Gillian Fellows-Jensen A few more words on place-names in thorp in

Endnu et par ord om stednavne på thorp i England

Igennem en periode på omkring 45 år har forfatteren arbejdet med og tænkt over navneelementet thorp i Eng- land. Nærværende artikel kan ses som en (foreløbig) konklusion herpå, først og fremmest på spørgsmålet om, hvor vidt de engelske thorp-navne er af dansk eller engelsk oprindelse. Så mange års studier af et emne må næsten uvægerligt føre til ændringer i tolkningen af de relaterede spørgsmål. Forfatteren er da også nu mere end tidligere parat til at indrømme muligheden af, at engelske throp-navne oprindeligt også kan have været ud- bredt i Danelagen, men her med tiden er blevet ”fordansket” til den mere udbredte form thorp. Ikke desto mindre kan den store forekomst af thorp i bestemte dele af England fortsat bedst forklares som oprindelige thorp-navne og som afspejlende dansk indflydelse, om end flere af navnene udmærket kan tænkes at være af noget yngre dato end den oprindelige skandinaviske bosættelse. Fremover vil det dog nok være tilrådeligt kun at anvende ‐thorp-navne med skandinaviske forled i kortlægninger af dansk bosættelse i England.

I have been writing and thinking about place- From the very beginning I have accepted names in thorp in England for about forty-five Hugh Smith’s definition of the element thorp as years. Although I have changed my mind about denoting ‘a secondary settlement, an outlying several points in the course of time, I have farmstead or a small dependent on a mentioned most of these voltes-face more than larger place’ (Smith 1956: 2.208). This is not once before now, first and foremost in the rele- only because of the occurrence of the word in vant chapters in my studies of Scandinavian an early twelfth-century insertion in the Peter- settlement names in (Fellows Jensen borough version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle 1972: 42-79), the East Midlands (Fellows-Jen- for 963 of a somewhat dubious grant by King sen 1978: 83-135) and the North-West (Fel- Edgar of freedom from jurisdiction of king and lows-Jensen 1985: 44-60), an article entitled bishop to the monastery of St Peter, using the ‘Place-names in ‐þorp: in retrospect and in tur- words ealle þa þorpes þe þærto lin. þæt is. moil’, which was expressive of my state of mind Æstfeld and Dodesthorp and Ege and Pastun. at that time (Fellows-Jensen 1991-92), and The meaning of the word thorp here is suppor- most recently in an article comparing place- ted in a copy of a related charter (Sawyer 1968: names in thorp in with those in the rest no. 787), where the words ealle þa þorpes are of the Danelaw (Fellows-Jensen 2003). Refe- translated into Latin as cum suis appendiciis rences to relevant names in the present paper ‘with their appendages’, while in some four- are normally to the above-mentioned works. teenth-century memoranda (Sawyer 1968: no. 1448), the relevant Peterborough estates are 2 Gillian Fellows-Jensen

