open Teaching films about contemporary eyes: American Indians, White privilege American Indians. In M.E. Marubbio & and the power of residual guilt in social E.L. Buffalohead (Eds.), Native Americans studies. In G. Ladson-Billings (Ed.), Critical on film: Conversations, teaching, and theory race theory perspectives on social studies: The (pp. 141-174). Lexington, KY: University profession, policies, and curriculum (pp. 199- Press of Kentucky. 227). Greenwich, CT: Information Age Kunuk, Z. (Producer) & Kunuk, Z. (Director). Publishing. (2001). Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner [Motion Rains, F.V. (2006). The color of social studies: A Picture]. United States: Sony Pictures. post-social studies reality check. In E.W. Lawson, A. (2013). Teaching Native American Ross (Ed.), The social studies curriculum: filmmakers: Osawa, Eyre, and Redroad. In Purposes, problems, and possibilities (pp. 137- M.E. Marubbio & E.L. Buffalohead (Eds.), 155). Albany, NY: University of New York Native Americans on film: Conversations, Press. teaching, and theory (pp. 202-222).

Raheja, M.H. (2010). Reservation reelism: Redfacing, Shohat, E., & Stam, R. (1994). Unthinking visual sovereignty, and representations of Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the Native Americans in film. Lincoln, NE: media. New York, NY: Routledge. University of Nebraska Press. Stanton, C.R. (2012). Hearing the story: Critical Russell III, W.B. (2012). The reel history of the Indigenous curriculum inquiry and world: Teaching world history with major primary source representation in social motion pictures. Social Education, 76, 22-28. studies education. Theory & Research in Sabzalian, L. (in press). Indigenous children’s Social Education, 40, 339-370. doi: survivance in public schools. New York, NY: 10.1080/00933104.2012.723242 Routledge. Stanton, C.R., LeClair-Diaz, A., Hall, B., & Sabzalian, L., & Shear, S.B. (2018). Confronting Ricciardelli, L. (2017). “I saw a REAL colonial blindness in civics education: Indian on TV last night!”: Engaging Recognizing colonization, self- students in historical thinking for social determination, and sovereignty as core justice. In J. Stoddard, A.S. Marcus, & D. knowledge for elementary socials studies Hicks (Eds.), Teaching difficult history teacher education. In S.B. Shear, C. through film (pp. 106-124). New York, NY: Tschida, E. Bellows, L.B. Buchanan, & E. Routledge. Saylor (Eds.), (Re)Imagining elementary Stoddard, J., Marcus, A., & Hicks, D. (2014). The social studies: A controversial issues reader burden of historical representation: The (pp. 153-176). Charlotte, NC: Information case of/for Indigenous film. The History Age Press. Teacher, 48, 9-36. Sanders, T., Barnett, J., Hubner, F. (Producers) & Tuck, E. & Yang, K.W. (2012). Decolonization is not Caro, N. (Director). (2004). Whale Rider a metaphor. Decolonization: Indigeneity, [Motion Picture]. New Zealand: South Education & Society, 1, 1-40. Pacific Pictures. Waters, S., & Russell III, W.B. (2017). The Shear, S.B. (2015). Cultural genocide masked as fundamentals of teaching with film. In education: Analyzing U.S. history W.B. Russell, III & S. Waters (Eds.), textbooks' inadequate coverage of Indian Cinematic social studies (pp. 3-15). education policies. In P. Chandler (Ed.), Charlotte, NC: Information Age Doing race in social studies: Critical Publishing. perspectives (pp. 13-40). Charlotte, NC: Wolfe, P. (2006). Settler-colonialism and the Information Age Publishing. elimination of the native. Journal of Shear, S.B., Knowles, R., Soden, G., & Castro, A.J. Genocide Research, 8(4), 387-409. (2015). Manifesting destiny: Re/presentations of Indigenous people in About the Author: Sarah B. Shear is K-12 U.S. history curriculum. Theory & Assistant Professor of Education at The Research in Social Education, 43, 68-101. doi: 10.1080/00933104.2014.999849 Pennsylvania State University, Altoona. Shear, S.B., & Stanton, C.R. (2018). Indigenous. In She can be reached via email at D.G. Krutka, A. M. Whitlock, & M. [email protected] Helmsing (Eds.), Keywords in social studies education (pp. 3-16). New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing. Singer, B.R. (2001). Wiping the war paint off the lens: Native American film and video Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

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READING AND WATCHING LIKE A HISTORIAN: USING DOCUMENTS TO TEACH SISTERS IN FREEDOM

Amy Cohen History Making Productions

After twenty years as a middle and essential questions, vocabulary lists), high school social studies teacher, I left the DURING (watch-along note-taking sheets, classroom at the end of the 2013 school suggested pause points) and AFTER year to become the Director of Education watching the film (discussion questions, for History Making Productions, a graphic organizers, primary source based documentary film company based in lessons, quiz questions). When presenting Philadelphia. My job is to create these materials, I always emphasize that educational materials to accompany our the various components are meant to be films and to let teachers know about both used on an à la carte basis in order to suit the films and materials. a range of curricular needs and student The materials I have developed readiness levels. (NOTE: All films and reflect four core understandings obtained classroom materials are available at during my two decades of teaching a historyofphilly.com.) variety of courses to diverse groups of A year ago, I learned about another students in several different public school collection of social studies materials that settings. also fits well with the core understandings identified above. The Reading Like a • Primary sources are essential to the Historian curriculum was developed by effective teaching of history. the Stanford History Education Group • History is more vibrant and beginning in 2006. A concise summary of compelling when taught as an evolving interpretation of the past the approach can be found on their rather than a set of static facts. website sheg.stanford.edu/history- • Effective social studies education lessons: promotes the development of literacy, communication, and critical thinking The Reading Like a Historian curriculum skills. engages students in historical inquiry. • Most teachers are saddled with Each lesson revolves around a central excessive workloads and can benefit historical question and features a set of greatly from having access to high primary documents designed for groups quality, adaptable materials that of students with a range of reading skills. follow a predictable sequence. This curriculum teaches students how to investigate historical questions by The materials that accompany our employing reading strategies such as 14-part series, Philadelphia: The Great sourcing, contextualizing, corroborating, and close reading. Instead of memorizing Experiment, exemplify how I have historical facts, students evaluate the incorporated these understandings. For trustworthiness of multiple perspectives each 25-minute film, there are a set of on historical issues and learn to make activities to do BEFORE (introductory historical claims backed by documentary hooks to stimulate student interest, evidence.

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full lesson plan, appropriate for either Fortunately for Pennsylvania middle or high school, follows this article. students and educators, the lead Each Document Based Lesson developer of the Reading Like a Historian (DBL) begins with a Central Historical curriculum, Dr. Abigail Reisman, has Question (CHQ). The CHQ needs to have relocated from Stanford to the University more than one possible answer and the of Pennsylvania. Dr. Reisman is currently potential to yield insight into a historical turning some her attention and talent to event or era (Reisman, 2012). For this working with the School District of lesson, the CHQ is “Why was President Philadelphia and other local entities, George Washington unable to return Ona including History Making Productions, to Judge to his family after she fled the develop lessons centered on our local and President’s House in Philadelphia?” regional history. The next key component of the DBL History Making Productions has is Establishing Background Knowledge recently released Sisters in Freedom: The (EBK). The purpose of this segment of the Daring Battle to End Slavery which focuses lesson is to equip students with the on the courageous efforts of female information they will need to analyze the abolitionists. Like the films in the primary sources that will be used to Philadelphia: The Great Experiment series, answer the CHQ. The EBK can take the Sisters in Freedom features compelling form of an excerpt from a textbook, a brief reenactments, expert interviews, rich PowerPoint presentation, or a short primary sources, and state-of-the-art lecture. In this lesson, the opening five graphics and animation. Unlike those minutes of Sisters in Freedom and a time- films, however, Sisters in Freedom is fifty line serve as the EBK section. minutes long. The film clip introduces Ona Judge, Aware that I needed a different a 22-year-old enslaved woman who was approach than my usual BEFORE, Martha Washington’s personal attendant. DURING, and AFTER menu and eager to Although born at Mt. Vernon, Judge had explore the Reading Like a Historian traveled to both New York and method, I approached Dr. Reisman about Philadelphia with the First Family. While collaborating. The social studies enslaved in Philadelphia, Judge is exposed curriculum team at the School District of to a vibrant free Black community and Philadelphia, already working with Dr. becomes aware that the Washingtons are Reisman on other projects, also chose to violating the spirit, if not the letter, of support this work. Although I have Pennsylvania’s Act for the Gradual developed several Document Based Abolition of Slavery. Taking an enormous Lessons (the building blocks of the Reading risk, Judge flees the President’s House and Like a Historian approach) for Sisters in boards a New Hampshire bound ship Freedom, in this article I will explain just (Armstrong, 2017). After viewing the film one. My hope is that by describing the key segment depicting Judge and her daring elements of a single lesson, the elegance escape, students read through a timeline and intelligence of the Reading Like a to clearly establish the chronology of Historian method will be illustrated. The relevant events. The teacher then explains that students will be reading through

