English Place-Names from a Scandinavian Perspective A study on place-names in Herefordshire, Cumbria and the areas reachable by Viking ship through the Humber Engelska ortnamn ur ett Skandinaviskt perspektiv En språkvetenskaplig studie av ortnamn i Herefordshire, Cumbria och de områden som var nåbara med vikingaskepp via Humber

Martin Kahnberg

Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences English English III: Degree Project 15 credits Supervisor: Marika Kjellén Examiner: Silvia Kunitz Autumn 2020 Title: English Place-Names from a Scandinavian Perspective: A study on place- names in Herefordshire, Cumbria and the areas reachable by Viking ship through the Humber Titel på svenska: Engelska ortsnamn ur ett Skandinaviskt perspektiv: en studie av ortnamn i Herefordshire, Cumbria och de områden som var nåbara med vikingaskepp via Humber. Author: Martin Kahnberg Pages: 237

Abstract In an attempt to discern the prevalence of British place-names with a Scandinavian origin this paper is a small linguistic study on place-names in Herefordshire, Cumbria and the areas along rivers Trent and Ouse. Based on modern maps place-names were included in the study. Older forms of the place-names were retrieved, and these old forms were analysed in order to understand the modern versions of the place-names. Place-name elements were grouped and their frequencies calculated in an attempt to understand the distribution of elements in each area. 1300 place-names were categorised based on their presumed origin, though some lacked the necessary information. Several place-names were given new possible derivations based on their categorisation and the elements they contained. Modern place-name elements/features hinting at a possibly Scandinavian place- name in the past were identified and described. Possible geographical patterns of Scandinavian place-names were found in central Herefordshire, in south-eastern Cumbria and in north-western Yorkshire. Possible implications of the place-names and their geographical concentrations were considered, yielding a hint on an area that might have been pivotal in the evolution of Old English.

Keywords: place-names, Trent, Ouse, Ure, Swale, Humber, Cumbria, Herefordshire, derivations, Scandinavian, Old Norse Sammanfattning på svenska I ett försök att urskilja utbredningen av brittiska ortnamn med ett skandinaviskt ursprung är denna uppsats en liten språkvetenskaplig studie av ortnamn i Herefordshire, Cumbria och längs floderna Trent och Ouse. Utifrån moderna kartor i en viss upplösning inkluderades alla synliga ortnamn i områdena. Äldre versioner av ortnamnen samlades in, och dessa gamla former analyserades i syfte att undersöka bakgrunden till de moderna ortnamnsvarianterna. Ortnamnens delar grupperades och deras frekvenser beräknades i syfte att förstå hur dessa fördelades i de olika områdena. 1300 ortnamn kategoriserades utifrån deras förmodade ursprung, men några ortnamn saknade den nödvändiga information undersökningen krävde. Flera ortnamn fick nya tänkbara betydelser baserat på den kategori de tilldelats och de ortnamnsdelar de innehöll. Moderna ortnamnsdelar som skulle kunna indikera en forntida nordisk ortnamnsvariant identifierades och beskrevs. Tänkbara geografiska nordiska ortnamnsmönster upptäcktes i centrala Herefordshire, i sydöstra Cumbria och i nordvästra Yorkshire. Tänkbara implikationer av ortnamnen och deras geografiska koncentrationer betraktades, vilket resulterade i upptäckten av ett område som kan ha påverkat fornengelskans utveckling i väldigt hög utsträckning.

Nyckelord: ortnamn, Trent, Ouse, Swale, Humber, Cumbria, Herefordshire, betydelser, skandinaviska, nordiska, fornnordiska Contents

Contents...... 4

1. Introduction and aims...... 1

2. Background...... 2

3. Methods...... 15

4. Results and analysis...... 35

5. Discussion...... 120

6 Conclusion...... 123

References...... 128

Appendix 1...... 130

Appendix 2...... 231 Kahnberg

1. Introduction and aims

Swedish tourists driving through the English countryside might pass a road sign to Framlingham. Saying the name out loud might yield a surprise at how Swedish it all sounds, with framling being very close to the Swedish word främling ('stranger') and ham sounding like the Swedish word hem ('home'). Framlingham (known as Framelingaham in the Domesday book from 1086) is a small market town situated in the old Danelaw - an area in eastern England inhabited by Old Norse speakers in the 10th century. When a village was built in the past it usually received a name in the local language or dialect. That name would then change slightly following the currents of spoken language change in the area, and could sometimes be replaced completely due to conquests, political innovations or language standardisation. If a village had received an Old Norse name a thousand years ago it ought to have changed dramatically with the Norman conquest in 1066, when the ruling language in this area changed from Old Norse and Old English to centuries of Norman French. The standardisation of the English language in the 15th and 16th century could also have caused changes to the local language, but as seen above the name Framlingham is very similar to the written form of 1086. Present day English place-names might contain traces of Old Norse place-names, distinguishable when their signs were known.

Place-names are important since they tend to evolve with the local language. Cauplandia for instance changed through Coplande -> Coupeland -> Coupland -> Caupilland to Copland in a timespan of 100 years (Sedgefield, 1915, p. 37). Place-names also appear frequently in old text material (e.g. maps, letters, chronicles), possibly providing a chain of written versions of the same place-name over the years as place-names are worn and reformed over time (Ståhl, 1970, p. 15). Non-standardised languages have a tendency of being spelt the way they are pronounced, thus yielding a chance for the language/place-names researcher to study old local pronunciation changes over time.

Place-names have been studied for various reasons over the years (e.g. to bring honour and glory to the country through an unbroken line to a divine or superior language, or to provide information for various proto-languages of older times), but very few studies on English place-names have been published recently as the linguistic focus has shifted from the proto- indo-european language to sociolinguistics for instance. Old Norse place-names in England

1 / 237 Kahnberg could hold valuable information on the evolution of Old and Middle English and especially the transition from Old English to Middle English, a transition showing signs of influence from the Old Norse language. A new study on place-names in three different areas of England (Herefordshire in the west, Cumbria in the north-west, and the areas reachable by Viking ship through the Humber in the north-east) could perhaps shed some new light by approaching the English place-names of old from a Scandinavian perspective.

The following research questions will be addressed in this study:

• What place-name elements have been frequently used in each of the three regions?

• How frequent are possibly Scandinavian place-names in each of the three regions?

• What characteristics of a modern day place-name could indicate a Scandinavian place-name in the past?

• What probable place-name derivations have been overlooked in the past?

• Does the geographical distribution of possibly Scandinavian place-names indicate areas where the Old Norse language could have been alive long enough to impact the Old English language?

This study used written records of old place-names in three different geographical areas of England and previous place-names research combined with language history knowledge from both the English and the Scandinavian side in order to find answers to the research questions.

2. Background

Modern place-names research resides mainly within linguistics, although rooted in the field of history (Ståhl, 1970, p. 12). Thus section 2 starts by giving some historical background information on the Old English language and the contacts between Old English and Old Norse in section 2.1. Section 2.2 deals with previous place-names research and section 2.3 with other valuable tools for the place-names research in the current study.

2 / 237 Kahnberg Books on British place-names have become popular among the general public in recent years. However, many of those books were of "low quality" providing "unreliable information" (Coates, 2017, p. 1). Similar books have also been released in Sweden, but at least the authors of most of the Swedish books have notified the reader of their non-professional status.

People in general have become more interested in the meaning of place-names. Welsh broadcaster and comedian Tudur Owen gave his thoughts to the public on Welsh television, stating that "there are normally some great stories behind them" and that "[t]hey connect us to our history and our shared identity" (Welsh Place Names, 2018).

2.1 A brief historical overview

2.1.1 Before the Vikings Before 449 Common Era (CE) Great Britain was mainly inhabited by various Celtic tribes speaking Celtic languages and dialects. The Romans had been there and left again, leaving fortifications and roads behind as well as a collection of Latin words and place-names. A few small Germanic tribes were there (speaking Germanic dialects), but not in very large numbers (Fennel, 2001, pp. 55-56).

In 449 CE the Angles, the Jutes and the Saxons arrived, settling in the island from the south- east. These tribes came from the North Sea regions of modern day Denmark, Germany, the Netherlands and Belgium, speaking a mix of Germanic dialects that eventually evolved into the Germanic language usually called Old English (Fennel, 2001, pp. 56-57).

2.1.2 Vikings and the Old Norse language In 793 CE the Vikings attacked Lindisfarne and there seems to be consensus on the fact that this attack was the start of the Scandinavian (Old Norse) influence on Old English, but most likely the Old Norse influence on Old English had begun earlier as there are indications that the Scandinavians had been trading on the island for several years before the attack on Lindisfarne. The settlement of Llanbedrgoch on Anglesey suggests that the Scandinavians and the Celtic tribes had been trading there with each other for several centuries (Graham, 2012; National Museum Wales, 2007). The Scandinavians probably lived there permanently, but it is unknown what place-name the Scandinavians used.

The Scandinavians also settled in parts of Eastern England: the part known as Danelaw. Several place-names in this area still contain Scandinavian elements and the Scandinavians 3 / 237 Kahnberg even managed to crown Danes as king of England, demonstrating the power possessed by the settled Scandinavians. However, the Scandinavian influence in England died out following the Norman invasion in 1066 CE. Nonetheless the Old Norse influence on Old English continued into the 13th century. Even though Old English and Old Norse were used side-by- side for a long time the Old Norse influence on Old English is greater than what would be expected. Neighbouring languages usually evolve on their own with only fixed expressions borrowed from one into the other, but Old English borrowed words and expressions from Old Norse to an extent much greater than expected. One example can be seen in the words used for the plural forms of the third person pronoun, where Old English hi/heo, hiera/hara and him were replaced by the Old Norse corresponding words they, their and them (Strang, 1970, pp. 266-267). This has puzzled linguists for a long time, as Old English and Old Norse were different languages (Pillon, 2009). No studies have been found that discuss how long Old Norse really remained in use in different parts of Great Britain, so the current study used place-names and the years of their earliest appearances in written texts as an approach to provide further information.

2.2 Previous research

Until the 1950s place-names formed an important part of Linguistics, but current Sociolinguistic approaches tend to value other Linguistic information (e.g. the age and ethnicity of modern day speakers) higher than old written forms (Pettersson, 1996, pp. 23- 35). Still place-names have a story to tell, especially when it comes to language changes due to inter-cultural relations in the past.

2.2.1 Williamson (1849) Williamson (1849) listed plenty of place-names all around the world and gave possible etymology derivations, but no sources or dates were given for the earlier forms of the place- names. Williamson (1849) stated that "[l]ocal etymology is speaking antiquity" (Williamson, 1849, p. 7) and that the place-names used to be based on common words that later became obsolete. The latter statement was important for the current study, but since no years were mentioned in Williamson (1849) the earlier forms used in that study could not be incorporated into the current study.

2.2.2 McClure (1910) McClure (1910) was a paper using place-names to tell the history of the British isles, giving some information on the coming of the Vikings as well as listing a few Old Norse place-name 4 / 237 Kahnberg elements used in British place-names. The Vikings settled the islands north of Great Britain, and in the 13th century the place-names of Shetland and Orkney were mainly Scandinavian (McClure, 1910, pp. 226-228). McClure (1910) also stated that the Western parts of Scotland had plenty of Scandinavian place-names (McClure, 1910, pp. 228-230), thus indicating that the Scandinavians had settled near the Irish sea. That statement went hand-in-hand with recent archaeological finds on Anglesey (mentioned in section 2.1.2). McClure (1910) provided useful historical background information for the current study and was pivotal for the inclusion of Cumbria.

2.2.3 Sedgefield (1915) As mentioned in section 2.2.2. McClure (1910) provided the background information indicating that Cumbria could be an interesting area. Sedgefield (1915) was a study on place- names in Cumberland and Westmorland, listing thousands of place-names along with as many old versions as possible on each place-name. The place-names were given derivations based on Old English and Old Norse with some listed as possibly Celtic. Several place-names were listed along with a discussion on the derivation, sometimes also discussing derivations made by other researchers in the past. Place-names were generally derived as a personal name followed by another element (e.g. Corney derived as personal name *Korni followed by Old Norse ey meaning 'island' and Dalston derived as Swedish personal name Dalle followed by Old English ton meaning 'town'), although some place-names of Scandinavian origin could contain a terrain based first element instead of a personal name (e.g. Crookdake derived as Old Norse krókr meaning 'bend' followed by Old Norse eik meaning 'oak' and Gallowberry with its old form Galghberghfeld derived from Old Norse gálgi meaning 'gibbet' followed by Old English beorh meaning 'grave-mound'). Several place-names were given partly Old Norse derivations. The study stated that 60 place-names ended in -ton, 50 in -by, 44 in -thwaite, 8 in -ham and 5 in -thorp. The study also featured a word list containing common place-name elements.

Modern day place-names research on Swedish place-names generally hold that old place- names in Sweden contained elements of terrain and trees more frequently than elements of personal names, and in the case of Gallowberry above the old form is very close to modern day Swedish 'Galgbergfält' which would mean the field around or on the mountain where people were executed (compare Galgberget, a mountain used for executions in Halmstad, south-western Sweden). The old versions of place-names included in Sedgefield (1915) were pivotal for the current study, but place-names derived from personal names (especially non-

5 / 237 Kahnberg recorded personal names) were studied with extra care. Place-names derived from a combination of Old English and Old Norse elements were also studied in detail.

2.2.4 Ekwall (1922) Ekwall (1922) was a study on place-names in Lancashire, listing thousands of place-names along with several of their older known versions as well as the year each version was written/published. Ekwall (1922) and Sedgefield (1915) had many things in common, but focused on different geographical areas. Ekwall (1922) mentioned that "for a name found in a district where Scandinavian names are rare English origin is most probable, while Scandinavian origin is plausible in districts where undoubtedly Scandinavian names abound" (Ekwall, 1922, p. 4) and that "tun has mostly a descriptive common noun, often a tree-name, as first element. It is, therefore, improbable that the common name Ashton should have as first theme the rare O.E. personal name Æsc" (Ekwall, 1922, p. 4). Ekwall (1922) also pointed out that typography was very helpful when determining etymology of place-names, as for instance the common element den (e.g. Clayden, Denton) could be derived from Old English denu 'valley', denn 'swine-pasture' or Dena 'of Danes'. In such cases typography could solve the problem, because should the place be in a valley then denu would likely be the correct derivation.

In place-name derivations Ekwall (1922) frequently included regional modern Norwegian (Nynorsk - the language built from the combined old regional dialects used mainly along the Norwegian west coast) as a link to Old Norse elements. Place-name elements that were found in both Lancashire and Norway and where the element could be linked to an Old Norse word would likely be derived to that Old Norse word. When an Old Norse element could not be found but a regional Norwegian word would fit that Norwegian word would be mentioned in the discussion of the derivation. An example of Norwegian used in this way would be the derivation of the Lancashire place-name element gill, where gil/geil is Norwegian for 'ravine' but where no such word had been found in Old Norse. For the Lancashire place-name element breck Ekwall (1922) presented an explanation involving both Norwegian and south- western Swedish regional dialects as well as Danish.

Ekwall also mentioned that the area around Coniston (nowadays in Cumbria but in 1922 a part of Lancashire) might have been a small Scandinavian kingdom, with Coniston derived from Old Norse as the king's enclosed area. Many other place-names close to Coniston were given Old Norse derivations.

6 / 237 Kahnberg The local place-name pronunciation has been an important part of Swedish place-names research the last 150 years, and Ekwall (1922) pointed out that the derivations of the place- names in that study were based on local pronunciation. In Lancashire a 'd' as a final consonant was pronounced /t/, thus creating confusion among some of the old elements (e.g. head, side and set could all result in a place-name ending in -et).

Even though Ekwall (1922) was a study on place-names in Lancashire it provided plenty of information for the current study, especially for the area around Coniston and the Furness peninsula in modern day south-western Cumbria. The amount of Old Norse derivations among those place-names strengthened the choice to include Cumbria in the current study. Ekwall (1922) also included a list of elements used in Lancashire place-names along with possible meanings of those elements, but unfortunately no frequencies were given.

2.2.5 Round (1922) Round (1922) was a paper on Norse place-names in Essex focused on the ford and holme elements. Ford was derived from Old Norse fiord and holme from names ending in holm in and around the Baltic sea. Round also pointed out that the holme element existed in Normandy (houlme).

The concept of ford as a possibly Old Norse element created opportunities for experimental Old Norse derivations in the current study.

2.2.6 Pillon (2009) Pillon (2009) was a research proposal aimed at finding out how Old Norse could influence Old English the way it did, both on place-naming and on language features. There were no records of the study taking place, but the proposal indicated an academic interest in the Old Norse influence on Old English.

The proposal introduced the idea of using place-names as a source of information on language changes in the past. The proposal also included a rough map of Scandinavian parish names, but some derivations given in the proposal (e.g. Grimston as a Scandinavian personal name followed by Old English tun) lacked logic from a Scandinavian point of view. Pillon (2009) also included a list of Scandinavian place-name elements, but the elements were not always correctly explained.

7 / 237 Kahnberg 2.2.7 Corrigan (2011) Corrigan (2011) was a study on the oldest names of South Cumbria, based on the lists in Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922). Corrigan pointed out that almost no Scandinavian place-names were recorded in this area before 1100 CE, questioning the Scandinavian influence in the area. The study only included 70 place-names in total, but provided frequencies for several elements. The 27 place-names ending in -tun were all considered Anglo-Saxon.

The contrast between Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) on one side and Corrigan (2011) on the other regarding the Scandinavian place-names in Cumbria and Lancashire had to be investigated in the current study. The tun element could be an Old Norse element as well as an Old English one (see section 2.2.8).

2.2.8 Fellows-Jensen (2011) Based on a map of British place-names ending in Scandinavian -by, -thorp or -tun Fellows- Jensen (2011) concluded that the first element of many of these place-names was not a personal name in contrast to the Old English custom. Several were instead linked to local terrain or contained a descriptive element. Fellows-Jensen (2011) also indicated that many place-names ending in -tun may have a Scandinavian first element instead of an Old English personal name.

The current study extended Fellows-Jensen (2011) in that it also investigated other Scandinavian place-name elements to see if they were combined with descriptive elements or elements of terrain instead of personal names.

2.3 Tools

The tools available to the place-names researcher when deriving place-names are older written forms of the place-names and knowledge of the genuine local pronunciation of the place-names (Ståhl, 1970, p. 15). Section 2.3 provides information on some of the tools used in the current study.

8 / 237 Kahnberg

2.3.1 The Domesday book In 1085 William the Conqueror commissioned the writing of the Domesday book which lists most of the villages and farms in England and parts of east Wales as of 1086 (see figure 1).

Figure 1. The interactive map in Powell-Smith (n.d.).

The red dots on the map in figure 1 represented entries in the Domesday book. As can be seen there were dark areas in the northern parts of modern day England and there seems to be consensus on the fact that the Domesday book only included those farms, hamlets, villages and towns that could be taxed by the English crown. The Domesday book has been made

9 / 237 Kahnberg available online, and The Domesday Book Online and Powell-Smith (n.d.) have been used as tools for the current study. Whenever 'the Domesday book' is mentioned in the current study both The Domesday Book Online and Powell-Smith (n.d.) were used. Ekwall (1922, p. 22) mentioned that the Domesday book was written using Anglo-Norman spelling conventions, e.g. 'ch' meant /k/ and 'n' replaced 'm' at the end of words.

2.3.2 Mills (1991) Mills (1991) was essentially an alphabetical dictionary of approximately 17,000 place-names in the British isles. The place-names and their derivations were collected from several studies and reviewed by professors and members of place-names societies (see section 2.3.9). An example of the short dictionary entries was:

Roundway Wilts. Rindweiam 1149. Probably 'cleared way'. OE rymed + weg. (Mills, 1991, p. 396).

Such an entry provided basic information but nothing extra. An example of a longer dictionary entry was:

Hickling '(settlement of) the family or followers of a man called *Hicel', OE pers. name + -ingas: Hickling Norfolk. Hikelinga 1086 (DB). Hickling Notts. Hikelinge c.1000, Hechelinge 1086 (DB). (Mills, 1991, p. 238)

Many place-names were derived from personal names, and several of those contain asterisked names (names without source) as shown in the longer example above. For some common place-names only a few were listed with their older versions, even when some of those not mentioned were included in the Domesday book (see section 2.3.1).

Place-names derived using an asterisked personal name in Mills were given extra attention in the current study as were place-names derived from a personal name followed by a possibly Scandinavian element.

2.3.3 Pollington (1993) A New English to Old English dictionary was created to help Old English students write in Old English (Pollington, 1993). For the purpose of the current study it was mainly used to check for Old English versions of modern English ideas regarding possible place-name elements (e.g. knowing that bridge was a Germanic word but not remembering the Old English form it was possible to look up bridge in Pollington (1993) and be given the Old 10 / 237 Kahnberg English form brycg (f) ). Also used to check that a possible Old Norse derivation would not also be an Old English derivation.

2.3.4 Mitchell & Robinson (2012) Mitchell & Robinson (2012) was a handbook in Old English containing a useful Old English to New English dictionary. Mitchell & Robinson (2012) also contained grammatical information (e.g. noun and verb declensions with their complex patterns). In the current study Mitchell & Robinson (2012) was used frequently when looking for new possible derivations of place-name elements, especially when re-deriving what used to be seen as personal names or parts of personal names. Also used when creating an Old Norse derivation to check that it would not also be an Old English derivation.

2.3.5 Ståhl (1970) Ståhl (1970) was a book on Swedish place-names and place-names research in general. It has been a guidebook for Swedish place-names researchers for fifty years, and the guidelines given in the book were built upon the same general ideas expressed in Ekwall (1922, see section 2.2.4). Ståhl (1970) stated the necessity for the researcher to know and understand the genuine background of place-names and to behold the place-names in the same perspective as the original name-givers. Even though a modern place-name might sound like a combination of modern words those modern words might not have been known to the original name giver, and the modern name is usually different from the original version of the name. Thus the researcher would need knowledge of the earliest forms of the place-name as well as knowledge of the forms of the languages use at the time the earliest forms were written down. The name of the founder of a village would likely be forgotten in a century whereas features of the landscape around it could remain for a millennium, thus old names usually contained landscape elements instead of personal names.

Maps were considered invaluable tools for place-names researchers, although tools requiring careful handling as shapes on the map would not have been known to the original namer unless that person could view the area from above (e.g. from a nearby mountain top). The modern place-name versions would generally be deceiving, and the locally pronounced version of the place-name was usually considered more trustworthy than the modern written form. Terrain studies were possible ways to achieve understanding of the place-names.

Ståhl (1970) mentioned three important considerations in place-names research: • the intended meaning of the original place-name version 11 / 237 Kahnberg • the older versions of the place-name • the genuine pronunciation using the original local dialect

Given the impact of the methods in Ståhl (1970) on the Swedish place-names researchers and the fact that the same methods were used in Ekwall (1922) the current study used the methods in Ståhl (1970) as far as possible.

2.3.6 Pettersson (1996) Pettersson (1996) was a book on the evolution of the Swedish language over seven centuries and has been used on Swedish university courses in language history. The book gave examples of eastern Old Norse and ancient Swedish as well as providing clarifications on the changes from Old Norse to ancient Swedish (and onwards). In the current study the book was useful in two ways; it explained the basics of Old Norse noun declensions and the explanations on the phonological changes of the Swedish language helped identify (or rule out) some initially possible derivations of place-name elements.