referred to in as ta berewican contain west or vestr, four sūð or súðr and two ‘the berewicks’, that is ‘dependent members of norð or norðr. a manor’. Even without this illustrative, if slight- The problem of distinguishing linguistical- ly uncertain, documentary evidence, however, ly between names of English or Danish origin the content of the place-names themselves of- brings me to the main topic of the present pa- ten points to the originally dependent nature of per. This is the question as to whether the the settlements they bear. thorp-names are mainly of Danish or English Almost a quarter of the thorp-names (132 origin. I was originally convinced by Kenneth names or 23%) are simplex names, that is the Cameron’s argument in his study of the place- word thorp stands quite alone on the occasion names in thorp in the territory of the Five Bo- of its earliest record. The settlements with roughs that the names were a reflection of Da- these simplex names can hardly have func- nish colonisation in the strict sense, that is of tioned satisfactorily from an administrative point the bringing under cultivation by the Danes of of view in the eleventh century and later unless less attractive land that was not being exploited they had some kind of accepted dependent re- at the time of their arrival in the area (Cameron lationship to the authority which was respon- 1970). It is quite clear from the map in Figure 1, sible for receiving the dues and taxes that had which shows the thorp-names whose sites I to be paid. In later years many of these simplex have been able to locate, that the greatest con- names became distinguished from each other centrations of the 576 names (the grey circles) by the addition of a prefix or affix. The names are found in Yorkshire (North Riding 47, West with prefixed elements occasionally contained Riding 94, East Riding 83), the East Midlands the name of an older settlement, for example (Nottinghamshire 36, Lindsey, South Riding 39, that of a parish in the case of Burnham Thorpe Kesteven 41, Leicestershire 40, Northampton- in Norfolk. This settlement had prospered suffi- shire 32) and Norfolk in East Anglia (61). These ciently by the time of Domesday Book to be figures certainly support the idea that the thorp- named there with this specific and it had cer- names are ultimately a result of the three parti- tainly acquired parochial status at an early tions of land that the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle re- date. Several of the postulated prefixed names, corded as being made by the Danes in York- however, are themselves now lost places, for shire in 876, in the East Midlands in 877 and in example a lost *hrēod-fær ‘reed passage’ in a East Anglia in 880. Most of the thorps can in similarly lost Redfarestorp in Domesday Book fact be seen to cluster along or near to the two for . prominent ridges of high ground that run in the It is rather more frequent for the prefix in shape of two crescent-moons in broad sweeps a ‐thorp-name to be an adjective or adverb of from the Yorkshire Moors down towards south- direction. Names incorporating the four points west England – the chalk ridge to the east and of the compass are of common occurrence. It the ridge further west of oolitic limestone. would seem to have been most frequent for a The situation is somewhat complicated thorp to have been located in the east, for there by the fact that at least 54 names contain the are nine thorps containing OE ēast and three cognate element throp with its me- containing cognate Scandinavian austr. Unfor- tathesised spelling and most of these form a tunately, no distinction can be drawn linguis- slightly attenuated tail to the thorp-names (the tically in the place-names between the other black circles in Figure 1). three points of the compass. Eight thorps can

A few more words on place-names in thorp in England 3

Figure 1. English place-names in thorp (grey) and throp (black), whose sites it is possible to lo- cate.

These English throps occur most frequently in lable (1914-40: §693.1). Since the element oc- the limestone Cotswolds (Gloucestershire 15, curred so frequently as a simplex place-name, Oxfordshire 10) and the chalk of the Chilterns however, this explanation is not entirely satis- (Buckinghamshire 5) and Salisbury Plain (Wilt- factory. It should also be noted that thorp spel- shire 10). I therefore came to the conclusion lings do occur in areas such as Oxfordshire that it was on the cretaceous and limestone and Gloucestershire, where the regular spelling uplands that secondary settlements were likely is throp. I am inclined to feel that this is to be called thorp by the Danes and throp by because thorp had become the dominant the English in the Viking period and later. A spelling after the arrival of the Danish settlers. possible explanation offered by Karl Luick for It is of somewhat greater significance, on the the occurrence of metathesis so early in En- other hand, when throp-spellings occur in areas glish throp is that it frequently stood in place- where thorp is the regular spelling, for example names in a comparatively weakly-stressed syl-

