Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 178–188

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Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports

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Ancient starch analysis of grinding stones from Kokatha Country, South Australia T

Timothy Owena,b, Judith Fieldc, Sindy Luuc, Kokatha Aboriginal Peopled, Birgitta Stephensone,f, Adelle C.F. Costerg,* a GML Heritage, Sydney, NSW 2016, Australia b School of Humanities and Creative Arts, Department of Archaeology, Flinders University, 5042 South Australia, Australia c School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia d Native Title Holders, Kokatha Mula Nations Land Council, 35 Flinders Terrace, Port Augusta, South Australia 5700, Australia e In the Groove Analysis Pty Ltd, Indooroopilly 4068, Queensland, Australia f School of Social Science, University of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, QLD, Australia g School of Mathematics & Statistics, The University of New South Wales, 2052 NSW, Australia

ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Keywords: Identifying the range of plants and/or animals processed by pounding and/or grinding stones has been a rapidly Australia developing research area in world prehistory. In Australia, grinding and pounding stones are ubiquitous across Nurrungar Valley the semi-arid and arid zones and the associated tasks have been mostly informed by ethnographic case studies. Woomera More recently, plant microfossil studies have provided important insights to the breadth of plants being Starch exploited in a range of contexts and over long time periods. The preservation of starch and/or phytoliths on the Residue analysis used surfaces of these artefacts is well documented, though the factors determining the survival or destruction of Traditional use Stone artefacts use-related starch residues are still largely unknown. Some of these artefacts have also been used for grinding up small animals and these tasks can be identified by specific staining methods for organic remains such as collagen. In this study, 25 grinding and pounding stones identified during an archaeological project in arid South Australia, were examined for starch and collagen residues. The artefacts were from 3 locations in central South Australia, all located in exposed settings. Of these localities, Site 11 in the Western Valley near Woomera is an important Aboriginal landscape specifically associated with male ceremonial practice in the recent past. The remaining two sites, one in the adjacent Nurrungar Valley and the other near Andamooka 100 km distant, have unrestricted access and potentially a different suite of residues. The Kokatha Mula Nations, the Traditional Owners of Woomera, requested that this study be undertaken to explore the range of plants that may have been processed here. It provided an opportunity to investigate the preservation potential of starch and collagen on grinding stones; explore the range of taphonomic factors involved in the persistence of residues in extreme environmental conditions; and test the methodological developments in identifying specific plant origin of starch residues. Of the 25 grinding/pounding stones tested, 7 yielded starch grains. Geometric morphometric analysis identified 3 economic grass species, Crinum flaccidum (Andamooka Lily) and Typha domingensis (Bulrush/ Cumbungi). Folded collagen was identified on one artefact. Oral histories recount the movement between Andamooka and Nurrungar/Western Valley for men's ceremonies, and documented in the movement of stone resources, e.g. oolytic chert. The survival of residues in this environment and the identification of economic plant taxa complement the current knowledge of ceremonial activities and the movement of people and resources across significant dis- tances in arid South Australia.

1. Introduction considerably through time and space (e.g. Piperno et al., 2000; Fullagar, 2006; Fullagar et al., 2008, 2015; Liu et al., 2014; Field et al., Grinding technology emerged in the Late Pleistocene across the 2016; Louderback and Pavlik, 2017; Barton et al., 2018). The dis- globe, and the specific tasks associated with these implements varied tribution varies with environment, and in Australia, while grinding