2.3.7 Wahlberg (2016) Wahlberg's Swedish place-name dictionary was released by the Swedish Institute for Language and Folklore in a co-operation project with Uppsala University. The dictionary contained etymologies on 6,300 Swedish place-names, giving long explanations of meanings and derivations of most place-names. Many place-names were traced back to the 13th century and the explanations were full of cross-references to common elements. A translated example: Skummeslöv parish, Höks' hundred, Halland. ecclesie Scuthmanslef 1340. The parish name has borrowed from the church village. The first element could contain a word similar to Swedish skottman (tax collector) or be related to ancient Swedish *skotmadher 'shooter' (related to Old Norse skotmaðr), possibly used as a secondary name. The ending is -> löv. (Wahlberg, 2016, p. 289) In the current study the Swedish place-name dictionary was useful both as a tool for possible derivations and as a dictionary to check possible Old Norse or ancient Swedish place-name elements in similar-sounding older forms of English place-names. The above quote on Skummeslöv might contain such an element.

12 / 237 Kahnberg 2.3.8 Svenska Akademien (n.d.) The first part of the Thesaurus of the Swedish Academy (SAOB) was released in 1893 and in 2020 the thesaurus covered Swedish words beginning with the letters a to v (i.e. there were no entries for the Swedish words älv 'river' or äng 'open field of grass' as the Swedish letter ä comes after v in the alphabet). Each entry was listed with the oldest records carrying that particular meaning as well as cross-references to other similar entries and an extensive etymology section (giving ancient Swedish forms, linked forms in other Norse languages, possibly Old Norse or eastern Old Norse forms and old forms in other Germanic languages including Old English when applicable). Regional words were not included in the thesaurus. SAOB was available online at https://www.saob.se/. The etymology section in SAOB could be very useful when checking possible derivations of place-name elements in the current study.

2.3.9 Place-name societies Several place-name societies (e.g. SNSBI: Society for Name Studies in Britain and Ireland; EPNS: English Place-Names Society; Welsh place-name society) keep track of recent place- names research. They organise yearly place-name related events, where the members can learn more about recent place-name research. Since 1923 the EPNS conducts an ongoing county-by-county survey, currently focusing on Shropshire. Knowing that Shropshire was currently being studied the current study chose a different area to focus on. Hence the neighbouring county Herefordshire was chosen as an area containing a limited amount of Scandinavian place-names.

2.3.10 Old maps Most place-names research were partly based on old maps. The written form of place-names seemed to vary over time, possibly due to the language of the cartographer and changes in local pronunciation. These fluctuations combined with hand-produced maps and the fact that each place-name covered a fairly large part of the map sometimes complicated the identification process and could possibly lead to a place receiving a neighbouring place-name (as noted by Corrigan, 2011). Ståhl (1970) also stated that place-names generally did not contain elements based on their geometrical/geographical forms on modern maps.

Many old maps have been made publicly available on the internet, but very few from the period before the 17th century. Some of the oldest maps have been locked away in archives,

13 / 237 Kahnberg hence the current study could only gain access to their place-names through listings in previous place-name studies.

2.4 Highlighting the gap in the previous works

As shown in section 2.2 some research has been done in modern day Cumbria, but the findings in Ekwall (1922) and Sedgefield (1915) contradicted the findings in Corrigan (2011). Ekwall (1922) and Sedgefield (1915) both derived several place-names from Old Norse, whereas Corrigan (2011) stated that only two of the 70 oldest place-names in Cumbria bore traces of Old Norse. Thus the place-names of Cumbria require further attention. Ekwall (1922), Sedgefield (1915) and Mills (1991) derived many place-names from personal names, but Ståhl (1970) claimed that personal names rarely became parts of old Swedish place- names. Perhaps some elements could have other derivations than the personal names given in Ekwall (1922), Sedgefield (1915) and Mills (1991). That line of reasoning gave rise to the fourth research question and the need to re-evaluate previously known place-name derivations.

If Vikings played a part in naming old places the kind of elements used in place-names might differ between regions with long-term Viking presence and regions without that kind of presence. As noted by McClure (1910), Round (1922), Pillon (2009) and especially Fellows- Jensen (2011) some place-name elements indicate Scandinavian presence and those elements are not evenly distributed over the British Isles. Fellows-Jensen (2011) studied three such elements and Round (1922) two others, but McClure (1910), Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) listed other possibly Scandinavian elements. The distribution of possibly Scandinavian place-names might be different than what was presented in Fellows-Jensen (2011) if more of those elements would be considered. In combination with the re-evaluation of previously derived place-names due to a possible over-use of personal names the current study selected one area with known Viking presence, one likely to have had Viking presence and one unlikely to have had any Viking presence in order to have different kinds of areas to compare. In the end the first two research questions formed, as possible elements needed to be identified in order to know which place-names might be Scandinavian. The tables of frequently used elements might differ between the regions and the amount and frequency of Scandinavian place-names would most certainly differ between the regions.

Combining all the reasoning above with a possible curiosity among modern day British residents opened up for a hypothesis that modern day English place-names might contain 14 / 237 Kahnberg reformed elements built from old Scandinavian place-name elements. Having access to a list of such possible reformed elements could help modern day tourists identify possibly old Scandinavian place-names while travelling the British countryside, thus forming the basis of the third research question.

If the distribution of possibly Scandinavian place-names vary between the regions and also between different parts of each region there might have been regions where Old Norse remained a spoken language longer than expected. A widespread long-term use of Old Norse in England could impact Old English in several ways, but no such areas have been found. The place-names in the current study might point towards such regions somewhere in studied areas, thus giving rise to the fifth research question.

3. Methods

The current study was based on place-names in three different areas of England, as can be seen in figure 2. Yorkshire is a large county, and to establish an area where Scandinavian place-names were likely this study focused on a sub-area of Yorkshire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire. This sub-area contained the North Sea inlet called the Humber, the northern part of river Trent and river Ouse with its source rivers Ure and Swale. River Ouse enters the Humber from the west whereas river Trent enters the Humber from the south. These rivers would likely have been navigable using Viking ships in the past.

To simplify writing the area containing Humber, Trent, Ouse, Ure and Swale has been called 'Reachable through the Humber' throughout this study.

Section 3.1 describes the 'Reachable through the Humber' area, section 3.2 is on Cumbria and section 3.3 deals with Herefordshire. In section 3.4 the used methods are described and explained while section 3.5 deals with methods validation.

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Figure 2. Overview map of the British Isles and the selected areas. C = Cumbria, H = Herefordshire and R = 'Reachable through the Humber'. (map image from Google maps)

As discussed in sections 2.2 and 2.4 Cumbria was selected as an area where Scandinavian place-names were possible. Cumbria has a long coastal stretch towards the Irish Sea, two longer rivers (Eden and Kent) that might have been navigable as well as the upper end of river Lune. Hereford on the other hand was selected because it did not have any coastal areas and the only way to reach it by boat would be the meandering and narrow river Wye which flows through Herefordshire on its way from Wales into the Bristol Channel. Most other English counties contained coastal areas or were linked to the large rivers that flow into the North Sea (e.g. rivers Nene, Great Ouse, Tyne, Trent and Thames), and hence were more likely to contain Scandinavian place-names.

Before moving on to the detailed area descriptions the map resolution has to be specified. The current study used Google maps for all regions, and for Google maps the level of detail is increased with higher map resolution. A more detailed map contains more place-names (e.g.

16 / 237 Kahnberg names of rivers, lakes, towns, villages, hamlets, streams and mountains), so in order to get the same level of detail for all regions exactly the same map resolution/scale would have to be used.

To ensure that the study was made using the same map scale in all three areas Google maps was used with the lowest resolution using the 1 km ruler scale (i.e. yielding an effective scale of 1:100000 on the screen). A way to ensure this resolution was to zoom in until the ruler (in the bottom right corner of the screen) changed from

to

and then keep that resolution while moving the map. This method was validated when the same place-names were shown while trying the method with the same focal point using two other computers.

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3.1 Reachable through the Humber The Jorvik Viking museum (https://www.jorvikvikingcentre.co.uk) in York clearly states that York was a partly Scandinavian settlement for a long period of time. The Vikings usually preferred rivers to roads, so the chosen area with known Viking influence in this study was the areas that were reachable by Viking ship through the Humber (i.e. sailing into the Humber from the North Sea the Vikings could continue in their boats south up river Trent and north-west up river Ouse as can be seen in figure 3 below). With river Trent possibly being navigable almost to the Welsh border the area south of the Humber contained place- names found along the Trent as far south as Torksey lock. The rest of the 'reachable through the Humber' area contained the place-names along rivers Ouse, Ure and Swale, following the last two to their sources (Ure and Swale being the source rivers of Ouse). Before meeting to form river Ouse the rivers Ure and Swale meandered through the flatter parts of their valleys, thus giving rise to seemingly wider areas in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Basic overview map of the 'Reachable through the Humber' region. H=Humber, T=Trent, O=Ouse, U=Ure, S=Swale. (Map image by Google maps) 18 / 237 Kahnberg The places were considered reachable by ship when they were approximately within 10km from the rivers in focus, yielding a total of 429 place-names in the 'reachable through the Humber' area. All place-names (e.g. rivers, hills, towns, villages, hamlets and lakes) shown on the map at the given resolution were included in the study.

3.1.1 Humber This area (see figure 4) contained all place-names found along the Humber coastline, 45 place-names in total. Given that the water level might have been somewhat higher a thousand years ago the 45 place-names also included place-names slightly off the low-lying coast.

Figure 4. Overview map of the Humber (coastline) area. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.1.2 Trent The Trent area (shown in Figure 5) included all place-names within ten kilometres of river Trent as far south as Torksey locks. A total of 78 place-names were collected in the area.

Figure 5. Overview map of the Trent area. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.1.3 Ouse The Ouse area (see Figure 6) followed river Ouse meandering through the landscape. All place-names close enough to be linked to the river were collected, 83 place-names in total. A few place-names up the Wharfe were included, as they were considered linked to the others by the Wharfe.

Figure 6. Overview map of the Ouse area. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.1.4 Ure The Ure area included all place-names that could be considered linked to river Ure. Ure and Swale run partly parallel and based on the same principles used for the Trent area the decision was made to ensure that all place-names between rivers Ure and Swale were included in the study as they were all within a distance of 10km from at least one of the rivers. Terrain and distance to the river were two main conditions in consideration when choosing which area each place-name was to belong to. A total of 89 place-names were included in the Ure area (see Figure 7).

It was worth noting that the Ure reached the borders to Cumbria, thus possibly linking Cumbria to the "reachable through the Humber" region.

Figure 7. Overview map of the Ure area. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.1.5 Swale All place-names that could be considered linked to river Swale were included in this area (see comment in section 3.1.4). A few place-names (e.g. Middleton Tyas, Gilling West and Hartforth) connected both to river Swale and river Tees further north, but were still included in the Swale area based on closeness to other place-names in the Swale area. Terrain was also considered, so the green terrain at the foot of the ridge east of the Swale formed the edge of the southern area and the top of the ridge between the Swale and the Tees formed the edge in the north. The split between the Swale and Ure areas was based on distance to the rivers as well as the low ridge separating the two valleys. A total of 134 place-names were included in the Swale area (see Figure 8).

The source of river Swale was at the border to Cumbria, three kilometres from the Cumbrian river Eden in the valley 250 metres below.

Figure 8. Overview map of the Swale area. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.2 Cumbria

Cumbria was selected as an area with possible Viking involvement, based on Viking settlements near the Irish sea (see section 2.2.2). Ekwall (1922) (see section 2.2.4) and Sedgefield (1915) (see section 2.2.3) indicated that there were several Old Norse place-names in the area while Corrigan (2011) (see section 2.2.7) claimed that Old Norse place-names were scarce.

This area included a total of 611 place-names in modern day Cumbria county. The borders have shifted over time, and some of the included place-names currently within Cumbria have belonged to Lancashire or Yorkshire in the past. Figure 9 shows a rough overview of the area.

Figure 9. Overview map of the Cumbria region. (Map image by Google maps)

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3.3 Herefordshire

As an area with possibly no Viking settlements Herefordshire was selected. It is a region close to the Welsh border (see figure 10), not connected to any eastbound rivers and with river Wye as its only water-based connection with the sea through the Bristol Channel. As the Vikings preferred travelling by water they would have had to go all the way around Great Britain to the Bristol Channel in the west in order to reach this area from the south. Herefordshire provided 295 place-names to the study.

Figure 10. Overview map of Herefordshire. (Map image by Google maps)

25 / 237 Kahnberg 3.4 Methods used

The first step was to use Google maps and adjust the zoom to get the wanted resolution. At the correct resolution all visible place-names (of e.g. lakes, rivers, hills, valleys, towns, villages and hamlets) in the area were written down in a spreadsheet, using a different sheet for each area. The names written down this way were the modern place-names of the study.

Realising that over 1300 place-names had been collected an attempt was made to categorise the place-names based on nothing but their modern forms in order to progress only with the possibly Scandinavian place-names, but it proved impossible to categorise the place-names this way. Thus all the place-names collected had to be studied in more detail.

The next step was to collect and write down additional information for each place-name in the study. This additional information would preferably be old versions of the name along with the date it was published (e.g. Urswick: Ursewica 1150, Hursewic 1189, Vrswic 1198), thus providing a chain of place-names, which might give a hint of the direction of change. Sometimes a derivation was given along with the information of the older versions, and in those cases that derivation was carefully considered. If the derivation given was probable (e.g. it was based on a personal name that had indeed been found in records from the area, or it contained elements with fairly certain etymology) parts of the derivation was written down and a note of 'known' was added to the entry. If the derivation was uncertain or based on unusual personal names (e.g. the Old Norse personal name Ali) a note was added that the derivation needed consideration.

Several place-names were mentioned in the Domesday book, which soon became the first place to look for an older version of a place-name. Other frequently used sources of older place-name versions were Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) for the place-names of Cumbria, and Mills (1991) for place-names elsewhere and Cumbrian place-names not found in Sedgefield (1915) or Ekwall (1922). Place-names not found in the Domesday book nor in Sedgefield (1915), Ekwall (1922) or Mills (1991) were searched for using old maps available online, and for this study mainly a map collection from 1646 was used (because it was the oldest that was available from Sweden). Place-names that still lacked older versions were searched for using Wikipedia and Ecosia, and most of them turned out to be modern place- names (e.g. names of villages built after 1700 or a name invented when several villages had grown into a single unit) and marked as 'modern' in the spreadsheet. The place-names where

26 / 237 Kahnberg neither Wikipedia nor Ecosia searches provided any information were marked as 'no info' in the spreadsheet.

A few place-names had changed dramatically over the years. A few examples:

Ebórakon --> Euruic --> York Ingetlingum --> Ghellinges --> Gilling West Ewias --> Longa villa --> Longtown Elwistone --> Pontrilas

Possibly those place-names had been replaced entirely at some point and were thus treated with extra care to find possible reasons of change, as will be seen in the following sections.

The fourth step was another run through all of the place-names, but this time the aim was to identify as many possible derivations as possible. Given that several languages might have been used in these areas over the last 1500 years possible derivations had to be considered in all those languages, unless the date given for a particular older version of a name made the use of that language unlikely (e.g. a place-name ending in ham in the Domesday book most likely would not have modern day English 'ham' as its source, because modern day English was not used in the British Isles in 1086). Hybrid forms (i.e. place-names having one language as source for a part of the name and another language as source for another part of the name) had to be considered as well. Several different mechanics had to be used:

• word-splitting: what looks like one word might be a compound and the split point between the compounded words might not be obvious, hence each word might need to be split in several different ways.

• loss of letters (ease of effort): letters in the beginning or end of an internal compound word might be lost for various reasons, e.g. interference with a neighbouring sound or for ease of effort.

• letter change (assimilation): sounds sometimes change when used close to other sounds, e.g. an 'n' followed by a 'b' might turn into an 'm', or an 'm' followed by an 'l' might cause a 'b' to be inserted between the two sounds (as in English 'tumble').

• letter swap (metathesis): two neighbouring sounds might swap places.

27 / 237 Kahnberg For each split the words/syllables were said out loud in different ways to identify possible similar-sounding words in other languages and these possible similar-sounding words were looked up in dictionaries e.g. Wisconsin University (n.d.) or Bangor University (n.d.), the etymology part of Svenska Akademien (n.d.) or tables in Pettersson (1996) and Mitchel & Robinson (2012). Sometimes an old version of a place-name would be similar to a modern Swedish place-name, thus making Wahlberg (2016) an invaluable tool in finding possible derivations. Old English, Middle English, Old Norse, ancient Swedish, modern Icelandic, modern German and modern Welsh were frequently used for this study, but better knowledge of Flemish, French, Latin and Old Irish might have shifted the results of the study as those languages had to be considered as well to some extent.

Known sound changes (especially in English and Swedish) had to be kept in mind as well as possible differences in the way the different scribes chose to write down a particular sound (e.g. the /u:/ sound might be spelt 'u' by a German scribe, 'w' or 'ŵ' by a Welsh, 'ou' by a French, 'o' by a Swedish and 'oo' by an English one). Place-names containing 'h', 'c' or 'ch' were particularly problematic as these letters or letter combinations could represent different sounds depending on what language the scribe usually transcribed (e.g. the letter 'c' usually represents /tʃ/ in Old English, but would represent /k/ if used by a scribe usually transcribing Welsh or Latin, /ts/ by a scribe usually transcribing German and /s/ or /k/ by a scribe transcribing ancient Swedish).

The written form of old place-names most likely changed more rapidly than the local pronunciation of the place-name did, and sometimes the modern local pronunciation of a place-name could reveal key issues regarding possible pronunciations of older versions of the same place-name (Ståhl, 1970). Both Ekwall (1922) and Ståhl (1970) pointed out the importance of knowing the local pronunciation of the place-name and the local pronunciation of sounds and letters in general. If for example the local pronunciation of 'a' would be /a:/ the spelling could shift between 'a' and 'e' but would not change to 'o', whereas a local pronunciation of 'a' as /ɑ :/ would allow spelling shifts between 'a' and 'o' but not a change to 'e'. Unfortunately the local pronunciation could not be checked in this study, so some derivations could be based on incorrect ideas of place-name pronunciation.

As the fifth step in the process a list of possible groups of place-name elements was created, partly based on elements in Fellows-Jensen (2011), Corrigan (2011), Pillon (2008), Ståhl (1970), Ekwall (1922), Round (1922) and Sedgefield (1915) as well as elements that appeared frequently in Mills (1991). The categories in the list were added as columns in the spreadsheet 28 / 237 Kahnberg collection, so that each place-name could be put in several categories. The list of place-name elements initially contained the groups personal name, -ing, tun, wic, leah, animal, terrain, woody, water, field, church, position, by, farm, fortification and other but was extended by nature, thing and descriptive (described more closely in table 1) during step six when the other category became too large to handle. Place-names having a mark in the other category at this point were re-evaluated and those elements belonging to the new nature, thing and descriptive categories were removed from the other category and correctly placed in their new categories instead.

Some of the element groups were chosen as containers of typical Old English or typical Scandinavian elements, e.g. the group based on the Old English word leah 'pasture'. Other groups (e.g. personal names) could contain elements from several languages, but might be less frequently used in one of them (e.g. personal names might be less frequent among Scandinavian place-names as noted in Ståhl, 1970).

The sixth step was to study the list of possible derivations including those derivations found in e.g. Mills (1991), Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) for each place-name to see which ones seemed more likely than the others. This step required map checking to see whether the terrain in the area might justify a possible derivation, e.g. a derivation based on words for 'hill' would not make much sense on a flat piece of land or in a dip. The derivations deemed as being more likely were written down in the spreadsheet and the less likely derivations were discarded. The elements of all kept derivations of each place-name were marked in their respective group columns in the spreadsheet using numbers, so that a place-name could have several elements belonging to a single group (e.g. Bainbridge -> Bainebrigg 1218 received a derivation from Old Norse bein 'bone'/'leg' and Old Norse bryggja 'bridge', thus containing two elements belonging to the thing category). The numbers in each category were summed and their frequencies for each area calculated. At this point research questions one and four would be answerable.

Based on the group frequencies an area would be thought of as e.g. predominantly Old English but with some Scandinavian and Celtic elements. That overall thought would then help categorise each place-name as either Latin/French, Celtic, Common Germanic, Old English, Possibly Scandinavian or Scandinavian, but the pattern had to be refined along the way and several place-names were initially put in one category and later shifted to another. The difference between the Possibly Scandinavian and the Scandinavian categories was that the place-names in the Scandinavian category only had reasonable derivations from some 29 / 237 Kahnberg version of Old Norse (the language split early into a western and an eastern version) whereas those place-names in the Possibly Scandinavian category also had reasonable derivations in at least one other language or language family. The Common Germanic category would contain those place-names that had similar derivations in both Old Norse and Old English and where the words used in the derivations were thought of as being Common Germanic words or having a Common Germanic root (e.g. father, town, ship, house and white). Research question two would be based on the frequencies of those language categories.

Table 1. Groups of place-name elements and their contents (compare table 21 in section 4.5) Group name Contents Hinting at personal name personal name elements not Scandinavian -ing the -ing- syllable likely Old English tun various variants of tun neither Latin, French nor Celtic wic various variants of Old English wic or Old Norse Old English or Scandinavian vik (bay, cove, inlet) leah variants of Old English leah 'pasture' Old English animal animal names likely Scandinavian terrain various words for different kinds of terrain, e.g. hill, likely Scandinavian valley, cliff, ravine, cave, flat, island, sandbank, bog woody various words for forest and different kinds of possibly more common in trees and bushes Scandinavian place-names water various words linked to water, e.g. lake, river, well, stream, waterfall field words for open fields, e.g. pasture, field likely Scandinavian as Old English leah is separate church words for church, saint and people linked to perhaps more common in Celtic church e.g. monks and priests and Latin/French place-names position words indicating a position, e.g. upper, lower, northern, eastern, middle by the Old Norse word by (village, town) Scandinavian farm various words for houses and farms, e.g. barn, very common elements in farm, house, cottage, shelter, home Scandinavian place-names fortification various words for castles and fortifications, e.g. perhaps less likely to be castle, ceaster, wall, fort Scandinavian nature words describing the nature, e.g. meadow, perhaps more common in clearing, flower names, grass Scandinavian place-names

30 / 237 Kahnberg thing various nouns not fitting the other categories, e.g. cross, life, stake descriptive various adjectives, e.g. colours, sizes and words perhaps less common in Old for pretty and ugly English place-names other words that could not be put in any other category, e.g. Old Norse dunesvördr 'protector of the downs'

Finding the answer to research question three would be possible at this time. Studying the place-names in the Scandinavian and Possibly Scandinavian categories and the frequencies of the grouped elements for those place-names would indicate what kind of elements the old versions contained. Comparing the modern versions of place-names having similar elements in their older versions could perhaps highlight parts of modern day place-names that would correspond to typical Scandinavian place-name elements in older versions, thus yielding a chance to identify typical modern versions of those older elements.

Fellows-Jensen (2011) claimed that the Scandinavian place-names existed in patterns, e.g. following an old road along a ridge. To see whether such patterns were discernible in this study all the place-names categorised as Scandinavian, Possibly Scandinavian or Common Germanic were marked on maps. These maps were closely examined and evaluated to find possible areas where Old Norse might have been used as the main language, and to possibly find areas where Old Norse might have been used long enough to impact Old English. The answer to research question five might be found among those areas, and if no such area would be found research question five would be answered nonetheless.

3.4.1 Reachable through the Humber Most place-names in the "reachable through the Humber" region were listed in Mills (1991) or in the Domesday book (see section 2.3.1). Those place-names missing in both Mills and the Domesday book were searched for using old maps, but none of the old maps available online provided any additional information on the place-names in this region. As a last resort Wikipedia (en.wikipedia.org) was used to find out that the place-name was modern. Two place-names in the area (both situated in the upper regions of river Swale) had derivations in Wikipedia without links to old names:

• Low row, from The Wra with an Old Norse derivation (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Row).

