Illuminating the Monuments: Observation and Speculation on the Structure and Function of the Cairns at Balnuaran of Clava

Cambridge Archaeological Journal 10:2 (2000), 295–315

David Trevarthen

The cairns at Balnuaran of Clava show a structural relationship to the annual cycle, most clearly in their alignment on Midwinter sunset. The stones used in their construction fall into simple colour classes: ‘red’, ‘white’ and ‘black’. All three, but especially the black, appear to show selective arrangement in the cairns. A preliminary study of the relationships between the position of coloured stones and certain solar alignments, using both direct opposition and shadow casting, indicates that choice of colour may have been a significant factor in the positioning of stones within the monuments. Moreover the three colours seem to show a consistent pattern of meaning across a wide spectrum of cultures, which may imply a universal psychological factor in their symbolic use.

This evening she marked where the sun dove to ring cairn (Fig. 2). This site also includes a small kerb the horizon, for over the weeks she had made a cairn. The following descriptions of form and construc- practice of noting its setting point on the ridge. She tion refer specifically to this site, though they are gen- had watched it march southward as the days erally applicable to the Clava group as a whole. snuffed out earlier and earlier. . . . It would be a The chambered cairns are instantly recogniz- great pleasure year after year to watch with antici- pation as the sun drew nigh to . . . (its extreme) and able as ‘classic’ passage graves; a roughly circular then on a specified day . . . (turned) and retraced its cairn or mound, in this case kerbed, covering a round path. Over time, watching that happen again and chamber with corbelled roof that is accessed by a again might make the years seem not such an aw- narrow passage. The ring cairn is a low, circular ful linear progress but instead a looping and a bank of stone with inner and outer kerbs and no return. Keeping track of such a thing would place a obvious entrance to its central area. The diameter of person, would be a way of saying, You are here, in the ring cairn’s interior is significantly larger than this one station, now. It would be an answer to the that of the passage graves, making it impossible for question, Where am I? it to have been roofed with corbelling — the span is Cold Mountain, Charles Frazier (1997, 260) too great for this to be practicable. Both cairn types [Reproduced by permission of Hodder & Stoughton Ltd] are enclosed by stone circles at the edge of a rubble platform sloping away from their outer kerbs. The The Clava cairns are a group of megalithic monu- ring cairn at Balnuaran has an additional unique ments in northeast Scotland. Their distribution is feature of four ‘rays’; low rubble causeways linking restricted to an area south and west of the Moray Firth, its outer kerb to stones of the surrounding circle. mainly in the terraced valleys of Strathspey and Strathnairn, the densest concentration being just east The construction and age of the Cairns of Inverness (Fig. 1). The group comprises two distinct monument types: chambered cairns, and ring cairns Fieldwork carried out at Balnuaran of Clava by Ri- (Henshall 1963). The type site of Balnuaran of Clava chard Bradley between 1994 and 1997 has shown (NGR NH 757 444) has two chambered cairns and a how the cairns were built and has demonstrated the

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contemporaneity of their various features (Bradley 1996; 1998a,b,c; 2000). During the 1994–95 excavations it was found that neither the kerbstones nor the monoliths of the stone circles are set into sockets and are held in place by the platform material. Without this weight against them, the outer kerbstones would have been forced outwards by the cairn fill in a relatively short time. The standing stones are held upright by platform material surrounding their bases, with no evidence that they have been inserted into the platform at a later date. All these features represent a single construction process. Identical methods of construction are used in both types of cairn. Besides the unusual feature of en- closing stone circles, the monuments share a definite southwestern focus. The outer kerbstones of each cairn have been Figure 1. Distribution of Clava group sites. graded, with the lowest in the northeast. They increase in size around the circumference to the largest in the southwest. In the passage graves, this gradation terminates with the stones flanking their entrances, while a single massive block marks the end of the gradation in the ring cairn. The stone circles and the ring cairn’s inner kerb also increase in size from the northeast to the southwest. Most bizarrely, considering the mechanics of drystone construction, the kerbstones within the chambers are graded, the tallest adjacent to the passage and the lowest opposite it. This height difference is marked, 38 cm in the northeastern cairn (NEC) and 50 cm in the southwestern cairn (SWC), giving a pronounced slope to the base on which the corbelled roof rests. This would seem to be an intentional com- plication of an already tricky job; the grading of the walls taking priority over the ease of roofing the chamber. This sorting by size has two effects; first it creates a trompe l’oeil false perspective. On viewing the cairns from the southwest, they appear to recede

Figure 2. Plan of the monuments at Balnuaran of Clava.

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much further than they actually do, and their shapes passage graves could be classed as red or white. To change as you walk around the circumference. Sec- examine this in detail a proportional survey of the ondly, the cairns and stone circles tilt upwards to the visible cobbles was carried out by Andy Jones and southwest, presenting their tallest faces to the set- Hannah Sackett. Despite the uppermost layer of cob- ting Midwinter sun. In the passage graves this orien- bles having suffered the most from later disturbance, tation is further refined; not only are the two passages a clear trend appeared: the southwest of the cairns is aligned on the Winter Solstice sunset, but they are predominantly red, the northeast predominantly on the same line to it. An observer inside the NEC white, with a greater proportion of red cobbles in the looking down the passage would see the Midwinter SWC (Bradley 1998c). This would make the front of sun setting behind the SWC. The ring cairn between the cairns glow red in the reflected light of the set- the passage graves does not block this sight line, yet ting sun at and around Midwinter. The northeastern it is close enough for two of its monoliths to be part side would also flash white around Midsummer sun- of the same alignment. rise but the focus of the site on the Winter Solstice Clearly, a great deal of care was taken in build- sunset made this less instantly apparent. ing the cairns, with production of an overall effect Having been sensitized to stone colour, we re- taking precedence over any difficulty in creating it. alized that the monuments used only red or white Bradley has discussed in more detail the risks taken materials, materials that when first erected would in construction and the tension between structural have been highly contrasting. To obtain a compre- stability and symbolism (Bradley 1998b). The rela- hensive picture of this and to look for structured tionships between monuments seem to have been patterning in the colours’ arrangement, Heather treated with as much precision as the individual Jackson and I carried out a complete colour/stone- structures. All of this suggests that the finished cairns type survey; identifying all orthostats, monoliths and represent the concrete expression of a relatively com- extant corbelling to stone-type and hence original plex cultural agenda. colour (Trevarthen & Jackson 1997). The identifica- The passage graves seem, from basic morphol- tion of the stones was in many cases not at all straight- ogy, to represent a local variant of a typically Neo- forward, the visible surfaces being often almost lithic form. The almost total absence of associated totally covered by lichens. This does of course go finds, diagnostic or otherwise throughout the Clava some way to explaining why past studies failed to group, does not alter this impression. The excava- discern colour differences and remained more con- tions at Balnuaran of Clava made possible the collec- cerned with overall form. tion of securely stratified charcoal, yielding a good Our survey confirmed that the building stones series of radiocarbon dates. These results, supported can be divided into basic categories of ‘red’ and by the recently available dates from Raigmore and ‘white’ (Figs. 3, 4 & 5). Red materials are of three Newton of Petty, place the Clava group between distinct stone-types: red sandstone, red conglomer- 2300 and 2000 BC, the end of the Neolithic and begin- ate and pegmatite. The latter is a pink, coarse quartz- ning of the Bronze Age (Bradley 1997; pers. comm.; feldspar rock which occurs as veins associated with Simpson 1996). Instead of looking at an unusual Neo- gneiss. The white stones are granite, gneiss, mica lithic juxtaposition of cairns and stone circles, we are schist and a quartz-rich granite similar to the Goatfell dealing with Bronze Age structures using an ‘ar- granite from Arran. The red sandstone and conglom- chaic’ chambered cairn form that had its heyday one erate derive from the local bedrock of Devonian Old thousand years before. Speculation about what the Red Sandstone, the conglomerate representing the builders of the Clava cairns were trying to embody basal fraction of the sandstone beds. All the other in the form of their constructions must incorporate types are readily available as glacial erratics (Read 1935). this fact. The monuments at Balnuaran show an ar- A complete selection of these materials is still present chitectural sophistication which makes it seem that in the bed and banks of the Nairn adjacent to the site, they are much more than the casual appropriation of and in the neighbouring fields. Our preliminary re- a previously existing form. sults, incorporating my initial theoretical solar alignments, were those used by Bradley in his discussion The colours of the stones of the use of colour at the site (Bradley 1998c). The only other examination of this type carried The degree of subtlety of this sophistication became out at Balnuaran was that done for Kathleen Kennedy increasingly clear during the 1994–95 excavations. It during her partial excavation and reconsolidation of was noticed that the cobbles in the cairn fill of the the cairns in the early 1930s (Barclay 1990, plans in