4 Gillian Fellows-Jensen

in the West Riding of Yorkshire. I shall return to (Watts 1988-89: Map II), although the distribu- these forms below. tion patterns of the ‐býs and thorps in Durham I have in recent years noted a few more are admittedly different from each other. points of interest about the situation of the A comment should also be made in this thorps and the throps and I intend to discuss connection on the possible age of the thorp- these here. Starting at the north of the map in names and the settlements bearing the names. Figure 1, we note that Victor Watts located no Thorpe Bulmer is the one of the five recorded fewer than five symbols for thorps in County thorps in Durham to have the latest earliest Durham on his map III (1988-89). None of date of occurrence, namely 1242, but there is these thorps is recorded in Domesday Book, palaeoecological evidence to show that the which does not of course treat Durham, but Lit- land at Thorpe Bulmer must have been cleared tle Thorpe in Easington (NZ 4242) is recorded for settlement long before the Viking period. as Thorep in an eleventh-century copy of a do- The evidence from the analysis of pollen taken cument from c.1050 and as Thorpp in the Bol- from a kettle hole about 100 metres in diameter don Book of 1183, Thorpe Thewles (NZ 4023) situated about 800 metres from the farm at as Torp and Thorp in the twelfth century, Ful- Thorpe Bulmer has shown that by about 114 thorpe in Grindon (NZ 4124) as Fultorp in the BC there had been considerable pasturing in twelfth century, a now-lost settlement in Castle the area, with some cultivation of cereal and Eden as Threlthorpe in c.1170, and Thorpe hemp, and that ploughing must have been Bulmer (NZ 4535) as Thorpe in 1242 (Watts done there around AD 220. After this date 1988-89: 26; 2002: 47, 72, 125). These five hemp cultivation gradually ceased and there settlements were all situated in the band of would seem to have been a return to grassland magnesian limestone that runs across the but there must have been continuous and in- county roughly from South Shields to Darling- tensive cultivation at or near Thorpe Bulmer ton and hence in countryside similar to that pre- from that time on (Bartley 1976: 231-33). It ferred by the thorps elsewhere. seems likely, therefore, that the settlement at The three simplex names in Durham can Thorpe Bulmer was of very great age and not a equally well be English or Scandinavian forma- late secondary settlement, although the name tions and the same applies to Fulthorpe, for the must be younger than the settlement. The rea- specific of this name can be Old English fūl or son that this did not develop into a flourishing Scandinavian fúll, both meaning ‘foul, dirty’, and populous settlement must simply be that while the specific of the lost Threlthorpe is ulti- the neighbourhood did not offer sufficient op- mately the Scandinavian word þrǣ ll meaning portunities for expansion. Since Thorpe Bulmer ‘thrall, slave’. Since this word was one of the and the other four thorps in are early borrowings into English, however, occur- not situated in the neighbourhood of other set- ring in the tenth-century glosses to the Lindis- tlements with Danish names, it seems likely farne gospels and the Durham Ritual, as well that they must originally have been dependent as Æthelred’s Law Code II of 991 (Hofmann on settlements with English names but this 1955: §§235, 245, 271), the name Threlthorpe does not necessarily mean that the thorp- may have been coined by an English speaker. names cannot have been coined by Danish It seems altogether most likely, however, that settlers or their descendants. the thorp-names in Durham reflect the spread To the north of County Durham we do of a naming fashion from the North Riding of not find any names with the generic thorp in the Yorkshire, in much the same way as a few large county of but the occa- names in ‐bý also spread into County Durham sional occurrence of the English word þrop as a

A few more words on place-names in thorp in England 5

specific in this county suggests that the generic are not necessarily of Danish origin, although þrop might also have been in use there at they all have early forms in Torp or Thorp. One some period. The relevant names are Throp of them, however, appears as Thropp in 1601 Hill in Mitford (NZ 1385), which is recorded as and as Throp at the present time. This Throp Trophil 1166 and Throphill c. 1250, while lies in Upper Denton (NY 5265) in Cumberland Thropton in Rothbury (NU 0202) is recorded as and may perhaps be an indication that the En- Tropton 1176 and Thorpton 1334 (CDEPN glish form of the name was also known here 614). In the Cambridge dictionary Throphill is earlier. Two compound ‐thorps seem to show explained as ‘hamlet hill’, while Thropton is Danish influence, Gawthorpe (SD 8034) in Lan- translated as ‘the estate with a throp or outlying cashire, whose name was probably brought hamlet’. In DEPN 471 Ekwall suggested that there from one of the six places of that name in the specific of the latter name should perhaps the West Riding of Yorkshire, while Hackthorpe rather be translated as ‘cross-roads’, probably (NY 5323) in Westmorland, may well have because Old English throp twice appears as an been modelled on Hagthorpe in the East Riding alternative gloss to tūn for the Latin word or Ackthorpe in Lindsey, since all three names competum, which has this meaning. Since Old would seem to contain the Danish personal English tūn also appears as a gloss to compe- name Haki or the related appellative. There is tum, however, it is perhaps unlikely that the just one of the thorp-names in the North-West meaning ‘cross-roads’ was uppermost in the that may point to the presence in the area of mind of the glossator. Gaelic-speakers, perhaps originating from the In North-West England the generic thorp Western Isles. This is Melkinthorpe (NY 5525) is of comparatively rare occurrence. Since it in Lowther in Westmorland, whose specific may was earlier considered to be a Danish test- be the Celtic personal name Māelcian. In addi- word, its relative absence from the area was ta- tion there are three names in Westmorland ken as an indication that the Scandinavian set- containing specifics ultimately of Latin origin, tlers in that region were mostly of Norwegian ME clerk < clericus in Clawthorpe, OE myln < origin. Names in thorp occur quite frequently in Latin molendinum in Milnthorpe and ME spitel < the Østfold region of Norway (Sandnes 1977), Old French hospital < Latin hospitāle in a lost however, so their relative infrequency in North- Spitelthorp, as well as three names, two West England seems more likely to reflect the Crackenthorpes in Westmorland and one Cra- fact that the term was inappropriate to the kind canethorp in Lancashire, which seem to go of settlements found and formed there than that back to an Old English gen.pl. cracena ‘of the there were no Danes to coin the names. I am in crows’ (Fellows-Jensen 1985: 202, 204–05). fact most inclined to believe that secondary In Yorkshire there are two place-names dependent settlements in the North-West ten- in the West Riding whose present-day forms ded to receive either names with elements are Scosthrop and Wilstrop, although in both such as búð/bōth, ǣ rgi or sǣ tr, indicating their cases their early forms are either ‐torp or ‐thorp role in a shieling economy, or names reflecting and spellings in ‐thorp(e) persist until 1592 and the local topography, while the scattered thorps 1557 respectively. Scosthrop (SD 9059) lies in reflect Danish influence. This is because the West Staincliffe Wapentake, fairly close to the thorp-names in the North-West whose sites can north-western extremity of Yorkshire. The earli- be located are found in the more easterly areas est example of a form reflecting ‐throp is from that are most likely to have been influenced by 1591. Wilstrop (SE 4845) is a lost township in incoming Danes from across the Pennines. Ainsty Wapentake whose site is still visible and There are admittedly six simplex names that it is not far from York. The earliest record with a