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (A.C.F. Coster). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jasrep.2018.10.023 Received 23 July 2018; Received in revised form 27 October 2018; Accepted 28 October 2018 2352-409X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. T. Owen et al. Journal of Archaeological Science: Reports 23 (2019) 178–188 stones can be found in most environmental zones, they are ubiquitous habitation site near Andamooka (4 grinding stones), 100 km north of across the arid and semi-arid regions. Numerous shapes and forms have Site 11. been described (e.g. Smith, 1999; Smith et al., 2015), and the uses and Site 11 is located in a small closed valley (the Western Valley) which tasks performed (involving both plants and animals) have been de- is remote, extremely dry and wind-swept. The landscape is largely de- scribed in the ethnographic literature (e.g. Hayden, 1979; Gould, void of vegetation except for patchy areas of low salt bush on the valley 1980), or identified in functional studies (e.g. Fullagar et al., 2008). floor. The valley is oriented east-west, as is the associated ephemeral In arid regions, starchy foods prepared from seeds, yams and tubers creek system. No standing or running water is normally present. The have always been primary sources of food for Aboriginal people Western Valley is bordered by north and south facing slopes, with an- (Clarke, 2013; Pascoe, 2014; Pate and Owen, 2015). Many were pre- cient eroded surfaces of hardened Corraberra sandstone (Pwc) con- pared by grinding to a paste, followed by roasting or cooking before sisting of red-brown, silty sandstone and flaggy, micaceous siltstones. A eating (e.g. Gould, 1980; Clarke, 1978:80). Ethnographic studies have single quartzite outcrop is located on the northern valley slope. The shown that grinding/pounding stones were also used for processing valley floor comprises colluvial and alluvial silts, with pockets of aeo- insects, lizards, cats and some small marsupials (Gould, 1980). Non- lian sands and silts, creating a flat soft surface in the absence of a food materials such as ochre and medicinal plants, e.g. Acacia in- ground covering surface geology. aequilatera (Kanji Bush) and Dubosia hopwoodii (Pituri) have also been The Western Valley is associated with Kokatha Dreaming and male recorded as processed in this way (Brokensha, 1978). Preparation with ceremonies, traditions that are still practiced by Kokatha Watis (in- or without water effectively rendered food edible and in a form that itiated males). While the Western Valley's northern slope is associated could be consumed by elderly or the very young. Toxic starchy plants, with the Kokatha male ceremony, the valley floor is a ‘staging area’ and like Nardoo (Marsilea spp.) and Cycads were prepared by complex is the location of Site 11, an area 1 km long by approximately 400 m processing: baking, pounding/grinding and leaching with water to re- wide. The valley floor is littered with stone artefacts, including nu- move toxins (e.g. Cribb and Cribb, 1974:72 Pedley, 1993; Asmussen, merous grinding stones. Density mapping undertaken in the survey has 2011). estimated that around 120,000 lithics are present on the surface – all of Numerous studies in Australia and New Guinea have established which must have been transported from a stone quarry, around 5 km that starch survives for many millennia as use-related residues on the distant. In 2016, approximately 30,000 of these lithics were collected surface of stone artefacts (Denham et al., 2003; Fullagar, 2006; Fullagar and submitted to a technological analysis (GML Heritage, 2018). The et al., 2008; Field et al., 2009, 2016). While the specific factors con- period of site use is not known, but estimates, based on stone artefact trolling the survival of starch over these time periods have yet to be technology indicate the late Holocene, possibly within the last well defined, it is clear that these plant microfossils can be a resilient 2000–3000 years. record of plant use from the distant past. Preservation of starch is not The Nurrungar Valley is a large north-south oriented valley with an restricted to particular environments, with starch grains recovered from ephemeral drainage system that runs into a nearby large salt lagoon. It grinding stones in the rainforests of Far North Queensland, the semi- is an open setting, significantly larger than the Western Valley and is arid and arid regions of Australia and from flaked and ground stone unrestricted in access. artefacts in the New Guinea highlands (Field et al., 2016; Fullagar, Andamooka is set within gently undulating quaternary sand dunes, 2006; Fullagar et al., 2015; Summerhayes et al., 2010). The size and with open sites positioned in the swales of the dune field. The setting is morphology of starch grains can be diagnostic to a particular plant generally open, and unrestricted in access. species and are governed by their genetics and physical environments (Field, 2006a). Furthermore, it has also been shown that the local en- vironment can have a significant effect on grain characteristics (Lance 2.2. Cultural traditions et al., 2005), though this appears to usually be only in size. As grinding stones can also be multifunctional in some instances, examining them Traditional knowledge documented in the GML study (GML for evidence of processing small animals is also important. These ac- Heritage, 2018), describes the local Watis inviting men from neigh- tivities can be inferred by the presence of collagen, a residue that can bouring and distant clans/tribes to participate in male ceremonies. also be preserved for long periods (Stephenson, 2011, 2015). These men brought stone materials for ceremonies, manufacture/use In this study, we present the results of a residue analysis of grinding and trade, and food for consumption during the journey to, and during, and pounding stones from the arid zone in South Australia. The aim of ceremonies. Ceremonies occur during the hottest and driest months of this study was to investigate the survival of potentially use-related re- the year: January and February. The environmental conditions across sidues, specifically starch, phytoliths and collagen, the last being a the region during these months is extreme, with day time temperatures likely indicator of multifunctional use. If starch residues did survive exceeding 40°C. With little available shade, endurance becomes a could these be attributed to specific plant taxa using the geometric component of the ceremony. morphometric approach? Importantly for the Kokatha people of the The Kokatha recount that all food and water is taken to Site 11 at Woomera region, did the potential function of these grinding and the start of the ceremony, and processed and consumed during the pounding stones and the associated residues provide corroborating ceremony. Outside the ceremonial period this small valley is closed to evidence for the known history of site use? all Kokatha people, except the senior Watis. All Kokatha men know not to enter the area, and the area is never visited by Kokatha women be- 2. Background cause of traditional gender restrictions. To that end, the grinding stones analyzed for this study are most 2.1. Site setting likely to be connected with ceremonial times. These artefacts are manufactured from sandstone and quartzite, both of which are avail- The Woomera and Andamooka region of South Australia (Fig. 1)is able from nearby outcrops. The grinding stones are not (known to be) home to the Kokatha people and represented by the Kokatha Aboriginal removed post ceremony or used for purposes outside the ceremony. Corporation (KAC). Between 2011 and 2017, an archaeological and Given the exclusive nature of these ceremonial activities, and the iso- anthropological project was undertaken by Godden Mackay Logan lated and sparsely vegetated status of the Western Valley, any residues Heritage consultants (GML) in collaboration with the KAC (GML present are most likely to originate from use at these times. Heritage, 2018). The artefacts examined in this study were from Site 11 Please note that detailed maps and photographs of the Western in the Western Valley (13 grinding stones), a habitation site in the Valley are not included due to cultural restrictions. adjacent Nurrungar Valley near Woomera (8 grinding stones), and a

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Fig. 1. The study areas in the arid zone of South Australia. The grinding stones were found around Woomera and Andamooka, both of which have had restricted access until recently (a) Map of South Australia indicating the location of Andamooka and Woomera within the state. (b) The two locations discussed in text showing their relative distance travelled by the Kokatha to ceremonies (Illustration: Annabelle Wijaya).