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Figure 3. Stone-types used in the Southwest Cairn.1

Figure 4. Stone-types used in the Northeast Cairn. 298

Figure 5. Stone-types used in the Ring Cairn.

NMRS). This seems to have been undertaken by peo- dark grey marbling. The Gneiss* shares with the ple more familiar with stone as a building material mica schist (White*) a very noticeable sparkle caused than on geological grounds. The stones were classi- by laminar inclusions of small mica crystals. This is fied into four types: whin, granite, laminated stone particularly obvious when moving past the blocks in and pudding stone, with no reference to colour. These good sunlight, as the whole surface twinkles. The categories agree fairly well with the 1997 results; in colour/stone-type designations for these materials most cases laminated stone is equivalent to sand- include an asterisk indicating this quality. The quartz- stone, and pudding stone to conglomerate. The other rich granite (Q-White) and the Pink have outer faces stones, the white group and the pegmatite, are classed largely composed of reflective fracture surfaces giv- as granite and whin, but with no consistent equiva- ing them a noticeable gleam. This is most apparent lence. To confuse matters more, not only do some in the Q-White, of which there are only two exam- details of Kennedy’s plans differ from the most re- ples, both in the NEC. The granite (White) is defined cent ones, but even as a loose geological classifica- by negative distinctions; it is plainly not red, it is not tion whin is simply not present on the site. The term marbled and does not dramatically sparkle or gleam. is probably being used in a more general way, to The use of the latter two qualities may seem surpris- indicate any hard stone usable as road stone ing — although not used in our present Western (Robinson 1985). colour values, they are accepted as non-hue attributes Within the 1997 colour/stone-type categories in studying colour perception (Saunders & van Brakel all the materials display distinct visual differences. 1997, and refs. therein). All these qualities seem to be In the red group there is a textural contrast between used purposefully in the cairns. the finer-grained red sandstone (Red-S), and the coarse, almost toadskin-like red conglomerate (Red- The black stones C), both being much redder than the pegmatite (Pink). The gneiss (Gneiss*) is the most distinctive of the The red and white materials are not the only stone- white group, with a visually arresting fine black or types incorporated in the cairns. During the survey

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we found that, in the passage graves, a black or dark that the black or dark stone is in some way identified stone has also been used. This happens only in the with this specific sunset. corbelling at the rear of the chambers (Figs. 3 & 4). In both cases the largest piece of this stone is above the The division of the year lowest kerbstones, facing Midwinter sunset. In the SWC this distinctive material is a large The site shows a marked focus on the Winter Solstice piece of mafic gneiss that is almost completely black. sunset; it might follow that other solar positions were With a largest exposed dimension of around 70 cm it of interest and influenced the arrangement of the is the only major piece of this material visible in the stones. Previous work on solar alignments at Bal- cairns. The few others are not much more than hand- nuaran includes a survey carried out by Alexander sized. Such limited use could reflect a shortage of Thom (Thom et al. 1980), and an assessment of the the material. A short walk along the adjacent bank of Clava group as a whole by Douglas Scott (Scott et al. the River Nairn to gauge the relative availability of 1992; Scott 1999). Both studies focused on very spe- this and other erratics, however, revealed numerous cific questions. Thom looked for, and found, simple examples. Some of these are large enough to serve as alignments to the Solstice sunrises and sunsets using kerbstones, or even monoliths. Further investigation aligned pairs of monoliths in the circles and the kerb showed that a small stream about 1–2 miles south- cairn. Scott was interested in the relationship of the east of the site cuts through this material, associated stone circles to solar and lunar alignments, calculat- with pegmatite as bedrock. This is clearly visible on ing the declination of each monolith from the centre Scotland sheet 84 solid edition of the British Geo- of its respective cairn. Correspondences are shown logical Survey. The inescapable conclusion is that for most of the stones, though the three cairns mark this stone was being actively selected against, and different target events, and some stones fail to match only used in one very specific area. It would be any. Aubrey Burl has also focused on the lunar align- interesting to know whether or not it is present within ments of the Clava group (Burl 1981), but these are the structure of the cairns, an invisible but integral not dealt with here as the present study is restricted part of the whole. to the annually repeating solar cycle. This does not In the NEC the mafic gneiss only appears in the imply a belief that the lunar cycle could not be refer- form of a few small pieces, infilling gaps in the enced in the Clava cairns. The movements of the corbelling. Instead, a mica schist boulder has been sun, a consistent annual cycle, are however likely to broken in half and the two halves positioned with form a substructure underpinning awareness of the the broken (i.e. unweathered) faces outwards over longer duration lunar cycle. The sun can be used to the lowest kerbstones. This is the only visible use of divide the year, every year, purely by position, unweathered schist in all three cairns. It has a notice- something that is not possible with the moon. A ably different appearance, the laminar structure of hierarchy of celestial timescales would run as fol- the schist making the broken surface substantially lows: the phases of the moon, the solar cycle, the darker as the black mica is exposed. The sparkle of lunar cycle. the stone is enhanced by this increased proportion of The results of the 1997 colour/stone-type sur- mica, more noticable than in any other schist or vey show that the kerbs of all three cairns are made gneiss. The largest piece of mafic gneiss in the NEC up of sequences of red and white stone (Figs. 3, 4 & is immediately below one of these schist slabs, again 5). There is no obvious similarity of pattern; the ring opposite Midwinter sunset. It seems that in both cairns cairn suffers from several gaps and the passage graves a relationship between the Winter Solstice and the mafic show contrasting preferences for predominantly red gneiss exists; broken schist marks this point in the or white compositions. A closer look reveals zoning; NEC and the mafic gneiss is used only minimally. clusters of the same colour around the circumfer- It has been suggested that the orientation on ence. In order to test for an underlying principle of the Winter Solstice of the Balnuaran passage graves structure, this zoning was compared with certain is purely conceptual, as sunlight would not reach solar phenomena. The dates used are: the Solstices the chambers when they were roofed (Burl 1983). (21 June, 21 December), the Equinoxes (21 March, 21 Ronnie Scott’s re-roofing of the NEC at Midwinter September), and the four Quarter days (beginning of 1997, 1998, and the SWC in 1999, however, demon- February, May, August and November). strated both indirect and direct illumination of the The Quarter day positions are usually known back wall of the chamber (Scott & Phillips 1999; and by the ‘Celtic’ festivals associated with them: Imbolc following). There would seem little reason to doubt or Bride, 1 February; Beltain, 1 May; Lammas, 1 Au-

