¡EN VOZ ALTA! MEXICO'S RESPONSE TO U.S. IMPERIALISM, 1821-1848 By Rochelle L. Trotter A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Chicano/Latino Studies - Doctor of Philosophy 2014 ABSTRACT ¡EN VOZ ALTA! MEXICO'S RESPONSE TO U.S. IMPERIALISM, 1821-1848 By Rochelle L. Trotter This purpose of this dissertation is to explore and convey Mexico's response to the aggressive actions of both the Texas colonists and the U.S. government between 1821 and 1848. In order to accomplish this task, I engaged a variety of sources that included newspapers, foletins, governmental documents, travel journals, dime novels, letters, diaries, diplomatic correspondence, treaties, speeches, poetry, and books, all of which addressed the events leading up to the United States War against Mexico. However, the breadth and depth of material available in the published primary source record required that I focus my inquiry. Therefore, I emphasized three specific topics; Anglo immigration into Texas, the Texas colonist rebellion, and the efforts of the U.S. government to acquire the Texas territory beginning with the Louisiana Purchase and terminating with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Additionally, I expanded my time parameters and considered a contemporary response to the memories of that war, represented in the Mexican- produced telenovela Ramona (2000). In this manner, the story that appears in the following pages represents Mexico’s response, both then and now. This dissertation stands on a strong foundation of previous Mexican and Chicano scholarship. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo articulated its own mythological narrative that not only sought to maintain discord, but also solidify a subordinate role for both Mexico as a nation, and Mexicans as a people who chose to remain on their land. The real-life ramifications of these events have been topics that scholars such as Rodolfo Acuña, Arnoldo de León, Paco Ignacio Taibo II, Gilberto López y Rivas, Mario Gill, Gastó García Cantú, David Montejano, Jesús F. de la Teja, Andrés Tijerina, and Josefina Zoraida Vásquez de Knauth have critically engaged. In doing so, their work has provided a space for this dissertation. Finally, in its widest scope, the topic of this dissertation connects to other violent acts of oppression, specifically those that seek to silence the voice of the oppressed. In that context, the works of Franz Fanon, Roland Barthes, Benedict Anderson, Edward Said, Homi Bhabha, and Albert Memmi have significantly influenced my analysis. Of particular note to the conversation that follows is the development of a large structure mythological narrative that I have termed the Anglo- centric myth of the Mexican, how mythmakers utilized this narrative to indoctrinate the public in their truths, and how they disseminated it on a large scale through genres of popular culture. Copyright by ROCHELLE L. TROTTER 2014 Dedicated to the belief that through multilingualism, all things are possible. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation is the result of a 19-year journey to better understand the world in which I live. Along the way, I have encountered many individuals who have recognized my passion and offered a helping hand. However, before expressing my gratitude to those individuals, I must first thank the Chican@/Latin@ community that has fought for more than fifty years to create and sustain a relevant space of learning. In particular, I thank the REAL Chicano/Latino Studies at Michigan State University for their unwavering dedication to that struggle. Without their efforts, this dissertation would not have been possible. I would also like to send an abundance of gratitude to the team of amazing Spanish Instructors and Professors at both Scottsdale Community College and Arizona State University. Laura Ruiz-Scott, Maria Eugenia Hernandez-Hall, and Dr. John Ellis, working together you guided me through a study of Spanish that built a solid foundation from which to grow and expand my horizons. To Professor Enrique Ballón Aguirre, I owe an immense debt of gratitude. You knew that foundation was solid, and you recognized my passion. You always held the bar out of reach, knowing all along that the struggle would teach me more than any lesson plan ever could. When I first arrived at the doors of Chicano/Latino studies at Michigan State University in 2007, Dr. Dionicio Valdés and Dr. Theresa Meléndez welcomed me with open arms and embraced my passion for discovery. I cannot thank you both enough for the resilience of your efforts, time, and advice as I moved through the process of writing this dissertation. To Dr. Scott Michaelsen and Dr. Dylan A.T. Miner, thank you for taking the time to listen, and provide invaluable guidance. Thank you as well to Dr. Eduardo Guízar Alvarez for your willingness to work with me as I began