Ancient Astronomy Pure Mathematical Physics Pure Mathematical Physics Ancient Astronomy: An Encyclopedia of Cosmologies and Myth Clive Ruggles Santa Barbara, California Denver, Colorado Oxford, England Pure Mathematical Physics Copyright 2005 by Clive Ruggles All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ruggles, C. L. N. (Clive L. N.) Ancient astronomy : an encyclopedia of cosmologies and myth / Clive Ruggles. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-85109-477-6 (acid-free paper) — ISBN 1-85109-616-7 (eBook) 1. Astronomy, Ancient—Encyclopedias. 2. Cosmology—Encyclopedias. 3. Astrology and mythology—Encyclopedias. I. Title. 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Manufactured in the United States of America Pure Mathematical Physics Contents Introduction, ix Ancient Astronomy Aboriginal Astronomy, 1 Barasana “Caterpillar Jaguar” Abri Blanchard Bone, 5 Constellation, 43 Acronical Rise, 7 Beltany, 44 Acronical Set, 7 Borana Calendar, 45 Alignment Studies, 8 Boyne Valley Tombs, 46 Altitude, 8 Brainport Bay, 48 Ancient Egyptian Calendars, 9 Brodgar, Ring of, 50 Andean Mountain Shrines, 13 “Brown” Archaeoastronomy, 52 Angkor, 14 Bush Barrow Gold Lozenge, 52 Antas, 17 Antizenith Passage of the Sun, 19 Cacaxtla, 55 Archaeoastronomy, 19 Cahokia, 57 Archaeotopography, 23 Calendars, 59 Astro-Archaeology, 24 Callanish, 61 Astrology, 24 Caracol at Chichen Itza, 64 Astronomical Dating, 27 Carahunge, 65 Avebury, 29 Cardinal Directions, 67 Axial Stone Circles, 30 Casa Rinconada, 69 Azimuth, 33 Catastrophic Events, 72 Aztec Sacred Geography, 33 Celestial Sphere, 74 Celtic Calendar, 75 Babylonian Astronomy and Ceque System, 77 Astrology, 37 Chaco Canyon, 80 Ballochroy, 41 Chaco Meridian, 83 v Pure Mathematical Physics Chaco Supernova Pictograph, 86 Field Survey, 158 Chinese Astronomy, 90 Fiskerton, 160 Christianization of “Pagan” Festivals, 95 Governor’s Palace at Uxmal, 163 Church Orientations, 96 GPS Surveys, 165 Circles of Earth, Timber, and Stone, Grand Menhir Brisé, 166 99 “Green” Archaeoastronomy, 169 Circumpolar Stars, 102 Gregorian Calendar, 169 Clava Cairns, 103 Group E Structures, 170 Cobo, Bernabé (1582–1657), 105 Coffin Lids, 106 Ha‘amonga-a-Maui, 175 Cognitive Archaeology, 108 Hawaiian Calendar, 176 Comets, Novae, and Meteors, 110 Heliacal Rise, 180 Compass and Clinometer Surveys, Hesiod (Eighth Century B.C.E.), 181 112 Hopewell Mounds, 183 Constellation Maps on the Ground, Hopi Calendar and Worldview, 186 113 Horizon Calendars of Central Cosmology, 115 Mexico, 188 Crucifixion of Christ, 117 How the Sky Has Changed over the Crucuno, 119 Centuries, 190 Cumbrian Stone Circles, 122 Cursus Monuments, 123 Inferior Planets, Motions of, 191 Cusco Sun Pillars, 126 Inuit Cosmology, 193 Iron-Age Roundhouses, 195 Declination, 129 Is Paras, 197 Delphic Oracle, 130 Islamic Astronomy, 199 Diurnal Motion, 132 Island of the Sun, 203 Dresden Codex, 132 Drombeg, 134 Javanese Calendar, 207 Julian Calendar, 208 Easter Island, 137 Eclipse Records and the Earth’s Kintraw, 211 Rotation, 141 Kukulcan, 213 Ecliptic, 142 Kumukahi, 215 Egyptian Temples and Tombs, 143 Kumulipo, 217 Emu in the Sky, 147 Equinoxes, 148 Lakota Sacred Geography, 219 Ethnoastronomy, 152 Land of the Rising Sun, 221 Ethnocentrism, 152 Landscape, 223 Extinction, 153 Ley Lines, 224 Lockyer, Sir Norman (1836–1920), Fajada Butte Sun Dagger, 155 227 vi Contents Pure Mathematical Physics Lunar and Luni-Solar Calendars, Nissen, Heinrich (1839–1912), 312 228 Nuraghi, 313 Lunar Eclipses, 230 Lunar Parallax, 234 Obliquity of the Ecliptic, 317 Lunar Phase Cycle, 235 Orientation, 319 Orion, 321 Maes Howe, 237 Magellanic Clouds, 240 Palaeoscience, 325 Mangareva, 241 Pantheon, 328 Maya Long Count, 243 Pawnee Cosmology, 329 Medicine Wheels, 246 Pawnee Earth Lodge, 331 “Megalithic Astronomy,” 248 Pawnee Star Chart, 332 “Megalithic” Calendar, 248 Pilgrimage, 333 Megalithic Monuments of Britain Polynesian and Micronesian and Ireland, 250 Astronomy, 336 Megalithic “Observatories,” 252 Polynesian Temple Platforms and Meridian, 253 Enclosures, 340 Mesoamerican Calendar Round, 255 Power, 343 Mesoamerican Cross-Circle Designs, Precession, 345 259 Precision and Accuracy, 347 Methodology, 261 Prehistoric Tombs and Temples in Mid-Quarter Days, 265 Europe, 348 Minoan Temples and Tombs, 266 Presa de la Mula, 351 Misminay, 267 Pyramids of Giza, 353 Mithraism, 269 Monuments and Cosmology, 271 Quipu, 357 Moon, Motions of, 272 Mursi Calendar, 274 Recumbent Stone Circles, 361 Refraction, 