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gust and Samhain, 1 November. These names are (Bishop 1998) demonstrates close parallels. Cattle- retained for ease of reference and not so as to imply breeding begins in June in high pasture and calving cultural affinity. They divide into two pairs, Winter, starts in March. Seasonal festivals are celebrated in Bride and Samhain; Summer, Beltain and Lammas. mid-March (spring/prosperity); early July (midsum- They fall more or less equidistant between Solstices mer); early August (blessing); late September (defeat and Equinoxes, dividing the year into eight sections of demons) and the full moon in October (atone- of 45–46 days each. Although Scott’s survey and my ment). They celebrate New Year in late January/ preliminary review of alignments in the cairns (Tre- early February. While the altitudes at which these varthen & Jackson 1997) showed a possible interest people live mean that the rigours of the Scottish in all these divisions, their further inclusion requires Highland climate are not too dissimilar, their posi- some justification. tion closer to the Equator makes the apparent sea- While the Solstices are the easiest to observe sonal movements of the sun significantly less marked. with accuracy, the timing of the Quarter days and The similarity in their festival divisions is, therefore, Equinoxes have a more practical relevance to the more likely to derive from similar terrestrial rather seasonal cycle, in particular to herding and farming than celestial cues. It is of course extremely unlikely schedules. In the Celtic calendar these points of the that they originate in a translocated Celtic tradition. year have long been associated with specific aspects ‘If, as seems likely, it was a central purpose of of animal husbandry and agriculture (i.e. Green 1998; the archaic calendar to organize and hold in place a McNeil 1956). Burl has also linked them to a Neolithic network of meaning, it is not surprising to find that farming year (Burl 1987). I would suggest that the approaches made to the study of calendars through natural cycle of plants and animals comes first and astronomy alone fail to give a complete picture of the location of festival periods, Celtic or otherwise, the processes involved not only in their use but also stems from this. Most of these periods of the year in their construction’, (Lyle 1990, 52). Emily Lyle’s can be related to cattle management. Fraser John- point refers to a semiotic approach, but would seem stone, the farmer at Balnuaran, was asked what times to hold equally true in the context of any practical of year he saw as natural divisions, in terms that annual activity. would apply to a Bronze Age economy with, for The use of the Equinox as a calendrical division example, no access to bought feed, or motorized has been seen as problematic (Ruggles 1998, and transport. He divided the periods of activity as fol- refs. therein; 1999) on grounds that it is a product of lows: late March, calving; early May, moving cattle a modern (Newtonian) astronomical mindset, and it to summer pasture; early August, starting the move is inherently difficult to observe. The Equinox is un- down from summer pasture; early November, col- derstood (by many) as a product of the apparent lection of winter fodder and the slaughter of cattle, annual movement of the sun, marking a point half- to supply humans with meat and to reduce the herd way between the two seasonal extremes. This has to a level that could be fed through the winter. These clearly happened for as long as there have been sea- periods match Spring Equinox, both Summer Quar- sons. As Clive Ruggles indicates, the real problem is ter days and Samhain (early November). With a ges- a semantic one of the meaning of the word ‘Equinox’ tation period of nine months, cattle-breeding would (Ruggles 1999, 149). As to their unobservability, it is start around Summer Solstice, in the high pasture true that the position of the sunrise and sunset with good grazing. The return from high pasture changes fastest at this period, making it difficult to during August allows the greatest number of people observe precisely a specific day. My argument is to assist at harvest. Bride (early February) does not that we are not dealing with either specific days or feature in this cattle calendar, but any indicator of twentieth-century precision. The period of the year Samhain will mark it by default, as the sun’s transit is more important than any single day. The coinci- is the same for both Winter Quarter day periods. dence of calving with the Spring Equinox has al- While in practice these timings will vary in any given ready been alluded to. year due to the vagaries of the weather, they stand Three simple methods are available to indi- as an ‘ideal’ framework for activity throughout the cate the approximate position of the Equinox. Since year. Other natural indicators may reinforce this: the the Solstice positions are readily observable, behaviour and movement of wild species such as foresights can be placed at equal distances from a deer and migratory birds; sowing, harvesting and common backsight for each; dividing the distance other agricultural practices. between these foresights will give the midpoint A recent study of Nepalese herding people foresight (Hogben 1938). Except in cases of ex-

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treme topographical variation this will be close Altitude values for the horizon were taken by enough to the Equinox. A quicker method uses a individual surveys from the centre of each cairn. stick as a gnomon to find the shortest shadow cast This is crucial — the higher the elevation of the on any day, yielding a true north–south line. A horizon the further south the sun will appear to rise second line perpendicular to this will give the east– or set. Surveys were carried out using a hand-held west line, which again supplies an approximate compass to take bearings on significant changes of Equinox position. This is the only horizontal solar slope, the angle of altitude read in 1/100ths of tan (or lunar) correspondence with the (modern) car- using a Watkins clinometer (i.e. 45° = 100). Each dinal directions. The simplest, and arguably most horizon was surveyed in its entirety and without accurate method, is to count 91 days from the Sol- consideration as to where astronomical events might stice. Day counting is the most likely method for take place. Compensation for refraction has been fine-tuning the system, and well within the capa- calculated using the curve provided by Wood, though bilities of Bronze Age populations. Alexander as most of the horizon values are of 3° or greater the Marshack (Marshack 1972) has indicated that hu- effect of this is negligible. mans may have been not only interested in perio- It is not suggested here that the cairns at dicity, but may possibly have recorded it with Balnuaran of Clava could have been used for accu- notations, as far back as the Palaeolithic. As a fur- rate celestial observation. Rather, it is proposed that ther check, 91 days is just over three lunar months, seasonality was an important part of the lives of so that by using the phases of the moon as a guide their builders, no doubt intimately connected with it would not be necessary to count every indi- ideas of death, birth and growth, and that this aware- vidual day. ness of the yearly cycle may have been made explicit in the cairns’ construction. The juxtaposition of sun- The year and the red and white stones rise and sunset locations with the arrangement of the stones, confirms that the Midwinter sunset was None of the previous work allows for any correla- not the only seasonal marker recognized. tion between the solar cycle and the arrangement of Before looking at the relationship between colours in the kerb. To investigate this in the sim- solar events and the colours of the stones, it was con- plest way, a grid of the azimuths of various sunrises firmed that the kerbstones had not suffered re-arrange- and sunsets was overlain on each cairn (Figs. 6, 7 & ment during the nineteenth century. Kathleen 8). The key positions are labelled on the diagrams as Kennedy’s photographs from 1930/31, and those from follows: Midwinter rise/set = MWR/MWS; Midsum- the 1924 SDD survey (NMRS) show that the kerbs mer rise/set = MSR/MSS; Summer Quarter days = were almost completely obscured by tumbled cairn SQ; Winter Quarter days = WQ; and Equinoxes = Eq. material before Kennedy’s activities. The etchings of Only five axes appear on the diagrams since the the passage graves in Alexander MacBain’s paper for Equinox, Summer Quarter day, and Winter Quarter the Gaelic Society of Inverness (MacBain 1883–4) con- day, occur in pairs that share common azimuths. firm this. The relationship of the kerbs to the plat- The Quarter days have been calculated using a decli- form revealed by Bradley, and Kennedy’s notes on nation of +/–16°, placing them about the 5th/6th of her reconsolidation work (Barclay 1990, NMRS) make their respective months. This departs slightly from it inconceivable that the kerbstones have been rear- the traditional dates of the Quarter days, but what is ranged. of interest is the period of the year, not the specific date. The other declinations used are: Solstices +/– The southwest cairn 24°; Equinoxes 0°. Azimuths were calculated for the sun with its The discussion of sunrise and sunset positions with centre point on the horizon, using the formula: respect to the kerbstones assumes a point of view from the centre of the cairn towards the sun, or facing the sin d = sin φ sin a + cos φ cos a cos A, kerb with the sun directly behind one (Fig. 6). The arc of kerbstones opposite the sunrise divides into two therefore, cos A = sin d – sin φ sin a halves. Sunrises for the Summer half of the year (Spring Equinox φ to Autumn Equinox) face White, with the pivotal Summer Sol- cos cos a stice period (MSR) indicated by a contrasting Red-C. The Equi- nox (EqR), at the mid-point of the rising arc, is marked by a where d = declination, φ = latitude, a = altitude, and Red-S, the only Red-S in the sunrise and sunset arcs. From this A = azimuth (North 1996; Wood 1980). point, the Winter half sunrises (Autumn Equinox to Spring Equi- nox) face alternate White and Red-C stones until just before

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Figure 6. Sunrise and sunset positions at the Southwest Cairn.