2.3. The grinding stone assemblage sandstone or quartzite ground smooth on one or both sides, with distinct abraded surfaces typically elongated in shape and often Across the north of Kokatha Country, grinding stones are regularly concave in cross-section. These are usually found as broken frag- identified in ‘living’ or ‘habitation’ sites, as described by local ments and complete specimens are rare in the OXD region. Aboriginal people. These sites are associated with flaked stone tools, 2. Flat grinding stones are often quite thick on parallel-sided slabs, hearths (fireplaces), and other ‘secret/sacred’ culture. Kokatha living with a flat, approximately circular area of abrasion on one or more sites are frequently connected with specific landscape locations, for faces. The ground surfaces may be slightly concave but are often flat example, in association with sources of water, dune fields and food with only a light polish. sources (Hughes et al., 2011; GML Heritage, 2018). 3. Top stones (mullers) are used on top of grinding dishes or flat The grinding/pounding stones from Kokatha Country have been grinding stones. These have flat or slightly convex ground surfaces classified in the artefact manual created for the ‘Olympic Dam’ (OXD) that often extend to the edge of the specimen. They can be variable project, which is nearby and are summarized below (Hiscock, in form: sometimes a large cobble which may also be used as a Undated:10) (Tables 1 and 2). The grinding stones examined in this pounding stone, and some are reworked from a broken dish or flat study commonly have one or more smoothed or polished surfaces. Some grinding stone. may also have been used for pounding stones and have pitted surfaces. 4. Other grinding stones are those that do not fit within the above Grinding/pounding stones are divided into several groups: categories.

1. Grinding dishes (or millstones). These are flat, thin slabs of

Table 1 Descriptions of grinding stones from Site 11 at Woomera, South Australia and residue observations (with initials of authors).

Site 11 Technological type L (mm) W (mm) T (mm) Used surfaces (n) Raw material Residues (BS) Starch (SL/JF)

GS 01 Complete cobble 140 120 110 1 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS 02 Slab fragment 120 130 70 1 ground Sandstone Starch, Plant fibre y GS 03 Complete cobble 80 65 60 2 ground Sandstone Plant fibre n GS 05 Slab fragment 300 200 60 1 ground Sandstone Starch y GS 06 Complete cobble 170 120 100 1 ground, 2 pitted Quartzite Starch; Plant fibres, Diatom y GS 07 Slab fragment 200 150 70 1 ground Sandstone Starch y GS 08 Complete cobble 110 110 80 1 ground Sandstone Phytoliths, Plant fibres, n GS 10 Complete cobble 130 100 90 1 ground Quartzite Starch, Plant fibres y GS 11 Complete cobble (muller). 100 70 90 1 ground, 1 pitted Quartzite None n GS12 Cobble fragment 150 100 120 2 ground Sandstone Amorphous cellulose n GS13 Cobble fragment 70 70 70 2 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS14 Complete Cobble 190 120 100 1 ground, 1 pitted Quartzite Plant fibres n GSN53 Slab Fragment (cf. millstone) 200 110 70 1 Sandstone Plant fibres n

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Table 2 Descriptions of grinding stones from the ‘habitation sites' at Nurrungar Valley (15–22) and Andamooka (23–26) plus residue observations (with initials of authors).

Site 11 Technological type L (mm) W (mm) T (mm) Used surfaces (n) Stone raw material Residues (BS) Starch (SL/JF)

GS 15 Complete cobble 180 160 130 4 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS 16 Slab fragment 160 100 120 1 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS 17 Slab fragment 150 80 70 1 ground Sandstone Amorphous cellulose n GS 18 Complete cobble 180 90 80 1 ground and pitted Quartzite "Folded collagen plant fibre" n GS 19 Cobble fragment 140 100 100 2 ground Quartzite Plant fibres GS20 Slab fragment 140 90 70 2 ground Sandstone Plant fibres GS21 Slab fragment 150 220 90 1 ground Sandstone - n GS22 Complete lower slab (cf. millstone) 280 140 50 1 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS23 Lower slab fragment (cf. millstone) 100 90 70 1 ground Sandstone Plant fibres n GS24 Complete cobble 80 80 80 1 ground Quartzite - n GS25 Slab fragment 200 180 60 1 ground and pitted Sandstone Starch y GS26 Complete cobble 80 50 50 1 ground, 1 possible ground Quartzite Starch y