31 / 237 Kahnberg • Gunnerside, derived from Old Norse name Gunnar and Old Norse sætr (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gunnerside).

Some of the place-names in the area had changed quite dramatically over the years. These place-names each required its own treatment, as can be seen in table 2.

Table 2. List of place-names in the 'Reachable through the Humber' region and their treatment. Modern name Old version 1 Old version 2 Treatment York Ebórakon 150 Euruic 1086 Language change. Put in two categories. Derivation based on the 1086 version. Ripon Hrypis 715 Ripum 1086 Possibly a phonetic change, but surprisingly early date if Scandinavian. Catterick Katouraktónion 150 Catrice 1086 Language change. Missunderstanding. Gilling West Ingetlingum 731 Ghellinges 1086 Language change via phonetic change, but surprisingly early date if Scandinavian. Derivation based on the 731 version.

3.4.2 Cumbria With most of Cumbria not mentioned in the Domesday book and several of its smaller villages and hamlets not included in Mills (1991) most of the information came from Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922). Both Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) provided extensive lists of older place-name versions for several of the place-names in their studies as can be seen in table 3. County borders had changed after 1922, placing place-names listed by Ekwall as Furness, Lancashire and several from Lonsdale hundred, Lancashire in modern day Cumbria. Place-names not listed in any of the sources mentioned were searched for on Bleau (1646, Cwmbria), the oldest map of the area that could be found online.

Table 3. Some Cumbrian place-names with their list of older versions given in Sedgefield (1915) or Ekwall (1922). Modern version Older versions Year published Whitehaven Withofd 1153 Wytofthavene 12th century Qwithofhavene 12th century Whitothavene 1202 Whytheweyhame 1295 Rockcliffe de Rodcliva 1185

32 / 237 Kahnberg de Roudecliva 1185 Radeclive 1204 Routheclive 1235 Routheclif 1244 Rouckecliffe 1304 Shap Hepp 1199 de Heppa 1220 Hep 1231 Yhep 1241 Heppe 1314 Shap 1332 Shapp 1390 Salkeld Salchild 1100 Salkylly 1251 Salehhild 1164 Saleghill 1180 Saulhill 1212 Salkhull 1230 Salochild 1237 Salighild 1242

The place-names still lacking information were searched for in Wikipedia, but no useful information could be gathered that way except:

• Whernside, given a mixed derivation from Old English querns and Old Norse sætr (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whernside).

• Blencathra, given a Celtic derivation from the Cumbric elements blain and cadeir (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blencathra).

• Helvellyn, given a Celtic derivation from the Cumbric elements hal and melyn (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helvellyn).

Several place-names were given the no info comment in the spreadsheet (see appendix 2) because no information whatsoever could be found. Most of these place-names were placed in a category of their own (not categorised), although some place-names had distinctive Scandinavian elements in their modern versions and were thus placed in the Possibly 33 / 237 Kahnberg Scandinavian category but flagged as not having enough information (regarding date of founding and earlier versions of the place-name).

3.4.3 Herefordshire Most place-names in Herefordshire were listed in Mills (1991) as well as in the Domesday book. Bleau (1646, Herefordia) was the oldest map available online and provided information on nine place-names but mainly helped in deciding that several place-names could be modern (although the places they referred to might simply have been too small to be mentioned on the map).

Three place-names required special treatment, as shown in table 4.

Table 4. Place-names in Herefordshire requiring special treatment. Modern name Old version 1 Old version 2 Treatment Longtown Ewias 1086 Longa villa 1540 Probably a modern language change. Categorised on 1086 version only. Little & Much Lann Deui 7c Dewischirche 1150 Language change using translation. Dewchurch Categorised on the 7th century version only. Pontrilas Elwistone 1086 Possible replacement and language change. Both versions considered and categorised.

3.5 Limitations

This study has been made with a limited time frame of eight weeks, thus not permitting visits to physical archives to look at old maps as well as new visits to the areas under study to hear the local pronunciation of the place-names. The limited time frame also did not allow a thorough re-evaluation of all place-names with known derivations, but place-names derived from personal name were given extra consideration as well as those in the Scandinavian and possibly Scandinavian categories. Faulty known derivations might thus have been repeated in this study.

The derivations made in this study were focused on the elements, so grammatical issues (e.g. declensional endings of Old English / Old Norse nouns) have been skipped and thus possibly resulting in misinterpreted derivations. Some place-names have been evaluated based on their Domesday book entries only, possibly yielding incorrect categorisation and derivation due to spelling errors in the Domesday book.

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4. Results and analysis

In this chapter the results are presented area by area ("reachable through the Humber" split into its sub-areas Humber, Trent, Ouse, Ure and Swale, then Cumbria and ending with Herefordshire), showing the frequently used place-name element groups as well as some typical elements for each area. A place-names category chart as well as a map containing positions of possible Scandinavian place-names (i.e. place-names in the Germanic, Possibly Scandinavian and Scandinavian categories) is given for each area. Section 4.4 consists of cross-area comparisons, based on the place-name findings of the three areas ("reachable through the Humber", Cumbria, Herefordshire). Section 4.5 lists some frequently used elements from the Scandinavian and possibly Scandinavian place-names categories based on the old versions of the place-names. Section 4.6 lists elements in modern day place-names that could suggest an old version of the place-name containing Scandinavian elements. In section 4.7 some new possible derivations of possibly Scandinavian and Scandinavian place- names are listed and explained.

The place-names included in the current study are listed area by area in appendix 1. The spreadsheet used for the study is included as appendix 2.

4.1 Reachable through the Humber

This area forms a unit through the waterways linking it all to the Humber, even though a part of the area is in modern day Nottinghamshire, another part in modern day Lincolnshire and the rest in modern day Yorkshire. The parts south of the Humber (i.e. the Trent area) were part of the Danelaw and might have been partly flooded and filled with flat islands. The parts north and west of the Humber most likely had close contact with the Scandinavians living in York for several centuries. The greater part of the area was flat low-land with the occasional small hill or low ridge, but the upper regions of Ure and Swale formed valleys with steep hillsides on both sides of the riverbed.

Given the widespread nature of this area the results are initially presented as five connecting areas: Humber, Trent, Ouse, Ure and Swale. The results are then combined to form the entire "reachable through the Humber" area in order to be comparable in size to Cumbria and Herefordshire. 35 / 237 Kahnberg 4.1.1 Humber

Figure 11. Map of possible Scandinavian place-names along the Humber. (Map image by Google maps)

The Humber area contained possible Scandinavian place-names, which were found in the blackened areas of Figure 11.

The area contained a total of 45 place-names included in this study (see appendix 1 and 2). Three of them (New Holland, Sunk island and Salt end) were considered "modern", lacking written records before the 13th century. No information at all could be found for two other place-names (The old hall and South end). 36 of the other 40 place-names were all mentioned in the Domesday book and analysed based on that form. The four remaining place-names (Skeffling, Humber, Salthaugh and Swanland) were analysed based on their earliest form (generally a 12th century version).

The analysis resulted in 82 possible place-name elements. The place-name Goxhill east of Barton-upon-Humber could serve as an example of the analysis procedure. Goxhill was listed in Mills (1991) as a Scandinavian place-name having earlier versions as Golse in the Domesday book and both Gosla and Gousele from the 12th century. The Domesday book entry was marked as sic, probably because that version was not in full agreement with the derivation given as Old Norse *gausli "place at the gushing spring" (Mills, 1991). The derivation in Mills was not unlikely, but the word *gausli felt as being a compound. Playing around with different ways of pronouncing Golse, Gosla and Gousele gave rise to alternative derivations, where the first part might be Old Norse gás (one-syllable /'gaos/, /'gɑ :s/ or /'gɒ :s/) 'goose' and the second part either Old Norse hlid (/'hli:d/) 'slope' or Old Norse sel (/'sɛ :l/) or sil (/'si:l/) (both meaning 'calm or still-standing water). Old Norse hlid is a 36 / 237 Kahnberg frequent element of many Swedish and Norwegian place-names and often shortened to li (/'li:/), but looking at the map there did not seem to be any hill nor slope near Goxhill despite the modern version of the name. The area seemed to be very flat criss-crossed by several ditches in all directions, so the sel / sil alternative appeared to be more likely based on a possibly higher waterfront a thousand years ago. Thus Goxhill was considered as having elements from the animal (goose), terrain (the sel element) and water (the *gausli version but also the sel element) element groups. Based on these element groups and the fact that the place-name only had Old Norse derivations Goxhill was placed in the Scandinavian category.

As can be seen in figure 12 the tun element group was most frequently used (14.4%) followed by the name group (13.4%). No elements were put into the leah, church or other groups, while the wic and field groups only contained one element each. The other groups were used between two and seven times each (2.4% - 8.5%).

Humber

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 12. Grouped place-name elements along the Humber.

Table 5 gives some examples of place-name elements in the different groups. Some of these element groups (by in particular) strongly suggest a Scandinavian place-name (Old Norse by 'village' has no Old English cognate) while others (particularly -ing and leah) strongly indicate Old English (leah is an Old English word and partly similar Old Norse leie, ly and lagh had other meanings and thus belonged to other groups). The syllable -ing has been used in Swedish place-names as well, but the meaning has been debated lately. 37 / 237 Kahnberg A few groups (tun and wic especially) contained words being common in both Old English and Old Norse place-names. The tun group contained the Old English word tun 'town' and the Old Norse word tun, tuna 'enclosed area' and some spelling variants of those words (e.g. ton, tune and tona). The wic group contained the Old English word wic (/'wɪ t ʃ/) 'settlement, abode' and the Old Norse word vik (/vi:k/) 'bay, cove, inlet', words that combined into wich in several place-names and thus share the same group despite the different meanings of the two words. An Old Norse place-name ending in vik could have been perceived as ending in wic by an Old English speaker and vice versa.

Most elements in the name group were given in Mills (1991), but not the name Óðinn (i.e. the Old Norse version of the God name that could also be spelt Woden, Wuden or Wodan). The modern day Swedish version of that name is Oden (/'u:dɛ n/), and the ude or ode elements in Swedish place-names generally derive from Óðinn. Seeing that the Domesday book version of Wootton was Udetune the connection to Swedish Oden was established, especially since the nearby Weeton was Wideton in the Domesday book. Weeton and Wootton shared the same derivation in Mills (1991), but Wideton and Udetune seemed too far apart to share the same origin.

The elements in the animal group were generally derived from Old Norse words for animals (e.g. Old Norse otur 'otter' and Old Norse ulfr 'wolf'). The element ber has generally been derived as Old English bær 'barley', but Old Norse had two words for the animal 'bear' - ber and biorn. Thus Barton-upon-Humber ended up having a new possible derivation based on Old Norse ber 'bear' despite being given a reasonable Old English derivation based on barley in Mills (1991).

The farm element group had several instances of ham, an element that could derive either from Old English ham 'home' or hamm 'in a river bend' , Old Norse heim 'home' or eastern Old Norse hamn 'harbour, sheltered bay'. A few elements linked directly to farm buildings, e.g. Old Norse garð 'farm, farm house' and eastern Old Norse fax 'barn'.

The nature group contained words for plants and nature elements that did not fit the terrain, woody or water categories, e.g. Old Norse haga 'pasture'. The thing category similarly contained nouns that did not fit any other category, e.g. Old English wif 'wife' and Old Norse ferja 'ferry'. The descriptive group had Old Norse brun 'brown' and ancient Swedish anlofva 'approach land with the wind from the side' used to describe a place that you could reach in such a wind.

38 / 237 Kahnberg Table 5. Examples of place-name elements in Humber area.

group element place-name explanation name Hwita, Grimr, Witenai, Grimesby, Personal names, names of saints and gods, Óðinn, Cæga Udetune names of rivers -ing -ing- Winteringeham, generally thought to mean followers of Caingeham, someone, e.g. Caingeham -> farmstead of the Stalingeburg followers of Cæga tun don, ton, tone, Welleton, Haltune, an element used in Old English place-names tune, tona Elgendon, (meaning "town") and in Old Norse place- Medeltone, names (meaning "enclosed area") Patringtona wic wic Welwic in this case an Old English element meaning "dairy farm" animal otr, elgen, ber, Otringham, otter, elk, bear, wolf, goose ulv, gous Elgendon, Bertune, Ulvesbi, Gousele terrain flet, holme, el Brungareflet, Ryel, elements describing the terrain, e.g. flat piece Chelvingeholm, of land, hill, small island woody hesel, witen, Hesel, Witenai, words for forest or tree species or lumber (e.g. torne, wide Torne, Wideton hazel, willow, víðr, víðir, thorn) water brun, flete, wel Brungareflet, words connected to water (e.g. stream, river, Faxflete, Welwic well) position medel, stede Medeltone, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. Wifestede upper, north, middle) or words for "place", "spot" by bi Grimesbi, Ferebi generally meaning the Old Norse word "by" (village, town) farm gar, ham, fax Brungareflet, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and home Immingeham, Faxflete fortress burg Burg words for fortress and castle nature hege, linge, ry, Hegelinge, Ryel, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage (e.g. fax Faxflete pasture, heather, rye, flax) thing fere, ring, wif, ha Ferebi, Otringham, nouns that didn't match any other category (e.g. Wifestede, Haburg ferry, ring, wife, hair) descriptive brun, unloue Brungareflet, words for size, colour and manner (e.g. brown, Unlouebi reachable in sidewind)

39 / 237 Kahnberg Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (3), burg (2), ton/tun (7) and elements of trees and bushes (4). Table 6 gives some examples of place-names in each category along the Humber.

Table 6. Categories of Humber. Category Number Percentage Modern examples Older version Latin / French 1 2.2 Humber Humbri fluminis, 720 Celtic 0 0 Germanic 1 2.2 New Holland New Holland, 19c Old English 18 39.1 Ryehill, Ryel 1086, Barrow, Barewe 1086, Immingham, Immingeham 1086, Halton, Haltune 1086, Welton, Welleton 1086, Kingston, Kyngeston 1086, Skeffing, Sckeftling 12c, Patrington Patringtona 1086 Possibly Scandinavian 14 30.4 Barton-upon-Humber, Bertune 1086, Elloughton, Elgendon 1086, Broomfleet, Brungareflet 1086, Ottringham, Otringeham 1086, Killingholme, Chelvingeholm 1086, Thornton Curtis Torentune 1086 Scandinavian 8 17.4 Ferriby (North + South), Ferebi 1086, Ulceby, Ulvesbi 1086, Habrough, Haburg 1086, Grimsby, Grimesbi 1086, Swanland, Suenelund 1189, Anlaby, Unlouebi 1086, Salthaugh, Saltehache 1152, Goxhill Golse 1086, Gousele 12c Not categorised 4 8.7 Sunk Island, The old hall, Salt end, South end

40 / 237 Kahnberg The Scandinavian category consisted of Anlaby, Ferriby, Goxhill, Grimsby, Habrough, Salthaugh, Swanland and Ulceby, all of them given at least a partly Scandinavian derivation in Mills (1991). Some place-names were put in the possibly Scandinavian category based on new possible derivations, some being the Old Norse or eastern Old Norse equivalent of the Old English derivation given in Mills. Barton-upon-Humber, Broomfleet, Elloughton, Healing, Melton, Ottringham, Weeton, Whitton and Wootton were all categorised as possibly Scandinavian this way (see section 4.7 for their new possible derivations, where also Goxhill has been included).

Sunk island started appearing out of the sea in the 17th century and was thus uncategorised due to lack of information. Salt end was established in the 20th century. No information whatsoever could be found for South end or The old hall.

4.1.2 Trent

Figure 13. Map of possible Scandinavian place-names along river Trent. (Map image by Google maps)

As can be seen by the blackened areas in figure 11 there were possible Scandinavian place- names on both sides of river Trent all the way south to Torksey locks. There were slightly more possible Scandinavian place-names along the east side of the river (28 versus 21), but that side also had more place-names in total (42 versus 35). 67% of all place-names on the

41 / 237 Kahnberg east side were possible Scandinavian versus 60% of all place-names on the west side of the Trent.

A total of 78 place-names belonged to the Trent area (see appendix 1 and 2 for full lists). Five of them (Woodbeck, Walkerith, Westwoodside, Keadby and East ferry) were considered modern. Walkerith was Waltrith on Bleau (1646, Lincolnia) but no earlier written forms could be found. Westwoodside used to be five different villages that were combined into Westwoodside using a new name in modern days. Woodbeck was not found on Bleau (1646, Nottinghamiensis) or Bleau (1646, Lincolnia), but according to the Wikipedia page for Rampton and Woodbeck (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rampton_and_Woodbeck) Woodbeck was an old farm and that the place-name started being used in 2018 as Rampton and Woodbeck. Keadby was Keadbye on Bleau (1646, Lincolnia), but no earlier written forms could be found. According to Wikipedia (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Ferry) East Ferry was founded in the 13th century and was known by the name East Kinnard's ferry .

No informamation whatsoever could be found on two place-names (Little Gringley and Sturgate). It was worth noting that two of the modern place-names and one of those lacking information contained elements usually thought to be Scandinavian (Woodbeck, Sturgate and Keadby). Beck is usually derived from Old Norse bekkr 'stream' with no Old English cognate. By comes from Old Norse by 'village' and gate is usually derived from Old Norse gata 'road, street, way'. Sturgate could possibly be derived from Old Norse stórr 'big, large' in the eastern Old Norse form stor making the compound sturgate eastern Old Norse compound storgata 'the big road', but without any earlier written forms such a derivation would be too uncertain.

Scunthorp (Escumetorp in the Domesday book) is usually derived as "outlying farmstead of a man called Skúma" (Mills, 1991) based on the Old Norse personal name Skúma, but Skúma was not a commonly used name among the Vikings. Given the close resemblence of Escumetorp to Swedish Skummeslöv (see section 2.3.7) another possible derivation could be based on Old Norse Skotmaðr 'shooter, or perhaps also Scotsman', especially since the place- name Scotter slightly further south already had a Old Norse derivation meaning Scotsmen. That way Scunthorp could be derived as 'the Scotsman's cottage'.

The 78 place-names contained a total of 144 place-name elements. Tun was the most frequent element (13.9%) followed by farm (11.8%), terrain (10.4%), and the groups name

42 / 237 Kahnberg and nature (both at 9%). The wic, leah and church groups managed to get one element each. The groups woody, by and thing had frequencies of 6.9% while the rest were between 1% and 6%, as can be seen in Figure 14.

Trent

25

20

15

10

5

0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 14. The distribution of place-name elements in the Trent area.

The four entries in the other group were sieg, chefte, corieltauvi and fulc, although fulc from Old Norse folk 'people' could possibly be placed in the thing group along with nationality names. Table 7 gives examples of elements in all groups.

Table 7. Examples of place-name elements along river Trent. group element place-name explanation name Adelinge, Tedulf, Adelingesfluet, Personal names, names of saints and gods, Gun, Gerulf, Lud, Tedulfbi, Gunness, names of rivers Flische, Wintr Gerulftorp, The two names in brackets are Old Norse (Skume, Ale) Ludintone, names in Mills (1991), but have been replaced Flischesburg, by new possible derivations in this study. Wintringatun (Escumetorp, Aletorp) -ing -ing-, -in- Ludintone, generally thought to mean followers of Wintringatun, someone, but Bechingeham is derived from Old Bechingeham English bæc meaning stream. 43 / 237 Kahnberg tun tone, ton, tun, Burtone, Oston, an element used in Old English place-names tune Wintringatun, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place-names Mortune (meaning 'enclosed area') wic uic Butruic in this case an Old English element meaning 'dairy farm' leah lea Lea Old English leah meaning 'clearing', 'meadow' animal ram, wache, rox Rametone, names of animals, e.g. ram, quail, rook Wacheringham, Roxebi terrain crule, land, ness, Crule, Aland, elements describing the terrain, e.g. winding, skal, sand, eia Gunness, Skaltorp, land, headland, bowl, sand, island Sandtofte, Acheseia woody ale, esche, pile, Aletorp, Eschetoft, words for forest or tree species or lumber (e.g. aple, stoch, wi Pileham, Aplebi, adler, ash tree, pile 'willow', apple tree, log, Stochlithe, víðir 'willow') Wilingeham water mar, a, welle, Martone, Aland, words connected to water (e.g. lake, river, well, bech Tireswelle, stream) Bechingeham field ache Acheseia words linked to fields and acres church minstre Minstretone words linked to churches, monasteries, monks, priests and nuns position upp, ep, nor, os Upptune, Epeurde, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. Nortorp, Oston upper, north, east) or words for 'place', 'spot' by bi, by Englebi, Branzbi, generally meaning the ON word by 'village, Cheftesbi, town' Fulcwardby farm stou, ham, bel, Stou, Iopeham, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and home tofte, torp, tot Beltone, Sandtofte, Springetorp, Beltot fortress burg, ward Flischesburg, words for fortress, castle and protection Fulcwardby nature cole, eurde, Colebi, Epeurde, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage (e.g. mæssing, leure Mæssingaham , pasture, coal, soil, brass, clay) Leuretune thing butr, loc, ring, Butruic, Loctone nouns that didn't match any other category (e.g.

44 / 237 Kahnberg skume, scot Wacheringham, butter, lock, ring, shooter, scotsman) Escumetorp, Scottun descriptive litel Litelburg words used for size or colour (e.g. small) other corieltauvi, fulc, Corieltauvi, words of unknown meaning or odd categories chefte, sieg Fulcwardby, (people, bind, victory) Cheftesbi, Turecesieg

Each place-name except Fenton (oldest record was Fenton in 1242) was categorised based on the elements in the Domesday book version of the name. The four modern place-names mentioned above were not categorised at all, and the place-names lacking information were treated the same way. Dragonby (known as Corieltauvi from Pre-Roman times) was placed in both the Latin and the Celtic category. Torksey had an entry from 900 (Turecesieg), but that one was compatible with the Domesday book entry. Fenton had its earliest entry from 1242 but could still be categorised, and the results are presented in Table 8. Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (10/10), borg/burg (6/8), toft/torp/bol (12/12), ham (3/4), stou (1/1) and elements of trees and bushes (10/10). All the elements toft, torp, bol, ham and stou (most of them derived from Old Norse words for smaller houses and cottages) were part of the farm group, where fifteen of the sixteen included elements were in Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian place-names.

Table 8. Categories along river Trent. Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 1 1.27 Dragonby Corieltauvi 1086 Celtic 2 2.53 Dragonby Corieltauvi 1086. Trent (a Celtic river name possibly meaning 'trespasser') (Mills, 1991) Germanic 0 0 Old English 20 25.32 West Butterwick, Butruic 1086, Susworth, Susworth 1086, Laughton, Loctone 1086, Misterton, Minstretone 1086, Clayworth, Clauorde 1086, 45 / 237 Kahnberg Heapham, Iopeham 1086, Knaith, Cheneide 1086, Sturton-le-Staple Estretone 1086 Possibly Scandinavian 27 34.18 Bransby, Branzbi 1086, Brampton, Brantune 1086, Grove, Grava 1086, Leverton, Leuretune 1086, Willingham, Wilingeham 1086, Clarborough, Claureburg 1086, Kexby, Cheftesbi 1086, Springthorpe, Springetorp 1086, Gainsborough, Gainesburg 1086, Alkborough Alchebarge 1086 Scandinavian 22 27.85 Ingleby, Englebi 1086, Saundby, Sandebi 1086, Aisby, Asebi 1086, Northorpe, Nortorp / Torp 1086, Scotter, Scottere 1086, Owston ferry, Oston 1086, Haxey, Acheseia 1086, Belton, Beltone 1086, Scunthorpe, Escumetorp 1086, Eastoft Eschetoft 1086 Not given a category 7 8.86 Little Gringley, Sturgate, Woodbeck, Walkerith, Westwoodside, Keadby, East ferry

The 22 place-names in the Scandinavian category were all given at least a partly Scandinavian derivation in Mills (1991), though some of them have received new possible derivations (see section 4.7 for new possible derivations of Scunthorpe, Aisby and Althorpe). Some place-names were put in the Possibly Scandinavian category based on new possible derivations, some being the Old Norse or eastern Old Norse equivalent of the Old English

46 / 237 Kahnberg derivation given in Mills (1991). Alkborough, Epworth and Pilham were all categorised as Possibly Scandinavian this way (see section 4.7 for their new possible derivations).