Midwinter where a pair of Pinks take the place of a Red-C, and cent Pink kerbstone. the Winter Solstice (MWR) faces White. Alternatively, if Pink is treated as different from red, and the Taking the colours of the stones as a simple duality, Pink passage is accepted as the MWS marker, then three of the four grouped with Red, the sequence marked by sunrises from Sum- solstice events are indicated by an adjacent Pink. In Winter, the mer to Winter reads; Red (MSR) — 7 White — Red (Eq) — 8 White opposition of white and red for rising to white for setting changes and Red alternating — White (MWR); i.e. Summer suns face White, shortly before Midwinter, and the sun rises and sets against and Winter suns face White and Red. Pink. The Solstice then is marked by an opposition, white for In the sunset arc there is no clear division. Midsummer sun- sunrise to passage (black?) for sunset, followed by a return to Pink. set (MSS) is opposite White followed by a Pink. The next Red-C Perhaps Pink functions as a liminal marker, defining the Winter faces the Summer Quarter day (SQS), which is the only obvious Solstice. Around the Summer Solstice the sunsets also pass from marking of a Quarter day position. The stones then alternate a Pink stone to the White Solstice marker and back to Pink. White and Gneiss* until just before the passage, marking the There are two further contrasts between the arcs. Stones with Winter Solstice (MWS), where there is a Pink. The stone opposite sparkle, in this case Gneiss*, only appear in the setting arc. This the Equinox sunsets is missing. If it was intended to mirror the arc also uses the stone circle to indicate certain positions. Kerb- rising arc, it might have been a Red-S. However any stone-type stones opposite the Winter Quarter days are blocked by Mono- other than White would serve as a marker. lith A, Equinoxes by Monolith B, Summer Quarter days by Again, reading from Midsummer, taking Pink stones as red, Monolith C. All of the extant monoliths at the SWC are Red-S. and Gneiss* as white, the sequence of setting suns runs as fol- Across the road partially under a wall, there is a large boulder of lows; White (MSS) —Red — White — missing (Eq) — White — Gneiss* (Monolith I?). This is in the right place to fill a gap in the Red/Passage (MWS). The Winter half of the setting arc mirrors circle, and it may be a toppled monolith. the Summer half of the rising arc; both are completely white with a red terminal at the Solstice. The other two half arcs may also The northeast cairn mirror each other; both are half red and half white, with white terminals. In the sunrise arc the colours alternate, in the setting arc they divide at the Summer Quarter days. If this interpretation The arrangement of kerbstones in the NEC (Fig. 7) is accepted, we define a four-fold division: in Summer, sunrises has two obvious differences from the SWC; there are are against white and sunsets are against white and red, and in many more red stones in the kerb, and the stone the Winter, sunrises are against white and red and sunsets are against white. This arrangement of the stones would function as circle is less than half Red-S (Fig. 7). a general seasonal indicator for sunrises and sunsets with con- Midsummer begins the rising arc opposite a Red-C. Follow- trasting Solstice and Equinox markers, the status of the passage ing this are two Pinks and three Red-Cs with Summer Quarter as Winter Solstice sunset marker being transferred to the adja- day facing the first Red-C. Next to a large White, the Equinox

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Figure 7. Sunrise and sunset positions at the Northeast Cairn.

position kerbstone is missing. There is a White either side, so any ence for the kerbstones. In the SWC it is white, in the NEC it is stone-type other than White could serve as a marker. After the red, which is the opposite of the differences in the cairn fills Equinox there are three Whites, followed by the first of two Pinks (Bradley 1998c). As in the SWC, there are no sparkle stones in the flanking a gap opposite the Winter Quarter day. Again, there is rising arc of the NEC, though a Gneiss* lies beside the Midsum- no way of telling which stone-type filled this gap. Resting on top mer sunrise position. of the closest White there is a large slab of Red-S. This has been The NEC also uses monoliths as indicators, mostly in near- interpreted as a false portal, but it may be a misplaced kerbstone. miss positions. The only well-aligned stone is Monolith H (White) It could fill either the gap between the two Pinks, or the Equinox in front of the Winter Quarter days’ sunrise. Equinox dawn, and position. After the second Pink a Red-C is followed by the only Midsummer and Winter Quarter day sunsets pass behind Mono- Q-White kerbstone, facing the Winter solstice sunrise. This arc liths G (Q-White), C and A (Red-S) respectively. Midsummer does not divide simply in two. If the Equinox is marked with red sunrise is immediately south of Monolith E (Gneiss*). The mono- and the Winter Quarter day with white, it is possible to argue for liths show a colour distinction between the rising and setting red Summer, and red and white Winter halves, the Equinox being arcs; monoliths within the setting arc (A, B, and C) are all Red-S. framed by white. Disregarding the missing stones, the obvious In the rising arc Monolith F is Pink, G Q-White, and H White. division is a three-way one, Red — White — Red. All sunrises from This leaves four monoliths: D, E, I and J, two white (Gneiss*) on the first Summer Quarter day to the second (early May to early the north side of the cairn, and two red (Red-S, Red-C) on the August) are against Pink until the red stone at the Solstice, which south. These four monoliths can be incorporated into the rising recalls the arrangement in the SWC around Midwinter sunrise. and setting arcs in two ways. Division along the north–south axis The setting arc in this cairn is more straightforward. Mid- of the cairn leaves a red arc to the west with a Gneiss* terminal at summer is opposite one of a pair of Gneiss*, followed by a White the north end, and an eastern white and Pink arc with the only and a Red-C, their junction marking the Summer Quarter day. Red-C monolith as southern terminal. This has symmetry, but From here a Gneiss*, then two Whites, are followed by a Red-C the interpretation may be influenced by a contemporary predis- marking the Equinox. All the stones from the Equinox position to position to see maps with north at the top. the passage are red, apart from the final large White*. After the A more obvious division, disregarding compass cues, would Red-C at the Equinox, two Red-C lie between two Red-S. This arc include the red monoliths in the setting arc, and the white in the divides neatly in two: Summer is marked by white, excepting the rising arc. The axis now runs almost westnorthwest–eastsoutheast, Red-C marking the Summer Quarter days, and Winter stones are essentially between Midsummer sunset and Midwinter sunrise. red, with a White* next to the passage entrance. As in the SWC This matches almost exactly the constructional division proposed we can hypothesize a four-fold division, but a different one: here by Alexander Thom (Thom 1967). He classified the circle as a Summer sunrises face red stones and sunsets white; Winter ‘Type I egg-shaped circle’, suggesting a construction whereby sunrises face red and white stones and sunsets red. This reverses the white arc is a regular semicircle, and the red is formed of the pattern in the SWC. Each cairn shows a clear colour prefer- three conjoined shorter arcs. This fits a solar focus better. Sunrises,