2.4. Use related residues locations (Fig. 1) Site 11 in the Western Valley; AS11, a habitation site in the Nurrungar Valley (3 km east of Site 11), and a habitation site at Plants with starchy seeds or tubers may need preparation before Andamooka (Tables 1, 2). All grinding stones were either sandstone or being ground and in the case of grass seeds, it is threshing and win- quartzite, and a range of flat stones and top stones were sampled. All nowing. Because of the grinding/pounding process, some of the starchy artefacts had evidence for either grinding or pounding and a number material is retained on the implements used to prepare them often in also had evidence for pitting. interstitial spaces or cracks and are referred to as ‘use-related’ residues. Samples from Site 11 (in the Western Valley), which was directly Other use-related residues from processing animal and insects may also connected with male ceremony, were collected from the northern edge be preserved and can include blood, collagen, and plant related non- of the valley floor. The assemblage comprised thirteen grinding stones starchy materials such as bark or ash (Brokensha, 1978; McBryde, 1987; samples GS1 to GS3, GS5 to GS14 and GS53 (Fig. 4). Any residues on Stephenson, 2011). It is these residues that are being examined in this these samples were likely to be the resultant of processing of plants study. brought into the Western Valley. The habitation site within the Nurrungar Valley was also sampled. 2.5. Ancient starch analysis This site was culturally unrestricted, used by family groups, adjacent to a semi-permanent water hole, with food plants and small trees bearing A note on methods of starch identification is needed here because of edible seeds or fruit known to be present. Eight grinding stones were the various approaches used by researchers to the problem. It is widely selected from a location where other cultural finds were also found acknowledged that it can be challenging to attribute starch grains to (stone tools and a hearth). The eight grinding stones – samples GS15 to their origin plant taxa even when undertaken by an expert: most GS22 – would have been used at the site, and may have documented commonly using a visual comparison involving identification of unique plants available locally. morphological features and maximum length measurements. The issues The third site sampled in this study was also a culturally unrest- around identification mainly arise because there can be greater mor- ricted habitation site in the dune fields near Andamooka, 100 km north phological variation observed within a species than there is between from the Nurrungar Valley. Four grinding stones were sampled from species. Some plants produce very diagnostic grains, e.g. the small this location – GS23 to GS26. These artefacts were associated with two freshwater fern Nardoo (Marsilea drummondii), and the Hairy Yam separate lithic densities located in a vegetated dune system, described (Dioscorea bulbifera), (Fig. 2a, b) while others are difficult to dis- by the Kokatha as living areas. These grinding stones were included to criminate on a visual basis because of the redundancy of shapes be- provide a comparative sample from a location with a contrasting en- tween species (e.g. Cycas media and Beilschmiedia bancroftii, Fig. 2c, d). vironmental context and thus food resources. For this reason, we use a shape analysis, population approach known as geometric morphometric analysis (Coster and Field, 2015). It is a 3.1. Sample processing method that provides a higher level of confidence than previous more subjective comparative methods mentioned above (and discussed in Each grinding stone was photographed in situ, then placed in a Fullagar et al., 2008). No method appears to be fool proof as some sealed and separate plastic bag to reduce handling. The grinding stones species can be particularly difficult to separate and not all starch under were taken to a temporary artefact recording area in Woomera for re- examination can be attributed to a specific plant taxa (Field et al., sidue sampling. The ground surfaces of the 25 grinding stones were 2016). sampled for use-related residues. Samples were collected using a vari- Study of plant microfossils is grounded in a comprehensive modern able volume pipette, and approximately 300μl of distilled water. A comparative reference collection compiled of known economic and single sample was collected from each stone. The distilled water was non-economic starchy plants for the area under study (Field, 2006a,b). applied to areas with evidence of smoothing (polishes), pits and cre- Lists of potential economic taxa for the Woomera region were compiled vices, as these locations, in our experience, hold the greatest potential following GML Heritage (2017) and Luu et al. (2015). Secondary for residue survival (Dubreuil et al., 2015; Fullagar, 2006; Fullagar sources included Australia's Virtual Herbarium (2017), Clarke (2013), et al., 2006, 2008). The surface was scraped with a nylon pipette tip to Latz (1986), Low (1991), Zola and Gott (1992). Australia's Virtual help dislodge residues before the water plus sample was removed and Herbarium (Australia's Virtual Herbarium, 2017) was used to verify the transferred to a 1.5 ml centrifuge tube. Samples were subsequently split presence of a particular species within this region. Tables 3 and 4 and into two and processed to recover ancient starch and phytoliths (by Fig. 3 present the reference taxa used in this study. Luu, Field and Coster) and to assay for collagen (Stephenson). The sample size was relatively small as the grinding stones could not 3. Materials and methods be moved to a larger laboratory where would normally use a ultra- sonicator bath and centrifugation. As a result, we predicted a smaller A total of 25 grinding stones were collected from three separate number of microfossils were likely to be recovered. As requested by the

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Fig. 2. Examples of starch grains with distinctive and diagnostic grains (a & b), and starch grains that are difficult to differentiate between (c & d). All of these species require complex processing. (a) Marsilea drummondii, or Nardoo is found across most of continental Australia in a range of environments; (b) Dioscorea bulbifera, Hairy Yam is found across the tropics of north and north-eastern continental Australia; (c) Beilschmiedia bancroftii or Yellow Walnut is found in the Nth Queensland rainforests and (d) Cycas media or cycad is found in north- eastern Australia and is also scattered across the top end (Photographs: J. Field).

