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A Grammar of Palula A grammar of Palula Henrik Liljegren language Studies in Diversity Linguistics 8 science press Studies in Diversity Linguistics Chief Editor: Martin Haspelmath Consulting Editors: Fernando Zúñiga, Peter Arkadiev, Ruth Singer, Pilar Valen zuela In this series: 1. Handschuh, Corinna. A typology of marked-S languages. 2. Rießler, Michael. Adjective attribution. 3. Klamer, Marian (ed.). The Alor-Pantar languages: History and typology. 4. Berghäll, Liisa. A grammar of Mauwake (Papua New Guinea). 5. Wilbur, Joshua. A grammar of Pite Saami. 6. Dahl, Östen. Grammaticalization in the North: Noun phrase morphosyntax in Scandinavian vernaculars. 7. Schackow, Diana. A grammar of Yakkha. 8. Liljegren, Henrik. A grammar of Palula. 9. Shimelman, Aviva. A grammar of Yauyos Quechua. ISSN: 2363-5568 A grammar of Palula Henrik Liljegren language science press Henrik Liljegren. 2016. A grammar of Palula (Studies in Diversity Linguistics 8). Berlin: Language Science Press. This title can be downloaded at: http://langsci-press.org/catalog/book/82 © 2016, Henrik Liljegren Published under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 Licence (CC BY 4.0): http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ ISBN: 978-3-946234-31-9 (Digital) 978-3-946234-32-6 (Hardcover) 978-3-946234-33-3 (Softcover) 978-1523743-72-8 (Softcover US) ISSN: 2363-5568 DOI:10.17169/langsci.b82.85 Cover and concept of design: Ulrike Harbort Typesetting: Birgit Jänen, Henrik Liljegren, Sebastian Nordhoff Illustration: Henrik Liljegren, Sebastian Nordhoff, Ljuba Veselinova Proofreading: Mario Bisiada, Jonathan Brindle, Christian Döhler, Tom Gardner, Eitan Grossman, Andreas Hölzl, Michelle Natolo, Alexis Palmer, Mathias Schenner, Alec Shaw, Aviva Shimelman, Charlotte van Tongeren Fonts: Linux Libertine, Arimo, DejaVu Sans Mono, ScheherazadeRegOT_Jazm Typesetting software:Ǝ X LATEX Language Science Press Habelschwerdter Allee 45 14195 Berlin, Germany langsci-press.org Storage and cataloguing done by FU Berlin Language Science Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet websites referred to in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. پالُولہ بھراؤمی نوہ ُج ۡھلی To the Palula people Contents Acknowledgments xiii Abbreviations xvii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Language name ........................... 1 1.2 The general setting ......................... 3 1.2.1 Where and by whom the language is spoken ....... 3 1.2.2 The socioeconomic environment ............. 7 1.2.3 Local history and cultural identity ............ 9 1.3 The linguistic setting ........................ 13 1.3.1 Genealogical affiliation ................... 13 1.3.2 Areal affinities ....................... 20 1.3.3 “Next-door” linguistic neighbours ............. 22 1.3.4 Patterns of language use .................. 25 1.4 Internal variation .......................... 28 1.5 Previous research .......................... 30 1.6 Current study ............................ 31 1.7 Palula as a written language .................... 36 1.8 Remarks on transcription and glossing .............. 39 2 Typological overview 43 2.1 Phonology .............................. 43 2.2 Morphology ............................. 45 2.3 Syntax ................................ 47 3 Phonology 53 3.1 Consonants .............................. 53 3.1.1 Consonant inventory .................... 53 3.1.2 Distribution and variation ................. 55 3.2 Vowels ................................ 60 3.2.1 Vowel inventory ...................... 60 Contents 3.2.2 Distribution and variation ................. 61 3.2.3 Vowel neutralisation .................... 62 3.2.4 The status of diphthongs .................. 63 3.3 Phonotactics ............................. 64 3.3.1 Syllable structure ...................... 64 3.3.2 Consonant clusters ..................... 65 3.4 Suprasegmentals ........................... 69 3.4.1 Aspiration and breathiness ................ 69 3.4.2 Nasalisation ......................... 72 3.4.3 Pitch accent ......................... 72 3.5 Morphophonology .......................... 75 3.5.1 Morphophonemic alternations relating to accent .... 75 3.5.2 Morphophonemic alternations relating to syllable structure 78 3.5.3 Umlaut ............................ 81 4 Parts of speech and the lexical profile 83 4.1 Part-of-speech categories ...................... 83 4.2 Nouns ................................. 84 4.2.1 Proper nouns ........................ 85 4.3 Verbs ................................. 85 4.3.1 Secondary stems ...................... 86 4.3.2 Conjunct verbs ....................... 86 4.4 Adjectives .............................. 87 4.5 Adverbs ................................ 87 4.5.1 Spatial adverbs ....................... 