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Figure 8. Sunrise and sunset positions at the Ring Cairn.

especially in Summer, light a white half-circle, and sunsets a red the many missing stones make this difficult to as- one, particularly in Winter. The position of the Pink becomes sess. There are some suggestive hints. No Red-C more dramatic as the only non-white in this arc and located more kerbs are present in the rising arc, or in the entire or less centrally. In Thom’s scheme the Pink marks the semicircle’s mid-point, the northeast end of the long axis. In the red southeast half of the outer kerb. Red-S is used more semicircle the equivalent position is between Monoliths A and B than in either passage grave. In complete contrast to where a monolith has probably been removed. Ironically, Thom’s the other cairns, sparkle stone in the ring cairn is in classification of the circle is almost certainly an error arising from the rising arc. In the inner kerb the only sparkle the slightly off-line re-erection of a couple of the southwest Mono- liths (Scott 1999). It is clear from James Fraser’s plans (Fraser stones are a pair of White* aligned with Midwinter 1883–4, full size copies in NMRS) that Monolith A was replaced sunrise. on its head and should stand its own length closer to the kerb. Monoliths are used to mark certain points. Summer Quarter The small stone between Monoliths D and E, thought to be day and Winter Quarter day sunrises are behind Monoliths E natural by Audrey Henshall (1963), fits perfectly with the rest of and G, Midwinter sunrise is close enough to possibly pass be- the circle. I believe this may be an upcast chocking stone marking hind Monolith H. The Quarter days’ setting positions are adja- a removed monolith. Henshall’s plan shows a low monolith di- cent to Monoliths A and B, the sun passing behind to reappear rectly in line with the entrance; she considers this probably due just before setting. The Equinox sunset does the same with the to restoration activity in the nineteenth century. It does not ap- stone between these monoliths, the stump of a Red-S monolith pear on any plans before Stuart Piggotts’ (1954–6) and could be broken off at ground level (R. Bradley pers. comm.). the result of unrecorded activity in the late 30s or 40s. I was There is no clear division of the stone circle though the set- unable to find a photograph from either 1924 or 1930/31 clear ting arc is exclusively Red-S, and the rising arc is mixed; Gneiss*, enough of vegetation to demonstrate conclusively its presence or Red-C and Red-S, similar to the NEC. absence at that time. It looks as though a selective arrangement may have been employed in the ring cairn, though it is much less obvious than The ring cairn in the passage graves. It is interesting that Equinox sunrise is again marked with a Red-S. The Red-S kerbs facing this position in both SWC and ring cairn are cupmarked. The small kerb cairn The ring cairn (Fig. 8) does not demonstrate anything also has a cupmarked Red-S here. In all three cases this is the as clear cut as the two passage graves. only cupmarking visible in the outer kerb and may imply a The two arcs do not show any clearly definable consistent pattern. In the NEC this kerbstone is missing, but the heavily cupmarked Red-S kerb at its rear marks true North. pattern relating to sunrises and sunsets, however Examination of other Clava-type ring cairns should allow the

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Figure 9. Seasonal shadow- casting at the Southwest Cairn.

Figure 10. Seasonal shadow- casting at the Northeast Cairn. 306

Figure 11. Seasonal shadow- casting at the Ring Cairn.

development of ideas based on the comparison and contrast of site the sun from a point of observation at the centre similar monuments. It is probable that the ring cairns differ in without possibility of confirmation. This situation use from passage graves, reflecting the differences in their construction as open monuments. Their interiors are not hidden and would imply that the only event displayed unequivo- it is possible to look across the centre from one side to the other. cally to a visitor to the cairn would be Midwinter Consideration of this fundamental difference leads to a quite sunset. Timing of all other events would have to be different way of seeing the monuments. calculated, or guessed. Any group experience of other The shadows: development of a theory dates would have less visible connection to the cairns. No special association would be demonstrated be- A basic contrast between the passage graves and tween the stones of the monument and the rising or ring cairn is that while all solar phenomena are ob- setting sun. servable from, or across the centre of the ring cairn, These thoughts prompted a question. Is there the only event that can be seen from the centre of the an objective way of demonstrating the position of passage graves is the Winter Solstice sunset. The the sun in its cycle? Work by Frank Prendergast relationships between stones and sun in the cham- on the standing stones and carved entrance stone bered cairns must have been determined during con- at Newgrange (Prendergast 1991) revealed that the struction. It would then be possible to say that a shadow cast by a particular monolith at a specified particular sunrise or sunset happened opposite a time of year will be invariable and that providing specific stone, and that the stone was put there for the sun’s rays are not blocked, it will be visible to that reason. There could be no direct demonstration any number of observers. of this relationship to an observer of the monument. Theoretical shadow-casting diagrams were Anyone who has faced a sunrise will know that it drawn up for all three monuments. Observation at seems to happen directly opposite you, the observer, the site showed that, owing to the relative narrow- rather than the person standing several metres to ness of the valley, the horizons visible from each one side. It is a subjective experience centred on monolith differ noticeably from that seen from the oneself. The passage graves would rely on a system centre of their respective cairns. To correct for this, where observers were told which stones were oppo- individual surveys of the horizon at specific azi-

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Figure 12. Sequence of direct illumination in the chamber of the Northeast Cairn at Midwinter sunset.

muths were carried out from each monolith and are the basis of the shadow-casting diagrams presented here (Figs. 9, 10 & 11). Only shadows that actually touch the kerb are included in these diagrams. No shadows have been included here for the SWCs Monolith H, as its present position in the end of a wall is suspect. For any solar event there are at least two shadows cast onto the kerb. Where three shadows are cast, one is central at right angles to the kerb and one strikes each edge. Most striking in the diagrams is the sharing of target areas between different monoliths at different times of year. Informal discussions with a builder of sundials suggest that this situation is not likely to occur accidentally but is the result of careful, measured planning (S. Gillet pers. comm.). The shadows make clear the purpose of the ‘rays’ on the ring-cairn, fixing the position of specific shadows. Each ‘ray’ corresponds to a particular solar event; sunrises at Midwinter, Equinox, Summer Quarter and Summer Quarter sunset (Fig. 11). George Figure 13. Direct illumination of Northeast Cairn Bain (1886–7), in what must be the earliest astro- chamber. (Original slide by A. Wilson.) nomical assessment of the site, describes the ‘rays’ as ‘a rude attempt to fix or stereotype the sun’s shadow essentially unobservable to the naked eye. The fact on a particular day and hour’ (Bain 1886–7, 129). The that the site has been planted with trees during the fixing of the shadow positions by the ‘rays’ provides last century interferes more seriously with these ob- evidence for conscious Bronze Age interest in the servations. Equinox and Summer Quarter day periods. In order to test this theory it was decided to Red, white and black: symbolic functions visit the site to gain direct experience of the location of the shadows on the ground and kerb at sunrise The use of colour in megalithic structures and else- and sunset. The change in position of sunrise and where is starting to generate more interest (e.g. Jones sunset over 4300 years is easily adjusted for and is 1999; Lynch 1998). Red, white and black seem to be