Kokatha representatives, following sampling all grinding stones were modified Picro-Sirius Red (PSR) staining protocol (Stephenson, 2015). returned to their original locations. Processing of the residues samples The sample was transferred to a glass slide and allowed to dry over- for the starch analysis was undertaken in the School of Biological, Earth night. A drop of freshly prepared 0.25% PSR solution was applied to the and Environmental Sciences at the University of New South Wales. Each slide. After an hour, two drops of acidified water was applied to wash sample collected in the field was split into two, one for the starch out excess PSR stain. Coverslips were placed over the stained areas, and analysis and one for the collagen analysis (see below). the slides scanned. In our experience, the yield of starch grains was likely to be small and the samples were mounted with minimal treatment to preserve any 3.2. Microscopy plant microfossils that may have been present. Negative controls were processed in parallel with the archaeological samples to assay for Microscopy was undertaken with a Zeiss Axioskop II transmitted contaminating starch. Each sample was spun at 6000 RPM for five light microscope fitted with Nomarski optics, Zeiss HRc digital camera minutes and the supernatant was discarded. The samples were then re- and AxioVision software (ver 4.8.3.0; Carl Zeiss 2006-2011). Total slide suspended in c. 30μl of distilled water and transferred to a glass mi- scans were completed using partially cross-polarised light to ensure the croscope slide and mounted in a 50:50 water:glycerol solution with a maximum number of starch grains was identified. The preparation was glass coverslip and sealed with nail varnish. examined at an effective 1000× magnification (using a 63× Oil The preparation of each sample for collagen and other organic re- Immersion objective, with additional 1.6× magnification and 10× sidues followed a modified Picro-Sirus Red (PSR) staining protocol oculars). (Stephenson, 2015) and was undertaken at the University of Queens- The PSR stained slides were examined using a Leitz Dialux 22 land. The preparation of each sample for the collagen study used a bright-field transmitted light microscope fitted with polarising filters

Table 3 Plant taxa used in the reference set for the starch identifications, based on herbarium and secondary sources (see reference list).

Family Genus, species Common name Plant part used Reference Grains in reference set

Amaryllidaceae Crinum flaccidum Andamooka Lily Corm (medicinal) Latz (1986), Fennell and van Staden (2001) 116 Fabaceae Acacia aneura Mulga Seeds Latz (1986), Low (1991) 105 Fabaceae Acacia tetragonophylla Kurara Seeds Latz (1986) 157 Fabaceae Acacia victoriae Bramble wattle Seeds Latz (1986), Low (1991) 121 Marsileaceae Marsilea drummondii Nardoo Sporocarps Low (1991), Zola and Gott (1992) 102 Poaceae Dactyloctenium radulans Button grass Seeds Latz (1986) 215 Poaceae Eragrostis eriopoda Woollybutt Seeds Latz (1986), Low (1991) 154 Poaceae Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha Cupgrass Seeds 85 Poaceae Panicum decompositum Australian millet Seeds Latz (1986), Low (1991) 104 Poaceae Panicum miliaceum Proso millet Seeds Low (1991) 128 Poaceae Paspalidium jubiflorum Warrego Summer Grass Seeds Clarke (2013) 139 Typhaceae Typha domingensis Bulrush Rhizomes (fibre) Clarke (2013), Low (1991), Zola and Gott (1992) 136

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Table 4 Ethnobotany of plant taxa included in the ancient starch and collagen analysis of grinding stones from the Australian arid zone.

Plant Known distribution Common name Identified traditional aboriginal use

Panicum miliaceum Near Andamooka French Millet Broom Millet Seed was collected and winnowed before being pounded into an edible substance. Crinum flaccidum Near Woomera Andamooka Lily These bulbs were harvested from the plant and pounded to make a paste with water. Well known to be used for medicinal purposes in Central Australia and as a topical treatment for sores and boils. Flowers in summer to early autumn. Typha domingensis Near Andamooka Southern Cattail Narrow-leaf A widely used food plant, growing in the lake. The underground stem (rhizome) is rich in Cumbungi starch, and also is a source of strong fibre for string-making. The young flowering stems were eaten raw and the leaves were used to make baskets (Gott, 1999). Eragrostis eriopoda Near Woomera Woolybutt grass “A food source: the seedheads are rubbed off, and then separated form the seeds by pounding, singeing, winnowing and ‘yandying’. The seeds are then ground to a flour and water added to produce a runny mix, which is cooked in sand, ashes and coals to produce a traditional bread or nyuma, wanytji." (Goddard et al., 2002:102). Body decoration: “in central Australia, decorations were obtained from the heads of Wollybutt grass" (Clarke, 2013:214). Modern use: “During the last decade, Pilbara and Western Desert women have produced baskets and sculptures made from desert grasses, using the coiled bundle technique. The main species involved are long greybeard grass and Woollybutt grass" (Clarke, 2013:246). Panicum decompositum Near Woomera Australian Millet Native Millet One of the most important native food plants, the seeds being ground between stones, made into Umbrella Grass a paste and baked in the ashes (Cribb and Cribb, 1974:102). Paspalidium jubiflorum Near Woomera Warrego Summer Grass Other varieties of panic grass have been utilised by women in the north Wellesley islands as a source of fibre for making cord/string. Other varieties were used in Arnhem land for necklaces (Clarke, 2013:184, 219). Not recorded as used.