4.1.3 Ouse

The area along river Ouse also contained several possible Scandinavian place-names, as has been indicated by the blackened areas in figure 15. A total of 83 place-names were collected in the area, four of them (Metham, Howden dyke, Crockley hill and New Earswick) marked as modern and one (Thorpe Underwood) put into the Possibly Scandinavian category based on the modern name (no information was found, but thorpe is usually considered a Scandinavian only place-name element). Balkholme (Blackholme 1646) was also put in the Possibly Scandinavian category based on the holme element (see Section 2.2.5) despite no proper information of its age. There was no information on Biggin, but in line with Biggin in Cumbria it was categorised as Possibly Scandinavian despite the lack of information.

Figure 15. Map of possible Scandinavian place-names along river Ouse. (Map image by Google maps)

The area contained a total of 158 place-name elements, distributed as shown in figure 16. Most elements (18.4%) belonged to the terrain group followed by the tun group (13.9%). 13 elements were put in the farm group, 12 in the name group, 11 in the thing group, 10 in the woody group and 8 in the groups of animal and nature. No elements made it into the leah group. The rest of the groups had frequencies between 1% and 5%.

47 / 237 Kahnberg

Ouse

35

30

25

20

15

10

5

0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 16. The distribution of place-name elements along river Ouse.

The elements put into the other group were dunesvördr (protector of the downs), alin (the Old Norse word for the distance from the fingertip to the elbow), stefni (to prow), as (the Old Norse word for god), reið (to ride or a ride) huntin (hunting), and gifta (to marry). Table 9 gives some examples on the elements of each group. Hessay (Hesdesai 1086) was given a new derivation based the genitive of Old Norse hest 'horse' and Old Norse ey 'island', despite Mills (1991) marking the Domesday book entry as [sic]. The new derivation is probable as hesdes would be likely to change into hesles due to phonetic assimilation once the Old Norse word hest fell out of use, and there was a written version (Heslesaia) from the 12th century.

Table 9. Examples of place-name elements along river Ouse.

group element place-name explanation name turulf, use, benni, Turulfestorp, Personal names, names of saints and gods, bardul, camele Useborne, names of rivers Benniburg, Bardulbi, Camelesford -ing -in- Laxinton estate associated with a man called *Leaxa tun dene, ton, tun, Hovedene, an element used in Old English place-names tone Cledinton, Fentun, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place-names Bretone (meaning 'enclosed area')

48 / 237 Kahnberg wic uuerc, uic, wic Aldeuuerc, Euruic, either an Old English element meaning 'dairy Schipewic, farm' or an Old Norse element meaning 'bay' Wicstow leah Old English leah meaning 'clearing', 'meadow' animal swyne, chel, ber, Swyneflet, Chelpin, swine, calf, bear, dove, wolf, horse du(f), ulf, hesd Berlai, Suddufeld, Ulfskelf, Hesdesai terrain dune, flath, Huntindune, elements describing the terrain, e.g. hill, flat wayth, mer, Flathwayth, area, ford, moor, stream, hammer (usually a burne, hambre, Mertun, Useburne, kind of hill), island, hole, head ai, hale, hoved Hambretone, Hesdesai, Richale, Hovedene woody pople, asc, Popletone, words for forest or tree species or lumber (e.g. wuda, æppel, Ascham, Kawuda, poplar, ash tree, wood, apple tree, willow tree, sele, bodel Æppeltune, Seleby, timber) Bodeltune water flete, a, Useflete, Acastre words connected to water (e.g. stream, river) field feld Chelchefeld words linked to fields and acres church chirche, monech Chirchebi, words linked to churches, monasteries, monks, Monechetone priests and nuns position lage, ofre, sud Cucheslage, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. Ofretun, Suddufeld upper, south) or words for 'place', 'spot' by by, bi Aschileby, Seleby, generally meaning the Old Norse word by Asgozbi (village, town) farm torp, thorpe, Turulfestorp, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and home ham, heming, Thorpe, Ascham, husam, toft, Hemingburg, stow, cled Neuhusam, Blaketoft, Wicstow, Cledinton fortress clive, burg, Clive, Benniburg, words for fortress, castle and protection castre Acastre nature eur, salte, Euruic,Saltemersc, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage (e.g. chelche, ric, ri, Chelchefeld, soil, salt, chalk, smoke, kingdom, reed) red Richale, Ascri, Rednesse

49 / 237 Kahnberg thing pin, go(d), schip, Chelpin, Asgozbi, nouns that didn't match any other category (e.g. copeman, cnape, Schipewic, pin, god, ship, merchant, rider/squire, wheel, iole, cled, myl Copeman Torp, pile, mill) Cnapetone, Ioleton, Cledinton, Myleford descriptive ald, neuue, bre, Aldeuuerc, words used for age, size or colour (e.g. old, wite, blake Neuuetone, new, broad, white, pale) Bretone, Witegift, Blaketoft other huntin, gift, as, Huntindune, words of unknown meaning or odd categories red, alna, stefn, Witegift, Asgozbi, (hunting, marry, Norse god, ride, the distance dunesford Rednesse, Alna, from the fingertip to the elbow, prow, protector Steflingefled, of the downs) Dunesford

Each place-name was categorised based on the elements in the Domesday book version of the name. The four modern place-names mentioned above were not categorised at all. York (known as Ebórakon in 150) was placed in both the Celtic and the Scandinavian category, since the modern name comes from the Domesday entry Eoruic (Norman spelling of the Scandinavian Jorvik, derived from Old Norse iorð 'earth, soil' and Old Norse vik 'bay, inlet'). Given that river Ouse was wide up to York on Bleau (1646, Dvcatvs Eboracensis) where it was joined by river Foss and that the whole area is less than 20 metres above modern day sea level it would be quite probable that the Vikings would see it as a settlement near a vik (compare Reykjavik in Iceland), especially if there was a temporary Old English version of the name (Eoforwic) ending in wic 'settlement' (as claimed by https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York). The results of the categorisation are presented in Table 10. Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (6/6), toft/torp/hus (8/8), ham (2/2), stou (1/1) and elements of trees and bushes (9/10). Elements in the position group all came from place-names categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian, as did all elements of the farm group.

Table 10. Categories along river Ouse. Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 0 0 Celtic 2 2.38 York, Ebórakon 150, Euruic 1086, Ouse Celtic/Pre-Celtic river name 50 / 237 Kahnberg meaning 'water' (Mills, 1991) Germanic 0 0 Old English 19 22.62 Ousefleet, Useflete 1086, Laxton, Laxinton 1086, Saltmarshe, Saltermersc 1086, Swinefleet, Swyneflet 1195, Hook, Huck 12c, Camblesforth, Camelesforde 1086, Cawood, Kawuda 1086, Huntington, Huntindune 1086, Shipton, Hipton 1086, Beningbrough, Benniburg 1086, Moor Monkton, Monechetone 1086, Newton, Neuuetone 1086, Marton Martone 1086 Possibly Scandinavian 28 33.33 Reedness, Rednesse 1086, Kilpin, Clepene 959, Chelpin 1086, Howden, Heafuddene 959, Hovedene 1086, Knedlington, Cledinton 1086, Knapton, Cnapetone 1086, Newsholme, Neuhusam 1086, Brind, Brende 1086, Barlow, Bernlege 1030, Berlai 1086, Cliffe, Clive 1086, South Duffield, Suddufeld 1086, Wistow, Wicstow 1086, Skipwith, Schipewic 1086, Riccall, Richale 1086, Kelfield, Chelchefeld 1086, Deighton, Distone 1086, Hessay, Hesdesai 1086, Poppleton, Popeltune 972, Popletone 1086, Overton, Ovretun 1086, Skelton, Scheltun 1086, Linton, Luctone 1086, Whixley, Cucheslage 1086,

51 / 237 Kahnberg Lower Dunesford, Dunesford 1086, Thorpe Underwood - Balkholme, Blackholme 1646, Biggin - Scandinavian 31 36.90 Blacktoft, Blaketoft 1086, Flawith, Flathwayth 1086, Tollerton, Toletun 972, Tolentun 1086, Youlton, Ioleton 1086, Rawcliffe, Roudeclife 1086, Kirk Hammerton, Hambretone 1086, York, Euruic 1086, Kirkby Wharfe, Chirchebi 1086, Ulleskelf, Oleschel 1086, Middlethorpe, Thorpe 1086, Escrick, Ascri 1086, Askham Bryan, Ascham 1086, Barlby, Bardulbi 1086, Companthorpe, Copeman torp 1086, Stillingfleet, Steflingefled 1086, Osgodby, Asgozbi 1086, Brayton Breithe-tun 1030, Bretone 1086 Not given a category 4 4.76 Metham, - Howden dyke, - Crockey hill, - New Earswick -

Several of the place-names in the Scandinavian category were given at least a partly Scandinavian derivation in Mills (1991), though some of them have received new possible derivations (see section 4.7 for new possible derivations of Brayton and Osgodby). Stillingfleet, York, Tollerton and Alne were new in this category and their new derivations are presented in section 4.7. Some place-name were put in the Possibly Scandinavian category based on new possible derivations, some being the Old Norse or eastern Old Norse equivalent of the Old English derivation given in Mills (1991). Brind, Barlow, Skelton, Skipwith, Riccall, Knapton and Hessay were all categorised as Possibly Scandinavian (see section 4.7 for their new possible derivations).

52 / 237 Kahnberg Some of the place-names in the Old English category (Swinefleet and Hook) had perfectly possible Old Norse derivations, but were considered Old English due to their earliest written forms being from the 12th century. This will be further discussed in section 5.

4.1.4 Ure

Figure 17. Map of possible Scandinavian place-names around rivers Ure and Swale. (Map image by Google maps)

As shown in figure 17 there were possible Scandinavian place-names along river Ure (the south-western of the two rivers, generally the area west of the M1 as shown section 3.1.4). A total of 89 place-name were studied in this area, three of which were considered modern (Hawes, North Lees and Roecliffe). Hawes was Hawes in 1614 (Mills, 1991) and North Lees was a medieval settlement but no early records of the names could be found and thus appears to be modern (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Lees). There were Roman forts at Roecliff but the site was abandoned and the earliest records of the place-name seem to be from the late 19th century. No information whatsoever could be found for Charlcot, Mickley, Aldburgh, Simonstone or the two Newbiggin place-names, but in line with the three Newbiggin in Cumbria these two Newbiggin in upper Ure valley were categorised as Possibly Scandinavian despite the lack of information.

The 82 remaining place-names contained a total of 161 place-name elements, with their distribution shown in figure 18. By far the most elements (22.4%) belonged to the terrain

53 / 237 Kahnberg group followed by the tun group (12.4%). 13 elements were put in the thing group, 12 in the farm group, 11 in the woody group and 10 in the by and descriptive groups. No elements made it into the -ing group and only one element was put in the leah group. The rest of the groups had frequencies between 1.5% and 5%.

Ure

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 18. The distribution of place-name elements along river Ure.

The elements put into the other group were sjá/hungur (behold/hunger), ride (to ride), boren (be carried), vandre (wander, walk), gjalla/gala (cry out, sound, scream), fred (peace), æsir (Norse gods) and lif (life). Table 11 gives some examples on the elements of each group.

Table 11. Examples of place-name elements along river Ure. group element place-name explanation name binz, tor, covre, Binzhou, Toreton, Personal names, names of saints and gods, turold, simon Covreham, names of rivers Turoldesbi -ing tun ton, tune, tum, Werton, Bortune, an element used in Old English place-names done, tone, tun Torretum, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place-names Scheldone, (meaning 'enclosed area') Gerdestone, Witun wic wic Heawic, Nonnewic either an Old English element meaning 'dairy

54 / 237 Kahnberg farm' or an Old Norse element meaning 'bay' leah laia Nordstanlaia OE leah meaning 'clearing', 'meadow' animal ripum, roc, hun, Ripum, Rocwid, grouse, rook, dog/hound, carp chirpr Huntune, Chirprebi terrain fell, dale, ric, Great Shunner fell, elements describing the terrain, e.g. mountain, scard, swining, Cotterdale, Ascric, valley, ridge, gap, burnt area, long and narrow thwait, snape, Eschescard, area, boggy piece of land, watch hill, marsh, hou, wardon, Swiningethwait, open field, stretch of land, shell, mountain, ford, mersk, gerde, Snape, Binzhou, heath, hill, fen, mountain pasture, rounded hill, tane, schel, Wardonmersk height, mountain, low ridge bergh, wad, he, Gerdestone, el, fine, erg, cule, Tanefeld, ho, ber, valle Scheldone, Thornbergh, Torretum Wadles, Collinghe, Borel, Finegala, Ergthorn, Aculestorp, Hotun, Calderber, Jorvalle woody thorn, torren, Thornbergh, words for forest or tree species or lumber (e.g. thirne, torren, Torrentone, thorn, alder tree, wood/ willow tree, apple tree, ellin, wid, wi, Thirne, Ellintune, oak trees, ash tree) appeltre, esche, Rocwid, Witun, asc Appeltresate, Eschescard, Ascric water laga, brun, welle, Wendreslaga, words connected to water (e.g. lake, well, river, a, foss Brunton, Welle, rapids) Aculestorp, Hardraw, Fossdale field feld, ake Tanefeld, Akebar words linked to fields and acres church chirche, chirch, Chirchebi, words linked to churches, monasteries, monks, nonne, monuch, Chirchbi, priests and nuns Nonnewic, Monucheton position sud, nord, le, les, Sudtone, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. laga, butter Nordstanlaia, farthest, south, north) or words for 'place', 'spot' Asserle, Wadles,

55 / 237 Kahnberg Wendreslaga, Buttersett by bi Belgebi, Hernebi generally meaning the ON word by (village, town) farm torp, thorpe, Langliuetorp, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and home thorp, biggin, Thorpe, sate, card, an, Gruelthorp, ham Newbiggin, Appeltresate, Eschescard, Massan, Covreham fortress bur, bor, burg Burton, Bortune, words for fortress, castle and protection Borel, Burg nature col, ling, jor, wer Collinghe, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage (e.g. Jorvalle, Werton coal, land, soil, herb) thing minescip, cotter, Minescip, nouns that didn't match any other category (e.g. bain, brigg, Cotterdale, community, huts, leg, bridge, the thing that mare, belg, Bainebrigg, causes nightmares, bellows, spening, hern, le, Ridemare, Belgebi, buckets/nipple/someone to mock, brain, shelter, feder Speningetorp, feather) Hernebi, Leborne, Federbi descriptive mild, newe, Mildebi, Neweton, words used for age, size or colour (e.g. gentle, nostre, lang, Nostrefeld, new, our, long, short, cold, hard) cotter, cald, Langliuetorp, hardr Cotterdale, Caldeber, Hardraw other shunner, ride, Great Shunner fell, words of unknown meaning or odd categories fred, boren, gala, Ridemare, Fredebi, (behold/hunger, to ride, peace, be carried, wendre, asser, Leborne, Finegala, cry/scream/sound, wander/walk, Norse gods, liue Wendreslaga, life) Asserle, Langliuetorp

Each place-name was as far as possible categorised based on the elements in the Domesday book version of the name. The three modern place-names and the three lacking information (as mentioned above) were not categorised at all. North Stainley (known as Stanleh in 972 56 / 237 Kahnberg and Nordstanlaia in 1086) was categorised as both Old English and Scandinavian, as the place-name is known to have changed from Old English to Scandinavian (stan turned to steinn). Warthermarske was also categorised as both Old English and Scandinavian, as the first half had an Old English derivation and the second half an Old Norse one in Mills (1991). Ure was categorised as both Celtic and Possibly Scandinavian as the name most likely had changed from Ear w in 1025 to Jor in 1140 (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_Ure). Ear w could be a Brittonic version whereas Jor would probably be the same Old Norse iorð 'earth, soil' that was a part of York (Jorvik, Euruic). The results of the categorisation are presented in Table 12. Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (10/10), torp (5/5) and elements of trees and bushes (10/11). Elements in the animal and position groups all came from place-names categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian.

Table 12. Categories along river Ure.

Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 0 0 Celtic 1 1.09 Ure Ear w (wynn) Germanic 0 0 Old English 17 18.48 Worton, Werton 1086, Woodhall, wudu + heall (Mills, 1991), Well, Welle 1086, Coverham, Covreham 1086, West Burton, Burton 1086, Nosterfield, Nostrefeld 1204, Burrill, Borel 1086, Binsoe, Binzhou 1190, Newton-le-Willows, Neweton 1086, Nunwick, Nonnewic 1086, Sharow, Sharou 1130, Marton-le-Moor, Marton 1198, Bishop Monkton, Monucheton 1086, Minskip, Minescip 1086, Boroughbridge, Pontem de burgo 1155, Warthermarske Wardonmersk 1086 Possibly Scandinavian 29 31.52 Aldborough, Burg 1086, Milby, Mildebi 1086, Skelton, Scheldone 1086, 57 / 237 Kahnberg Bridge/Copt Hewick, Heawic 1086, Ripon, Hrypis 715, Ripum 1086, Hutton Conyers, Hotone 1086, Thornborough, Thornbergh 1198, Masham, Massan 1086, Low Ellington, Ellintune 1086, Snape, Snape 1154, Thirn, Thirne 1086, Thornton Watlass, Torretum + Wadles 1086, Rookwith, Rocwid 1086, Cowling, Collinghe 1086, Leyburn, Leborne 1086, Butterset, - Finghall, Finegala 1086, Carperby, Chirprebi 1086, Gayle, - Hardraw, - Hutton Hang, Hotun 1086, Arrathorne, Ergthorn 13c, Newbiggin, - Ure Jor 1140 Scandinavian 38 41.30 Fossdale, - Great Shunner fell, - Appersett, Appeltresate 1086, Askrigg, Ascric 1086, Bainbridge, Bainebrigg 1218, Thornton Rust, Toreton 1086, Aysgarth, Eschescard 1086, Thoralby, Turoldesbi 1086, Redmire, Ridemare 1086, Swinithwaite, Swiningethwait 1086, Bellerby, Belgebi 1086, Agglethorpe, Aculestorp 1086, Wensley, Wendreslaga 1086, Harmby, Hernebi 1086, Spennithorne, Speningetorp 1086, Garriston, Gerdestone 1086,

58 / 237 Kahnberg Caldbergh, Caldeber 1086, East/West Witton, Witun 1086, Jervaulx, Jorvalle 1145, Akebar, - Hunton, Huntune 1086, Patrick Brompton, Brunton 1086, Firby, Fredebi 1086, Fearby, Federbi 1086, Warthermarske, Wardonmersk 1086, Grewelthorpe, Torp 1086, Kirkby Malzeard, Chirchebi 1086, Azerley, Asserle 1086, Melmerby, Malmerbi 1086, Sutton Grange, Sudtone 1086, Littlethorpe, Thorpe 1086, Wath, Wat 1086, Langthorpe, Torp 1086, Langliuetorp 1086, Kirby hill Chirchbi 1086 Not given a category 7 7.61 Roecliffe, - Hawes, Hawes 1614 Mickley, - North Lees, - Charlcot, - Aldburgh, - Simonstone -

Several place-names were completely missing in Mills (1991) despite being mentioned in the Domesday book, so some place-names in the Scandinavian category have received new possible derivations (see section 4.7 for new possible derivations of Langthorpe, Azerley, Sutton Grange, Firby, Patrick Brompton, Hunton, Jervaulx, East/West Witton, Agglethorpe, Wensley, Harmby, Spennithorne, Constable Burton, Garriston, Thornton Rust, Bainbridge and Appersett). Some place-name were put in the Possibly Scandinavian category based on new possible derivations, but without proper information on old place- name versions those new derivations are (except for Cotterdale and Rookwith) only listed in Appendix 1 and 2.

59 / 237 Kahnberg Cotterdale was considered Scandinavian despite lacking information based on a series of assimilations and spelling conventions. The place-name Kortedala can be found in the outskrits of Gothenburg, Sweden. This place-name would be derived as den korta dalen 'the short valley' in modern Swedish, but regionally in the area south-east of Gothenburg den korta dalen would be korterdala just like it used to be in older Swedish. The Gothenburg pronunciation of korterdala would be kottedala or almost kottedale, which probably would sound like cotterdarle with a pronounced 'e' ending to an RP English speaker. Add the great vowel shift (the shifted vowel sounds in Modern English from the 16th century onward) and the Gothenburg pronunciation of Kortedala would be very similar to a 15th century English pronunciation of Cotterdale. Thus Cotterdale received its place in the Scandinavian category. It might be mere coincidence, but could be worth studying in detail in the future.

4.1.5 Swale

Figure 17 (see section 4.1.4) also showed that there were possible Scandinavian place-names along river Swale as well (the northern area and the area east of the M1, see the area map in section 3.1.5 for details). A total of 134 place-names were collected along the Swale, four of them (Londonderry, Thornbrough, Fawdington and Pilmoor) considered modern and five (Brokes, Bullamoor, Streetlam, Pepper arden and Lovesome hill) completely lacking information. Thornbrough was Thornburgh in 1646 (Bleau 1646, Dvcatvs Eboracensis). Londonderry was named after someone taking their name from County Londonderry in Northern Ireland. Pilmoor had a railway station built in 1847. Fawdington had 10 inhabitants in 2010. Neither Londonderry, Pilmoor nor Fawdington could be found on Bleau (1646, Dvcatvs Eboracensis). The 125 place-names thus studied generated a total of 229 place-name elements, distributed as shown in figure 19. The groups of tun and terrain were by far the most frequently used, both groups having frequencies of 19.7%. 22 elements were placed in the thing group, 21 in the by group and 15 elements in each of the woody and name groups. No elements were placed in the -ing, wic and leah groups. The animal group collected 13 elements, the nature group had 11 and 9 elements were placed in each of the position, farm and other groups. The rest of the groups had between two and four elements each.

60 / 237 Kahnberg

Swale

50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 19. The distribution of place-name elements along river Swale.

The other group contained elements possibly derived from angra (trouble), angur (grief, remorse), fitjum (dativ plural of fit), skelfa (startle, frighten), skelfur (shake), dunr (horde), skytta (shoot), Upsala (linked with Uppsala in Sweden) and hegna (fence in). Table 13 lists examples of elements in each group.