364 N§ Pali Chant, 279 Roman Astronomy and Astrology, Nabta Playa, 282 365 Namoratung’a, 284 Rujm el-Hiri, 366 Nasca Lines and Figures, 286 Nationalism, 292 Sacred Geographies, 369 Navajo Cosmology, 293 Sarmizegetusa Regia, 370 Navajo Hogan, 295 Saroeak, 372 Navajo Star Ceilings, 296 Science or Symbolism?, 375 Navigation, 298 Short Stone Rows, 376 Navigation in Ancient Oceania, 300 Sky Bears, 378 Nebra Disc, 304 Solar Eclipses, 380 Necker Island, 307 Solstices, 384 Newgrange, 309 Solstitial Alignments, 385 Contents vii Pure Mathematical Physics Solstitial Directions, 388 Taulas, 417 Somerville, Boyle (1864–1936), 389 Temple Alignments in Ancient Son Mas, 390 Greece, 419 Space and Time, Ancient Perceptions Teotihuacan Street Grid, 421 of, 390 Theodolite Surveys, 423 Star and Crescent Symbol, 392 Thom, Alexander (1894–1985), 425 Star Compasses of the Pacific, 394 Thornborough, 427 Star Names, 396 Tri-Radial Cairns, 429 Star of Bethlehem, 396 Star Rising and Setting Positions, 398 Venus in Mesoamerica, 433 Statistical Analysis, 399 Stone Circles, 401 Wedge Tombs, 435 Stonehenge, 405 Sun, Motions of, 409 Years B.C.E. and Years before 0, 439 Superior Planets, Motions of, 410 Yekuana Roundhouses, 439 Swedish Rock Art, 412 Symbols, 414 Zenith Passage of the Sun, 443 Zenith Stars in Polynesia, 444 Zenith Tubes, 445 Bibliography, 449 Glossary, 483 Topic Index, 487 Geographical Index, 491 Chronological Index, 495 Cultural Index, 499 Index, 503 viii Contents Pure Mathematical Physics Introduction The Wonder of the Skies The sight of a truly dark night sky is simply breathtaking. In the modern world it is denied to all but those who still live, or might occasionally venture, well be- yond the glare of city lights and the effects of atmospheric pollution. For people in the past, though, the panoply of thousands of stars was a familiar sight. Some twinkled particularly brightly; others hovered on the borderline of visibility. A few were tinted orange or blue. They formed distinct patterns that moved around but never changed. The Milky Way was a familiar sight to all, snaking across the heavens with its light and dark patches forming recognizable shapes. The sky also contained numerous isolated faint and fuzzy objects (nebulae), fixed among the stars, as well as bright wandering stars (planets), and of course the moon, dominating the night sky, lighting the way by night, and rendering many of its fainter companions temporarily invisible. Added to all this was the occa- sional appearance of something rare or totally unexpected: a shower of meteors (shooting stars), a lunar eclipse, an aurora (at high latitudes), or—more seldom still—a comet (often perceived as a tailed or plumed star) or a new star (nova). The exact appearance of the heavenly vault differed from place to place and time to time. Whether it was visible on a particular night was dependent, of course, upon local weather conditions. However, the visual impact of the sky on a clear night was always stunning, and even in the cloudiest and wettest of places there were a good many clear periods. As a result, human communities the world over, and for many thousands of years, have recognized familiar patterns and cy- cles of change in the skies, as well as unexpected sights and events, and struggled to make sense of them. The inhabitants of the night sky—whether perceived as animals, fantastical creatures, legendary characters, ancestors, or other entities— were ever present. The cycles of their appearance and disappearance provided the basis for, and reinforced, countless creation stories and cultural myths. The lack of opportunity to experience the true night sky is, for a great many people in the modern Western world, something beyond their control. The same cannot be said, though, of the daytime sky, and yet few people pay much atten- tion to it beyond worrying about the weather. Only a meager proportion—and ix Pure Mathematical Physics this does not just apply to city-dwellers—could, for example, orient themselves from the time of day and the position of the sun, or could accurately describe the way in which the sun’s daily arc through the sky changes with the seasons. As a result, it can be difficult for us to imagine just how great an impact the sky, whether by night or day, had upon human cultures in the past. Yet we need look no further than the many indigenous peoples today for whom the sky con- tinues to be of immense importance. In addition to this, certain world religions such as