6 Gillian Fellows-Jensen

form reflecting ‐throp is Wilstrop 1229. The fact Danelaw, the two relevant names, Souldrop that throp-forms may also be found in two sim- (SP 9861) and Thrup End (SP 984396) both plex names in the West Riding, however, sup- have modern forms reflecting throp. While ports the idea that throp may once have been Thrup, which is in English territory only has more widespread in the Danelaw before the such forms, Souldrop, which is in Danish terri- Danish settlement. The one possible example, tory, does have a few forms in ‐torp or ‐thorp, however, Throapham (SK 5387) in Upper Straf- pointing to Danish influence, although the spe- forth Wapentake, occurs for the first time as cific of the name is probably English sulh mea- Trapun in Domesday Book, a form that would ning ‘gully or furrow’. suggest that the name represented a dative In East Anglia all of the numerous place- plural *þrāpum. Since no satisfactory explana- names in thorp (61 in Norfolk and 15 in Suffolk) tion of this has yet been offered, it is perhaps seem to have the Danish form of the word. The best to accept Hugh Smith’s explanation that situation is more complicated in Essex, how- the Domesday spelling is erratic and that ever, where the element is not common. Throapham is a rare northern example of OE Thorpe-le-Soken (TM 1822) in Tendring Hun- throp (Smith 1961: 1.144-45). All forms subse- dred is a simplex name. All its forms are Da- quent to Domesday Book suggest that this is nish ones, from the occurrence in Domesday so. The other possible occurrence of þrop is in Book on, and the neighbouring parish also has Thrope House (SE 1075) in Fountains Earth, a Danish name, Kirby-le-Soken. There are two Lower Claro Wapentake, which is first recorded other originally simplex names in Essex, both as Trope 1198 (Smith 1961: 5.203). first occurring in Domesday Book. These are In the Midlands there are three place- Thorpe Hall and Littlethorpe, in Southchurch in names in thorp in Warwickshire, Eathorpe (SP Rockford Hundred, recorded as Thorp and 3969), Princethorpe (SP 3970) and Stoney- Torpeiam respectively. Southchurch lies on the thorpe (SP 4062), all of which have forms in Thames estuary. All the recorded forms of both ‐thorp and ‐throp. In the south-western these two names appear to be ones in thorp. part of Northamptonshire on the border of The same applies to a lost Swanthorp in Warwickshire, Oxfordshire and Buckingham- Chelmsford Hundred. The last three names in shire, a considerable number of throp-forms oc- Essex containing the thorp/throp element are cur, while the only names in this part of the all compound names. Easthorpe (TL 9121) in county which have forms that are exclusively or Lexden Hundred occurs as Estorp in Little mainly in thorp are Thorpe Lubenham, Thorpe Domesday Book. Later forms vary between Malsor, Hothorpe and Thorpe in Harrington ‐thorp and ‐throp. Gestingthorpe (TL 8138) in (Gover, Mawer & Stenton 1933: 256). The Hinchford Hundred is first recorded as æt Gyr- forms occurring in the east of the county, how- stingaþorpe between 975 and 1016 (Sawyer ever, are almost exclusively in thorp. The two 1487) and Ghestingetorp in Little Domesday thorps in Huntingdonshire, bordering on the Book, the specific apparently being an Old north-eastern part of Northamptonshire also English tribal name (CDEPN 249). Most of the only have thorp-forms. In Bedfordshire, how- recorded forms of this name are in ‐thorpe but ever, which borders on both Northamptonshire there are a few in ‐throp. Finally, Westropps, a and Buckinghamshire and is cut through by the minor name in Gestingthorpe is recorded as Danelaw boundary, leaving about a third of the Westrorp 1274, Westtorp 1285 and Westhrop county in English territory and two thirds in the 1339.