Table 13. Examples of place-name elements along river Swale.

group element place-name explanation name Brad, Tormo(d), Bradfortune, Personal names, names of saints and gods, Carl, Æstane, Tormozbi, Carleton, names of rivers Turchil, Asgo(d), Asgozbi, Æstanesbi, Felic, Baldre, Turchileby, Aynder, Manne, Felicekirke, Baldreby, Brenning, Hudre Aynderby, Mannebi, Brenningston, Hudreswelle -ing tun ton, tun, tone, Karreton, Middletun, an element used in Old English place-names tune Cudtone, Scottune, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place- Tunstale names (meaning 'enclosed area') wic

61 / 237 Kahnberg leah animal ra, crec, cun, Raschel, Crecala, roe, crow, cows, reindeer, calf, otter, rook, rainin, chelv, otr, Cundel, Rainincton, goat, cow, crow, bear crac, ghet, cud, Chelvinctune, crake, bern Otringtun, Crachele, Ghetenesbi, Cudtone, Crakepote, Bernebi terrain dale, thveit, Birkedale, Thveit, elements describing the terrain, e.g. valley, kelde, mo, karr, Appeltrekelde, long and narrow area, morass, sandy area, mar, scel, Meuhaker, Karretan, swamp, marsh, shelf, marsh, meadow, road mersche, inge, Marige, Scelton, crossing, landing-place, valley, stretch, schir, hiple, tale, Mersche, Ingetlingum, marsh, ford, sloping stone, elevated forested chipe, fen, ford, Schirebi, Hiplewelle, slope, cut/ditch, ford, mountain, height, hele, holt, Tunestale, Chipeling, mountain, marsh, valley, topp, cliff, island, scurve, forde, Fencote, Acheford, long and narrow area, meeting of berg, ho, berch, Crachele, Holtebi, roads/rivers, low ridge, shelf, ravine tresh, del, top, Scurvetone, Iaforde, clive, ay, twait, Bergebi, Hotone, mi(t), wald, Bracheberch, Tresh, schel, scor Deltune, Topeclive, Sessay, Hustwait, Mitune, Eisingewald, Raschel, Scortone woody ala, elre, elce, Crecala, Elreton, words for forest or tree species or lumber toren, tirne, ach, Elceton, Torentun, (e.g. alder tree, thorn, ash tree, oak tree, esch, scol, apel, Tirnetofte, Acheford, wood, apple tree, timber, birch) bole, birke Eschescol, Apelton, Boletone, Birkedale water lagh, welle, ia Helagh, Hudreswelle, words connected to water (e.g. lake, well, Iaforde river) field aker, uker Meuhaker, Ukerby words linked to fields and acres church kirke Kirkebi, Felicekirke words linked to churches, monasteries, monks, priests and nuns position nor, sud, sore, Nortone, Sudtune, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. middle, senere, Sorebi, Middletun, farthest, south, north) or words for 'place', lege Senerebi, Werlegesbi 'spot' by bi, by Schirebi, Bretebi, generally meaning the Old Norse word by

62 / 237 Kahnberg Ukerby, Turchileby (village, town) farm hus, torp, tofte, Hustheit, Torp, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and cote Tirnetofte, Fencote home fortress bur, wer Burtun, Werlegesbi words for fortress, castle and protection nature eising, sess, in, Eisingewald, Sessay, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage care, cor, Cherdinton, Caretorp, (e.g. glare ice, sedge, flax, breeze, bracken, brache, be, ling, Corburne, garden bed, heather, heath) lingum, he Bracheberch, Bedale, Chipeling, Ingetlingum, Helagh thing pote, lagh, rie, Crakepote, Helagh, nouns that didn't match any other category rige, freming, Rie, Marige, (e.g. pot, law, kingdom, stranger, gate, grin(d), mol(d), Fremington, Grinton, powder, britons, scots, danes, well, gnome, brete, scot, dane, Moltun, Bretebi, ring, knife, peak, shirt, grove, ship, slave, brun, alur, rinc, Scottune, Danebi, god) cheniue, pic, Bruntun, Aluretune, cherd, grave, Otrinctun, schip, trille, goz Cheniueton, Picala, Cherdinton, Hograve, Schipetune, Trillebia, Asgozbi descriptive lang, cor Langetorp, Corburne words used for age, size or colour (e.g. long, shiver) other angr. fytun, scel, Angram, Fytun, words of unknown meaning or odd dune, schire, Scelton, Dune, categories (e.g. trouble/grief, fit, upsala, vin, as Schirebi, Upsala, startle/shake, horde, shoot, Uppsala, fence Chelvintun, Asgozbi in, Norse god)

Each place-name was as far as possible categorised based on the elements in the Domesday book version of the name. The four modern place-names and the six lacking information (as mentioned above) were not categorised at all. Kirkby Fleetham was placed in both the Old English and the Scandinavian groups, since the Domesday book entry (Fleteha) was known to have shifted from Old English to Scandinavian over time. Swale was categorised as both Old English and Possibly Scandinavian as it had perfectly possible derivations in both Old English (swalwe 'rushing water') and Old Norse / eastern Old Norse (svala / svalæ 'swallow, i.e. the bird'), but the derivations were not Common Germanic. The results of the

63 / 237 Kahnberg categorisation are presented in Table 14. Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (21/21), hus/toft/torp (5/5) and elements of trees and bushes (14/15). Eleven of the twelve elements in the animal group and all the nine elements in the position group came from place-names categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian. Place-names containing the element forth/ford were categorised as Old English.

Table 14. Categories along river Swale.

Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 1 0.74 Richmond Richemund 1110 Celtic 1 0.74 Catterick Catrice 1086 Germanic 0 0 Old English 17 12.50 Marske, Mersche 1086, Hartforth, Hartforth 1646, Hudswell, Hudreswelle 1086, Hipswell, Hiplewelle 1086, Scotton, Scottune 1086, Forest, - Kirkby Fleetham, Fleteha 1086, Hackforth, Acheford 1086, Yafforth, Iaforde 1086, Leeming, Howgrave, Leming 12c, Kilburne, Hograve 1086, Disforth, Chileburne 1086, Cundall, Disforde 1086, Angram Grange, Cundel 1086, Brafferton, Angrum 13c, Swale Bradfortune 1086, - Possibly 36 26.47 Myton, Mytun 972, Mitune 1086, Scandinavian Humberton, Burtun 1086, Burtone 1086, Easingwold, Eisingewald 1086, Hutton-Sessay, Hottune 1086, Little Hutton, Hottune 1086, Sessay, Sessay 1086, Norton-le-Clay, Nortone 1086, Rainton, Rainincton 1086,

64 / 237 Kahnberg Topcliffe, Topeclive 1086, Dalton, Deltune 1086, Sutton-under- Sudtune 1086, Whitestonecliff, South/North Kilvington, Chelvinctune 1086, Kirkington, Cherdinton 1086, Pickhill, Picala 1086, Holme, Hotone 1086, Sandhutton, Hotune 1086, Thornton-le-Street, Torentun 1086, Thornton-le-Moor, Torentun 1086, Thornton-le-Beans, Torentun 1086, Theakston, Eston 1086, Kiplin, Chipeling 1086, Whitwell, - Colburn, Corburne 1086, Bolton, Boletone 1086, Cowton, Cudtone 1086, Cotun 1086, Moulton, Moltun 1086, Downholme, Dune 1086, Middleton-Tyas, Middletun 1086, Skelton, Scelton 12c, Grinton, Grinton 1086, Fremington, Fremington 1086, Reeth, Rie 1086, Ivelet, - Angram, Angram 12c, Swale - Scandinavian 72 52.94 Birkdale, Birkedale 12c, West Stonesdale, - Keld, Appeltrekelde 1301, Thwaite, - Muker, Meuhaker 1274, Satron, - Gunnerside, - Crackpot, Crakepote 1298, Low row, -

65 / 237 Kahnberg Feetham, Fytun 1242, Kearton, Karretan 13c, Kirton 1298, Healaugh, Hale 1086, Marrick, Marige 1086, Ellerton Abbey, Elceton 1086 / Elreton 1086, Stainton, - Gilling West, Ingetlingum 731, Skeeby, Schirebi 1086, Birkby, Bretebi 1086, Uckerby, Ukerby 1198, Scorton, Scortone 1086, Tunstall, Tunestale 1086, East Appleton, Apelton 1086, Ellerton, Elreton 1086, Aiskew, Echescol 1086, Fencote, Fencote 1086, Great Langton, Langeton 1086, Danby Wiske, Danebi 1086, Kirkbridge, - Langthorne, Langetorp 1086, Kirkby Fleetham, Fleteha 1086, Little Crakehall, Crachale 1086, Little Holtby, Holtebi 1086, Scruton, Scurvetone 1086, Thrintoft, Tirnetofte 1086, Ainderby Steeple, Aynderby 1086, Ainderby Quernhow, Aynderby 1086, Middleton Quernhow, Middletun 1086, Howe, - Brompton, Bruntun 1086, Northallerton, Aluretune 1086, Warlaby, Werlegesbi 1086, Gatenby, Ghetenesbi 1086, Bedale, Bedale 1086, Burneston, Brenningston 1086, Carthorpe, Caretorp 1086, Maunby, Mannebi 1086,

66 / 237 Kahnberg Upsall, Upsala 1086, Opsala 1086, Borrowby, Bergebi 1086, Ottrington, Otrinctun 1086, Sinderby, Senerebi 1086, Baldersby, Baldreby 1086, Thirsk, Tresh 1086, Skipton, Schipetune 1086, Knayton-with-Brawith, Cheniueton 1086, Brackenbrough, Bracheberch 1086, Kirby Wiske, Kirkebi 1086, Sutton Howgrave, Sudtune 1086, Carlton Miniott, Carletun 1086, Carlton Husthwaite, Carletun 1086, Husthwaite, Hustwait 1167, Thormanby, Tormozbi 1086, Thorpefield, Torp 1086, Sowerby, Sorebi 1086, Felixkirk, Felicekirke 13c, Thirlby, Trillebia 1086, Osgodby, Asgozbi 1086, Little Thirkleby, Turchileby 1086, Asenby, Æstanesbi 1086, Crakehill, Crecala 1086, Birdforth, Bernebi 1086, Raskelf, Raschel 1086, Helperby Helperby 972, Helprebi 1086 Not given a category 9 6.62 Pilmoor, - Fawdington, - Thornbrough, Thornbergh 1646, Londonderry, - Bullamoor, - Streetlam - Lovesome Hill, - Pepper Arden, - Brokes -

67 / 237 Kahnberg It was worth noting that more than three quarters of the place-names along river Swale were categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian. Also worth noting that the oldest written form of "Gilling West" (Ingetlingum) was from 731 CE. Another detail worth noting was that all the place-names in the Swale-dale (west of Ellerton Abbey and all the way to the Cumbria border) were placed in the Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian categories.

Many place-names in this area were given Scandinavian derivations in Mills 1991. Several place-names were given new possible derivations and the new derivations of Easingwold, Ottrington, Bedale, Fencote and Uckerby are presented in section 4.7 (while the rest can be found in appendix 1 and 2).

Some of the place-names in the upper part of the Swale-dale received derivations and were categorised based on their modern form only. West stonesdale was a coal mining village as far back as the 14th century and the place-name could very well derived from Old Norse steinn 'stone' in genitive and Old Norse dalr 'valley'. Ivelet could be derived from ancient Swedish idhe 'timber from yew' and Old Norse lægr / ancient Swedish läghe 'position, camp'. Several other place-names in this area had their earliest records in the 13th or 14th century but those versions were very close to Old Norse despite the late date. This issue is discussed more thoroughly in section 5.

68 / 237 Kahnberg 4.1.6 Humber combined

In order to properly compare the Humber, Trent, Ouse, Ure and Swale areas with the larger areas of Herefordshire and Cumbria the five areas have been combined as the "reachable through the Humber" region. The link between the five areas are the waterways and the concept that the Vikings might have been able to travel those waterways in their ships.

Figure 20. Overview map of the possible Scandinavian place-names in the whole "reachable through the Humber" region. (Map image by Google maps)

As has been presented in sections 4.1.1 to 4.1.5 all the areas in the "reachable through the Humber" region contained possible Scandinavian place-names. Figure 20 shows how these possibly Scandinavian place-names connect to each other, in a similar way as noted in Fellows-Jensen (2011). The difference is that this study also included place-names other than those ending in by, thorpe and ton. The north-western areas showed the largest concentration of possible Scandinavian place-names.

69 / 237 Kahnberg The area contained a total of 429 place-names, 19 of which were marked as modern and 13 were lacking information.

The chosen area was expected to contain several Scandinavian place-names, and 70% of the place-names in the chosen region were categorised as either Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian as shown in table 15.

Table 15. The categorisation of place-names in the entire "reachable through the Humber" region. Category Number % examples Latin / French 3 0.69 Dragonby, Richmond Celtic 6 1.37 York, Catterick, Ouse Germanic 1 0.23 New Holland Old English 91 20.82 Ryehill, West Butterwick, Laxton, Marske, Kirkby Fleetham, Immingeham, Laughton, Great Ouseburn, Worton, Hipswell Possibly Scandinavian 134 30.66 Elloughton, Leverton, Kelfield, Ripon, Thornton-le-Beans, Downholme, Wootton, Walkeringham, Epworth, Lower Dunsforth, Buttersett, Reeth Scandinavian 171 39.13 Ulceby, Haxey, Blacktoft, Fossdale, Aiskew, Gilling West, York, Swanland, Gunness, Flawith, Aysgarth, Appersett, Healaugh Not categorised 31 7.09 Sturgate, Roecliffe, Londonderry, Pepper Arden

The place-names frequently contained elements of terrain (17%) and/or the element tun (15.4%), as can be seen in figure 21. The elements in the groups thing, farm, name, woody and by were also frequently used (between 6.5 and 8.5 percent).

70 / 237 Kahnberg

"reachable through the Humber" region

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 21. The distribution of place-name elements in the "reachable through the Humber" region.

Place-names categorised as Old English frequently linked the name element with a tun, thing or terrain element, whereas place-names categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian frequently linked a name element with a by element. Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian place-names also linked elements of terrain with elements of by, farm or nature as well as descriptive elements with an element of terrain or farm.

4.2 Cumbria

As shown in figure 22 there were several possible Scandinavian place-names. Both Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) derived several place-names in Cumbria from Old Norse, but Corrigan (2011) claimed that among the 70 place-names in south Cumbria recorded prior to 1100 CE only two had Old Norse derivations. The results of the current study were in line with Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922), but not with Corrigan (2011). Some of the place- names marked as Old English in Corrigan (2011) could very well have Old Norse derivations (e.g. the lost village of Heatun could be derived from ancient Swedish heð 'moor' and Old Norse tun 'enclosed area', since ancient Swedish heð frequently becomes hea /'he:a/ in several dialects along the Swedish westcoast).

71 / 237 Kahnberg

Figure 22. Overview map of possible Scandinavian place-names in Cumbria. (Map image by Google maps)

A total of 611 place-names were studied in Cumbria (see appendix 1 and 2). 30 place-names were marked as modern and 84 lacked all kinds of information. An additional 17 lacked 72 / 237 Kahnberg information but were still categorised based on elements in the modern version of the place- names.

The 490 place-names categorised contained a total of 957 place-name elements, distributed as shown in figure 23. Most elements (23.3%) belonged to the terrain group. 10.2% of the elements belonged to the name group and 8.7% to each of the tun and thing groups. Only 2 elements were placed in the leah group, 4 in the -ing group, 6 in the field group and 9 in the wic group. The church, position and fortress groups had frequencies between 1.6 and 2% while the other group contained 2.3% of all elements. The other groups had frequencies between 4.5% and 7%.

Cumbria

250

200

150

100

50

0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 23. The distribution of place-name elements in Cumbria.

Several place-names in Cumbria were based on the same elements, e.g. Broughton, Newton, Hutton, Brampton, Newbiggin and Kirkby. Examples of the place-name elements from each group are presented in table 16.

Table 16. Examples of place-name elements in Cumbria.

group element place-name explanation name Cam, Gille, Farl, Camboc, Gillesland, Personal names, names of saints and gods, Irthing, Ermite, Farlam, Irthington, names of rivers Hoff Ermitethwayt, Hoff

73 / 237 Kahnberg -ing -in-, -ing- de Wirkeinton, an Old English element linking something to Wirchington, a person or a group, but a similar element Harrington exists in Old Norse names as well (rarely) tun ton, tone, tona, Fresington, an element used in Old English place-names tune, tun Culdertone, Newtona, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place- Broctunebec, names (meaning 'enclosed area') Glassertun wic wica, wic, wyk,, Ursewica, Lofwic, either an Old English element meaning 'dairy wick Kessewyk, farm' or an Old Norse element meaning 'bay' de Ravenwick leah leye, lies Staveleye, Lies OE leah meaning 'clearing', 'meadow' animal vlur, ulf, reu, ur, Vlurestun, Ulfhau, wolf (bad spelling), fox, ancient ox, pig, grize, gose, Reuesath, Ursewica, goose, ram, stag, horse, rook, trout, dove vether, ram, hert, Grizebeck, Goseford, hes(t), crok, Vethermelok, troyt, duf, Rameshede, Hertker, Heskaith, Crok, Bek Troyte, Dufton terrain thwayt, ho, nes, Crosthwayt, Hotun, elements describing the terrain, e.g. long holme, heved, Lefuenes, Ozinholme, and narrow area, height, narrow stretch of hale, slac, dale, Arnolheved, Hale, land surrounded by water, small island, brun, banc, let, Hesleslak, head/headland, valley, edge, hill slope, eie, gyl, chonoc, Kirkebilonsdale, island, ravine, hillock, summit, isolated round blen, qwalle, Berebrune, Frebanc, hill, brow of a hill talcan Kellet, de Tibbeie, Rossegyl, Chonoc- Satchild, Blencarn, Qwalle, Talcan woody plum, sal, wit, Plumton, Salchild, words for forest or tree species or lumber appel, sle, sel, Skirewit, Appelbi, (e.g. plum tree, willow tree, wood, apple tree, storth, butter, Slegil, Selsate, willow tree, wood, log, yew tree, wood) ywan, worth Storthes, Butterwyk, Ywaneworth water a, brum, bec, Amoteschalth, words connected to water (e.g. river, well, mouth, burna, Brumfeld, Caldbec, stream, river mouth, stream, lake, water) layk, wator, Cockermouth, wattin Steinburna, Ulvelayk,

74 / 237 Kahnberg Laweswator, Wattintundelau field feld, croft Sellofeld, Selecroft words linked to fields and acres church cherche, sancte, Santacherche, words linked to churches, monasteries, gil, prest, kyrke, Sancte Bege, monks, priests and nuns pape, kirke, kirk, Gilgarran, Prestun, cherka, chorke Brudeskyrkefeld, Papecaster, Kirkethuait, Kirksandres, Cherkaby Stephan, Chorkeby position wra, sunne, Scalewra, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. arlosk, over Sunnebygging, tiny space, southern, burnt place, over) or Arlosk, Overton words for 'place', 'spot' by by, bi, bu Arnoldby, Essebi, generally meaning the Old Norse word by Thornebuthwait (village, town) farm scal, ham, set, Scal, Briggeham, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and bow, bu, side Setone, Bowscales, home Bualdith, Edderside fortress burg, bor, burc, Mayburg, Borton, words for fortress, castle and protection car, castre Burc, Cardunnoke, Hennecastre nature ha(gh), ru, saure, Hathowate, Rucroft, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage lund, cole, sand, Saureby, Morlund, (e.g. pasture, rye, soil, meadow, coal, sand, levere, line Coleby, Sandford, clay, flax) Leveresdale, Crogline thing ka(g), sule, Kaberge, Suleby, nouns not matching any other category (e.g. cross, Crosseby, cake, pole, cross, man, shepherd, runes) man,hardene Manzsergh, rowner Hardenesdal, Rownerthwayt descriptive brither, rith, karg, Britherdal, Perrith, words used for age, size or colour quin Kargho, de Quinhou (e.g.broad, red, barren, whistling) other fre, bied, lefue, Frebanc, Biedun, words of unknown meaning or odd pul, mot, ayn, Lefuenes, Pulhou categories (e.g. Middle English frith, wait, waver, dra(g) Amoteschalth, live, hard work, meeting of roads/rivers, one,

75 / 237 Kahnberg Aynthorn, Waverton, wavering, pull) Drumdrahrigg

Each place-name was categorised based on their earliest forms, most of them found in Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922) and the resulting categorisation is presented in Table 17. Several place-names were already given reasonable derivations in Sedgefield or Ekwall, and those derivations also helped categorise said place-names. As pointed out in Corrigan (2011) there were not many old records of place-names in Cumbria. Ekwall wrote that Coniston (derived from the Old Norse word for king and the Old Norse version of tun) might have been the centre of a small Scandinavian kingdom. Cumbria was one of the dark areas on the Domesday book map (see section 2.3.1), and Shannon (2021) wrote that "[t]he only part of Cumbria included in the Domesday book was the part around Ulverston and Dalton. The rest was not considered part of England". Carlisle was a part of Scotland at that time. The rest might have been the remains of Strathclyde (also known as Yr Hen Ogledd - the Old North), or controlled by the Scandinavians around Coniston the way Ekwall speculated.

Elements frequently generating a Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian placement included by (48/50), elements in the farm group (55/61) and elements of trees and bushes (47/49). Place-names containing the element forth/ford were categorised as Old English. Several place-names (Roosebeck, Barrow-in-Furness, Kirksanton, Silecroft, Windermere, Ponsonby, Glenridding, Arlecdon, Pardshaw, Low Moresby, Aldoth, Dundraw, Wiggonby, Baldwinholme, Newton Arlosh, Tarraby, Watermillock, Melkinthorpe, Hincaster, Firbank, Kirkoswald, Armathwaite and Kershopefoot) were put in two categories, since the elements of the place-names were derived from elements of different languages (most of those derivations presented by Sedgefield or Ekwall).