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documents that help to bring to light the to modify documents for classroom use. reasons that President George Even though I taught at an elite academic Washington, the most powerful person in magnet school with some of the strongest the United States, was unable to capture a students in the state of Pennsylvania, I young, illiterate woman who fled his made sure that primary sources were household. presented in manageable chunks. I did Two aspects of the DBL model set it this as a way to scaffold my students’ apart from other primary source based learning of how to analyze primary lessons. First, teachers are expected to sources. This often led to just the type of model document analysis for their modification that Reisman et al. (2012) students, focusing on the key historical endorse as necessary, particularly to skills of sourcing (noting when, where, engage struggling readers. and by whom the document was created The heart of the DBL is reading in an effort to assess its reliability), primary sources and responding to contextualization (considering how the Guiding Questions. Students working era in which the source was created alone, in pairs, or small groups, read influences its content), corroboration through the documents and answer about (determining points of agreement and three to five questions that can be disagreement between and among answered by reading the text and which documents), and close reading (analyzing will help them to reply to the CHQ. The how language and evidence are used to questions emphasize the same historical convey information or support an skills that the teacher has modeled and/or argument) (Reisman, 2012). For this they have practiced in previous DBL lesson, the teacher reads and reacts to a lessons. In addition to the 1796 letter 1796 letter from President Washington to penned by George Washington that the a New Hampshire customs agent. The teacher has introduced, students read an teacher makes observations and explains article based on an interview done with relevant findings such as who wrote the Ona Judge many decades after she became letter and when it was written (sourcing) a fugitive. This Sisters in Freedom lesson and known information about the letter’s utilizes only two sources, however, many recipient and his home community lessons in the Reading Like a Historian (contextualization). collection use more. The other aspect of the DBL Once students have reviewed the approach to primary sources is Document documents and answered the Guiding Modification. Primary sources are altered Questions, the teacher leads a whole class to make them more approachable and less discussion—beginning with the CHQ. time-consuming for students. Documents Students are encouraged to share different can be shortened (ideally a page or less in points of view and to back up their length), sections irrelevant to the CHQ can responses with textual evidence. A be excised, and challenging vocabulary collaborative approach between the words can either be defined or replaced. teacher and among multiple students is While this may be anathema to some required to answer the CHQ as fully as educators and historians, as a teacher I possible. Follow up discussion questions frequently (albeit guiltily at the time) used

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should also be subject to varied Reisman, A. (2012). The ‘Document-Based Lesson’: interpretations. Bringing disciplinary into high school history classrooms with adolescent Although not an integral part of the struggling readers. Journal of Curriculum DBL structure, the lesson that follows Studies, 44(2), 233-264. includes a writing prompt to be used as an Reisman, A. and Wineburg, S. (2012). “Text exit ticket, homework assignment, or Complexity” in the History Classroom: follow-up question to begin class on the Teaching to and Beyond the Common Core. Social Studies Review, 24-29. following day.

Unfortunately for my students and About the Author: Amy Cohen is a former me, I did not come upon the Reading Like a middle and high school social studies Historian approach until I was out of the teacher, who currently serves as the classroom. I hope, though, that readers of Director of Education for History Making this journal will find both the method Productions, a documentary film described and the film that this lesson company based in Philadelphia. Amy can accompanies to be helpful in your be reached via email at practice. amyc@historymaking productions.com

References

Dunbar, E. A. (2017). Never Caught: The Washingtons’ Relentless Pursuit of Their Runaway Slave Ona Judge, New York: Atria Books.

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Inquiry: The Escape of Ona Judge

Central Historical Question: Why was President George Washington unable to return Ona Judge to his family after she fled the President’s House in Philadelphia?

Materials: • Copies of Timeline • Copies of Documents A & B • Copies of Guiding Questions

Plan of Instruction (1 60-minute period): 1. Introduction (3 min.): Ask students to quickly brainstorm where they have seen the image or heard the name George Washington. Encourage students to recognize that Washington’s image is on the dollar bill and Mount Rushmore; although he died over 200 years ago, most of them can likely easily picture his face. There are numerous cities, states, roads, bridges, colleges, schools, etc. named for him. Indicate that they will be learning about a young, enslaved woman who chose to leave President George Washington’s household in Philadelphia. 2. Establish Background Knowledge (5 min.): Show clip of the first five minutes of Sisters in Freedom: The Daring Battle to End Slavery. This excerpt introduces Judge, her relation to the Washington family, the milieu of Philadelphia and two relevant laws—Pennsylvania’s Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery and the federal Fugitive Slave Law signed by Washington himself. 3. Transition (5 minutes): Hand out timelines. Read through timelines and explain that today we’re going to read through documents that help to bring to light the reasons that President George Washington, the most powerful person in the United States, was unable to capture a young, illiterate woman who fled his household. 4. Presenting the evidence (10 min.) Hand out Document A and have students watch you as you practice cognitive modeling of sourcing and contextualization. a. When we practice any historical thinking skill, we start by centering ourselves on the CHQ: Why was President George Washington unable to return Ona Judge to his family after she fled the President’s House in Philadelphia? We will use sourcing, contextualization, and corroboration on two documents today to help us answer this question. b. I’m going to be looking for who wrote this, and what is the writer’s perspective? When was it written, and where? Why was it written? Is it a reliable source? I’ll underline anything I think is important as we read through the document. c. Let’s look at Document A. We can see that this letter was written by President Washington about six months after Ona Judge fled his household. He indicates that he has already had someone try to persuade her to return willingly to his household. d. As Washington has been trying to get Judge back to his household, he often claims that she was treated well and had no reason to run away. I wonder, though, how Judge felt about her life as a slave to the first family. e. Now let’s consider contextualization. The letter is written to Joseph Whipple, someone who voluntarily freed the enslaved people he owned. Although Whipple’s job is dependent on Washington’s favor, why might Washington be reluctant to demand that Whipple capture Judge and force her to return to the Washington family? Elicit a few responses. f. Now that we have considered the context, I’m wondering if a letter written to Whipple by Washington will be a reliable source for determining why President Washington was unable to return Ona Judge to his family. 5. Students complete Guiding Questions for Document A (10 min.). Elicit a few student responses. Indicate that students will now read a document that presents a different explanation of Ona Judge’s ability to avoid recapture.