Fig. 3. The comparative reference set used in the analysis of the starch grains recovered from grinding stones in the Woomera area. (a) Crinum flaccidum (b) Acacia aneura; (c) Acacia tetragonophylla; (d) Acacia victoriae; (e) Marsilea drummondii; (f) Dactyloctenium radulans; (g) Eragrostis eriopoda; (h) Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha; (i) Panicum decompositum; (j) Panicum miliaceum; (k) Paspalidium jubiflorum; (l) Typha domingensis (Photographs: J. Field).

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GS2 GS5 GS6 GS7

2cm

GS10 GS18 GS25 GS26

Fig. 4. Five grinding stones from Site 11 at Woomera that yielded starch grains (GS2, GS5, GS6, GS7, GS10). Two grinding stones from Andamooka that yielded starch grains (GS25, GS26) and one which had collagen (GS18) (Photographs: S. Luu). and photographed using a Tucsen ISH 500 video camera at varying should be adequately represented by ≥100 starch grains. magnifications. The optimum classifier to discriminate the reference plant species was a quadratic discriminant, with a voted output for the predictor 3.3. Geometric morphometric analysis variables area, perimeter, circularity and Fourier signature (compo- nents 0–5) (following Coster and Field (2015), Field et al. (2016)). This Digital images (JPEG) of starch grains in the archaeological sample classifier was optimal both for the prediction of the reference starch preparations and the modern comparative reference collection were grains used in its construction and also by cross-validation, where a imaged via brightfield differential interference contrast microscopy. subset of grains from known species is withheld from the classifier Digitisation of these images was completed by tracing using a graphical construction and subsequently used to test the classifier performance. user interface (GUI) developed in MATLAB (MATLAB Release 2014b, The MathWorks, Inc., Natick, MA, USA), and a WACOM Intuos Pen 3.4. Results Tablet (CTH-480). The starch grain outline is referred to as the region of interest (ROI), and if there were more than one grain per field of view, More than 62 starch grains were identified on seven of the 25 they were numbered sequentially. The location of the hilum position grinding stones submitted for analysis (some clumping prevented an was also marked, fissures, faceting and presence or absence of lamellae accurate total count). Most grains were intact and undamaged and 53 were routinely noted. were digitized for the geometric morphometric analysis. Those not in- An algorithm was developed for the analysis of starch grains (Coster cluded were damaged and were not suitable for this study. Crinum and Field, 2015). Application of the algorithm to the co-located re- flaccidum and Typha domingensis were identified on five of the seven ference grains results in a classifier constructed to predict the plant grinding stones and two grinding stones had 3 species of grasses iden- species that produced the starch grain. The grains analysed include tified (Table 5). Other residues were also documented (Tables 1 and 2). those from the reference set of known species and those of unknown In summary, the analyses of the grinding stones have shown the species, i.e. the archaeological residue sample. These grains can be following: characterised in terms of geometric morphometric measures de- termined from digitised images (see above). 1. Seven of the 25 artefacts sampled retained starch on their used The attributes (or predictor variables) used in this study were: surfaces (Table 1). Five of the grinding stones were from Site 11; the other two from the habitation site near Andamooka. The Nurrungar • Hilum position as an offset from the centre of mass of the grain, Valley habitation site grinding stones did not yield any starch grains. • Perimeter, 2. Starch was recovered from a range of upper and lower grounding • Area, stone implements (Tables 1, 2; Figs. 4, 5 a–c). • Maximum length through the hilum, and the 3. Collagen (Fig. 5d), diatoms and phytoliths (silica skeletons of plants) • Fourier signature of the grain outline (a decomposition of the shape were identified in the slide preparations on some grinding stones into radial basis components) (Coster and Field, 2015). (Tables 1 and 2). 4. The results suggest that starch may survive, even if in reduced fre- The predictor variables were used to build a classifier for the re- quencies, on the used surfaces of grinding stones in open, and en- ference set of grains; those species which are possible origin species for vironmentally harsh settings. the unknown grains. Different classifiers, employing all combinations of the predictor variables were assessed to find an optimal classifier for the Of the 13 grinding stones sampled within the Western Valley five reference set which was composed of all potential species (Coster and yielded starch grains (Tables 1 and 2). Interestingly all grinding stones Field, 2015). The number of individual grains of the reference species is with residues had starch grains from more than one species: GS5, GS6 also considered and it is estimated that the within-species variations and GS7 (situated near each other) had two species each, GS2 had four

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Table 5 Plant taxa identified using the geometric morphometric analysis of starch grains from the seven grinding stones in the Woomera region. Note, not all starch grains identified were digitized for this study due to physical damage.