Table 17. Categories in Cumbria. Underlined entries are doubled. Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 4 0.63 Ponsonby, Puncuneby 1243, Egremont, Egremund 1134, Low Moresby, de Moriceby 1195, Papcastle Papecaster 1265 Celtic 43 6.78 Kershopefoot, Kirkfop foot 1646, Lanercost, Lanercost 1169, Talkin, Talcan 1200,

76 / 237 Kahnberg Cumrew, Comreu 1202, Knock, Chonok-Satchild 1150, Blencarn, Blencarn 1211, Culgaith, Culgait 1160, Dent, Denet 1200, Melkinthorpe, Milkanthorp 1281, Penrith, Pernith 1110, Watermillock, Wethermelok 1244, Dacre, de Dacre 1211, Penruddock, Penruddoc 1328, Durdar, - Cumwhitton, Cumcuitina 1150, Carlisle, Karlioli 1100, Carwinley, Carwendelowe 1248, Drumburgh, Drumboc 1230, Cardunnock, Cardunnoke 1386, Newton Arlosh, Arlosk 1304, Fingland, Flynglandrig, Wiggonby, Wiganby 1299, Dundraw, Drumdrahrigg 1194, Pelutho, Pollathow, Tallentire, Talentir 1160, Blencathra, - Roose, Roose 1286, Pardshaw, Perdyshow 1296, Mockerkin, Moldcorkin 1208, Gilgarran, Gilgarran 1298, Arlecdon, Arlochdene 12c, Helvellyn, - Glenridding, - St Bees, Sancte Bege 12c, Kirksanton, Santacherche 1086, Barrow-in-Furness, Barrai 1190, Roosebeck, Rosbech 1227, Lune, Loin 1150, Eden, - Esk, Ask 1200,

77 / 237 Kahnberg Crummock water, - Derwent, Deruuentionis fluvii 8c, Kent Kent 1208 Germanic 14 2.21 Dendron Gleaston, Glassertun 1086, Backbarrow, Bakbarowe mill 1537, Nethertown, - Patterdale, Patricdale 1237, Little/Great Clifton, Clifton 1204, Flimby, Flemingeby 1200, Clifton, Clifton 1204, Bolton Low Houses, de Boteltun 1180, Little/Great Musgrave, Musgrave 1248, Staveley, Staveleye 1240, Murton, Morton 1290, Bolton Boulton 1195 Old English 78 12.30 Kershopefoot, Kirkfop foot 1646, Blackpool gate, - Stapleton, Stalelthein 1188, Farlam, Farlam 1169, Upper Denton, Dentun 1180, Irthington, Irthington 1190, Faugh, - Cotehill, Cotehill 1457, Alston, Aldeniston 1232, Armathwaite, Ermitethwayt 1231, Kirkoswald, Kircoswall 1176, Hoff, Hoff 1278, Burrells, - Sandford, Sampford 1260, King's/Mauld's Meaburn, Maiburne 1115, Church Brough, - Brough, Burc 1173, Winton, Wyntuna 1094, Hartley, - Firbank, Frithebanck 1245, Frebanc 13c

78 / 237 Kahnberg Casterton, Casterton 1201, Farleton, Fareltun 1086, Hale, Hale 1226, Preston Patrick, Prestun 1086, Hincaster, Hennecastre 1086, Garnett Bridge, - Kentmere, Kenetemere 1240, Shap, Hepp 1199 (see 3.4.2), Little Strickland, Stercaland 1086, Tirril, Tyrergh 1238, Newton Reigny, de Reigni 1185, Cummersdale, Cumbredal 1222, Scotby, Scoteby 1155, Houghton, Hocton 1261, Tarraby, Terreby 1176, Todhills, - Kirklinton, Levinton 1176, Beaumont, Bergmund 1289, Newton Arlosh, Arlosk 1304, Baldwinholme, - Crofton, Crofton 1201, Wigton, Wiggeton 1163, Waverton, Waverton 1232, Aldoth, Aldlathe 13c, Dearham, Derhame 1285, High/Low Lorton, Lorton 1198, Cockermouth, Cockermouth 1227, Dean, Dene 1175, Redmain, de Radaman 1202, Siddick, - Camerton, Camberton 1285, Workington, Wirchington 1100, Parton, Partan 1288, Distington, Disington 1274, Harrington, - Frizington, Fresington 1259, Arlecdon, Arlochdene 12c,

79 / 237 Kahnberg Grange, Grange 1491, Red Screes, - Haile, Hale 1226, Ponsonby, Puncuneby 1243, Gosforth, Goseford 12c, Windermere, Wynendamere 1240, High Newton, - Bootle Station, Bodele 1086, Leece, Lies 1086, Silecroft, Selecroft 1211, Steel Green, - Aldingham, Aldingham 1086, Pennington, Penningetun 1086, Marton, Merton 1250, Newton, Newtona 1191, Rampside, Rameshede 1292, Baycliff, Bellecliue 1212, Bardsea Berretseige 1086 Possibly Scandinavian 64 10.09 Swarthmoor, Swartemore 1537, Bootle, Botle 12c, Whitbeck, Whidbec 16c, Whicham, Witingham 1086, Colton, Coleton 1202, Hallthwaites, - Ayside, Aysshed 1491, Escdale Green, - Irton, - Wilton, Wilton 1211, Calder Bridge, de Calder 1179, Grasmere, Gresmere 1240, Castlerigg, Castelrich 1228, Dale Head, - Stonethwaite, - Gatesgarth, - Buttermere, Butermere 1230, Blindcrake, Blanecreck 1240, Loweswater, Lowswater 1290,

80 / 237 Kahnberg High Harrington, Haveringtuna 1200, Greysouthen, Creiksothen 1231, Aughertree, - Hayton, - Edderside, Edderside 1537, Mawbray, Mayburg 1175, Holme St Cuthbert, - Blencoco, Blencoghow 1190, Wheyrigg, - Little/Great Orton, Overton 1252, Glasson, de Glassan 1259, Little Brampton, - Heathersgill, - Cargo, Kargho 1195, Blackwell, Blek hall 1646, Cocklakes, Coklayk 1279, Skelton, Schelton 1187, Ellonby, - Butterwick, Butterwyk 1285, Sadgill, - Brampton Grange, - Garth Row, - Brigsteer, Brigster 1344, Leasgill, - Crosscrake, Crosstcrak 1528, Garths, - Gatebeck, - Storth, Storthes 1349, Beetham, Beiðun 1086, Beckside, - Cowgill, - Garsdale, - Sedbergh, - Oakshaw, - Aisgill, - Wartby, - Brackenber, Bracanbers 12c,

81 / 237 Kahnberg Leadgate, - Catlowdy, Hathowate (?) 1646, Brampton, Braunton 1252, Walton, Waltun 1175, Spadeadam, Spathe Adam 1294, Hayton, Eiton 1193, Tebay de Tibbeie 1222 Scandinavian 317 50.00 Roosebeck, Rosbech 1227, Barrow-in-Furness, Barrai 1190, Kirksanton, Santacherche 1086, Silecroft, Selecroft 1211, Windermere, Wynendamere 1240, Glenridding, - Low Moresby, de Moriceby 1195, Aldoth, Aldlathe 13c, Dundraw, Drumdrahrigg 1194, Wiggonby, Wiganby 1299, Baldwinholme, - Tarraby, Terreby 1176, Watermillock, Wethermelok 1244, Tirril, Tyrergh 1238, Melkinthorpe, Milkanthorp 1281, Shap, Hepp 1199 (see 3.4.2), Hincaster, Hennecastre 1086, Firbank, Frithebanck 1245, Frebanc 13c Kirkoswald, Kircoswall 1176, Armathwaite, Ermitethwayt 1231, Oxenholme, Ozinholme 1240, Natland, Natalund, Sedgewick, Siggiswyk 1333, Urswick, Ursewica 1150, Haverigg, Haverigge 13c, Corney, Cornai 12c, Lowick, Lofwic 1202, Gawthwaite, Golderswatt 1552, Finsthwaite, Fynnesthwayt 1336, Troutbeck Bridge, Bek Troyte 11c,

82 / 237 Kahnberg High/Low Wray, Wraye 1535, Borrowdale, Borcherdale 1210, Seathwaite, Seuethwayt 1292, Grisedale Peak, Perdyshow 1396, Bigrigg, - Pardshaw, Perdyshow 1396, Bassenthwaite, Bastenethwait 1208, Mossdale, Mosedale 1252 Berrier, Berhgerge 1166, Wast water, - Sizergh, Sigredeshergh 12c, Scarrowhill Scalewra 1240 Not given a category 114 18.00 Heads Nook, Heddesnucke 1572, Long Marton, - Barras, - Endmoor, - Castlesteads, Castel ftead 1646, Redhills, - New Rent, - Blackford, - Wolsty, Wolsstibay 1324, Port Carlisle, - Blitterlees, Bletterley 1537, Harriston, - Fletchertown, - Bullgill, - Maryport, (founded 1756), Salterbeck, - Lowca, - Moor Row, - Stair, Stare 1597, Little Town, - Hartsop, - Thornhill, - Boot, - Woodend, - Cockley Beck, -

83 / 237 Kahnberg Hawkshead Hill, Hyll 1535, Lakeside, - Newby Bridge, New Bridge 1577, Greenodd, Green Odd 1774, Water Yeat, Wateryate myll 1539, Stank, Stanke 1509, Nook, - Roadhead, - Banks, - Tindale, Silverfide (?) 1646, Hallbankgate, - Forest Head, - Dale, - Nenthall, - Flakenbridge, - Woodfoot, - Bleatarn, - Little Ashby, - Brownber, - Rash, - Millthrop, - Gawthrop, - Middleton, - Rigmaden Park, - Bullpot Farm, - Kearstwick, - Sandside, - Cow Brow, - Foulstone, - Crooklands, - Barrows Green, - Millside, - Underbarrow, - Burneside, - Killington Lake, - Bowscar, - Burn Banks, -

84 / 237 Kahnberg Parkbroom, - Barclose, - Smithfield, - Westlinton, - Longtown, - Mossband, - Monkhill, - Longburgh, - Thurstonfield, - Red Dial, - Blackdyke, - Causewayhead, - Beckfoot, - Watch Hill, - Westnewton, - Bothel, - Parsonby, - Moota, - Millbeck, - Bridgefoot, - Lillyhall, - Moresby Parks, - High Stile, - Brandelhow, - Manesty, - St Johns in the Vale, - Fairfield Peak, - Chapel Stile, - Clappersgate, - Pillar, - Great Gable, - Howman, - Blackbeck, - Beckfoot, - Hall Dunnerdale, - The Old Man of

85 / 237 Kahnberg Coniston, - Outgate, - Bowmanstead, - Barngates, - Ecclerigg, - Heaning, - Mitchelland, - Arrad Foot, - Penny Bridge, - Spark Bridge, - Oxen Park, - Bank End, - Duddon Bridge, - Foxfield, - Lady Hall, - Hycemoor, - Hyton -

The place-names categorised as Scandinavian generally had Scandinavian derivations in Sedgefield (1915) and Ekwall (1922). Most of the place-names in the Possibly Scandinavian category had Old English derivations containing a personal name and a Common Germanic element in the past, a personal name that often could be replaced by an Old Norse element from one of the animal, nature or descriptive groups. Fellows-Jensen (2011) noted that this was frequently the case with the first element of place-names ending in by, thorpe or ton, and Ståhl (1970) commented that Swedish place-names generally contain descriptive elements or elements of nature, terrain, animal or wood. Possibly new derivations of Swarthmoor, Beetham, Lupton, Brigsteer, Butterwick, Skelton, Mawbray, Berrier and High Harrington are presented in section 4.7.

The place-name Pardshaw has been given an extended derivation in this study. The old version Perdyshow from 1396 was derived from "a pers. n." (Sedgefield, 1915, p. 86) and Old Norse haugr 'rounded hill'. The current survey extended it by deriving the possible personal name Perdy from the Welsh name Parry and the Welsh word du 'black', since Parry du would easily combine into Perdy when pronounced rapidly. Hence the place-name would mean 'The rounded hill of Black Parry'.

86 / 237 Kahnberg The place-names in Cumbria showed some interesting geographical patterns. The area had both Scandinavian, Old English, Celtic and Latin place-names. Carlisle was an old Celtic place-name, but the surrounding area (see figure 24) was full of possible Scandinavian place- names (e.g. Tarraby, Rickerby, Aglionby, Scotby, Crosby, Grinsdale, Cummersdale, Thursby). Carlisle could easily have been transformed into Carley, but Carlisle (Karlioli 1100) it remained. Perhaps the Vikings used another name that has been forgotten, but they might have accepted the local name and learned to use it while building their small villages around it.

Figure 24. Possible Scandinavian place-names around Carlisle. (Map image by Google maps)

Following river Eden upstream the Carlisle pattern is repeated. Penrith was an old Celtic place-name, but its surroundings were full of possible Scandinavian place-names (e.g. Langwathby, Newbiggin, Yanwath, Eamont Bridge and Tirril). Further upstream the concentration of possible Scandinavian place-names increased and near the source of river Eden between Great Shunner Fell and Wild Boar Fell (see figure 25) nearly all the place- names (e.g. Aisgill, Outhgill, Nateby, Flitholme, Musgrave and Great Ormside) were in the Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian categories (Winton could possibly have an Old Norse derivation based on wind and tun, even though it was put in the Old English category). The same area also happened to contain the source of river Ure, with it's Scandinavian place- names of Garsdale, Cotterdale, Fossdale and Appersett. Furthermore the source of river Swale was less than 3 miles east of river Eden at Southwaite (a Scandinavian sounding place- name of a village too small to be included in the study, just north of Outhgill) and the source of the Thringill beck was half a mile from the source of river Swale.

87 / 237 Kahnberg

Figure 25. Possible Scandinavian place-names in eastern Cumbria and the proximity of rivers Ure and Swale near the source of river Eden. (Map image by Google maps)

Most of the possible Scandinavian place-names in Cumbria were close to rivers and lakes or visible from rivers and lakes (e.g. mountains and hills). The same pattern could be seen among the few possible Scandinavian place-names in Herefordshire as well (see section 4.3), while the study only included such place-names in the "reachable through the Humber" region and thus making it impossible to extend the pattern to that region.

88 / 237 Kahnberg 4.3 Herefordshire

Figure 26. Overview map of possible Scandinavian place-names in Herefordshire. (Map image by Google maps)

As can be seen in figure 26 there were possible Scandinavian place-names in Herefordshire as well, especially in the area near river Wye. A total of 295 place-names were collected in the area, 21 of those marked as modern (websites have general info but nothing on old name versions) and 19 lacking information (either not enough information or no information at 89 / 237 Kahnberg all). Breiton common (Bryntun in 1646) was analysed but not categorised due to insufficient information and Rotherwas (Retrowas in the Domesday book) was the only place-name in the study where no derivation whatsoever could be found or figured out despite the Domesday book entry. The 255 place-names thus studied generated a total of 528 place-name elements, distributed as shown in figure 27.

Herefordshire

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 27. Distribution of place-name elements in Herefordshire.

The most frequently used place-name elements were terrain elements (92 occurrences) and name elements (88 occurrences) followed by 67 tun elements. There were no by or wic elements in the area. 8.9% of the elements were placed in the thing group, 6.4% in the woody group, 6.3% in the descriptive group and 5.3% in the church group. Between 1% and 4.2% of all elements were placed in each of the other groups. Table 18 gives some examples of the elements in each group.

Table 18. Examples of place-name elements in Herefordshire. group element place-name explanation name Genoreu, Brid, Genoreu, Bridestow, Personal names, names of saints and gods, Symunde, wy, Symundesyate, names of rivers Godric, Martin, Rhosan-ar-wy, Glean, Mihacgel, Castellum Godric, Peter, Guainerth, Lann Martin,

90 / 237 Kahnberg Garan, Ridol, Gleanston, Cein, Walter, Lann Mihacgel, Clitauci, Dore, Peterestow, Michael, Torche, Lann Sant Guainerth, Werme, Dode, Lann Garan, Deui Lann Ridol, Lan Cein, Walterestun, Ecclesia Sancti Clitauci, Dore, Michaeleschirche, Torchestone, Wermebrig, Dodelegie, Lann Deui -ing -ing-, -in- Badelingeham, Usually an Old English element used to Dorminton, Tatinton, denote connections (e.g. belonging to Cotingtune someone or something) tun tune, tone, ton, Brantune, Getune, an element used in Old English place-names tun Estone, Bachetone, (meaning 'town') and in Old Norse place- Kimbalton, Stantun names (meaning 'enclosed area') wic either an Old English element meaning 'dairy farm' or an Old Norse element meaning 'bay' leah lecce, ley, legie, Lecce, Gorstley, Old English leah meaning 'clearing', lepe, leiam, lai, Dodelegie, Poteslepe, 'meadow' lage, laie, lea, Falileiam, Merchelai, leah, lie Muleslage, Credelaie, Aclea, Cyrdes leah, Elmelie animal lus, pille, iar, Lustone, Pillesdune, louse, mouse-hawk, wier/chick, badger, brox, pi, cu, Iarpol, Broxwood, gnat, cow, squirril, snake/worm, heron/stork acorne, werm, Pion, Cuure, garan Acornebir, Wermebrig, Lann Garan terrain rosse, coc, hulla, Rosse, Coctune, elements describing the terrain, e.g. moor, ford, pen, creig, Hulla, Walecford, hillock, hill, ford, head, cliff, ford, top, slope, ryth, rid, or, cop, Penncreig, Rythir, wooded slope, nook of land where snares for bache, unge, Lann Ridol, Orcop, animals are placed, small steep hill, bare hill, peete, nall, Bachetone, Cleunge, grove, hill, river-bend, peak, small enclosed

91 / 237 Kahnberg calua, re, hamne, Cilpeete, Kevernall, valley, hill-place, slope, mountain, ridge, hill, piche, hop, Calua, Dunre, flat and grassy area, stream, wide valley, dunninc, lied, Hamne, Picheslei, round hill, hill, enclosure, hole, moor, hill, berg, ofre, rugge, Hope, Dunninctune, island, slope, marsh, gap, marsh fern, valin, bech, Liedeberge, cumbe, cylle, Astenofre, Storugge, hulle, vordine, Mælfern, Valintone, hole, mor, bui, Sbech, Pencumbe, dune, elle, ie, lie, Geardcylle, uen, get, more Scockenhulle, Lucvordine, Holemere, Mortune, Buiford, Standune, Burgelle, Pionie, Elmelie, Gedeuen, Getune, Wigemore woody bran, brom, Brantune, Bromefeld, words for forest or tree species or lumber burch, alre, Burchoure, Alretune, (e.g. broom, birch, alder, thorn, brushwood, torne, ris, wood, Tornebyrig, Riseberia, wood, elm tree, tree, wood/willow tree, oak elm, treu, widing, Broxwood, Elmelie, tree, asp tree, alder tree, trees, curve, ac, sper, ail, Bertoldestreu, narrow area surrounded by water) guern, coyt, Widingtune, Aclea, byke, nore, lin(t) Spertune, Aileuetona, Ladgvern, Pencoyt, Bykenore Walens, Lintune water brun, welle, well, Bruntune, Colewelle, words connected to water (e.g. well, spring, e, brock, ham, Cressewell, Etune, river, brook, river-bend, water, stream, lake, lage, bech, mere, Brockampon, pool) pol Badelingeham, Muleslage, Sbech, Holermere, Iarpol field uerde, feld, felde, Lentuerde, words linked to fields and acres geard, urdie, Bromefeld, Hetfelde, pen, maes Bromgeard, Brocheurdie, Pencumbe,

92 / 237 Kahnberg Maes-coed church stowe, cape(l) , Bridestowe, Cape, words linked to churches, monasteries, la, lan, lann, lad, Lagademar, Lan Cein, monks, priests and nuns ecclesia, chirche, Lann Hunapui, sant, pres, munk, Ladgvern, Ecclesia mynster Sancti Clitauci, Fowchirche, Sant Margretes, Presetune, Munkelen, Leomynster position es, et, wid, lege, Estone, Ettone, words for positioning things in relation (e.g. nor, su(d), west, Widferdestune, east, widespread, north, south, west, middle, lei, legie, medel, Herdeslege, Nortune, up) or words for 'place', 'spot' lagie, up Su(d)tune, Westune, Picheslei, Dodeslegie, Medelagie, Uptune by generally meaning the Old Norse word by (village, town) farm stow, ham, Peterestow, Werham, words for house, cottage, farm, barn and stoches, ure, Stoches, Cuure, home geard Geardcylle fortress bor, castellum, Boritune, Castellum words for fortress, castle and protection byrig, beria, Ricardi, Thornbyrig, burg, berie, Riseberia, Burgelle, cestre, vord, Brocheberie, berge, dun, bir Chenecestre, Lucvordine, Boseberge, Dunre, Akornebir nature gorst, lin, grove, Gorstley, Lintune, words for vegetation, plants, nature usage craf, ewias, Longe grove, Crafton, (e.g. gorse, flax, grove, sheep district, water- cresse, cle, ston, Ewias, Cressewell, cress, clay, stone, herb, soil, garden, sto, stan, le, Cleunge, Boleston, pasture, border-meadow, heath) erdes, ardes, Storugge, Stanford, hagan, hemede, Letune, Erdeshope, het Ardes, Hagan, Kingeshemede,

93 / 237 Kahnberg Hetfelde thing last, bruge, Last, Penebruge, nouns not matching any other category (e.g. bricge, brig, Bricge, Wermebrig, track, bridge, secret, shepherd, pipe, hide, dilven, herde, Dilven, Herdeslege, evil spirit, kiln, treasure, strong man, nose of pipe, hide, Pipe, Hide, a horse, boundary, pot, life, lady, army, shocke, cylle, Shockenhulle, beam, dead/death, weir, king, common, matma, bose, Geardcylle, Matma, stove, gnome, battle, briton, promontary, mule, merch, Boseberie, Muleslai, egg, gate, trip/travel, road) pote, leue, piche, Merchelai, Puteslepe, here, hore, dod, Aileuetona, Picheslei, wer, ching, mani, Hereford, ston, elwi, gad, La Horewythy, walec, rhosan, Dodeslegie, Werham, wy, yate, ferdes, Chingestone, sarn, strat Manitune, Rowelston, Elwistone, Lagademar, Walecford, Rhosan-ar-wy, Symundesyate, Widferdestune, Sarnesfelde, Stratone descriptive pan, brun, wil, Panchille, Bruntune, descriptive words used for age, size or hir, mar, fow, we, Wiltone, Rythir, colour (e.g. neat, brown, lost/wild/mad, long, be, wythy, stor, Lagademar, big, colour, wide, broad, white, big/large, mæl, cole, wite, Fowchirche, bare, cool, white, juicy, broad/wide, sapie, bride, Webetone, big/large, little, crooked) micel, lutelon, La Horewythy, wye (gŵyr) Storugge, Mælfern, Colewelle, Witenie, Sapie, Bridenberie, Miceltune, Lutelonhereford, Wye other wige, fali, slepe, Wigemore, Falileiam, words of unknown meaning or odd aileue, kiver, Poteslepe, categories (e.g. quaking, making of hay, glean Aileuetona, Kivernall, polish/grind, eternal, fight/struggle/argue, Gleanston jeer/deride/shine/glide/depart)

94 / 237 Kahnberg The place-names of Herefordshire showed that this area has been in the borderland between different languages for a long time, with some place-names being replaced (e.g. Pontrilas - Elwistone, Longtown - Longa villa - Ewias) with the change of local language and some places having multiple names simultaneously (e.g. Ross-on-wye / Rhosan-ar-wy, Much Dewchurch / Llanddewi Rhos Ceirion). Place-names that had been replaced over time (further explained in sections 3.4 and 3.4.3) have sometimes had both their place-names categorised (e.g. Pontrilas - Elwistone) while others have been categorised based on the oldest form (as long as the alternative/new form could be a possible translation of the old form). Some examples of place-names in each category are shown in Table 19.

Table 19. Categories in Herefordshire. Underlined entries are doubled. Partly underlined Old English entries also have possible Old Norse entries without being categorised as Possibly Scandinavian.