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6. Students complete Guiding Questions for Document B (10 minutes). Elicit a few student responses. 7. Discussion Questions (12 minutes) a. Have we answered our Central Historical Question? Why was President George Washington unable to return Ona Judge to his family after she fled the President’s House in Philadelphia? b. Which version of events, the one told in Document A or B, more closely matched your initial hypothesis? Did this surprise you? c. How might Ona Judge have been influenced by spending seven years in Philadelphia where she was regularly exposed to a vibrant free black community? d. Although President Washington had many more resources than Ona Judge, where might she have found the strength and determination to avoid his attempts at capturing her? e. George Washington was arguably the most powerful person in the country at the time of Judge’s escape, yet he was unable to have her return to his family. Use the historical thinking skill of contextualization to explain this failure. f. Why might someone be willing to both break the law and defy the President of the United States? Who, other than Ona Judge, did both of these things in order to ensure her freedom? g. Return to the timeline. Why is it significant that George Washington asked for his nephew’s help in finding Judge in August of 1799? h. Which historical thinking skill (sourcing, contextualization, or corroboration) was most helpful in answering the CHQ? i. Ask students to reflect on whether they ever stop to think about George Washington as an owner of enslaved people when they encounter his name and likeness. 8. Wrap up (5 minutes): Either of the following prompts can be given as an exit ticket, a homework assignment, or a follow-up activity on the following day. a. Imagine that you are a New Hampshire resident who knows that Ona Judge has fled from President George Washington. She knocks on your door because she needs a place to hide. The rest of your family is afraid to take her in. How do you convince them that they should do so? b. At the outset of the lesson, you were asked to think about where you have seen images of heard of places named for President George Washington. In what ways might you think of the first president of the United States differently following this lesson? Do you think it is important to have a fuller understanding of such an important historical figure?

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Timeline

1780: An Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery is passed in Pennsylvania. According to this law, people born after its passage would be freed at the age of 28. Among the exceptions were enslaved people being held in Pennsylvania by non-residents of the staying for less than six months.

1788: Passage of An Act to Explain and Amend Pennsylvania’s Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery. This law is passed to close a loophole that had enabled long-term visitors to Pennsylvania to maintain ownership of enslaved people by sending them out of state when their residence approached six months.

1790: Ona Judge accompanies the Washington family when the national capital is moved from New York to Philadelphia

1793: President Washington signs the Fugitive Slave Act requiring authorities in free states to return escapees from slavery to their owners

May 21, 1796: Ona Judge runs away from the President’s House in Philadelphia at age 22

April-December, 1796: George Washington repeatedly seeks assistance for the return of Ona Judge

August, 1799: George Washington writes to a nephew asking for assistance in recapturing Ona Judge

December, 1799: Death of George Washington

1848: Death of Ona Judge in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. She was never recaptured nor officially freed.

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DOCUMENT A: George Washington Letter to Joseph Whipple

Joseph Whipple, a politically connected businessman, was serving as customs collector in Portsmouth, New Hampshire—a state in which many people opposed slavery. He was responsible for overseeing ships arriving in the city’s port, an important job for which he had been appointed by President Washington. Whipple had chosen to free the enslaved people he owned.

Philadelphia 28th November 1796

Sir: I regret that the attempt you made to restore the girl (Oney Judge as she called herself while with us, and who, without the least provocation fled from her Mistress) met with so little success. I was afraid that if she had any previous notice of the intention to send her back, that she would try to avoid it; for whatever she may have asserted to the contrary, there is no doubt in this family, of her having been seduced and tempted off by a Frenchman who used to frequently introduce himself into the family; & has never been seen here, since the girl left. I have recently been told, through other channels, that she did go to Portsmouth with a Frenchman, who getting tired of her, as is presumed left her, and that she had betaken herself to the Needle—the use of which she well understood—for a livelihood. I do not mean however, that such violent measures should be used as would excite a mob or riot which might be the case if she has supporters or even uneasy sensations in the minds of well-disposed Citizens. Rather than either of these should happen, I would forego her services. We would rather have her sent to Virginia than brought to Philadelphia; as our stay here will be but short; and as it is not unlikely that she may, from the circumstance I have mentioned, be in a state of pregnancy. I should be glad to hear from you on this subject, and am Sir Your Obedient Humble Servant George Washington

Vocabulary: • provocation: action or speech meant to anger or annoy • betaken herself of the Needle: took up sewing • forego: do without

Guiding Questions for Document A: 1. (Sourcing) How long after Ona Judge’s escape was this written? How might President Washington be feeling about Judge’s escape at this point? 2. (Close reading) According to Washington, who was responsible for Judge’s escape from the President’s House? What evidence does he present to support this claim? 3. (Contextualization) Why might Washington assume that using violent means to capture Judge might “excite a mob or riot”? Why would Washington want to avoid creating this kind of reaction?

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DOCUMENT B: Article in The Granite Freeman

This article was printed in The Granite Freeman, a Concord, New Hampshire abolitionist newspaper on May 22, 1845. It is based on an interview of Judge conducted by the author, Reverend T. H. Adams.

There is now living in the town of Greenland, N.H., a runaway slave of Gen. Washington. Her name at the time of her escape was ONA MARIA JUDGE. She is not able to give the year of her escape, but says that she came from Philadelphia just after the close of Washington's second term of the Presidency, which must fix it somewhere in the [early?] part of the year 1797.

Being a waiting maid of Mrs. Washington, she was not exposed to any peculiar hardships. If asked why she did not remain in his service, she gives two reasons, first, that she wanted to be free; secondly that she understood that after the death of her master and mistress, she was to become the property of a grand- daughter of theirs, by name of Custis, and that she was determined never to be her slave.

Washington made two attempts to recover her. First, he sent a man by the name of Bassett to persuade her to return; but she resisted all the arguments he employed for this end. He told her they would set her free when she arrived at Mount Vernon, to which she replied, "I am free now and choose to remain so."

Finding all attempts to seduce her to slavery again in this manner useless, Bassett was sent once more by Washington, with orders to bring her and her infant child by force. Bassett, being acquainted with Gov. [then Senator John] Langdon, then of Portsmouth, took up lodgings with him, and disclosed to him the object of his mission.

The good old Governor must have possessed something of the spirit of modern anti-slavery. He entertained Bassett very handsomely, and in the meantime sent word to Ona Judge, to leave town before twelve o'clock at night, which she did, found a place to hide, and escaped the clutches of the oppressor.

When asked if she is not sorry she left Washington, as she has labored so much harder since, than before, her reply is, "No, I am free, and have, I trust been made a child of God by the means.["]

Guiding Questions for Document B: 1. (Sourcing) Whose version of events is conveyed in this article? How long after Judge escaped the Washington household was the interview on which this article is based conducted? 2. (Close reading) What reasons does Judge give for escaping from the Washington household? What can be inferred about the Custis granddaughter? 3. (Corroboration) How does Judge’s explanation of her reasons for fleeing differ from that of President Washington? (Close reading; Contextualization) Who told Judge that someone had been sent to return her to President Washington?

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THOUGHTFUL SOCIAL STUDIES INTEGRATION: IT’S POSSIBLE!

Sara B. Demoiny and Stacie L. Finley Auburn University

Social studies is no longer part of & Chiodo, 2009). In a survey of 115 the core curriculum today in many elementary school teachers, Holloway and elementary schools. The Center on Chiodo (2009) found that teachers Education Policy (2007) found that a reported incorporating 47 social studies majority of schools have increased concepts into their instruction. They instructional time on literacy and insisted social studies is being done in mathematics while decreasing non-tested elementary schools, but it looks different disciplines by up to 145 minutes each than it has in the past as a stand-alone week. Since the reauthorization of NCLB subject. in 2007, teachers report spending an Presently, most examples of social average of 12% of their instructional time studies integration demonstrate a on social studies instruction (Heafner & mergence with English Language Arts Fitchett, 2012). Although reasons for this (ELA) (Field, Bauml, & Ledbetter, 2011; trend range from high-stakes testing to Roberts & VanDeusen-MacLeod, 2015). perceived lack of autonomy in curricular For instance, Sell and Griffin (2017) taught choices by teachers (Fitchett, Heafner, & an integrated mini-unit focused on justice- Lambert, 2014), it is concerning to observe oriented citizenship. Fifth grade students social studies sidelined in U.S. elementary analyzed historical primary sources, using schools. literacy practices and disciplinary literacy With the decrease in social studies to identify examples of justice-oriented instruction in elementary schools, there citizenship in the past. Then, students has been a call for integration with other completed the mini-unit by writing a disciplines. At the national level, Common found poetry piece. Examples of Core (Council of Chief State School integration with STEM disciplines are Officers & National Governors much less common within the literature, Association, 2018) encourages the yet there are legitimate connections integration of reading and writing skills between social studies and STEM with historical informational texts, concepts. Krutka (2018) has pointed out including primary sources. The National the overlap between social studies and Council for the Social Studies (2013) STEM, particularly regarding technology. developed the C3 Framework, which When analyzing Texas high school social frames social studies instruction through studies standards, he realized that all the inquiry pedagogy, requiring the use of standards related to technologies literacy skills. As evidence of the portrayed a narrative of progress without devaluation of social studies has been wrestling with the negative effects of the reported, scholars have recommended technology. He encouraged social studies curriculum integration as one solution to teachers to consider the question, “Even if increase social studies in elementary we can, should we?” as they teach content schools (Denton & Sinks, 2015; Holloway and concepts within the realm of the NCSS