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Box 1. Shadows and light: practical observation. but the direct light follows the boundary along the upper limit of the kerbstones, only crossing it a few times during its Over the Winter Solstices 1998, 1999 and Spring Equinox sweep. So although they are not directly lit, the light passes 1999, periods of at least a week were spent camping by the just beneath the black or dark stones. site. This allowed full experience of the site in its landscape About two weeks after the Solstice in 1998, Douglas Scott by day and night, and the direct testing of the shadow theory. visited the site at sunset and was able from the floor of the At Midwinter 1998 two phenomena were observed: the chamber to see the sun below a lintel at the entrance (D. Scott behaviour of shadows at the ring-cairn, confirming the func- pers. comm.). This implies that direct sunlight reaches the tion of the ‘ray’; and the entrance of light into the NECs chamber for at least a month, the longest period of illumina- passage and chamber. More detailed observation of shadows tion being around the Solstice. Direct light will enter the over the whole site was made at Midwinter 1999. The align- passage for the greater part of the year shortly after midday, ment of the passage on Midwinter sunset will be discussed decreasing in extent as the year progresses. The colours of the first. passage wall may relate to this. In 1997 a local investigator, Ronnie Scott, obtained per- The shadows at the ring-cairn confirmed the forecast and mission to temporarily reroof the NEC to observe sunset. disclosed some unexpected effects. In Figure 14, the entire Cloud cover prevented direct illumination, but it was clear day’s sequence is shown at three points; sunrise (about 10.30), that light did reach the chamber (Scott & Phillips 1999). In shortly after 1 pm, and sunset (about 3.20). This clearly dem- 1998 the NEC was covered again, and the present author and onstrates the potential for using the shadows to choreograph others witnessed a sunset almost completely free of cloud on activity at the cairns. One unexpected action of the ‘rays’ is December 21. The following sequence was observed (Fig. the truncation of shadows crossing them. This causes the 12). shadow of Monolith G to track along the ‘ray’ to its north, About 2 pm the first sunlight reached the back wall near from base to Monolith F, between sunrise and just after 1 pm, the top of a round Red-S kerbstone. The light appeared as at which time the shadow of Monolith H starts at the base, three small triangles, two linked, one slightly lower (S. Cook, reaching Monolith F at sunset. This alignment, between F and K. McGill, A. Wilson pers. comm.). This effect was confirmed H, is the same as that of the passages, the shadows of the two two days later by R. Scott, when a person moving down the monoliths combining to mark one side of the ‘corridor’ lead- passage cast multiple shadows on the back wall (R. Scott ing to the NEC entrance. At sunrise the shadow of Monolith pers. comm.). In 1999 the same effect was observed in the H is cast along its ‘ray’ to the kerb (Fig. 15). At the same time SWC (R. Scott, A. Jack pers. comm.). It is likely that the (Fig. 16), the shadow of Monolith G, beyond Monolith H, multiple image is caused by the presence of tree branches, reaches the base of the ‘ray’ of Monolith F. Figure 17, taken at and may not have been seen in the past. By 2.15 these trian- the same time as sunlight reaches the back wall of the NEC, gles merged to form a single triangle whose lowest point shows the shadow of H part way along Monolith Fs ‘ray’, and extended downwards to reach the floor as it tracked round Figure 18 records that the ray is just high enough to stop the the wall. At 2.30 the area of sunlight opened into a rectangle shadow at the top of the ‘ray’. The way the shadow appears completely covering a Pink kerbstone, and shortly before 3 to be interrupted by the ‘rays’ demonstrates the importance pm the sun covered almost completely a large Gneiss* kerb- of accurate assessment of shadow lengths with respect to the stone. microtopography (natural and humanly made) of the site. On Figure 13 is taken from a photograph at about 2.45. At a flat surface most of the shadows would reach 10 or 12 m, this point cloud cover blocked the direct sunlight on the 21st. but on the site many do not. At sunset the long, combined Scott’s observation on the 23rd lasted longer and he indicates shadow of Monoliths F and H (Fig. 14) extends to the circle of that the patch of sunlight narrowed from this point, finishing monoliths around the NEC, pointing at the passage of this near the top of the round White kerbstone at sunset, about cairn. 3.20 (R. Scott pers. comm.). The observation of the 1999 Spring Equinox was more Several points arise from this observation. Contrary to difficult, though no less conclusive. Given that the rapid expectations the interior of the chamber is not dark before change of solar position gave a very small window for obser- the illumination at sunset, and it is nearly light enough to vation, only three days were allowed, the Equinox itself (March read in the chamber at sunrise. While the direct light is on the 21) and a day either side. In the event all three days were wall, the entire chamber is clearly lit. Figure 13 is a drawing consistently cloudy. Sunrise on the fourth day was suffi- as the contrast level of the original slide is too great to repro- ciently clear to allow shadows to be photographed, showing duce satisfactorily. There is no substitute for the human eye the shadow of Monolith F at the ring-cairn cast along its ‘ray’ when discussing human visual perceptions. (Fig. 19). This photograph was taken shortly after sunrise (i.e. The view of sunset over the SWC from the chamber was south of actual rising position, closer to that of two days blinding and less interesting than the visibly moving, shape- before). changing patch of light on the back wall. This is also visible A photograph of SWC in the early 1900s (copy now to more people, and might explain why the passages are off- with NMRS) showed a complete absence of trees around centre to the chambers. The left-hand side of the chamber the cairn and gave an entirely new impression of the land- (the largest) was the obvious viewing position, and gave a scape. Even with the trees, as today, the ‘rays’ are still clear view to seven people. In 1999 there were well over 20 clearly visible, and monolith shadows show in the early people inside the SWC, and all were able to watch the light evening light. Without trees, however, the maximum audi- on the back wall (A. Jack, R. Scott pers. comm.). No more ence for the shadows is probably in the thousands. Pollen than three people at one time could look down the passage evidence from Balnuaran indicates that the immediately from the chamber. surrounding area had been cleared at the time the cairns In both cairns the black or dark stones are lit indirectly were built (R. Bradley pers. comm.).

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Figure 14. Sequence of Midwinter shadows at the Ring Cairn.

triad (Berlin & Kay 1969), universal in early stages of social evolution. The accuracy of this claim is debatable, and may reflect more on the methodology used in examining colour terms than any underlying universal evolutionary structure (Saunders & van Brakel 1997). Even in societies with a wealth of colour terms, however, red, white and black remain resonant with symbolic imagery. The ac- companying table (Table 1) briefly illus- trates different cultural values for the three colours (after Trevarthen 1992; Wil- lis 1985). Many more examples could be included, but these six, separated by geog- raphy, time, and cultural complexity, serve to illustrate a degree of conformity Figure 15. Shadow cast by Monolith H along its ‘ray’; Ring Cairn, to a standard pattern. White tends to be Midwinter sunrise 1998. ‘Good’ or ‘Pure’ in opposition to black which is ‘Bad’ or ‘Destructive’, and red almost universally favoured as symbolic colours for represents an ambivalent, powerful force for good celebration, signifying ‘specialness’ (Turner 1966). It or bad, depending on its context. The image of a fire, has been suggested that they form the primal colour an obvious identification, exemplifies this ambigu-

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Figure 16. Shadow cast by Monolith G to the end of Monolith F’s ‘ray’; Ring Cairn, Midwinter sunrise 1998.

Figure 17. Shadow of Monolith H falling onto Monolith F’s ‘ray’; Ring Cairn, 2 pm Midwinter 1998.

Figure 18. Detail showing the truncation of Monolith H’s shadow by Monolith F’s ‘ray’; Ring Cairn, 2 pm Midwinter 1998.