Category Number Percentage Modern example Older version Latin / French 3 0.95 Goodrich, Castellum Godric 1102, Mordiford, Mord(e)ford 12c, Richards Castle Castellum Ricardi 1180 Celtic 60 18.9 Leintwardine, Lenteurde 1086, Leinthall Stakes, Lentehale 1086, Lingen, Lingen 704, Lingham 1086, Hennor, - Leinthall Earls, Lentehale 1086, Leominster, Leomynster 10c, Whyle, Hvilech 1086, Whilai 12c, Monkland, Leine 1086, Eardisland, Lene 1086, Lucton, Lugton 1186, Kingsland, Lene 1086, Coombes Moor, - Lyonshall, Lenehalle 1086, Dilwyn, Dilven 1086, Cusop, Cheweshope 1086, Sarnesfield, Sarnesfelde 1086, Yarsop, Ardes 1086, Edreshope 1086, Erdeshope 1086, Sope 1086, Yazor, Iavesovre 1086, Hope under Dinmore, Hope 1086 (din mawr) 95 / 237 Kahnberg Lugwardine, Lucvordine 1086, Pencumbe, Pencumbe 12c, Bishop's Frome, Frome 1086, Castle Frome, Frome 1086, Canon Frome, Frome 1086, West Malvern, Mælfern 1086, Foy, Lann Timoi 1150, How Caple, Capel 1086, Prior's Frome, Frome 1086, Dinedor, Dunre 1086, Little Dewchurch, Lann Deui 7c, Dewischirche 1150, Llandinabo, Lann Hunapui 1130, Llanwarne, Ladgvern 1086, Lann Guern 1130, Much Dewchurch, Lann Deui 7c, Kilpeck, Chipeete 1086, Cilpedec 1150, Llanveynoe, - Longtown, Ewias 1086, Longa villa 1540, Abbey Dore, Dore 1147 Lower Maes-Coed, - Clodock, Ecclesia Sancti Clitauci 1150, Rowlstone, Rowlston 1646, Pontrilas, Elwistone 1086, Ewyas Harold, Ewias 1086, Kentchurch, Lan Cein 1130, Bagwyllydiart, - Garway, Lagademar 1086, Garway Hill, Lagademar 1086, Llanrothal, Lann Ridol 1130, Llangarron, Lann Garan 1130, St Weonards, Lann Sant Guainerth, Pencoyd, Pencoyt 1291, Hentland, - King's caple, Cape 1086, Michaelchurch, Lann Mihacgel 1150, Tretire, Rythir 1212,

96 / 237 Kahnberg Pencraig, Penncreic 1150, Marstow, Lann Martin 1130, Rhosan-ar-wy / Ross-on-wye, Rosse 1086, Ganarew, Genoreu 1150, Terne, (Celtic name: 'the strong one'), Wye (Pre-English river name) Germanic 11 3.47 Orleton, Alretune 1086, Orleton Common, Alretune 1086, Thornbury, Thornbyrig 1000, Torneberie 1086, Whitney-on-Wye, Witenie 1086, Norton Canon, Nortune 1086, Moreton-on-Lugg, Mortune 1086, Pipe and Lyde, Pipe 1086, Bartestree, Bertoldestreu 1086, Moreton Jeffers Mortune 1086 Old English 152 47.95 Goodrich, Castellum Godric 1102, Brampton Bryan, Brantune 1086, Leintwardine, Lenteurde 1086, Downton, Duntune 1086, Downton Castle, Duntune 1086, Pipe Aston, Estone 1086, Burrington, Boritune 1086, Elton, Elintune 1086, Leinthall Stakes, Lentehale 1086, Wigmore, Wigemore 1086, Birtley, - Lower Lye, Lege 1086, Yatton, Getune Leinthall Earls, Lentehale 1086, Bircher Common, Burchoure 1212, Overton, - Brimfield, Bromefeld, Little Hereford, Lutelonhereford 1086, Ashton, Estune 1086 Luston, Lustune 1086

97 / 237 Kahnberg Middleton-on-the- hill, Miceltune 1086, Eyton, Ettone 1086, Leominster, Leomynster 10c, Leysters, Last 1086, Kimbolton, Kimbalton 13c, Hatfield, Hetfelde 1086, Edwyn Ralph, Gedeuen 1086, Wolferlow, Wolfelow 14c, Tedstone Wafre, Tedesthorne 1086, Brockhampton, Brockampton 1251, Bromyard, Bromgeard 840, Ivington, Ivintune, Monkland, Leine 1086, Munkelen 1180, Pembridge, Penebruge 1086, Eardisland, Lene 1086, Erleslen 1230, Lucton, Lugton 1186, Kingsland, Lene 1086, Kingeslan 1213, Yarpole, Iarpol 1086, Shobdon, Scepedune 1086, Coombes Moor, - Kinsham, Kingesehemede 1216, Knill, Chenille 1086, Titley, Titelege 1086, Lyonshall, Lenehalle 1086, Dilwyn, Dilven 1086, Clifford, Cliford 1086, Cusop, Cheweshope 1086, Dorstone, Dodintune 1086, Woonton, Wenetone 1086, Sarnesfield, Sarnesfelde 1086, Weobley, Wibelai 1086, King's Pion, Pionie 1086, Burghill, Burgelle 1086, Tillington, Tullington 1086 Yarsop, Ardes 1086, Edreshope 1086, Erdeshope 1086, Sope 1086,

98 / 237 Kahnberg Yazor, Iavesovre 1086, Staunton-on-Wye, Standune 1086, Letton, Letune 1086, Bredwardine, Brocheurdie 1086, Brobury, Brocheberie 1086, Preston-on-Wye, Presetune 1086, Byford, Buiford 1086, Hope under Dinmore, Hope 1086, Bodenham, Bodeham 1086, Marden, Maurdine 1086, Lugwardine, Lucvordine 1086, Shuchnall, Shockenhulle 1377, Pencumbe, Pencumbe 12c, Much Cowarne, Cuure 1086, Couern 1255, Coddington, Cotingtune 1086, Eastnor, Astenofre 1086, Tarrington, Tatintune 1086, Much Marcle, Merchelai 1086, Fawley Chapel, Falileiam 1142, Callow, Calua 1180, Fownhope, Hope 1086, Hereford, Hereford 958, Holme Lacy, Hamne 1086, Aconbury, Akornebir 1213, Bolstone, Boleston 1193, Hoarwithy, La Horewythy 13c, Much Birch, Birches 1252, Clehonger, Cleunge 1086, Vowchurch, Fowchirche 1291, Craswall, Cressewell 1231, Walterstone, Walterestun 1249, Llangrove, Longe grove 1372, Walford, Walecford 1086, Coughton, Coctune 1086, Bridstow, Bridestowe 1277, Lea, Lecce 1086,

99 / 237 Kahnberg Symonds Yat Symundesyate 1256 Possibly Scandinavian 47 14.83 Bredenbury, Bridenberie 1086, Risbury, Riseberia 1086, Pembridge, Penebruge 1086, Holme Marsh, - Hay-on-Wye, Hagan 958, Haya 1144, The Bage, The Bache 1646, Winforton, Widferdestune 1086, Eardisley, Herdeslege 1086, Almeley, Elmelie 1086, Wellington, Walintone 1086, Swainshill, - Withington, Widingtune 1086, Weston Beggard, Westune 1086, Yarkhill, Geardcylle 811, Archel 1086, Evesbatch, Sbech 1086, Esbeche 12c, Bosbury, Boseberge 1086, Munsley, Muleslage, Muleslai 1086, Storridge, Storugge 13c, Ashperton, Spertune 1086, Aspretonia 1144 Wellington Heath, Walintone 1086, Ledbury, Liedeberge 1086, Putley, Poteslepe 1086, Aylton, Aileuetona 1138. Pixley, Picheslei 1086, Aconbury, Akornebir 1213, Wormelow, - Kivernoll, Kevernall 1646, Didley, Dodelegie 1086, Wormbridge, Wermebrig 1207, Eaton Bishop, Etune 1086, Warham, Werham 1086, Madley, Medelagie 1086, Webton, Webetune 1086, Bacton, Bachetone 1086, Peterstow, Peterestow 1207, Glewstowe, Gleanston 1212,

100 / 237 Kahnberg Wilton, Wiltone 1086, Kerne Bridge, - (known as The Quern) Howle Hill, Hulla 1086, Brampton Abbotts, Bruntune 1086, Upton Bishop, Uptune 1086, Linton, Lintune 1086, Bromsash, Eck leswoll (?) 1646, Pontshill, Panchille 1086, Weston under Penyard, Westune 1086, Welsh Bicknor Bykenore Walens 1291 Scandinavian 2 0.63 Pontrilas, Elwistone 1086, Thruxton Torchestone 1086 Not given a category 42 13.25 Rotherwas, Retrowas 1086, Breinton Common, Brynton 1646, Eywood, - Munstone, - Lower Eggleton, Ingleton 1646, Burley Gate, - Linley Green, - Acton Green, - Fromes Hill, - Pow Green, - Staplow, - Massington, - Parkway, (built in 17c) Lyne Down, - Perrystone Hill, - Old Gore, - Hole in the Wall, - Durlow, - King's Thorn, - Tram Inn, - Shenmore, - Great Brampton, - Phocle Green, - Adforton, -

101 / 237 Kahnberg The Goggin, - Aulden, - Shirl Heath, - Cobnash, - Mortimer's Cross, - Ledicot, - Bush Bank, - Moorhampton, - Canon Bridge, - Pool Head, - The Vauld, - Sutton Lakes, - Monkhide, - Harewood End, (lost village of Harewde?) St Owen's Cross, - Llancloudy, (Pembridge on 1646 map?) Three Ashes, (Penroshe on 1646 map?) Trumpet (named after the 800-year-old inn)

No information was found on Harewood End, but Harewde was mentioned in the Domesday book (but listed as "the lost village of Harewood" on the website).

Many of the church group elements were found in place-names of the Celtic category. Many of the place-names in the Possibly Scandinavian category contained an element from one of the animal, terrain, woody, position, farm or nature groups. For new possible derivations of Warham, Bredenbury, Risbury, Hay-on-Wye, The Bage, Winforton, Eardisley, Swainshill, Wellington, Evesbatch, Munsley, Webton and Howle Hill see section 4.7.

Warham was one of the place-names in Herefordshire, and as such instinctively thought of as Old English or possibly Celtic. Mills (1991) stated that Warham would usually be derived from Old English wær 'weir' + ham 'farm' and it made sense to accept that standardised derivation for Warham in Herefordshire as well despite not being explicitly found in that general Warham entry in Mills (1991). Having categorised the place-names around Warham (Herefordshire) the doubt of Warham actually being an Old English place-name was increased. Warham was Werham in the Domesday book and in south-western Sweden there

102 / 237 Kahnberg are the two place-names Varnhem (Warnem 1234) and Varnum (Hwaernemh 1288). In Varnhem a large amount of English silver coins have been found in Christian graves from the Viking age, so the three names might be linked. The two Swedish place-names were derived from ancient Swedish varn/vaern 'protect'/'protection' and heim 'home' and Warham in Herefordshire seemed to be ideally situated to protect Hereford from westward attacks from the river. The place was on a hilltop rising 30-40 metres above the river on the inside of a river bend. Nearby Swainshill (possibly derived as 'the hill of the Swain' - 'the hill of the Swede'; or 'the hill of the Swains' - 'the hill of Swein and his Vikings') as well as the known Scandinavian place-name Thruxton ('Thorkil's fenced area') were found. The area also contained Wormbridge and Wormelow (possibly derived as 'the law of Ormr' or 'the law of the worm'), giving the whole area a 'mini-Danelaw' appearance. Vikings were frequently hired as bodyguards and mercenary soldiers (e.g. by the Roman emperor in Constantinople).

Figure 28. Possible Scandinavian place-names along river Wye and around Hereford.

Along the Wye upstream from Welsh Bicnor several possible Scandinavian place-names were found (Howle Hill, Kerne Bridge, Glewstone, Peterstow, Pontshill, Weston-under-Penyard,

103 / 237 Kahnberg Bromsash). Northwest of this area (see Figure 28) there was a ridge with several Welsh place-names and then the flat area where Wormelow, Wormbridge, Pontrilas, Kivernoll, Thruxton and also Aconbury (with its possible derivations of 'Squirrel’s mountain' and 'mountain of the Oaks') were situated. The entire area might have been divided, so that the Welsh had the higher western areas, the English had Hereford as a western outpost, and the Scandinavians settled the flat areas close to the river. The place-names could indicate such a divided area.

The way the Possibly Scandinavian place-names connected to each other (e.g. following a river or a ridge or covering a specific plain) could be an indication that the place-names really were Scandinavian. An isolated Possibly Scandinavian place-name could possibly be a caused by a misread or misinterpreted place-name (perhaps misspelled at one time in the past) whereas several such place-names in a limited area (e.g. along a river or a ridge) would give weight to the idea that the derivations could be correct.

4.4 Area results compared

In order to fully grasp the similarities and differences of the three areas ("reachable through the Humber", Cumbria and Herefordshire) a comparison of the results was needed. That comparison provided useful information for research questions 1, 2, 3 and 5.

4.4.1 Place-name elements The general view of the place-name group frequencies could serve as an indication of possible Scandinavian influence on the place-names used in the past. High frequencies of name, -ing and leah would indicate little or no Scandinavian influence whereas high frequencies of by would indicate the opposite. Since all elements were grouped at an earlier state in the study those additional groups could be used to find other types of elements that could be used as an indication of possible Scandinavian influence on the place-naming of old, hence all the place- name groups were analysed and compared at this point. This also helped in addressing the first research question: What place-name elements have been frequently used in each of the three regions?

The place-names of each area appeared at first glance to have no similarities with the place- names of the other areas (see figure 29). The 23.3% (223 elements) in the terrain group of Cumbria overshadowed most of the other groups, so that only the name, tun and terrain groups in all the three areas were clearly viewable.

104 / 237 Kahnberg

name 25.00 ing tun wic 20.00 leah animal terrain 15.00 woody water field church 10.00 position by farm 5.00 fortress nature thing 0.00 descriptive Herefordshire Cumbria Hum region other

Figure 29. Place-name elements in the three regions. "Hum region" was shorthand for "reachable through the Humber".

However, a closer look at the place-name element groups (see figure 30) indicated a few common traits as well as some clear differences. The most common place-name element group in all three areas was the terrain group, to which at least 17% of all place-name elements in each area belonged even though the 23% of Cumbria was extreme compared to the other areas. In addition four to seven percent of all place-name elements in each area belonged to the nature group (Cumbria 6.8%, "reachable through the Humber" 5.3% and Herefordshire 4.2%). Approximately nine to ten percent to the combined groups of woody and water: Cumbria 10.1% (5.1+5.0), "reachable through the Humber" 9.8% (6.6+3.2) and Herefordshire 9.2% (6.4+2.8). Having 30% or more of all place-name elements linking to the surrounding area did not imply that 30% or all place-names would contain this link, since some place-names contained more than one of these elements (e.g. Whitbeck consisting of a woody element followed by a water element).

The thing element group included around 8.5% of the place-name elements in each area. However, the elements of this group included nationalities as well as more traditional things, but all elements were nouns that didn't belong to any of the other groups in the study.

105 / 237 Kahnberg

Hum region Cumbria Herefordshire

25.00

20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00

0.00 ing wic animal woody field position farm nature descriptive name tun leah terrain water church by fortress thing other

Figure 30. Place-name element groups in the three areas, highlighting the Herefordshire difference.

The main differences were the frequencies of personal names (common in Herefordshire), the Old English element leah (much higher frequency in Herefordshire than in any other area) and the groups of church (more frequently used in Herefordshire), farm and by (both less frequently used in Herefordshire). The groups of animal (less frequently used in Herefordshire), field (more frequently used in Herefordshire), tun (less frequently used in Cumbria and common in the "reachable through the Humber" region) and descriptive (less frequently used in the "reachable through the Humber" region) also differed. Some of these differing elements are shown in figures 31 (high-frequency elements) and 32 (low-frequency elements).

106 / 237 Kahnberg

Herefordshire Cumbria Humber Trent Ouse Ure Swale

25

20

15

10

5

0 name tun by farm

Figure 31. Distribution of some high-frequency place-name elements in each of the studied areas.

Herefordshire Cumbria Humber Trent Ouse Ure Swale

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 leah field church

Figure 32. Distribution of some low-frequency place-name elements in each of the studied areas.

The personal names were by far most frequent in Herefordshire, being the second most common place-name element in the area after the terrain group (17.4% versus 16.7%). The

107 / 237 Kahnberg personal names group only had 10.2% in Cumbria and 7.1% in the "reachable through the Humber" region. As noted by Fellows-Jensen (2011) a lower frequency of personal names could indicate more Scandinavian place-names in the area, as the Scandinavian place-names (villages especially) frequently included other elements where personal names would be used in Old English place-names.

3.6% of all elements in Herefordshire contained the Old English word leah meaning 'wood', 'clearing' or 'meadow'. The frequency of the same word in Cumbria was 0.21% and 0.26% in the "reachable through the Humber" region. The difference could indicate less Old English place-names in the latter two areas, possibly due to Old English being less used because Old Norse was used as well. However, the difference might also be a consequence of a different kind of nature (e.g. more mountains in Cumbria and more water along the waterways of the "reachable through the Humber" region) thus less frequently used as a place-name element.

The church group contained 5.3% of all elements in Herefordshire but only 2% in Cumbria and 1.6% in the "reachable through the Humber" region. At first glance this could indicate Scandinavian presence in Cumbria and in the "reachable through the Humber" region, but there were Christian Vikings at least from the early 10th century so even the Vikings might have used churches and at least known what a church was. In Cumbria most elements in the church group were Old Norse elements (e.g. kyrke, kirkia or kirk). It might also be a Celtic place-name element (the Welsh place-name equivalent llan is very frequent in Welsh place- names), possibly disguised through translation (i.e. a Celtic place-name containing a Celtic church element might have been simplified into a Celtic word for church before being translated into Old Norse or Old English).

The farm element group, containing all kinds of words for buildings except church, contained 7.4% of all place-name elements in the "reachable through the Humber" region and 6.4% of all elements in Cumbria, but only 2.3% of all elements in Herefordshire. There were both Old English and Old Norse elements in this group, but no Celtic elements.

In the "reachable through the Humber" region 6.6% of all place-name elements were "by" or "bi", an element known as a Scandinavian element (see section 2.2.8). In Cumbria the frequency of the same element was 5.2% whereas the element was completely missing in Herefordshire. Based only on previous studies this would mean that Herefordshire had no Scandinavian place-names, but that was not the case (as shown in section 4.3).

108 / 237 Kahnberg Animal elements were used with a frequency of 4.7% in Cumbria and 4.5% in the "reachable through the Humber" region, but only with a frequency of 2.3% in Herefordshire. The element was the most frequent along the coast of the Humber (8.5%) and the lowest along the Trent (2.1%), yielding no obvious pattern at all except that it might be terrain dependent (i.e. in areas having plenty of different kinds of wild animals the animal element might be more frequent than in areas where only a few different species were found).

The field group contained 2.1% of all elements in Herefordshire and 1.3% in the "reachable through the Humber" region, but only 0.6% in Cumbria. This might be linked to the terrain, with the lowest frequencies along the coast of the Humber (0%), along the Swale (0.9%) and in Cumbria (areas where fields and acres were less common).

3.2% of the elements in the "reachable through the Humber" region belonged to the descriptive group, mainly containing words for colour and size. The corresponding frequencies were 6.1% for Cumbria and 6.3% for Herefordshire. These elements were also frequently used along the Ure (6.2%), but the element was only used twice along the Trent and along the Humber coastline.

The tun element group, containing both Old English tun 'town' and Old Norse tun 'fenced or enclosed area', had a frequency of 15.4 in the "reachable through the Humber" region. In Herefordshire the frequency was 12.7%, but only 8.7% in Cumbria. The element was the most frequent along the Swale (19.7%). Tun elements were frequently found in Scandinavian and Possibly Scandinavian place-names, so Corrigan (2011) probably missed several Scandinavian place-names by regarding tun as an Old English element only.

4.4.2 Place-name categories As has been shown in previous sections all three regions contained both Scandinavian and Possibly Scandinavian place-names. In order to find the answer to the second research question (How frequent are possibly Scandinavian place-names in each of the three areas?) the numbers and frequencies of the categories in the three areas were compared and analysed. Figure 33 shows the areas side by side.

109 / 237 Kahnberg

Latin/French Celtic Germanic Old English Possibly Scandinavian Scandinavian None

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Humber region Cumbria Herefordshire

Figure 33. Place-name categories, area by area.

The categories side by side are shown in figure 34.

Humber region Cumbria Herefordshire

60

50

40

30

20

10

0 Celtic Old English Scandinavian Latin/French Germanic Possibly Scandinavian None

Figure 34. The distribution of each place-name category over the three regions.

110 / 237 Kahnberg Very few place-names were placed in the Latin/French category. Some place-names contained old Latin elements (e.g. caster, capella, castello) in their Old English or Celtic versions (ceaster, caer, capel, chapel, castell, castle) and were thus not placed in the Latin/French category.

The Celtic category did not feature heavily in the east (the "reachable through the Humber" region), but there were remains of Celtic elements (mainly old river names) among the eastern place-names as well. The Celtic elements in Cumbria were mainly elements of terrain (e.g. heath, summit, hill, water) and frequently combined with Old Norse elements (e.g. beck, ey, kirk, rigg, thorp). In Herefordshire the Celtic place-names were frequent (18.9%) and usually all-Celtic / all-Welsh and located in the Welsh-speaking areas of the county. Many of the Celtic place-names in Herefordshire used the Lann/Llan element, reflecting the sacred element of the place.

The Germanic category included place-names that could be from any Germanic language, where the difference between elements of different languages would be so small that any could have been used to form the place-name. This also implied that all place-names in the Germanic category could have been placed in the Possibly Scandinavian category as well, yielding that a Possible Scandinavian category of place-names in each area could be calculated as the added parts of the Scandinavian, Possibly Scandinavian and Germanic categories. That combined category could be the answer to the second research question (How frequent are possibly Scandinavian place-names in each of the three regions). Table 20 gives that combined part for each of the areas.

Table 20. Possible Scandinavian place-names for each area (hypothetical calculation). LF: Latin/French, C: Celtic, OE: Old English, G: Germanic, PS: Possibly Scandinavian, S: Scandinavian, CPS: Calculated Possible Scandinavian Region total LF % C % OE % G % PS % S % CPS % Humber 46 1 2 0 0 18 39 1 2 14 30 8 17 23 50 Trent 79 1 1 2 3 20 25 0 0 27 34 22 28 49 62 Ouse 84 0 0 2 2 19 23 0 0 28 33 31 37 59 70 Ure 92 0 0 1 1 17 18 0 0 29 32 38 41 67 73 Swale 136 1 1 1 1 17 12 0 0 36 26 72 53 108 79 Reachable 437 3 1 6 1 91 21 1 0 134 31 171 39 306 70 Cumbria 634 4 1 43 7 78 12 14 2 64 10 317 50 395 62 Herefordshire 317 3 1 60 19 152 48 11 3 47 15 2 1 60 19

111 / 237 Kahnberg 70% of the place-names in the "reachable through the Humber" region were Calculated Possible Scandinavian place-names (the Germanic, Possibly Scandinavian and Scandinavian categories combined). The same value for Cumbria was 62% but only 19% for Herefordshire. These were possible yet hypothetical numbers given that all Germanic entries in this study would indeed be Scandinavian place-names. However, the Germanic entries might just as well be Old English entries (yielding a lower frequency of 61% in Cumbria and significantly lower in Herefordshire at 15%). An isolated Possibly Scandinavian or Germanic place-name would probably not be a Scandinavian place-name, but a Germanic entry surrounded by Scandinavian entries might be. This was already mentioned in section 4.3, but section 5 contains a discussion on this topic (related to the second and fifth research questions).

Table 20 nonetheless indicated a high frequency of possible Scandinavian place-names in Cumbria as well as in the "Reachable through the Humber" region. These two regions had several place-names ending in -by as well as several ham and thorp elements. Herefordshire on the other hand had the previously known (isolated) Scandinavian place-name Thruxton (mentioned in section 4.3). The problem, as indicated by Corrigan (2011), would be that many of these possible Scandinavian place-names were written down after the Norman invasion in 1066, when the Vikings had left the areas. Section 5 contains a discussion on this topic as well (related to the fifth research question).