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national standard, Science, Technology included, the limited time results in and Society (Krutka, 2018, p. 284). When shallow coverage of content. using NCSS themes as a guide, one can Considering the current move recognize many opportunities to integrate towards social studies integration and the social studies with STEM disciplines. subsequent challenges, social studies teacher educators need to prepare their Need for Purposeful Social Studies elementary pre-service teachers to Integration integrate social studies thoughtfully into the curriculum. Elementary pre-service Although elementary teachers may teachers have reported seeing little social be attempting to integrate social studies studies instruction in their field with other disciplines, the result is often a placements (Hawkman, Castro, Bennett, & trivialization of the social studies content Barrow, 2015), and through this (Boyle-Baise, Hsu, Johnson, Serriere, & experience they have expressed the need Stewart, 2011; Heafner, 2018). Boyle-Baise to learn how to integrate social studies et al. (2011) engaged in courageous with other disciplines (Good, Heafner, conversations with 100 K-6 teachers and O’Connor, Passe, Waring, & Byrd, 2010). administrators to encourage and to Gleeson and D’Souza (2016) restructured support the development of exemplary their social studies methods course to social studies instruction. Through their include research-based practices for conversations, they found that social reading and writing instruction, and studies was referred to as “a momentary Hawkman et al., (2015) called for social aside” when it surfaced in discussions studies teacher educators to intentionally based on the literacy text (Boyle-Baise et include integration strategies in their al., 2011, p. 144). The teachers simply elementary methods course syllabi. viewed social studies as a “helpmate” to Recognizing the need for teaching literacy skills. Similarly, Pace elementary pre-service teachers to learn (2011) found that teachers sacrificed social how to integrate social studies with other studies instruction to prepare for high- disciplines, and having an alternative field stakes testing, which meant students did placement for the summer semester, Sara not gain a deep understanding of social (the first author) revised her elementary studies concepts. Heafner’s (2018) recent social studies methods course to include case study with elementary teachers explicit instruction on integration and revealed similar findings in that, teachers provided students the opportunity to foregrounded literacy instruction even practice social studies integration in their during a time dedicated for social studies practicum experience, a STEM summer and English Language Arts integration. camp. The purpose of this paper is to These studies highlight the pattern often expand the ideas for teaching and occurring when elementary teachers incorporating social studies integration integrate social studies with other with STEM disciplines in thoughtful and disciplines, particularly with English meaningful ways. Language Arts, where social studies is trivialized. When social studies is Alternative Field Placement Context

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During the summer semester, our integration leads to deeper understanding teacher education program has a cohort of of social studies concepts and skills. students who take elementary methods courses. Field placement experiences are a Walking Debate requirement for the courses. The STEM Focus: Robotics elementary faculty developed a STEM NCSS Theme: Science, Technology & Society summer camp three years ago allowing During the first week of camp, our pre-service teachers to gain teaching students explored different types of robots experience as they lead classes of 3rd and considered all the places where robots through 5th graders. During the summer of can be found in society. As part of the unit, 2018, we decided to have an integrated students read Newsela articles illustrating STEM camp, and the camp served as an the many uses of robots, including “Robot alternative field placement for all pre- Kitchen: Burger Restaurant Installs service teachers in summer methods Machine to Flip Patties” and “Students courses. Send Robots to School When They’re Too In total, the program served an Sick to Go Themselves” (see additional average of 140 campers in seven articles in the resources section below). classrooms. The pre-service teachers were The pre-service teachers set a purpose for assigned to co-teach for one full week of reading the articles and provided graphic camp. The elementary faculty determined organizers for students to keep track of the STEM focus and essential questions for important details from the texts. Then, the the week, and then the pre-service pre-service teachers posed the question, teachers developed an integrated unit “Should robots be allowed to have jobs in plan for their assigned week. The STEM the workplace?” Students had a few topics were robotics, structures, and force moments to think about their response, and motion. In the following section, we then they wrote three reasons for their describe three classroom examples of how position on a post-it note. The pre-service the pre-service teachers integrated social teachers introduced the walking debate studies with ELA and STEM. The strategy. On one classroom wall, there was examples offer different ways to consider a label “yes” and the opposite wall was what social studies integration may look labeled “no.” Before students moved to like in the elementary classroom. the side of the room that aligned with their opinion, the pre-service teachers reviewed Social Studies Integration Examples how to disagree and build from one another’s point of view by using sentence While working at the STEM camp, stems. Then, students moved to stand at the elementary pre-service teachers were one position, and took turns sharing the challenged to envision social studies rationale for their opinion. If a peer made integration beyond the idea of simply a comment which caused students to reading a picture book about a historical reconsider their opinion, then they could topic; as such, they expanded their views take two steps towards the other side of of social studies integration. The the room. This structure allowed for classroom examples below illustrate ways students to think critically about their in which thoughtful social studies

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peers’ reasoning and to recognize one’s Coosa River is about 400 feet across. The opinion is not static. town population is small but with the addition of a bridge, they would The pre-service teachers identified experience a lot of tourism. The bridge this lesson as social studies integration by creates a new path from Birmingham to relating it to the NCSS theme “Science, Auburn that reduces the drive from 2 Technology, and Society.” In the theme’s hours to 1 hour and 15 minutes. As a description, NCSS (2010) posed the result, the bridge is expected to see a lot of traffic. It will need to be durable and long questions, “Is new technology always lasting. You will need to use your better than that which it replaces? How knowledge to write a building proposal to can we manage technology so that the the mayor of Tiger Town. Your proposal greatest numbers of people benefit?” will include whether your bridge will be (para. 31). Students engaged with this an arch, suspension, or beam bridge. You should also state whether or not it should theme as they considered how science and be a toll bridge and, if so, how much technology impact and influence our lives, should the toll be? Should the toll be values, and culture. Students were different for town citizens and tourists? wrestling with the opportunity cost of robots taking someone’s job while In order to prepare students to knowing the robot made for safer working write their bridge proposal, the pre- conditions. In addition to thinking service teachers set up centers where critically about the effects of technological students learned about different types of advances, students were practicing how to bridges, played a bridge building have dialogue around a controversial simulation game, and watched a video issue. Hess (2011) argued that, “discussing about the soil and weather along the controversies about the nature of the Coosa River. In addition to these stations, public good and how to achieve it” are students analyzed excerpts from a vital to democracy (p. 69), and as social primary source, 76th Congress House studies educators, we are tasked with Document No. 272 “Toll Roads and Free preparing students to become active Roads” (U.S. Bureau on Public Roads, democratic citizens. 1939) and an informational text from the Federal Highway Administration “Why Bridge Proposal Does the Interstate System Include Toll STEM Focus: Structures Facilities?” (U.S. Department of NCSS Theme: Civic Ideals and Practice Transportation, 2017) Through facilitated Structures was the focus for the discussion, the students identified the second week of camp. In the fifth grade pros and cons of including a toll on their classes, students were learning about proposed bridge. bridges. The pre-service teachers As the pre-service teachers developed an authentic task for students developed this authentic assignment, they by giving them the following scenario: integrated social studies through the NCSS theme Civic Ideals & Practices. In the small town of Tiger Town, Alabama, Students explored this theme by “learning they have a problem. The Coosa River cuts how to apply civic ideals as part of citizen right through the middle of the city limits action” in exercising “democratic freedom and prevents easy access from the west side of town to the east side of town. The and the pursuit of the common good”