my research on Mexico’s response. Your guidance and input had a direct impact on the content of this dissertation. To Dr. Danny Mendez, thank you for your willingness to work with me on historical telenovelas. Without your breadth and depth of knowledge, I may have never vi encountered Ramona (2000). Finally, I would like to thank my colleagues who welcomed my voice and offered immeasurable advice on this project; Felix Medina, Ernesto Todd Mireles, José Moreno, Dr. Luis H. Moreno, Nora Salas, Dr. Antonio Vásquez, and José Villarreal. Through the long process of research and writing, many other individuals offered their expertise and support. Thanks to Michigan State University's amazing library staff, in particular, Mary Jo Zeter and Hui Hua Chua who helped me navigate the every growing sea of digital resources. I offer a very special thank you to Dr. Manuel Murrieta Saldívar from California State University Stanislaus whose conversations provided unique and relevant insights. I am also immensely grateful for the opportunity to correspond with Humberto Robles, one of the co-authors of Ramona (2000). Thank you for taking the time to review my analysis and offer commentary and additional information regarding this work. Finally, thank you to Dr. Gilberto López y Rivas from the Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia in Cuernavaca México. Your words of encouragement and your help with translations have been greatly appreciated. No project of this magnitude is achievable without the support of friends and family. To my late father Roy Trotter, I repeat his words of encouragement; Illegitumus non carborundum est. Nope! I did not let the bastards grind me down! I also send my love and gratitude to the unwavering support of my stepmother Judy Trotter. To my late and dear friend Corkey Davis, I say thank you for your words of inspiration and encouragement, I carry them with me through this day. Finally, I wish to acknowledge the contributions and unwavering support of a variety of individuals: Jeff Boike, Beth Glessner-Calkins, Lorenz Chan, Melissa, Audrey, Ethan, and Parker Cummings, Tom Cummings, Sarah, Onalee, and John Davis, Roy and Sue Gosser, Rick Hosler, Bob, Kathy, and Samantha Maloney, Jim and Lori Mark, Charlie Miller, Javier Roman, Dr. Harry Shao, Dr. Christine Sorenson, Dr. Xiaohong Tan, and Darlene VanRavensway. It has been a very long road. I thank you for your encouragement and efforts on my behalf along the way. vii PREFACE Now the whole world had one language and a common speech. As people moved eastward, they found a plain in Shinar and settled there. They said to each other, “Come, let’s make bricks and bake them thoroughly. “They used brick instead of stone, and tar for mortar. Then they said, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, so that we may make a name for ourselves; otherwise we will be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” But the LORD came down to see the city and the tower the people were building. The LORD said, “If as one people speaking the same language they have begun to do this, then nothing they plan to do will be impossible for them. Come, let us go down and confuse their language so they will not understand each other.” So the LORD scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. That is why it was called Babel – because there the LORD confused the language of the whole world. From there the LORD scattered them over the face of the whole earth. ~Genesis 11:1-9 New International Version THE PROMISE OF SHINAR My journey began with one goal, to learn Spanish. In my mind, that meant learning the Spanish words for my thoughts in English. I quickly learned how naïve such a thought was. The last class of my Spanish undergraduate program was a course in Latin American Vanguard poetry. In the closing words of my final paper I reflected on two very important lessons that I felt I had learned over the course of my studies. The first was that all knowledge was fluid and that humanity’s ability to understand the world depends upon its willingness to engage that fluidity. The second lesson was that language shapes knowledge. Through several years of study, I had come to realize that the stories that our family, friends, and institutions tell us heavily influence our understanding of the world in which we live. Each one of these narratives is uniquely created through language and it is with that information that we each made sense of our experiences. Therefore, I concluded, language was the focal point of all knowledge. Up until the point in which I embarked upon my journey, English was the only language I had known. Moreover, I had only known it through the confines of an institutionalized educational system that prioritized teaching me how to perform the tasks necessary to make a productive contribution to a larger economic machine.