Introduction
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Notes Introduction 1. Michael Gove, 15 November 2010, Hansard Parliamentary Debates,column 634, www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201011. 2. Ofsted made a statement to this effect on 11 July 2004 which was reported on by the BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/3884087.stm) and The Telegraph (www.telegraph.co.uk/education/educationnews). 3. There is a growing literature on the Falklands War, most of which does not contextualise the conflict in terms of the British Empire despite the jingoistic use of imperial ideology during the conflict. 4. Bill Schwarz (2011) The White Man’s World, Memories of Empire, 1 (Oxford University Press), p. 6. 5. Avner Offer (1993) ‘The British Empire, 1870–1914: A Waste of Money?’, The Economic History Review 46, no. 2, 215–38. 6. Bernard Porter (2004) The Absent-Minded Imperialists: Empire, Society, and Culture in Britain (Oxford University Press); John M. MacKenzie (1984) Pro- paganda and Empire: The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880–1960 (Manchester University Press). 7. Alan Sked (1987) Britain’s Decline: Problems and Perspectives (Oxford: Basil Blackwell). 8. Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose (2006) ‘Introduction: Being at Home with the Empire’, in Catherine Hall and Sonya O. Rose (eds), At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge University Press). 9. Bill Schwarz (1996) ‘ “The Only White Man in There”: The Re-Racialisation of England, 1956–1968’, Race and Class 38, no. 1, 65. 10. Stuart Ward (ed.) (2001) British Culture and the End of Empire,Studiesin Imperialism (Manchester University Press). 11. Stuart Ward (2001) ‘Introduction’, in idem (ed.), British Culture and the End of Empire (Manchester University Press), p. 6. 12. Ibid., pp. 4–5; David Cannadine, Class in Britain (London: Penguin, 2000), pp. 159–60. 13. Wendy Webster (2005) Englishness and Empire 1939–1965 (Oxford University Press), pp. 3, 5. 14. Schwarz, The White Man’s World, pp. 4–5. 15. Donatella della Porter and Mario Diani (1999) Social Movements: An Introduc- tion (Oxford: Blackwell), p. 4. 16. Ibid., pp. 85–6. 17. Benedict R. O’G. Anderson (1991) Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. and extended edn (London: Verso). 18. Some of the key historical texts on identity include: Michael Billig (1995) Banal Nationalism (London: Sage); Linda Colley (1992) Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (New Haven: Yale University Press); R. Cohen (1994) 200 Notes 201 Frontiers of Identity: The British and the Others (London: Longman); Raphael Samuel (1989) Patriotism: The Making and Unmaking of British National Identity, History Workshop Series (London: Routledge); Paul Ward (2004) Britishness since 1870 (London: Routledge); R. Weight (2002) Patriots: National Identity in Britain 1940–2000 (London: Macmillan). 19. Peter Mandler (2006) ‘What Is “National Identity?” Definitions and Appli- cations in Modern British Historiography’, Modern Intellectual History 3, no. 2. 20. Ibid., pp. 274–5. 21. Dilip Hiro (1991) Black British, White British: A History of Race Relations in Britain, 3rd edn (London: Grafton Books), p. 210. 22. Peter Fryer (1984) Staying Power: The History of Black People in Britain (London: Pluto Press), pp. 372–3. 23. Hiro, Black British, White British, p. 331. Hiro’s figures show a significant increase in immigration to 57,700 in 1960, 136,400 in 1961 and 83,771 in the first half of 1962. 24. Kathleen Paul (1997) Whitewashing Britain: Race and Citizenship in the Postwar Era (Ithaca: Cornell University Press), p. 4. She estimates that 335,000 European POWs were employed in Britain by 1945. 25. Paul Addison and Harriet Jones (2007) A Companion to Contemporary Britain, 1939–2000 (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell), p. 48. 26. Paul Gilroy (2002) There Ain’t No Black in the Union Jack: The Cultural Politics of Race and Nation (London: Routledge), p. 39. 27. Gilroy, There Ain’t No Black, p. 46. 28. Anna Marie Smith (1994) New Right Discourse on Race and Sexuality: Britain, 1968–1990 (Cambridge University Press), p. 139. 29. Paul, Whitewashing Britain, p. 134. 30. Kathleen Paul, ‘From Subjects to Immigrants: Black Britons and National Identity, 1948–1962’, in Richard Weight and Abigail Beach (eds) The Right to Belong: Citizenship and National Identity in Britain, 1930–1960 (London: I.B. Tauris), p. 231. 31. Smith, New Right Discourse, p. 130. 32. Wendy Webster (1998) Imagining Home: Gender, ‘Race’ and National Identity, 1945–64 (London: UCL Press), p. 183. 33. Robert Miles and Annie Phizacklea (1984) White Man’s Country: Racism in British Politics (London: Pluto Press), p. 23. 34. E. Ellis Cashmore (1989) United Kingdom? Class, Race and Gender since the War (London: Unwin Hyman), p. 90. 35. Dennis Dean (1993) ‘The Conservative Governments and the Restriction of Commonwealth Immigration in the 1950s: The Problems of Constraint’, The Historical Journal 35, no. 1, p. 61. 36. Randall Hansen (2000) Citizenship and Immigration in Post-War Britain: The Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation (Oxford University Press), p. 90. 