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(NCSS, n.d., para. 39). Students had to students into groups of four. Each group contemplate what type of bridge would be member was assigned a role in the the safest structure in this area while at the assembly line for building a shoebox car same time consider how the cost would (e.g. make holes in the paper plate wheels, impact the community of Tiger Town. place a straw through the holes in the Students contemplated how a toll would shoebox and attach wheels). After the affect local citizens who would use the simulation, the pre-service teachers bridge to go to work each day while also debriefed the lesson, and students made considering how a bridge could boost the connections to the text and primary source local economy. The decisions they were photographs. Additionally, students making required students to think about discussed how it felt to work on an the common good for the community as a assembly line and the benefits and whole. By participating in this task, disadvantages of the process. students could begin to understand what Through this lesson, the students it looks like to be involved in local considered NCSS themes Time, government decision making and the Continuity, and Change and Science, importance of being an active citizen. Technology, and Society. As students analyzed primary sources, they began to Assembly Line Simulation “read, reconstruct, and interpret” the past STEM Focus: Force & Motion (NCSS, 2010, para. 7). It is necessary for NCSS Themes: Time, Continuity, & Change; students to develop disciplinary skills in Science, Technology, & Society order to understand the context of During the last week of integrated primary sources. In this lesson, students STEM camp, each class focused on force reflected on how the technology of the and motion. The third grade classes assembly line affected life when it was looked specifically at force and motion in invented, while also making connections cars. Students built cars, like the Rubber to how robotic arms are used on assembly Band Racer Car (see Appendix A). Since lines today. Although the assembly lines students were building cars with pre- look different, there remain questions of made parts, the pre-service teachers productivity, safety, and human decided to plan lessons looking at how creativity. cars developed over time, particularly In each of these classroom exam- through the standardization of parts and ples, elementary pre-service teachers were the assembly line. Pre-service teachers led tasked with integrating social studies into an interactive read aloud with The a STEM theme. Although they have areas Inventor’s Secret: What Thomas Edison Told to improve, such as adapting primary Henry Ford (Slade, 2015), which includes source texts for students’ reading levels, non-fiction texts at the end discussing they were successful at integrating social Ford’s assembly line. Then, students studies concepts and skills in a way that compared photographs of assembly lines upheld the integrity of the social studies in Fords’ factories to assembly lines in car content while simultaneously creating a factories today. Students listed the lesson where social studies was needed to similarities and differences they noticed. more fully understand a STEM topic. Finally, pre-service teachers divided the

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Suggestions for Social Studies Disciplinary Skills. The Integration disciplinary skills embedded in the social studies are needed in order to learn The idea of integrating social about content in other disciplines as well. studies with other disciplines, especially For instance, in the examples above, with STEM disciplines, can be students analyzed primary sources and overwhelming for elementary school debated controversial issues. These skills teachers. There are many demands on are intricately connected to ELA teachers and taking time to thoughtfully standards of reading, speaking and and authentically plan integrated lessons listening. Primary sources may be may seem daunting. The pre-service analyzed in a data unit within math and teachers in the summer program were used to learn more about natural concerned at the outset of the summer disasters or new technologies during semester, and as one pre-service teacher science. Controversy exists everywhere, commented, “this seems like an and students must learn how to have insurmountable task.” Through our work dialogue where differing opinions are this summer, we discovered a few tips understood and considered in which helped to guide the work of deliberation and decision-making. integration. Elementary teachers can teach social NCSS Themes. The use of state studies disciplinary skills while studying standards is important and often topics from many other disciplines. required of teachers, but state standards Criteria for Integration. As are frequently written with details of mentioned previously, social studies specific places, people, and events. When integration can be shallow and jeopardize teachers step back and review the NCSS the integrity of social studies or other themes, it helps to remember the disciplines being integrated. Many overarching purposes and disciplinary definitions of “integration” exist, ranging concepts of the social studies. The themes from theoretical descriptions (Beane, 1995; illustrate how social studies content Parker, 2005) to practical application connects across time and with other (Berlin & White, 1994: Hinde, 2005). Hinde disciplines. This summer as the pre- (2005) created a list of effective strategies service teachers explored the NCSS for social studies integration. In Sara’s themes, they were quickly able to see social studies methods course, the pre- how Science, Technology, and Society service teachers read articles about social helped students to better understand studies integration and looked at STEM topics, and the social studies focus examples of integration in practitioner prompted students to consider the articles. Together, the methods class various perspectives citizens may have developed the criteria below for on the STEM topic. The NCSS themes thoughtful social studies integration: help to broaden our conceptions of social studies and provide questions in • Authentic application of social studies order to facilitate the integration of the disciplinary skills (e.g. analyzing discipline with others. primary sources, discussing controversial topics)

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• Developmentally appropriate with other disciplines, including STEM, learning activities can and should be intentional and • Address standards from all integrated thoughtful. While the task may seem disciplines • Accurate and honest content daunting, meaningful social studies knowledge (not watered-down, trivial integration is essential, and it is possible. content) • Necessity of both disciplines to fully Resources understand or investigate the lesson topic/concept Robotics Vignette Articles: These criteria provided the pre-service teachers with a benchmark when “No Burns About It: Robot Burger developing their social studies integrated Flipper Manning the Grill” - lessons and encouraged them to evaluate https://newsela.com/read/elem- the thoughtfulness of the integration. A flippy-hamburger- criteria list similar to this one can provide robot/id/41053/quiz/0/ elementary teachers with a place to begin “Robot! Robot! Intelligent Machines as they consider how to integrate social Helping to Revolutionize Pizza studies in meaningful ways within the Industry” - curriculum. https://newsela.com/read/pizza- making-robots/id/21693/ Conclusion “Students Send Robots to School When They’re Too Sick to Go Social studies may be considered Themselves” - “endangered” in the elementary school https://newsela.com/read/elem- curriculum, as high-stakes testing has sick-students-robot- elevated literacy and mathematics as the double/id/40950 main subjects of focus in elementary “Opinion: Should We Tax Robots That classrooms. Through social studies Take Our Jobs?” - instruction, students learn how to be https://newsela.com/read/robot- citizens who maintain a democratic tax/id/27665/ society that pursues the common good. “As Global Workplaces Rapidly Changes: Social studies concepts and skills are Has Technology Run Amok?” - essential to the development of K-12 https://newsela.com/read/projec students, and elementary teachers are now tsyndicate-labor/id/12622/ encouraged to integrate social studies “Boaty McBoatFace Goes on its First with other disciplines. As elementary Antarctic Mission” - teachers and pre-service teachers begin to https://newsela.com/read/elem- thoughtfully integrate social studies into boaty-mcboatface/id/27985/ the curriculum, we encourage them to consider how the NCSS themes, social Force & Motion Vignette Racer Car: studies disciplinary skills, and the use of an integration criteria list can aid in the Rubber Band Racer Car - development of meaningful integration https://teachergeek.com/product lessons or units. Integrating social studies s/rubber-band-racer