Ground stone ID Site name # Starch grains Panicum Crinum Typha domingensis Eragrostis Panicum Paspalidium miliaceum flaccidum eriopoda decompositum jubiflorum

GS 02 Site 11 19 1 5 12 1 GS 05 Site 11 10 1 6 GS 06 Site 11 3 2 1 GS 07 Site 11 17 4 10 GS 10 Site 11 10 1 3 3 1 2 GS 25 Andamooka 1 1 GS 26 Andamooka 4 Totals 62 2 16 32 1 1 2 Percentage 13% unidentified 3% 26% 52% 2% 2% 3% species and GS10 had five different plant taxa present. The assemblage carried out in the Western Desert Ranger workshops (B. Stephenson, was dominated by two species – Typha domingensis (Bulrush), a food unpublished results). The densities of collagen observed in this study source; and Crinum flaccidum (Andamooka Lily), a medicinal plant. are exceptionally low when compared with animal processing events. Notably, the analyses by AC/SL/JF and BS were undertaken in- dependently and their separate results agreed on the presence or ab- 4. Discussion sence of starch on grinding stones. A low density of collagenous residues was noted across GS18, as 4.1. Residue preservation identified by the collagen specific Picro-Sirius Red stain (Stephenson, 2015). These included folded collagen and fine collagen fibres (Fig. 5d), The number of grinding stones with preserved starch grains (and which are commonly associated with skin. As such, the low density and near-absence of other residues) reflects the relatively poor residue re- isolated nature of these residues suggest that the collagen is likely to be tention generally observed in surface collections from exposed contexts a contaminant and may be the result of handling. Collagen is mostly in marginal environments such as Woomera. The impacts of wind, found in fibrous tissues such as tendons, ligaments and skin (Di Lullo surface water, rain, other weathering forces, temperature fluctuations et al., 2012). It consists of amino acids wound together to form triple- as well as UV radiation can result in the removal/degradation of re- helices which then form elongated fibrils. The Picro-Sirius Red stain is sidues on artefact surfaces. Storage and handling of implements fol- specific for collagen and the adapted staining protocol used here can lowing recovery, may also impact on the range and types of residues differentiate Types I, II and IIIS collagens in archaeological contexts subtracted from or added to the used surfaces. (Stephenson, 2015). Importantly, handling experiments investigating Numerous studies have shown that the destruction or removal of the transference of skin, oils, lipids and collagen have been documented use-related residues can be effected by mechanical actions and micro- in laboratory trials at the University of Queensland and in experiments bial activity (Barton and Matthews, 2006; Carbone and Keel, 1985;

Fig. 5. Examples of starch grains isolated from grinding stones examined in this study. (a) An un- damaged starch grain from GS10; (b) Clump of starch grains from GS7; (c) Damaged starch grains from GS26, because they were clearly damaged, these were excluded from the geometric morpho- metric analysis. (d) Folded collagen in an extraction from GS 18 and stained with Picro-Sirius Red (Photographs: (a), (b), (c) Sindy Luu; (d) B. Stephenson).