37. John Solomos (1989) Race and Racism in Britain (Houndsmill: Macmillan), p. 53. 38. Michael Dummet and Ann Dummet (1982) ‘The Role of Government in Britain’s Racial Crisis’, in Charles Husband (ed.), ‘Race’ in Britain: Continuity and Change (London: Hutchinson), p. 101. 202 Notes 39. Bob Carter, Clive Harris and Shirley Joshi (1993) ‘The 1951–55 Conser- vative Government and the Racialization of Black Immigration’, in James Winston and Clive Harris (eds), Inside Babylon: The Caribbean Diaspora in Britain (London: Verso), p. 62. 40. For a discussion of Englishness and the nostalgia for the rural landscape, see Christine Berberich (2006) ‘The Green and Pleasant Land: Cultural Construc- tions of Englishness’, in Robert Burden and Stephan Kohl (eds), Landscape and Englishness (New York: Rodopi), pp. 207–24; Schwarz, White Man’s World, p. 6. 41. Vron Ware (1996) ‘Defining Forces: “Race”, Gender and Memories of Empire’, in Iain Chambers and Lidia Curti (eds), The Post-Colonial Question: Com- mon Skies, Divided Horizons (London: Routledge), p. 143. Ware’s work is part of a growing field of ‘whiteness studies’ that was pioneered by Ruth Frankenberg (1993) White Women, Race Matters: The Social Construction of Whiteness (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press) and David Roediger (1991) The Wages of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American Working Class (New York: Verso), amongst others. 42. Webster, Imagining Home,p.xvii. 43. Gilroy, There Ain’t No Black, p. 45; Paul, ‘From Subjects to Immigrants’, p. 228. 44. For support of this idea, see Hiro, Black British, White British; Kenneth Lunn (1990) ‘The British State and Immigration, 1945–51: New Light on the Empire Windrush’, in Tony Kushner and Kenneth Lunn (eds), The Politics of Marginality: Race, the Radical Rights and Minorities in Twentieth Century Britain (London: Frank Cass), pp. 161–74, and Laura Tabili (1994) ‘We Ask for British Justice’: Workers and Racial Difference in Late Imperial Britain (Ithaca: Cornell University Press). For discussion of empire as too simple an explanation for racism, see Gilroy, There Ain’t No Black; Carter, Harris and Joshi, ‘The 1951–55 Conservative Government’, and Chris Waters (1997) ‘ “Dark Strangers in Our Midst”: Discourses of Race and Nation in Britain, 1947–63’, Journal of British Studies 36, no. 2. 45. In particular see Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration, p. 121. He argues that strong immigration controls are necessary and inevitable throughout the postwar Western world rather than the result of racism. For views which locate racism outside of the government see Fryer, Staying Power; Paul Foot (1965) Immigration and Race in British Politics (Harmondsworth: Penguin); Kenneth O. Morgan (2001) The People’s Peace: British History since 1945 (Reading: Oxford University Press); Zig Layton-Henry (1992) The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, ‘Race’ and ‘Race’ Relations in Post-War Britain, Making Contemporary Britain (Oxford: Blackwell), p. 40; Paul B. Rich (1994) Prospero’s Return? Historical Essays on Race, Culture and British Soci- ety (London: Hansib) and Stephen Brooke (1996) ‘The Conservative Party, Immigration and National Identity, 1948–68’, in Martin Francis and Ina Zweiniger-Bargielowska (eds), The Conservatives and British Society 1880–1990 (Cardiff: University of Wales Press), pp. 147–70. For the argument that the government was more liberal than the public see Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration. 46. Schwarz, The White Man’s World,p.12. Notes 203 47. Arthur Marwick (1998) The Sixties: Cultural Revolution in Britain, France, Italy and the United States, C.1958–1974 (Oxford University Press), p. 4. 48. Gerard DeGroot (2009) The Sixties Unplugged (London: Pan MacMillan). 49. Ibid., p. 1. 50. The notion of a ‘public mood’ is a complicated and contested one. While it is true that there is never one all-encompassing ‘public mood’, and that even if there was historians would be hard-pressed to find it, changes in normative ideas about what is accepted or unacceptable certainly can be mapped. Paul Addison has likened the attempt to discover the ‘public mood’ to ‘hunting the unicorn’. Paul Addison (1977) The Road to 1945: British Politics and the Second World War (London: Quartet Books), p. 15. 51. David Reynolds (2000) Britannia Overruled: British Policy and World Power in the Twentieth Century, 2nd edn (Harlow: Longman). 52. Sked, Britain’s Decline,p.1. 53. Jim Tomlinson (2003) ‘The Decline of the Empire and the Economic “Decline” of Britain’, Twentieth Century British History 14,no.3;idem (2001) The Politics of Decline: Understanding Post-War Britain (London: Longman); idem (1996) ‘Inventing “Decline”: The Falling Behind of the British Economy in the Postwar Years’, The Economic History Review 49, no. 4. 54. Sked, Britain’s Decline, p. 40. 55. Hall and Rose, ‘Introduction: Being at Home with the Empire’. 56. Bill Schwarz (1996) ‘Conquerors of Truth: Reflections on Postcolonial The- ory’, in idem (ed.), The Expansion of England: Race, Ethnicity and Cultural History (London: Routledge).