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References preservice field experiences. Journal of Social Studies Research, 39(4), 197-206. Beane, J. A. (1995). Curriculum integration and Heafner, T. L. (2018). Elementary ELA/social the disciplines of knowledge. Phi Delta studies integration: Challenges and Kappan, 76(8), 616-622. limitations. The Social Studies, 109(1), 1-12. Berlin, D. F., & White, A. L. (1994). The Berlin Heafner, T. L., & Fitchett, P. G. (2012). National White integrated science and mathematics trends in elementary instruction: model. School Science and Mathematics, Exploring the role of social studies 94(1), 2-4. curricula. The Social Studies, 103, 67-72. Boyle-Baise, M., Hsu, M., Johnson, S., Serriere, S. Hess, D. (2011). Discussions that drive democracy. C., & Stewart, D. (2011). Trying to revalue Educational Leadership, 69(1), 69-73. elementary social studies: Dilemmas and Hinde, E. R. (2005). Revisiting curriculum insights. Social Studies Research & Practice, integration: A fresh look at an old idea. 6(2), 135-150. The Social Studies, 96(3), 105-111. Center on Education Policy. (2007). Choices, Holloway, J. E., & Chiodo, J. J. (2009). Social changes, challenges: Curriculum and studies is being taught in the elementary instruction in the NCLB era. school: A contrarian view. Journal of Social Washington, DC. Retrieved from Studies Research, 33(2), 235-261. http://www.cep-dc.org Krutka, D. G. (2018). Technology. In D. G. Krutka, Council of Chief State Schools Offices & National A. M. Whitlock, & M. Helmsing (Eds.), Governors Association. (2018). Common Keywords in the social studies: Concepts & core state standards initiative. Retrieved conversations (pp. 279-292). New York, NY: from http://www.corestandards.org/ Peter Lang Publishing. Denton, D. W., & Sink, C. (2015). Preserving social National Council for the Social Studies. (2013). The studies as core curricula in an era of college, career, and civic life (C3) framework Common Core reform. Journal of Social for social studies state standards: Guidance for Studies Education Research, 6(2), 1-17. enhancing the rigor of K-12 civics, economics, Field, S., Bauml, M., & Ledbetter, M. (2011). Every geography, and history. Silver Springs, MD: day successes: Powerful integration of NCSS. social studies content and English- National Council for the Social Studies. (2010). language arts. Social Studies and the Young National curriculum standards for social Learner, 23(3), 22-25. studies: Chapter 2 – the theme of social Fitchett, P. G., Heafner, T. L., & Lambert, R. G. studies. Retrieved from (2014). Assessment, autonomy, and social https://www.socialstudies.org/standard studies instructional time. Teachers College s/strands#8 Record. Retrieved from Pace, J. L. (2011). The complex and unequal http://www.tcrecord.org/Content.asp?C impact of high stakes accountability on ontentId=17605 untested social studies. Theory and Gleeson, A. M., & D’Souza, L. A. (2016). Research in Social Education, 39(1), 32-60. Reframing a social studies methods Parker, W. C. (2005). Social studies in elementary course: Preparing elementary teacher education (12th ed.). Columbus, OH: candidates for the Common Core. The Pearson. Social Studies, 107(5), 165-170. Roberts, S., & VanDeusen-MacLeod, B. (2015). The Good, A. J, Heafner, T. L., O'Connor, K. A., Passe, jigsaw revisited: Common core social J., Waring, S. M., & Byrd, S. (2010). The studies and the English Language Arts de-emphasis on social studies in integration. Social Studies Research & elementary schools: Teacher candidate Practice, 10(2), 56-66. perspective. Current Issues in Education, Sell, C. R., & Griffin, K. (2017). Powerful social 13(4), Retrieved from http://cie.asu.edu/ studies teaching with poetry and primary Hawkman, A. M., Castro, A. J., Bennett, L. B., & sources. The Social Studies, 108(1), 1-9. Barrow, L. H. (2015). Where is the Slade, S. (2015). The inventor’s secret: What Thomas content? Elementary social studies in Edison told Henry Ford. Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge.

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United States Bureau on Public Roads. (1939). Toll About the authors: Sara B. Demoiny is an roads and free roads. Washington D.C.: U.S. Assistant Professor of Elementary Government Printing Office. United States Department of Transportation. Education at Auburn University. She can (2017). Why does the interstate system include be reached via email at: toll facilities? Retrieved from [email protected]. Stacie L. Finley is a https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructur Clinical Instructor of Elementary e/tollroad.cfm Education at Auburn University. She can

be reached via email at: [email protected].

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NATIONAL HISTORY DAY: AN OPPORTUNITY FOR SERVICE-LEARNING IN SOCIAL STUDIES TEACHER EDUCATION

Jennifer Cutsforth Kaschak The University of Scranton

Much has been written about the reflection as characteristics that positive outcomes of service-learning, differentiate service-learning from including students’ increased academic community service. achievement, sense of civic commitment, While considerable research social responsibility, and personal and supports definitions and criteria for social development (Furco & Root, 2010; service-learning and documents possible Kahne & Middaugh, 2010; Wade, 2008). pedagogical outcomes, rarely is National Research has also provided evidence of History Day (NHD) identified as a positive outcomes resulting from service- potential partner. One study described learning in teacher education contexts, collaboration between a teacher education including increased teaching self-efficacy, program, local historic sites, and NHD personal and professional teaching (Woyshner, Reidell, & Brasof, 2013). For identity development, and commitment to NHD competitions, students from grades civic education (Harrison, 2013; Iverson & 6-12 select a historical topic that connects James, 2010; Stewart, Allen & Bai, 2011; with an annual theme identified by NHD, Wade, 2008, citing Wade, 1995; Wilson, research the topic using primary and Bradbury, & McGlasson, 2015). secondary sources, and create a project One definition, used to frame the aligning with guidelines from one of five service-learning experience described categories (NHD, 2018a). Volunteers from here, comes from Bringle and Hatcher academic and cultural institutions then (1995): serve as judges of students’ submitted projects at regional, state, and national We consider service-learning to be a competitions. course-based, credit-bearing educational experience in which students (a) This article describes a specific participate in an organized service activity exercise in service-learning, which that meets identified community needs involved preservice teachers volunteering and (b) reflect on the service activity in and judging at regional NHD such a way as to gain further competitions. It begins with a more understanding of course content, a broader appreciation of the discipline, and detailed description and review of an enhanced sense of civic responsibility. relevant literature concerning NHD, (p. 112) followed by reviews of literature about service-learning and historic site-based Similarly, Wade (2008) defined service- learning in teacher education contexts. learning as “the integration of This article continues with a description of community-based service experiences and a service-learning experience at regional academics combined with structured NHD competitions, as well as potential reflection” (p. 109). Wade highlighted the implications for preservice teachers’ importance of curriculum integration and learning.

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National History Day determining who will move on to the next level of competition. Competition As noted earlier, NHD is organized volunteers then organize the rubrics and into regional, state, and national results submitted by each judging team. competitions. Students who place in the The day typically concludes with a top two or three ranks in their category celebration of the students’ achievements and division move on to the next level of and the announcement of those who have competition. Each year, NHD selects a qualified for the next level of competition. theme for the competitions. When Why partner with NHD for a developing their projects, students service-learning experience for preservice connect their topics to the theme. Themes teachers? First, evidence demonstrates in the past several years have included: how NHD provides a positive learning rights and responsibilities in history experience for middle school and high (2014), leadership and legacy in history school students, so preservice teachers are (2015), exploration, encounter, and supporting a program with documented exchange in history (2016), taking a stand positive outcomes for participants. in history (2017), and conflict and Several studies discussed the positive compromise in history (2018) (NHD, impact of NHD on middle school and high 2018b; NHD, 2018c; NHD, 2018d). school students’ learning. In a national Students compete in either the junior program evaluation conducted by an division (grades 6-8) or the senior division independent research organization (Gorn, (grades 9-12). Either individually or in 2012; NHD, 2011), results pointed to the groups, students compete in one of five following findings: NHD students categories: paper, exhibit, performance, perform better than non-NHD students on documentary, or website. standardized exams in several subjects, On the day of competition, students tend to be stronger writers, think critically, present their projects to a team of judges. and learn and demonstrate 21st century Judges, usually organized in teams of two skills. In addition, NHD appears to have or three, generally conduct a brief positive influence on students who are less interview with students regarding their interested in academic subject areas (Gorn, projects. Judges receive training materials 2012; NHD, 2011). In a study examining prior to and on the day of the competition, documentaries and related evidence with suggestions about questions to be drawn from ten participants at the asked, as well as information on project national NHD competition, Scheuerell criteria and rule infractions. Following the (2007) found that the participants review of project entries and interviews demonstrated understanding of the with students, each judging team meets importance of sourcing, considered for deliberations, during which they multiple perspectives as represented assess projects per criteria on a rubric and across a range of sources, and showed provide constructive feedback. Criteria historical knowledge and argumentation assessed include historical quality, skills. relation to the theme, and clarity of Second, considering NHD’s presentation (NHD, 2014). Judges also reliance upon volunteers to serve as rank the top two or three entries, judges (NHD, 2018e; NHD in Colorado,