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Figure 19. Shadow cast by Monolith F along its ‘ray’; Spring Equinox sunrise 1998. (Photo: A. Wilson.)

ity of red. Fire is ‘Good’ in your fireplace, but ‘Bad’ of darkness, at the time of year when this power was on your settee — its nature is unchanged, only the greatest? Would open recognition encourage the context is different. The symbolic value of black is darkness to linger longer? Would no recognition not worse than those of red and white; it embodies bring the danger of angering what is a very dramatic an opposite, necessary to healthy balance in an ac- force, particularly in the Winter this far north? The tive system. Through its connection with death, black Winter Solstice of 1998 occurred very close to the is also linked to rebirth, and hence fertility, as a stage New Moon — with candles for light, five hours of in the natural cycle. To the Mandari a ‘Black’ sky is a daylight, no moonlight and little twentieth-century good thing, it carries life-giving water. Closer to light pollution, personal experience shows that at home, the Black Isle, north of the Moray Firth, is not Midwinter, dark can be very big indeed. In contrast, named for any sinister connotation, but in reference Winter Solstice 1999 fell almost exactly on the full to the richness of its soil. moon, and the long nights were not ‘dark’ at all. Our The triad red, white and black can often be present cultural perception of an opposition between broken down into two interlinked oppositions; Red day (light) and night (dark) appears too simple, as vs White and (Red + White) vs Black. Looking at the night itself can be either light or dark. The ‘same’ use of stone colours in the cairns it is possible to see seasonally significant annual event can exist in very a similar set of relationships. The outside is exclu- different phenomenal states. It is almost inconceivable sively red and white. The chambers associated with that this was not apparent to the builders of the cairns, the dead include black stone. They will also tend to and it may have been reflected in their cosmology. be dark, though possibly not as much as once The use of a dark stone in the NEC, deliberately thought. Symbolically, whereas red and white have broken in half, may relate to the hiddenness of black. more explicit natures, black is occult, hidden and The visible surfaces were originally the interior of mysterious. Its use, restricted to inside the cham- the block of stone. Thus, when the Midwinter sun bers, might reflect this. Most of the stone in the cham- shines down the passage lighting the interior of the bers is red — perhaps giving a (White + Red) vs (Red cairn, it also illuminates what had been the interior + Black) split, fitting the conception of red as power- of the black stone. With the death/fertility aspect of ful and ambivalent. The red and white on the out- black, this could be seen as an act of conception — side of the cairns might represent a positive, the simultaneous death of the old year and birth of life-affirming force and the internal red and black the new coinciding with the longest night. The expe- may signify a more ‘dangerous’ relationship with riential character of the chamber could come into death and the dead. Might the illumination of the play here, anyone within it partaking of the sym- chamber and its black stone, at the beginning of the bolic death and rebirth. As a setting for initiation or longest night, be an acknowledgement of the power rites of passage, the cairns are ideal. The chamber

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Table 1. The meanings of the colours red, white and black in various cultures.

Culture Red White Black

Ndembu Life, All Life, Death, Copulation, Procreation, Sexual Desire, Blood (in murder, childbirth, Goodness, Strength, Evil, Bad Luck, circumcision, menstruation, Health, Luck, Disease, witchcraft), Power, Witchcraft, Visible. Semen. Night, Shadowy. Mandari Positive, Beneficial, Malign, Dynamic, High Status, Obscuring, Violence, Preferred Low Status, Tension, moral/intellectual values. Can be positive. Life. Fipa Energy, Labour, Movement, Wholeness, Oneness, Generation, Pregnancy, Sexuality, Reproduction, Truth, The Sacred, Germination, Generosity, Childbirth, Femaleness, Kingship, Seniority, Gift-giving, Animality, Strangerhood, Intellect, Maleness, Occult transformation, Warfare, Killing, Violence, Settlerhood, Sorcery, Deception, Pain, Bloodshed. Benign spiritual powers. Pollution, Death, Malign spiritual powers. Ancient Egypt Life, Celebration, Victory, Purity, Gestation, Rage, Seth as evil deity. Sanctity. The Netherworld. Hindu Fire, Active, Passionate, Water, Goodness, Air, Inert, Creative, Choice, Preservative of the Lethargy, Sensual appetites, Will, Desire, Intellect, Enlightenment. Degenerative, Destructive. Hesitation. Tantric rites of: Subjugation. Pacification. Destruction. Christian/Western Tradition Strong emotion, Sovereign Truth, Peace, Penance, Mourning, Power, Action, Rage, Innocence, Purity, Sickness, Death, Strife, Danger, Courage, Sanctity. The Underworld, Virility, Sex, Blood, Fire. Witchcraft, The Devil, Negation. Alchemical stages: 3. Relating unconscious 2. Disintegration of 1. Death of normal with conscious parts. the corpse. conscious outlook.

would be extremely cold, the scattered ashes of an- sparkle, to reflect this interest. The cairns also ap- cestors, possibly relatives, underfoot. At sunset the pear to have been constructed so as to allow the chamber would be flooded with red light followed shadows of their surrounding monoliths to act as by darkness. All of this would produce a dramatic, seasonal markers. The ramifications of this are not emotionally charged experience. only architectural, but also social, as the witnessing This is pure speculation, but the theatricality of of seasonal signifiers can be inclusive, not exclusive the cairns’ use of light and shadow, inside and out, to a small privileged group. This would reaffirm the suggests that at least part of their function involved identity of the community and promote social cohe- the active participation of a living audience. sion. The incorporation in the cairns of a record of time — their use for the dead and possible symbolic Conclusions connection with new life, and their illustration of the cyclic nature of the heavens and seasons — would This study indicates that the builders of these cairns make them a potent symbol of permanence. held an interest in seasonal movements of the sun, The same type of examination should now be and specific points in the solar year. The arrange- carried out at all the extant Clava sites, to see how ment of different building materials makes conscious far similarities can be traced and to test the above use of the appearance of the various rocks — not speculations. Preliminary surveys already show there only their colour, but qualities such as texture and is selective use of stone types relative to solar events

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at other Clava sites. The movements of the moon For A. Crawford Taylor-Nayar, March 1, 1964– must also be investigated. Previous workers have December 24, 1998. demonstrated apparent alignments on the moon, and Out of the Black into the White. its much longer periodicity may make it a natural focus for an interest in continuity. More work will References have to be undertaken on the values of the colours used, not only symbolically but psychologically, as Bain, G., 1886–7. The stone circles at Clava. Transactions of stimulation; what would the actual experience of the the Gaelic Society of Inverness 13, 122–35. saturated red environment inside the cairns entail? Barclay, G.J., 1990. The clearing and partial excavation of The present study has raised many questions. At- the cairns at Balnuaran of Clava, Inverness-shire, by Miss Kathleen Kennedy, 1930–31. Proceedings of the tempting to answer them may take us closer to an Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 120, 17–32. understanding of the minds and culture of the Early Berlin, B. & P. Kay, 1969. Basic Colour Terms: Their Univer- Bronze Age inhabitants of this region of northeast sality and Evolution. Berkeley (CA): University of Scotland. California Press. Bishop, N.H., 1998. Himalayan Herders. London: Harcourt Note Brace. Bradley, R., 1996. Excavations at Clava. Current Archaeol- 1. Anyone interested in copies of the A4 colour originals ogy 148, 136–48. for Figures 3–14 should contact the author at the ad- Bradley, R., 1997. Balnuaran of Clava, and Newton of dress below. They are much quicker to read and bet- Petty, Inverness: radiocarbon dates, in Discovery and ter demonstrate the aesthetic. Excavation in Scotland 1997, ed. R. Turner. Edinburgh: Council for Scottish Archaeology, 114–15. David Trevarthen Bradley, R., 1998a. Stone circles and passage graves: a contested relationship, in Gibson & Simpson (eds.), 2–13. ‘Winton’ Bradley, R., 1998b. Architecture, imagination and the High Street Neolithic world, in Creativity in Human Evolution Aberlady and Prehistory, ed. S. Mithen. London & New York EH32 ORA (NY): Routledge, 227–40. Bradley, R., 1998c. Directions to the dead, in The World- Acknowledgements View of Prehistoric Man, eds. L. Larsson & B. Stjernquist. Stockholm: Kungl, Vitterhets Historie I would like to thank Professor Richard Bradley of och Antikvitets Akademien, 123–35. the University of Reading for permission to use the Bradley, R., 2000. The Good Stones: a New Investigation of the Clava Cairns. (Society of Antiquaries of Scotland results of his research and his unfailing enthusiasm Monograph 17.) Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries and encouragement; Dr Emily Lyle of the School of of Scotland. Scottish Studies, Edinburgh University, for suggest- Burl, A., 1981. By the light of the cinerary moon in, As- ing the lecture that crystallized the ideas for this tronomy and Society in Britain during the period 4000– paper, and suggestions about the symbolic aspects; 1500 BC, eds. C. Ruggles & A. Whittle. (British Heather Jackson for the geological identifications, Archaeological Reports British Series 88.) Oxford: without which this study would never have hap- BAR, 243–74. pened (all errors of geological terminology are my Burl, A., 1983. Prehistoric Astronomy and Ritual. Princes own); Si Cook, Keith McGill and Ali Wilson, for Risborough: Shire Publications. Burl, A., 1987. The Stonehenge People. London: J.M. Dent & braving the weather and providing assistance at Win- Sons. ter Solstice and Spring Equinox; Fraser Johnstone of Fraser, J., 1883–4. Descriptive notes on the stone circles of Balnuaran Farm for his interest, insight and hospi- Strathnairn and neighbourhood of Inverness. Pro- tality; Hugh Barron of the Gaelic Society of Inver- ceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 18, ness for references to their Transactions; Dr Alan 328–62. Costall of Portsmouth University for sources dealing Frazier, C., 1997. Cold Mountain. London: Hodder & with colour perception; Hodder & Stoughton Ltd. Stoughton Ltd. for permission to quote Charles Frazier; and every- Gibson, A. & D. Simpson (eds.), 1998. Prehistoric Ritual and one who has suffered my obsession in person. Ex- Religion. Guildford: Sutton Publishing. Green, M.J., 1998. The time lords: ritual calendars, druids treme thanks to Heather Jackson and Lucy Gibbons, and the sacred year, in Gibson & Simpson (eds.), for putting up with a visitor who stayed twice as long as 190–202. promised and remaining perfect hosts throughout. Henshall, A.S., 1963. The Chambered Tombs of Scotland, vol.