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Haslam, 2004). Nonetheless, many surface collections have been shown (Clarke, 2013; Gott, 1999). These require some processing: after to preserve residues (Cooper and Nugent, 2011; Field et al., 2009), as cooking they are chewed to produce string, but may also be prepared by demonstrated here. It is possible that the landscape location and or- pounding. ientation of the artefacts, e.g. used surfaces face down or up, and/or the Typha domingensis was identified on all grinding stone extractions relatively sheltered location near the base of the northern slope, con- with starch from Site 11, and none were identified on the Andamooka tributed to the retention of some starch. artefacts. Two of the Site 11 grinding stones have higher numbers of A range of taphonomic factors may dictate the persistence of re- Typha domingensis, one being a clump of starch grains that we could not sidues on an artefact surface. Some of these are mentioned above and completely visualise. These are the same artefacts that had slightly relate to pre- and post-collection handling and in the latter case storage. higher numbers of Crinum flaccidum starch grains as well. Typha is re- As far as has been possible, the handling and storage of these artefacts corded as growing in Andamooka (Table 4, Australia's Virtual have been mitigated (handling with plastic gloves, storage in plastic Herbarium, 2017), and could have been brought to the Western Valley bags, etc.). Furthermore, the negative control that was run in parallel with stone materials that were unavailable locally. The wider Nur- with the samples to detect any contaminating starch had no starch rungar Valley contains several large ephemeral waterholes where Typha present. could have grown, but there is no evidence that it has occurred there recently. 4.2. Grinding stone use The four grass species identified occurred in very small numbers. Their presence on these artefacts could well be from use, or alter- The study of use-related residues on grinding stones can provide natively as aerial contaminants. A detailed usewear study would pro- insights to prehistoric subsistence strategies; plant exploitation and use; vide more detail on silica polish but we could not follow this through at and the multifunctional nature of ‘formal’ implements (Dickau et al., the time. Three of the four are well documented economic plant species, 2012; Fullagar et al., 2008, 2015; Liu et al., 2014). Furthermore, these but the frequencies are too low to make a call on whether they are use- studies can potentially identify plant taxa that may have fallen out of related. use and consequently not within the living memory of modern-day The low density of collagenous residues noted on one grinding stone communities, as well as economic plants that may have been trans- sample (GS18, Table 2; Fig. 5d) included folded collagen and fine col- ported (Field et al., 2009, 2016). In this study, the highest frequencies lagen fibres, and are commonly associated with skin. As such, the low of starch grains were documented on lower grinding stones (GS2 and density and isolated nature of these residues suggest the collagen is GS7). The residue sample volumes were very conservative and a larger likely to be a contaminant and may be the result of handling. volume of solvent applied to the stone surface is highly likely to have yielded a larger sample of grains. 4.3. Cultural interpretations The two species that were present on 6 of the 7 grinding stones that yielded starch residues were Crinum flaccidum (Andamooka Lily) and The Kokatha Watis describes traditional ceremonial practice at Site Typha domingensis (Bulrush). Notably, these plants either emerge after 11 occurring over several days, where those entering the valley needed rain or require wet conditions (a soak or spring) to proliferate (Table 3). to bring food for the duration. The presence of economic plant taxa on As the starch derives from subsurface components of each plant, it is grinding stones at Site 11 provides insight into the plant use associated considered unlikely to form an aerial contaminant. with the male ceremony. Crinum flaccidum has various common names including Andamooka During ceremonial times, we argue that the grinding stones in Site Lily (Sandover Lily and Darling Lily), and is widespread across most 11 were used to prepare medicines and probably food, notably from environmental zones in the eastern half of the Australian continent. It seeds and underground storage organs. The medicinal plants needed grows on sandy floodplains, grassy turnouts and ephemeral swampy complex processing. Grass seeds also require pounding before roasting. areas, and persists subsurface as a tunicate, or onion like, bulb. The Indications are that food provisioning occurred elsewhere and was leaves emerge several days after rain, followed by white flowers brought into the Western Valley, from as far as 100 km away. The (Cunningham et al., 1981). traditional Aboriginal economic systems for long distance stone Crinum flaccidum is widely known as a medicinal plant in Central movement into the Western Valley, has parallels with plant movement, Australia and as a topical treatment for sores and boils in semi-arid notably Typha domingensis and Panicum miliaceum. Across south-eastern areas (Latz, 1986). It has also been reported as an analgesic and recent Australia, the Bulrush Typha is a common feature in late Holocene pharmacological research into the Amaryllidaceae family has identified living sites (Gott, 1999). It has been a consistent and reliable food, alkaloids that are considered antiviral, anti-tumour and anticholinergic which was relatively simple to prepare and yields large amounts of (Fennell and van Staden, 2001). Crinum has also been reported as starch from its rhizomes. prepared for consumption in the semi-arid regions of western NSW It appears that medicinal treatment for men coming to the ceremony (Local Land Services NSW, 2017). The starchy tunicate bulb is made may have been commonplace. All the grinding stones with starch from into a gruel, of which pounding can be part of the preparation proce- Site 11 yielded starch from the Andamooka Lily, Crinum flaccidum,a dure (Usher, 1974; Latz, 1986:152,Fennell and van Staden, 2001). species that spends most of its life cycle as a subterranean tunicate bulb, Crinum flaccidum starch grains were present on all the artefacts and its presence is only evident when it sends up leaves and flowers where starch was found. Subsequent archaeological surveys have during late summer and early Autumn. As such the emergence of the identified Crinum flaccidum flowering within 2 km of Site 11, which Andamooka Lily coincides with the men's ceremonial activities in the suggests a local source if collected and used during the period of Western Valley around this time, as documented in the Kokatha project flowering summer to early autumn. The traditional use of Crinum by GML (GML Heritage, 2017) and suggested by the starch evidence flaccidum is associated with the male ceremonies, and as reported presented in this study. previously - the medical treatment of sores - potentially incurred by men travelling substantial distances for ceremonial purposes, during 5. Conclusions the hottest months of the year. The flowering cycle of Crinum flaccidum (summer to early autumn) coincides with the season where male Evaluating the survival of use-related residues on the surfaces of ceremony occurred in the Western Valley. stone artefacts varies considerably with environmental conditions and Typha domingensis or Bulrush Typha is one species that is very well is rarely predictable. In this pilot study, evaluating the persistence of known across Aboriginal Australia for its economic uses, including ancient starch and other residues has resulted in the identification of a producing fibre for string and edible basal stems (starch rich rhizomes) number of economic plant taxa as well as collagen in one instance.

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