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2017; Utah Division of State History, 2018), citizenship along five dimensions and preservice teachers who judge at regional develop a commitment to civic education. competitions meet a need for program In addition, multiple studies have operations. A program such as NHD, demonstrated that participation in which draws upon teachers’ and students’ service-learning activities supported participation from local schools, as well as preservice teachers’ development of support from community organizations, is teaching identities and improved then a valuable venue for service-learning. understanding of their roles as professional educators (Harrison, 2013; Service-Learning and Teacher Education Wilson, Bradbury, & McGlasson, 2015). In Harrison’s (2013) study, for example, Many examples point to the varied preservice teachers organized service- opportunities for incorporating service- learning projects at their field experience learning into teacher education programs. sites. The preservice teachers indicated Service-learning experiences might that they developed a better engage teacher candidates in teaching understanding of potential tasks they projects at field experiences or local would need to complete as teachers. And, schools (Harrison, 2013; Wetig, 2006) or at as Harrison noted, the preservice teachers museums (Todd & Brinkman, 2008), seemed to develop a “broader sense of tutoring in diverse or alternative their professional roles as future teachers” educational settings (Baldwin, Buchanan, (p. 32). & Rudisill, 2007; Gross & Maloney, 2012), These studies demonstrated that engaging in action-based projects based service-learning has the potential to on community or environmental issues contribute meaningfully to preservice (Iverson & James, 2010; Wilson, Bradbury, teachers’ personal, civic, and professional & McGlasson, 2015), or participating in development, including professional political and electoral processes (Waterson teacher identity development (Harrison, & Haas, 2010). 2013; Wilson, Bradbury, & McGlasson, Service-learning benefits teacher 2015). The next section discusses candidates in several ways, including outcomes related to historic site-based increased personal development, teaching learning in social studies teacher self-efficacy, commitment to civic education, particularly those outcomes education and development of teaching with potential connections to volunteering identities (Stewart, Allan & Bai, 2011). at NHD. Wade (2008, citing Wade 1995) explained that preservice teachers who participated Historic Site-Based Learning in a service-learning experience demonstrated increased self-knowledge, Volunteering at NHD, particularly self-efficacy and other aspects of personal in the role of judge, can be a beneficial development. More specific to civic opportunity for service-learning. Like education, Iverson and James (2010) found historic site-based learning, it may help that preservice teachers’ participation in teacher candidates develop important change-oriented service-learning helped skills for teaching history. Indeed, the modify their understandings about potential outcomes of the service-learning

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activity described here may bear some This service-learning activity took resemblance to the results of studies based place in secondary social studies methods on preservice teachers’ experiences at courses in a preservice, undergraduate historic sites, as both involve historical teacher education program. I, the author, thinking skills practiced by preservice taught the course and integrated this teachers in context. Research activity into four of the previous iterations demonstrates that preservice teachers’ of the course. The course enrolled experiences analyzing primary sources approximately 3-6 preservice teachers in and developing lesson plans based on middle level and secondary social studies visits to historic sites support their each year, with most participating in NHD development of historical and as a means of completing the service- historiographical thinking and inquiry learning requirement for the course. skills (Baron, Woyshner, & Haberkern, Preservice teachers were required to 2014; Lovorn, 2012). complete ten hours of service-learning, Baron, Woyshner, and Haberkern preferably in middle level or secondary (2014), for example, studied two education contexts. programs, the Cultural Fieldwork This experience meets the Initiative at Temple University and the parameters of service learning as defined History of Boston/History Lab program at by Bringle and Hatcher (1995), as well as Boston University. Both programs, additional recommendations for quality identified by the authors as Historic Site- service-learning experiences (Butin, 2003; based Laboratory experiences, asked Hatcher, Bringle, & Muthiah, 2004). A preservice teachers to visit historic sites study examining undergraduate students’ multiple times, work with history perceptions of service-learning practitioners, and apply historical components, and how these components reasoning skills. The authors found that correlate with quality learning participation in such site-based projects experiences, found that the most supported the development of preservice significant predictor of quality learning teachers’ historical reasoning skills, as experiences was the integration of the well as how to use such reasoning as part service experience with course content of developing pedagogical content (Hatcher, Bringle, and Muthiah, 2004). In knowledge. In addition, many of the addition, Butin (2003) outlined four internships arranged through the Cultural criteria for service-learning experiences: Fieldwork Initiative (Woyshner, Reidell, & respect, reciprocity, relevance, and Brasof, 2013) supported work on NHD reflection, to be elaborated below. projects. The authors found that the In this service-learning activity, experiences supported preservice preservice teachers typically served as teachers’ development of skills required judges for the local, regional competition. for teaching and increased their content The reciprocal nature of this service- knowledge and professionalism. learning activity stemmed from NHD’s reliance upon volunteers, particularly Service-Learning at National History volunteer judges (NHD, 2018e; NHD in Day Colorado, 2017; Utah Division of State History, 2018), shared with the potential

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learning to be experienced by the civic skills such as deliberation and preservice teachers. One goal of the consensus building (Parker, 2005) and to activity was that teacher candidates fulfill support the endeavors of a community their service-learning hours in a relevant organization (Todd & Brinkman, 2008). context. Service at NHD represented an I began the process of organizing opportunity for the teacher candidates to this service-learning activity by contacting engage in historical thinking and first the state coordinator, then regional reasoning, as well as assessment practice, coordinator, of NHD. I communicated effectively linking the service-learning primarily with coordinators from the experience to social studies methods regions that were closest in location to my course content (Hatcher, Bringle, & university. Through communication with Muthiah, 2004). This activity required the regional coordinator, we arranged for preservice teachers to reflect upon the my students to volunteer as judges at the experience, clarifying what they learned NHD regional competition. We discussed by serving as judges, as well as how the categories in which my students service-learning activities connect to would judge (i.e., documentaries, overarching goals of social studies websites, exhibits) and the coordinator education. Following Hatcher, Bringle, assigned my students to judging teams and Muthiah’s (2004) recommendation for with experienced judges. I also agreed to multiple types of reflection, preservice serve as a judge for the regional teachers engaged in reflective class competition, so as to fulfill a need for the discussion following NHD, as well as an event and to provide a platform for assigned reflection paper. discussion with my students. As the instructor of the course, my As the instructor of the course, I goals were three-fold. First, as noted introduced NHD during the first class above, I wanted my students to fulfill their session, showing videos from the NHD required service-learning hours in a website and discussing prior experiences community-based experience that would with NHD. I introduced the upcoming closely align with the academic content of regional competition and described the the course, while supporting a community possibilities for judging or volunteering at organization. Second, I hoped that my the event. Preservice teachers then had students would engage in the type of time to decide if they wished to thinking that teachers employ when participate. teaching history, such as evaluating Prior to the regional competition, I historical content for accuracy. Finally, I required preservice teachers to meet with wanted my students to enjoy the me to go over judging rules and experience of volunteering at NHD, expectations for the competition. I shared hoping that they might support and the Contest Rule Book (NHD, 2014), as participate in the program when they well as any other information mailed to graduated and began their teaching me by the regional coordinator. We careers. While my goals for this service- discussed rules for the categories in which learning activity were not linked explicitly they would judge, as well as general with goals for civic education, preservice expectations for their participation. teachers had the opportunity to practice