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I. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. constraints on colour categorisation? Behaviour and Hogben, L., 1938. Science for the Citizen. Woking: Unwin. Brain Sciences 20, 167–228. Jones, A., 1999. Local colour: megalithic architecture and Scott, D., 1999. The Clava Cairns. Tain: Tain Silver. colour symbolism in Neolithic Arran. Oxford Journal Scott, D., with R. Esson & M. Taylor, 1992. An Astronomi- of Archaeology 18(4), 339–50. cal Assessment of the Clava Cairns. Unpublished Lyle, E., 1990. Archaic Cosmos: Polarity, Space and Time. field report. Copy held in NMRS. Edinburgh: Polygon Cosmos. Scott, R. & T. Phillips, 1999. Clava: light at the end of the Lynch, F., 1998. Colour in prehistoric architecture, in tunnel. Current Archaeology 165, 332–5. Gibson & Simpson (eds.), 62–7. Simpson, D.D.A., 1996. Excavation of a kerbed funerary MacBain, A., 1883–4. The druid circles. Transactions of the monument at Stoneyfield, Raigmore, Inverness, Gaelic Society of Inverness 11, 22–50. Highland, 1972–3. Proceedings of the Society of Anti- McNeil, F.M., 1956. The Silver Bough, vol. 1. Edinburgh: quaries of Scotland 126, 53–86. Canongate Classics. [Republished in 1989.] Thom, A., 1967. Megalithic Sites in Britain. Oxford: Oxford Marshack, A., 1972. The Roots of Civilisation. London: University Press. Wiedenfeld & Nicolson. Thom, A., A.S. Thom & A. Burl, 1980. Megalithic Rings. North, J., 1996. Stonehenge: Neolithic Man and the Cosmos. (British Archaeological Reports British Series 81.) London: Harper & Collins. Oxford: BAR. Piggot, S., 1954–6. Excavations in passage graves and ring Trevarthen, D., 1992. The Symbolic Use of Colour. Un- cairns of the Clava group, 1952–53. Proceedings of the published Art History dissertation, Duncan of Society of Antiquaries of Scotland 88, 173–207. Jordanstone College of Art, Dundee. Prendergast, F., 1991. New data on Newgrange. Technol- Trevarthen, D. & H. Jackson, 1997. Notes and Observa- ogy Ireland March 1991, 22–5. tions on the Colour/Stone Type Survey of Balnuaran Read, H.H., 1935. British Regional Geology: the Grampian of Clava, May 1997. Unpublished field report. Copy Highlands. Edinburgh: HMSO. held in NMRS. Robinson, M. (ed.), 1985. The Concise Scots Dictionary. Ab- Turner, V., 1966. Colour classification in Ndembu ritual, erdeen: Aberdeen University Press. in Anthropological Approaches to the Study of Religion, Ruggles, C., 1998. Ritual astronomy in the Neolithic and ed. M. Barton. London: Tavistock, 447–84. Bronze Age British Isles: patterns of continuity and Willis, R., 1985. Do the Fipa have a word for it?, in The change, in Gibson & Simpson (eds.), 203–8. Anthropology of Evil, ed. D. Parkin. Oxford: Blackwell, Ruggles, C., 1999. Astronomy in Prehistoric Britain and Ire- 209–23. land. New Haven (CT): Yale University. Wood, J.E., 1980. Sun, Moon and Standing Stones. Revised Saunders, B.A.C. & J. van Brakel, 1997. Are there nontrivial edition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

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Title: Towards reflexive method in archaeology:

the example at Çatalhöyük MCDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS Editor: Ian Hodder Authors: Members of the Çatalhöyük teams Towards reflexive method Series: McDonald Institute Monographs in archaeology: Classification: Archaeology the example at Çatalhöyük

Binding: Cloth By Members of the Çatalhöyük teams × Size: 286 220 mm Edited by Pages: xvi+238 pp.; 71 illustrations; 10 tables Ian Hodder ISBN: 1-902937-02-3 hardback ISSN: 1363-1349 Price: £25; US$45 Publication date: May 30, 2000 Distributor: Oxbow Books, Park End Place, Oxford, OX1 1HN, UK. Description: This innovative volume explores novel

approaches to the excavation and BRITISH INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY AT ANKARA analysis of archaeological sites, focusing on ongoing work at Çatalhöyük, and will be essential reading for students and scholars alike.

The aim of the volume is to discuss some of the reflexive or postprocessual methods that have been introduced at Çatalhöyük in the work there since 1993. These methods involve reflexivity, interactivity, multivocality and contextuality or relationality. The methods themselves are described, as are the difficulties of introducing them. Some of the potentials and implications of these approaches are discussed. The three sections of the volume deal with the integration of interpretation at the point of discovery — in the excavation and in the laboratory; with the problem of representing the past in a contested and multivocal context; and with presenting the past to local and global audiences and participants.

ABOUT THE AUTHORS: The authors are 45 of the 120 participants in the various teams working at Çatalhöyük. These teams deal with excavation, laboratory research, ethnoarchaeology and ethnography, conserva- tion and public presentation. Team members are primarily from the USA, UK and Turkey but there is also wider global participation.

ABOUT THE EDITOR: Professor Ian Hodder, on leave from the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, currently teaches in the Department of Cultural and Social Anthropology in Stanford Univer- sity. In 1996 he became a Fellow of the British Academy. He has published widely on archaeological theory and method, on European prehistory, ethnoarchaeology and spatial analysis in archaeology.