87 4.5.2 Temporal adverbs ...................... 88 4.5.3 Manner adverbs ....................... 88 4.5.4 Degree adverbs ....................... 88 4.5.5 Sentence adverbs ...................... 88 4.6 Pronouns ............................... 88 4.6.1 Personal pronouns ..................... 89 4.6.2 Demonstrative pronouns .................. 90 4.6.3 Indefinite-interrogative pronouns ............. 90 4.6.4 Reflexive pronouns ..................... 90 4.6.5 Reciprocal pronouns .................... 90 4.7 Determiners ............................. 91 4.8 Quantifiers .............................. 91 4.9 Postpositions ............................. 92 vi Contents 4.10 Auxiliaries .............................. 92 4.11 Mood markers ............................ 92 4.12 Conjunctions ............................. 92 4.13 Discourse markers .......................... 93 4.14 Interjections ............................. 93 4.15 Other words or word-like elements ................ 93 5 Nouns 95 5.1 The noun and its properties ..................... 95 5.2 Noun morphology .......................... 96 5.2.1 Inflectional morphology .................. 96 5.2.2 Derivational morphology ................. 97 5.3 Gender ................................ 98 5.3.1 Gender assignment ..................... 99 5.3.2 Gender stability and consistency ............. 102 5.3.3 Gender markedness ..................... 103 5.4 Number ................................ 103 5.4.1 Non-count nouns ...................... 104 5.4.2 Collective nouns ...................... 105 5.4.3 Proper names ........................ 106 5.5 Case .................................. 106 5.5.1 Nominative case ...................... 107 5.5.2 Oblique case ......................... 107 5.5.3 Genitive case ........................ 108 5.5.4 Other cases or case-like categories ............ 109 5.6 Declensions ............................. 111 5.6.1 a-declension ......................... 111 5.6.2 i-declension ......................... 117 5.6.3 m-declension ........................ 118 5.6.4 Smaller declensions and irregular nouns ......... 121 6 Pronouns 125 6.1 Introduction and overview ..................... 125 6.2 Personal pronouns .......................... 125 6.3 Demonstratives ........................... 128 6.3.1 Relationship to the larger pro-form system ........ 128 6.3.2 Demonstratives and third person ............. 129 6.3.3 Exophoric use ........................ 134 6.3.4 Anaphoric use ........................ 136 vii Contents 6.3.5 Discourse-deictic use .................... 138 6.3.6 Article-like uses ....................... 140 6.3.7 Spatial specification .................... 142 6.4 Possessive pronouns ......................... 143 6.5 Reflexive pronouns ......................... 143 6.6 Reciprocal pronouns ......................... 144 6.7 Indefinite-interrogative pronouns ................. 145 6.8 Relative pronouns .......................... 145 7 Adjectives and quantifiers 147 7.1 The adjective and its properties .................. 147 7.2 Semantic properties of adjectives ................. 149 7.2.1 Dimensional adjectives ................... 149 7.2.2 Colour adjectives ...................... 150 7.2.3 Age adjectives ........................ 152 7.2.4 Value adjectives ....................... 153 7.2.5 Physical-property adjectives ................ 154 7.2.6 Speed adjectives ...................... 155 7.2.7 Human-propensity adjectives ............... 155 7.2.8 Summary of findings .................... 156 7.3 Morphological properties of adjectives .............. 157 7.3.1 Inflectional morphology .................. 157 7.3.2 Substantivisation ...................... 158 7.3.3 Comparison of degree ................... 160 7.3.4 Derivational morphology ................. 160 7.4 Quantifiers .............................. 161 7.4.1 Cardinal numerals ..................... 162 7.4.2 Substantivised numerals .................. 164 7.4.3 Ordinal numerals ...................... 165 7.4.4 Adjectival quantifiers .................... 165 8 Adverbs and postpositions 167 8.1 Adverbs ................................ 167 8.1.1 Symmetrical adverb sets .................. 167 8.1.2 Spatial adverbs ....................... 169 8.1.3 Temporal adverbs ...................... 174 8.1.4 Manner adverbs ....................... 180 8.1.5 Degree adverbs ....................... 183 8.1.6 Sentence adverbs ...................... 184 viii Contents 8.2 Postpositions ............................. 185 8.2.1 Postpositions vis-à-vis case inflection ........... 185 8.2.2 Simple postpositions .................... 186 8.2.3 Compound postpositions .................. 196 8.2.4 Postpositional sequences .................. 198 9 Verbs 201 9.1 The verb and its properties ..................... 201 9.2 Stems
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