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Most preservice teachers who NHD competitions, I envision multiple participated in NHD served as judges for implications for preservice teachers’ a regional competition. They attended the learning, including their use of historical morning training for judges, participated reasoning and assessment skills, as well as as a member of a judging team, their burgeoning professional teaching interviewed students as part of that identity development. As noted earlier, judging team, and discussed and the outcomes of volunteering at the NHD deliberated on the project entries with regional competition may share other members of their judging teams. commonalities with historic-site based One expectation of NHD competitions learning experiences, namely because of requires judges to come to a consensus the type of thinking in which NHD judges regarding the ranking and placement of engage. Baron, Woyshner, & Haberkern project entries, hence discussions reflect a (2014) and Lovorn (2012) identified deliberative process. I also asked opportunities to practice and develop preservice teachers to volunteer at the historical reasoning skills as an aspect of event when they completed their judging preservice teachers’ visits to and responsibilities, in whatever capacity internships at historic sites. While requested by the regional coordinator, and participating as a judge for NHD does not to attend at least part of the end-of-the-day require preservice teachers to work celebration. Volunteering often involved directly with primary sources, judges are preparing materials for the celebration. required to evaluate students’ entries in Following the preservice teachers’ regards to historical quality, including participation in NHD, they were required historical accuracy, interpretation, to write a reflection paper based on the context, and use of available primary experience. This requirement was sources (NHD, 2014). Such engaged designed to support the service-learning practice may support preservice teachers’ experience, as reflection is a key historical thinking. component of service-learning (Bringle & In addition, through the experience Hatcher, 1995; Butin, 2003; Wade, 2008). of judging, preservice teachers practice The reflection prompt, revised slightly their skills in assessment. They must over four years, asked preservice teachers make decisions about the quality of a to describe their service-learning NHD project across multiple levels of experience, to identify and reflect upon performance for particular criteria and what they learned, and to explain how provide constructive written feedback. service-learning experiences support Such participation likely supports the goals of social studies education. We also development of assessment skills required discussed in class what preservice for teaching, identified as an area of teachers learned from the experience. crucial significance in preservice teacher education (Mertler, 2005). In addition, Discussion research has pointed to the positive impact service-learning activities might have on As I reflect on preservice teachers’ teacher candidates’ teaching self-efficacy service-learning experience of (Stewart, Allen, & Bai, 2011) and volunteering and judging at regional development of professional teaching

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identities (Harrison, 2013; Wilson, and teacher education (Baldwin, Bradbury, & McGlasson, 2015). Similar to Buchanan, & Rudisill, 2007; Gross & other service-learning activities conducted Maloney, 2012; Harrison, 2013; Iverson & in authentic contexts (Harrison, 2013), James, 2010; Todd & Brinkman, 2008; engaging in assessment experiences in Waterson & Haas, 2010; Wetig, 2006; which their decision-making has real- Wilson, Bradbury, & McGlasson, 2015), world consequences may support this article points to the variety and preservice teachers’ developing potential value of service-learning professional identification as teacher experiences within teacher education. rather than student. One limitation of this article is that References it is primarily descriptive and speculative, reflecting on possible outcomes of the Baldwin, S. C., Buchanan, A. M., & Rudisill, M. E. service-learning experience based on (2007). What teacher candidates learned about diversity, social justice, and relevant literature. In addition, while the themselves from service-learning service-learning activity described here experiences. Journal of Teacher Education, reflects definitions of and criteria for 58(4), 315-327. doi: service-learning (Butin, 2003; Wade, 2008), 10.1177/0022487107305259 Boyle-Baise (2003) suggested that service- Baron, C., Woyshner, C., & Haberkern, P. (2014). Integrating historic site-based laboratories learning activities engage preservice into pre-service teacher education. The teachers in considering democracy, social Journal of Social Studies Research, 38(4), 205- justice, citizenship and civic education. 213. With further development of the reflection https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jssr.2014.03.003 component, one can certainly encourage Boyle-Baise, M. (2003). Doing democracy in social studies methods. Theory and Research in preservice teachers to make stronger Social Education, 31(1), 51-71. connections between engaging in Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (1995). A service- reciprocal endeavors with community learning curriculum for faculty. The organizations such as NHD and concepts Michigan Journal of Community Service- and skills pertinent to civic education. Learning, 2, 112-122. Butin, D. W. (2003). Of what use is it? Multiple In conclusion, in this article I hoped conceptualizations of service learning to share a description of service-learning within education. Teachers College Record, practice within social studies teacher 105(9), 1674-1692. education, reflecting on possible outcomes Furco A. and Root, S. (2010). Research for preservice teachers. I encourage demonstrates the value of service- learning. Phi Delta Kappan, 91(5), 16-20. teachers and teacher educators to consider Gorn, C. (2012). National History Day works. OAH the possibilities of NHD, as it represents Magazine of History, 26(3), 9-12. doi: both an engaging experience for middle 10.1093/oahmag/oas019 school and high school students and an Gross, P. A., & Maloney, V. A. (2012). Embracing opportunity for preservice social studies diversity through service learning. The Clearing House, 85(5), 192-196. teachers to provide an important service Harrison, L. M. (2013). Service learning and its as judges for the event, while potentially impact on middle level preservice reaping important benefits as well. teachers’ learning from field experiences. Adding to the already considerable Middle Grades Research Journal, 8(3), 23-38. scholarship in the area of service-learning Hatcher, J. A., Bringle, R. G., & Muthiah, R. (2004). Designing effective reflection: What

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matters to service-learning? Michigan Parker, W. C. (2005). Teaching against idiocy. Phi Journal of Community Service Learning, Delta Kappan, 86(5), 344-351. 11(1), 38-46. Utah Division of State History. (2018, March 1). Iverson, S. V., & James, J. H. (2010). Becoming Utah History Day judging opportunities. “effective” citizens? Change-oriented Retrieved from service in a teacher education program. https://heritage.utah.gov/history/judge Innovative Higher Education, 35(1), 19-35. s Kahne, J., & Middaugh, E. (2010). High quality Scheuerell, S. (2007). National History Day: civic education: What is it and who gets it? Developing digital native historians. In W. Parker (Ed.), Social studies today: History Teacher, 40(3), 417-425. Research and practice (pp. 141-150). New Stewart, T., Allen, K. W., and Bai, H. (2011). The York, NY: Routledge. Effects of Service-Learning Participation Lovorn, M. G. (2012). Historiography in the on Pre-Internship Educators' Teachers' methods course: Training preservice Sense of Efficacy. Alberta Journal Of history teachers to evaluate local historical Educational Research, 57(3), 298-316. commemorations. The History Teacher, Todd, R. H., & Brinkman, S. G. (2008). Service 45(4), 569-579. learning in a social studies methods Mertler, C. A. (2005). Secondary teachers’ course: Experience and place-based assessment literacy: Does classroom curriculum. The Educational Forum, 72, 79- experience make a difference? American 91. Secondary Education, 33(2), 76-92. Wade, R. (2008). Service-learning. In L. S. Levstik, National History Day. (2018a). How to create an & C. A. Tyson (Eds.), Handbook of research NHD project. Retrieved September 30, in social studies education (pp. 109-123). 2018, from https://www.nhd.org/how- New York, NY: Routledge. enter-contest Waterson, R. A., & Haas, M. E. (2010). Election National History Day. (2018b). Previous annual participation: An integral service-based themes. Retrieved from component for social studies methods. https://www.nhd.org/previous-annual- Social Studies Research and Practice, 5(3), 74- themes 82. National History Day. (2018c). Taking a stand in Wetig, S. (2006). Social studies methods students history. Retrieved from engaged in service-learning: Reciprocity is https://www.nhd.org/taking-stand- the key. Educational Considerations, 34(1), history 32-34. National History Day. (2018d). Conflict and Wilson, R., Bradbury, L., & McGlasson, M. (2015). compromise in history. Retrieved from Integrating service-learning pedagogy for https://www.nhd.org/conflict-and- preservice elementary teachers’ science compromise-history identity development. Journal of Science National History Day. (2018e). National contest Teacher Education, 26(3), 319-340. judges’ information. Retrieved from Woyshner, C., Reidell, A., & Brasof, M. (2013). The https://www.nhd.org/national-contest- Cultural Fieldwork Initiative: judges%E2%80%99-information Collaboration for better Education. Journal National History Day. (2014). Contest rule book. of American History, 99(4), 1189-1197. Retrieved from https://www.nhd.org/sites/default/files About the Author: Jennifer Cutsforth /Contest-Rule-Book.pdf National History Day. (2011). National History Day Kaschak is an Associate Professor of works: National Program Evaluation, Education at the University of Scranton. Executive Summary. Jennifer can be reached via email at National History Day in Colorado. (2017). Judging. [email protected] Retrieved from https://clas.ucdenver.edu/nhdc/judging

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