A few more words on place-names in thorp in England 7

Figure 2. The distribution of the thorp-names in the East Midlands.

8 Gillian Fellows-Jensen

Figure 3. The distribution of the compound ‐thorp-names in the East Midlands whose specifics are Scandina- vian.

A few more words on place-names in thorp in England 9

This rather tedious and circumstantial examina- original Danish partitions of settlement. It is tion has finally convinced me that the English also, however, true that of the 42 compound form of the element throp must once have been names in ‐throp, there are only seven which current, even if not particularly common, in seem likely to contain personal names, all of much more of England than the south-westerly these being of English origin, but this is pre- regions where throp-names still occur. There is sumably because the throp-names mainly oc- some onomastic evidence for its occurrence as cur in the south-west, well away from the areas far north as in Northumberland, Cumberland where Danish influence was strongest. More and the West Riding of Yorkshire, as well as in significantly, it is also true that of the 444 com- Warwickshire and Bedfordshire in the Midlands pound ‐thorps 114 have appellatives as their and in some parts of Essex. specific and that of these 54 are Scandinavian This takes me right back to 1976, when and 58 English, perhaps suggesting that the my good friend and colleague Niels Lund ar- dominance of the Danish element was, after all, gued with youthful enthusiasm that the distribu- less marked than it would appear to be from tion map of names in thorp might rather reflect the figures presented by the personal names. the distribution of English names in the related The obvious comment to these figures, of English element throp (Lund 1976). Although course, is that the English language was not the suggestion is worthy of consideration, how- eventually superseded by Danish and that ever, I am reluctant to accept Lund’s conclu- many of the younger thorps can have been sion. When first discussing the thorp-names in coined after the end of the Viking period the Danelaw, I treated all the names containing proper, when the English language was once thorp as being of Scandinavian origin. The again dominant. main reason why I considered the spelling I am therefore pleased that I had the thorp to be Danish and only the metathesised bright idea when working on the place-names form throp to be English was that my own stu- in the East Midlands to publish two distribution dies of the specifics in the ‐thorp-names had maps of the thorps, Figure 2 showing the distri- shown that out of 265 personal names con- bution of all the relevant thorps and Figure 3 tained in names in ‐thorp, 177 were Scandina- only showing the distribution of the ‐thorps with vian, 52 English and 34 of Norman origin and Scandinavian specifics (Fellows Jensen 1978: hence that 66% of these names are Scandina- 253 and 255). The most striking feature on both vian, although I have to admit that some few of the maps is the rarity of occurrence of thorps in the personal names that I took to be Scandina- the North Riding of Lindsey, where 43% of the vian might equally well be English. Niels Lund total names recorded are ‐býs, while the comments that the fact that Scandinavian per- ‐thorps with Scandinavian specifics occur sonal names are so predominant among the frequently both in the areas where the thorps ‐thorp-names points not to colonisation of un- are generally common, for example in Keste- used land but rather to a take-over of existing ven, and in some areas where there is little evi- settlements already called something + ‐thorp. dence for either English settlements or ‐býs It is undoubtedly an important observation that and where settlement can hardly have been changes of specific often did take place in the established without a good deal of prior work of place-names in ‐thorp. As a class, however, I drainage or embankment, for example the Fen am convinced that the thorp-names in England margins with the Soke of Peterborough. It is not reflect Danish influence, although many of that I consider the compound names with them, and not only those containing Norman Scandinavian specifics to be the only ones elements, must be of a younger date than the coined by the Danes but that it seems likely

10 Gillian Fellows-Jensen

that many of the names first recorded after mapping Danish settlement there. To a certain 1150 can have been coined after the English extent the same may also be true of Yorkshire language had regained its hold on the East and the East Midlands. I regret now that I did Midlands. Some of the other names may even not also print a map showing only the place- antedate the arrival of the Danes in England. names in ‐thorp which had Scandinavian In conclusion I must say that although I specifics as a supplement to the distribution certainly still find it unlikely that all or even map of the thorps in general in my study of the many of the thorp-names in the Danelaw are to Yorkshire settlement names (Fellows Jensen be looked upon as containing English generics, 1972: 178). Although I still feel that the fact that it would perhaps be wise to refrain from accep- the thorps are much commoner in the Danelaw ting simplex Thorpe and names in ‐thorp than the English-named throps are in the rest whose specifics are English as being of Scan- of England argues against many of the thorps dinavian origin. I would now tend to agree with being pre-Viking foundations, it would perhaps that circumspect scholar Karl Inge Sandred be advisable always to separate the ‐thorps (1994). His research led him to argue that al- containing Scandinavian specifics from the though the numerous place-names in thorp in simplex thorps and the ‐thorps containing En- Norfolk must be the result of Danish influence, glish specifics when mapping Danish settle- they can hardly be looked upon as a basis for ment in England.

References

Bartley, D. D. (1976): Palæobotanical evidence. In: Medieval Settlement. Ed. P. H. Sawyer. London. Cameron, Kenneth (1970): Scandinavian settlement in the territory of the Five Boroughs: The place-name evidence. Part II. Place-names in Thorp. In: Mediaeval Scandinavia 3. CDEPN = The Cambridge Dictionary of English Place-Names. Ed.by Victor Watts. Cambridge 2004. DEPN = The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Place-Names, 4th ed. Ed. by Eilert Ekwall. Oxford 1960. Fellows Jensen, Gillian (1972): Scandinavian Settlement Names in Yorkshire. Copenhagen. Fellows Jensen, Gillian (1978): Scandinavian Settlement Names in the East Midlands. Copenhagen. Fellows-Jensen, Gillian (1985): Scandinavian Settlement Names in the North-West. Copenhagen. Fellows-Jensen, Gillian (1991-92): Place-names in ‐þorp: in retrospect and in turmoil. In: Nomina 15. Fellows-Jensen, Gillian (2003): Torp-navne i Norfolk i sammenligning med torp-navne i andre dele af Danela- gen. In: Nordiske torp-navne. Rapport fra NORNAs 31. Symposium i Jaruplund 25.–28. April 2002. Ed. by Peder Gammeltoft & Bent Jørgensen. Uppsala. Gover, J. E. B., A. Mawer & F.M. Stenton (1933): The Place-Names of Northamptonshire. Cambridge. Hofmann, Dietrich (1955): Nordisch-Englische Lehnbeziehungen der Wikingerzeit. Copenhagen. Luick, Karl (1914-40): Historische Grammatik der englischen Sprache 1-2. Stuttgart. Lund, Niels (1976): Thorp-names. In: Medieval Settlement. Ed. by P. H. Sawyer. London. Sandnes, Jørn (1977): Navn og bygd i et sørøstnorsk grenselandskap. In: Namn och Bygd 65. Sandred, Karl Inge (1994): Nordiskt i Norfolk. In: Kungl. Humanistiska Vetenskaps-Samfundet I Uppsala Arsbok 1994. Sawyer, P. H. (1968): Anglo-Saxon Charters. An Annotated List and Bibliography. London. Smith, A. H. (1956): English Place-Name Elements 1-2. Cambridge. Smith, A. H. (1961): The Place-Names of the West Riding of Yorkshire 1-8. Cambridge. Watts, Victor (1988-89): Scandinavian Settlement-Names in County Durham. In: Nomina 12. Watts, Victor (2002): A Dictionary of County Durham Place-Names. Nottingham.