4.5 Frequently used elements in old place-names Several of the place-names in this study were similar, using similar elements. Table 21 lists some of the more frequently used concepts. Table 21. Frequently used elements in old place-names. church The church element probably indicated a sacred place (with or without buildings) or a place linked to the church (i.e. land owned/used by the church or a monastery or inhabitated by a priest/monk/nun). The element was found in all categories studied. trees A tree element was a common part of many possibly Scandinavian place-names, but also used in Old English place-names. Some variants found were al (alder tree), ask / asc (ash tree), alm (elm tree), bok (beech tree), birk / birc (birch tree), eik / ac (oak tree), hasel / hesl (hazel tree), lind (lime tree) and vid / vith / sel (willow tree). terrain Many place-names seemed to include a description of the surroundings, especially among the possibly Scandinavian place-names but also among the Celtic and Old English place-names. Some examples would be: - words for open areas (meadow, clearing, field, heath, moor, sand) 112 / 237 Kahnberg - wet areas (bog, marsh, lake, swamp) - flowing water (stream, beck, river, brook, fleet) - elevation (hill, mountain, ravine, valley) - local growth (heather, bushes, brushwood, gorse) buildings Several place-names included words for different kinds of buildings: hut, house, home, shed, shelter, cottage, farm, barn intended Some place-names included words describing the intended use: seasonal pasture, use seasonal dwelling, pasture, acre, fishing pond, hunting ground, storage shape Some place-names, especially the possibly Scandinavian ones, contained elements describing the shape of the place. Valleys could be described using words differing in meaning (a ravine could be seen as a steep valley) or adding words to the description, e.g. wide valley, broad valley, long valley, round hill, wooded slope. The thwaite element in many northern place-names came from the Old Norse tveit, a word indicating 'a long and narrow area', e.g. the area where you could be hit by sparks in a smithy or a long and narrow area where a particular seed would be planted in a field containing several different seeds in different places. animals / Several place-names contained words for animals found in the area, e.g. horse, wildlife pig/boar, fox, rook, crow, raven, cow, ox. enclosure Many place-names contained words for enclosure or fencing, e.g. town, village, paddock, enclosed field, wall, gate. name Some place-names included the name of a river, a tribe or the name of an inhabitant. description Some place-names contained words describing the actual place/building/village, marking it as e.g. red, bright, dark, upper, lower, north, south.

As presented in table 21 some place-name elements occurred frequently but in different shapes. Most of them were used in all place-name categories in the study, but the place- names in the Latin/French category usually included an element of fortification (e.g. a castle) or church. The church element was also very frequently used in Celtic place-names (lann or llan), usually indicating a sacred place. The Old English place-names had a higher frequency of -ing and name compared to the possible Scandinavian place-names, but the name element was frequently used in Celtic and Latin/French place-names as well.

The possible Scandinavian place-names frequently used elements describing the place (e.g. the animals and plants that could be found there, the trees and bushes at the place, what kind of water there was or some significant terrain formation at or near the place). These elements could be further specified by adding adjectives (e.g. short, small, large, wet, black, bright,

113 / 237 Kahnberg alive) or by combining it with a word describing what the place was used for (e.g. hunting ground, pasture, dwelling or harbour). Finding these frequently used elements in the place- names of the past led the way to answering the third research question (see section 4.6).

4.6 Scandinavian traces in modern place-names? The Swedish tourists in the introduction could identify traces of an old Scandinavian place- name in a modern English place-name. The third research question was: What characteristics of a modern day place-name could indicate a Scandinavian place-name in the past? Several of these characteristics were found by looking at the place-name derivations (both previously known ones and those invented in the current study) while looking at the modern version of the place-names. Some of the frequently used Old Norse elements were modified into a wide range of different modern versions that made a frequent element nigh impossible to identify in the modern version. Others were all modified in similar ways (i.e. most of the place-names containing Old Norse tveit were modified into thwaite in the modern versions) or left almost untouched by time and language change (e.g. Old Norse by and Old Norse bekkr). Table 22 presents the traces that the current study has found - traces that could be worth looking for in the modern versions of place-names.

Table 22. Traces of possible Scandinavian place-names in modern English place-names. ask A modern place-name starting with ask usually indicates a place where ash-trees (Old Norse askr) used to grow. beck This element can appear anywhere in a place-name, indicating a place near a stream or small river (Old Norse bekkr ). biggin(g) A modern place-name ending in biggin or bigging could indicate an old Scandinavian place-name ending in bygging (building, farmstead). Many of these place-names seem to appear after 1086. by This element usually appears at the end of a place-name, indicating an old Scandinavian place with several houses (e.g. a village, a town, or a large farm). dale Usually an ending element, indicating an old Scandinavian place-name linked to a valley (Old Norse dalr ). The part of the place-name preceding -dale usually described the valley or indicated its use or why it was important. gill A common ending in hilly terrain, indicating a ravine or a steep valley. garth This element usually appears at the end of a place-name, indicating an old Scandinavian farm (Old Norse garð). Place-names that used to have the 114 / 237 Kahnberg same element in other positions are harder to spot nowadays, since the element tends to be shortened to gar or ga in the modern names. hau/hou/hough/how This is an element based on Old Norse haugr signalling a nearby hill or height, usually rounded. holm(e) An element that mostly (but not always) indicates a Scandinavian place- name. The Scandinavian version (Old Norse holmr) was used to indicate a tiny island surrounded by water or a stable, dry space in a bog or marsh. kirk An element that usually indicates Scandinavian presence, though the place-name itself might be modern. It was used for place-names connected to the church (kirk) or a saint. ley This element can be the result of many different words in the past, some of them Old Norse lǽgi (place, position), lagh (water, wet area), ey (island) and lyng (heather). The Old English element leah is another frequent source of modern place-names containing ley. orm/worm This element usually results from the Old Norse ormr, a word used for 'serpent' and 'snake' but also used as a Viking name or nickname. rook This element can appear as the remnant of brook (Old English broc), but also from Old Norse krókr (hook), kráka (crow) and hrókr (the bird 'rook', or a castle). sea/sey Usually the result of a place-name consisting of a Scandinavian person name in genitive followed by Old Norse ey (island), although the preceding part might be something describing the island as well (e.g. something growing there). set In areas with Scandinavian settlements this element usually comes from Old Norse sætr, indicating a seasonal dwelling place or possibly a seasonal pasture without any buildings. sk Finding an sk combination where modern English has sh (e.g. ask / ash, skip / ship, skel / shell, skelf / shelf) usually indicates Scandinavian presence, even though the place-name itself might be an Old English place-name from the start and later modified with the sk combination. Sometimes the combination is disguised as sc or sch in writing. stain Usually (but not always) this element is the modern result of Scandinavian steinn (stone). thwaite This is a certain Scandinavian element, coming from Old Norse tveit meaning "long and narrow area" usually referring to a long and narrow field but can be any kind of area. thorp(e)/throp Usually coming from Old Norse thorp meaning cottage, usually a cottage

115 / 237 Kahnberg outside the village. with This element can have several origins, but in areas with Scandinavian settlements it usually comes from Old Norse vaðr (shallow, shoal, ford), viðr (wood) or viðir (willow tree).

4.7 New possible derivations? The fourth research question was: What probable place-name derivations have been overlooked in the past? Table 23 presents some of the new possible derivations made in this study. Most of these derivations come from Old Norse or eastern Old Norse.

Table 23. New possible place-name derivations. ON = Old Norse. OE = Old English.

Place-name Region Category Derivation Agglethorpe Ure scand ON “á” (river) + “kollr” (rounded hill) + “torp” (ancient Swedish “kulle”). Compare ”Åkulla” in sw Sweden. Aisby Trent scand Probably Old Danish / Old Norwegan “as”/”æs” (Norse God) + ON by (likely not someone called Ási) Alkborough Trent possibly Albergen (the alder mountain range), ON "bjarg"/"berg" (mountain), German “gebirge”. Old/Mod Swedish “Al” = Alder. +40m hill range close to the river, i.e. a very possible place for alders to grow. Alne Ouse scand ON “alin” (the distance from the fingertips to the elbow) Althorpe Trent scand Altorp (alder cottage). Alder + thorp. Old/Mod Swedish “al” + “torp”. (most likely not named after some Scandinavian called Áli - a very uncommon name.) Appersett Ure scand ON “appeltre” (apple tree) + “setr” (place to take the animals in the summer) Azerley Ure scand ON “Æsir” (gods) + “lægi” (Danish “leje”, Norwegian “leie”) (place) Bainbridge Ure scand ON “bein” (leg, bone) + “bryggja” (bridge) Barlow Ouse possibly ON “ber” (bear) + “hlýja” (lair, den) Barton-upon- Humber possibly ON "ber" (bear) + tun Humber Bedale Swale scand ON “beð” (bed, garden bed) or “ber” (bear, bare)

116 / 237 Kahnberg + “dale” (valley) Beetham Cumbria possibly possibly ON “biða” (wait) + “heim” (home) Berrier Cumbria scand ON “berg”, determined form plural – the mountains, the mountain range. Could possibly be a contraction of ON “berg” + “riki” (the mountain country) – compare “Sverige” - “Svea”+”riki”. Brayton Ouse scand ON “breiðr” (broad) + tun Bredenbury Herefordshire possibly possibly ON “breiðr” / eastern ON “bredher” (both meaning “wide”, broad”) + ON “berg” (mountain) Brigsteer Cumbria possibly probably ON “bryggja” (bridge) + “þerra” (dry) Brind Ouse possibly ON “brenndi” (burned) Broomfleet Humber possibly ON brúnn (brown) or brúnnr (well) + ON garða (farm) + ON flet (flat piece of land). The brown farm on the flat land, or the farm with the well on the flat land. Butterwick Cumbria possibly possibly ON “butr” (log) + “vik” (bay) Constable Burton Ure scand ON “borg” (fort) + tun Cotterdale Ure scand ON “kotar” (huts), or eastern ON “korter” (short) + “dale” (valley). Compare ”Kortedala” in Gothenburg, Sweden. Eardisley Herefordshire possibly possibly ON “hirðir” (shepherd) + “lǽgi” (place, position), or OE name “Ægheard” + “leah” (pasture) Easingwold Swale possibly Possibly ON “ising” (glare ice) + “vollr” (wood, low ridge), ancient Danish “vold” Elloughton Humber possibly ON name "Helgi" or ON "elgr" (elk) Epworth Trent possibly Upp + jord (ON upp + iorð) = up + earth Evesbatch Herefordshire possibly OE name “Esa” + “bece” (stream valley), or ON “ás” (ridge) + “bekkr” (stream). There is a stream running down from the ridge at this place. Fencote Swale scand ON “fen” (marsh) + “kot” (cottage) Firby Ure scand eastern ON “fred”/”fredh” (peace) + by (village) Garriston Ure scand eastern ON “gærde” (open field close to a farm) + genitive + tun Garway Herefordshire welsh Welsh “llan” (church of), probably followed by “cad” (battle) + “mawr” (big, large), “church of the big battle” Goxhill Humber scand ON *”gausli” (place at the gushing spring), or western ON “gás” (goose) + ON “hlid” (slope) or ON “sil”/”sel” (calm water). The place-name doesn't seem to be near any hill, so “sel”/”sil” seems likely. 117 / 237 Kahnberg Harmby Ure scand eastern ON “hjerne” (brain) + by (village) Hay-on-Wye Herefordshire possibly ON “hagi”/”haghi”/”haga” (pasture) in determined form (the pasture - ”hagan”), but generally considered as being from OE ”hæg”. Healing Humber possibly ON haga (pasture) + lyng ( = heather ) (ljunghage) Hessay Ouse possibly possibly ON “hest” (horse) + genitive + ey (island), later modified due to “hests” being hard to pronounce when the word “hest” was no longer used High Harrington Cumbria possibly possibly ON “hagi” (enclosed pasture) + “hring” (circle) + tun. Compare Swedish village “Haverdal” Howle Hill Herefordshire possibly possibly ON “kullr” (rounded hill) turning into OE “hyll” (hill). “The rounded hill” would've been “kulla” in eastern ON. Hunton Ure scand ON “hundr” (dog) + tun Jervaulx Ure scand ON “iorð” (earth, soil) + ancient Danish “voll” (low ridge) Knapton Ouse possibly ON “knapi” (rider) or “knapi” (squire) + tun (possibly connected with Swedish place name “Knapasjö”) Langthorpe Ure scand ON “lang” (long) + “lif” (life) + “torp” (cottage) Lower Dunsford Ouse possibly ON “dunesvördr” (protector of the downs), phonetic assimilation Lupton Cumbria possibly possibly ancient Swedish “loppa” / ancient Danish “loppe” (small iron melt) + tun Mawbray Cumbria possibly probably ON “maie” (to dress roofs and buildings in green leaves in early May) + “borg” (fort, castle), though the word “maie” is a product of the Julian calendar and I do not know when it was introduced in Britain/Scandinavia. Melton Humber possibly ON "meðal" (middle) + tun Munsley Herefordshire possibly generally OE name “Mul” + OE “leah” (clearing), but possibly ON “múli” (nose of a horse) or ”múll” (mule) + eastern ON ”lagh” (water, liquid) or ON ”lǽgi” (place, position) Osgodby Ouse scand ON “as” (Norse god) + “guð” (god) + by (village) Otterington Swale scand ON Otur (otter) + Hring (ring) + tun Ottringham Humber possibly ON Otur (otter) + Hring (ring) + Heim (home) Patrick Brompton Ure scand ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brunnr” (well) + tun

118 / 237 Kahnberg Pilham Trent possibly eastern Old Norse “pil”/”pile” (willow) + heim (home) Riccall Ouse possibly ON “reykr” (smoke) + “hola” (hole) Risbury Herefordshire possibly OE “hris” (brushwood) + “burh” (fortress, dative “byrig”) or ON “hris” (brushwood) + “berg” (mountain). The place is near a hilltop, so the ON version can't be ruled out (compare “Riseberga” in southern Sweden). Rookwith Ure possibly ON “hrókr” (rook) + “víðir” (willow) or ”víðr” (wood) Scunthorpe Trent scand ("outlying land of Skuma?"). Very unlikely. Most likely connected to ancient Swedish ”skotmather” (ON skotmaðr) just like the old Swedish village ”Skummeslöv”. “Skotmadher” means shooter, though in this case it could also mean “scotsman”. (see section 2.3.7) Skelton Cumbria possibly probably ON “skel” (shell) + tun Skelton Ouse possibly ON “skel” (shell) + tun (“skjelf” and “skál” are other alternatives) Skipwith Ouse possibly ON “skip” (ship) + genitive + “vik” (bay) (skeppsvik) Spennithorne Ure scand ON “spann” (bucket), ON “speni” (nipple) or eastern ON “spening” (someone to mock) + torp (cottage) Stillingfleet Ouse scand ON “stefni” (prow) + “fleyta” (float) or “flet” (bunk, flat piece of land) Sutton Grange Ure scand ON “sud” (south) + tun Swainshill Herefordshire possibly no info, but might indicate Scandinavian presence in the area for a while (“Svein” being a popular Scandinavian name, and there is arecord in DB of a “Godmund” at the “Swanston court” which further indicates Scandinavian presence). Swarthmoor Cumbria possibly probably ON “svartr” (black) + “mor” (moor) The Bage Herefordshire possibly possibly eastern ON “bakke” (slope), but impossible to know without older sources. The place is on a 40 metre high slope between two higher ridges. Thornton Rust Ure scand ON name “Tor” + tun Tollerton Ouse scand ON “tollr” / ancient Danish “toln” (toll) + tun Uckerby Swale scand possibly ON “akur” / ”akr” (field) + by, or (although unlikely) named after someone called “Ukyrri” Warham Herefordshire OE probably OE “wær” (weir) + “ham” (farm), just like other Warham places (but considering the amount of

119 / 237 Kahnberg ”possibly Scandinavian” place-names in the area it could be eastern ON “ værn” (protect) + “heim” (home) just like the Viking village of “Varnhem” in sw Sweden) Webton Herefordshire possibly possibly eastern ON “vidh” (wide) + ON “breiðr” (broad) + tun. Compare “Veberöd” in southern Sweden Weeton Humber possibly ON “víðir” (willow) or “víðr” (wood) + tun Wellington Herefordshire possibly probably ON “vollr” (flat and grassy area) + tun, instead of being built on the OE name *”Weola”. Compare “Vallentuna” in Sweden. Wensley Ure scand eastern ON “vandre” (walk, wander) + ON ”logr” (lake, wetness) or ON “lag” (lie, remain still) Whitton Humber possibly Hwita's island (ON øy), Hwita's land (OE ég) (also possibly ON “víðir” = willow) Winforton Herefordshire possibly possibly ON “vída” (widespread, further) + “ferð” (travel, journey, trip) + genitive + tun, perfectly matching the old name. The old name is generally thought as being a mistake, making the general interpretation as OE name “Winefrith” + tun. East/West Witton Ure scand ON “víðir” (willow) or “víðr” (wood) + tun Wootton Humber possibly ON Óðinn + tun = Odin's field/pasture/place (other possibility, see Weeton above) York Ouse scand Celtic place-name replaced by Scandinavian Euruic based on ON ”iorð” (earth, soil) + “vik” (bay).

5. Discussion

Some of the results in this study require some discussion, as they point in certain directions without giving clear enough evidence. The first issue is the place-names lacking substantial information regarding old versions and date of founding. The second issue is about the geographical patterns of place-names and its impact on the results of a place-names study. The third issue concerns areas that connect to each other across the county boundaries. Those three issues lead to a deeper discussion (section 5.4) on the implications seen through a combination of these issues. 120 / 237 Kahnberg 5.1 Modern place-names or place-names lacking information

Several place-names were marked as "modern" or "lacking information" in this study, especially in Cumbria (18%) and in Herefordshire (13%). Some of them might be old but referring to a tiny village or a farm, thus not printed on old maps or mentioned in old chronicles. Many of them show traces of possibly Scandinavian old forms, but further research would be needed to look up all those place-names to find their oldest written forms. If they are indeed modern they would indicate that some old Scandinavian place-name elements would still be in use in modern day place-naming.

5.2 Geographical patterns and place-names

Old place-names could be difficult to categorise, especially in areas where several different languages have been present over the years. In section 4.4.2 the Germanic place-names were discussed, because they could be seen as both Scandinavian and Old English. Old Norse and Old English had many similar words, and sometimes (but not always) those similar words also carried the same meaning in both languages. A study of place-names could be conducted by taking all place-names starting with the letter A and writing down possible derivations. Such a study could easily yield Old Norse derivations for place-names built on elements shared between Old Norse and Old English (e.g. tun and wic), claiming that Old Norse was used in areas where it was actually never used simply because a few single place-names could have Old Norse derivations. Plotting those place-names on a map could indicate whether those Old Norse derivations could be true, as a single place-name with an Old Norse derivation would need to be re-analysed if there were no other such place-names in the surrounding area. Should the study find several such place-names concentrated to a small geographical area the probability of correct derivations would increase, as each place-name would strengthen the probability of the other derivations being correct.

Such was the case of Herefordshire in the current study. According to Mills (1991) Thruxton was the only place-name in the county having an Old Norse derivation, and thus the first attempt was to re-analyse Thruxton to find a possible Old English derivation. That attempt failed and when Pontrilas was found with its older version of Elwistone from the Domesday book several place-names in the area were re-analysed and found to have possible Old Norse derivations. Each new possible Old Norse derivation strengthened the Old Norse derivations of the other place-names in the area giving rise to the idea of Viking mercenaries protecting English Hereford from the Welsh. This assumption might be incorrect and future studies

121 / 237 Kahnberg might give Old English derivations to all the place-names categorised as Germanic, Possibly Scandinavian and Scandinavian in this study, but nonetheless the Old Norse derivations of those place-names have been given in case a future study might find other such place-names in a neighbouring area.

Geographical patterns help, but numbers including place-names with Common Germanic elements always carry a touch of uncertainty as shown in section 4.4.2.

5.3 Upper Ure and Upper Swale

As mentioned in section 4.1.5 all the place-names in the Swaledale (all the place-names west of Downholme) were categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian. The place- names near the upper end of river Ure (from Jervaulx and westward) had either modern names or names that could have derivations in Old Norse or eastern Old Norse. As mentioned in section 4.2 the areas around upper Ure and upper Swale come very close to the Eden valley (as well as the Lune valley) in Cumbria, forming a large area where Old Norse could have been used in local conversation. Ure - Eden and Ure - Lune might have been ways to cross (short-cut) the British isles by boat the way the Vikings did both in Sweden and in Eastern Europe. The place-names indicate a very strong Scandinavian presence in the region, at least for a while.

5.4 Late Scandinavian sounding place-names in Ure/Swale

Some of the place-names in upper Swale and upper Ure had their earliest written forms in the late 13th century, and yet the place-names sound Scandinavian and have simple Old Norse derivations. If the Scandinavians left the British isles in 1066 the newer place-names would not have Old Norse derivations. The Scandinavians might have remained in upper Ure, upper Swale and upper Eden, and possibly in upper Lune/Rawthey as well. Some of the place-names in this area referred to items that were too small to be included in the study (farms, tiny villages, tiny streams), but their modern versions sound Scandinavian (e.g. Haygarth, Uldale, Harprigg, Thringill beck).

British actress Penelope Keith (2016) interviewed a farmer in Swaledale and there was a BBC clip showing the Yorkshire dialect (Jamie van Brewen, 2011). In both clips the dialect sounded like a mix between Old English and some Swedish/Danish/Norwegian dialect, and some words (e.g. "ewwer" for udder - very similar in pronunciation to Norwegian/Swedish "juver" and Danish "yver") could certainly be linked to Old Norse or eastern Old Norse. 122 / 237 Kahnberg Perhaps Old Norse was kept alive in the valleys the way Welsh was kept alive in the 20th century, with Old Norse speakers being bilingual in Old Norse and Old/Middle English. That could certainly explain the late 13th century Scandinavian sounding place-names. If the whole upper Ure + upper Swale + upper Eden + upper Lune/Rawthey area would develop this Old Norse / Old English bilingualism it could explain many of the changes in late Old English and early Middle English, changes spreading southward from the north bearing Old Norse influence. Many of these changes would be logical to bilinguals, especially to those switching mid-sentence. With Old Norse words being used in 20th century spoken Yorkshire dialect the Old Norse / Middle English bilingualism might have been active for a long time, but a future study would be required to find out more details.

Hypothetically all of modern day England (and possibly parts of Scotland) could have been areas inhabitated by bilingual Old Norse speakers in the 12th and 13th centuries. West of England Welsh would have been the spoken language (and might have been used in parts of Cumbria as well) and Cornish would have been used in Cornwall. Danelaw in the eastern parts of modern day England would have been Old Norse speakers or perhaps bilingual Old Norse / Middle English speakers as well. The language of rule would have been French. In Kent the language might have been French and Frisian/Dutch/Flemish. Hypothetically the English language might have been used only as Lingua Franca in England, as a tool of conversation between different geographical areas among traders and merchants. A future more extensive study on place-names in other areas of the British isles could possibly provide more information.

6 Conclusion

This study has shown that the majority of the place-names in Cumbria and the "reachable through the Humber" region could be categorised as Scandinavian or Possibly Scandinavian. Many place-names in these areas had Scandinavian sounding forms in the Domesday book in 1086 or in written records from the 12th century and traces could still be found in the modern versions.

In Herefordshire there were traces of possible Scandinavian place-names along river Wye and around Hereford, but those traces were disguised in the modern versions of the place- names.

123 / 237 Kahnberg The current study found several new possible derivations (mainly based on versions of Old Norse) and areas where place-names with new possible Old Norse derivations combined into clusters. Those clusters sometimes contained other place-names where Old Norse derivations were possible despite the earliest written records of the place-names being from the 13th or 14th century. The area of upper Ure, upper Swale, upper Eden and upper Lune/Rawthey combined into such a cluster, forming an area where Old Norse might have been used by bilingual speakers for several centuries after the Vikings left the British Isles. Future studies would be needed to claim this for certain, but should the assumption be true that area might have been pivotal in the evolution of Old and Middle English.

6.1 Research question 1

• What place-name elements have been frequently used in each of the three regions? As shown in section 4.4 the terrain elements (e.g. ravine, hill, valley, flat, island) were used the most frequently in all the three regions, especially in Cumbria where 23% of all place- name elements belonged to this group. The element tun (i.e. Old English tun or Old Norse tun) was the second most frequently used element in the "reachable through the Humber" region and the third most frequently used element in both Cumbria and Herefordshire. Names were frequently used in Herefordshire, obtaining a second place close behind terrain. In Cumbria the names were in second place as well but far behind the terrain group, whereas the category was unable to make the top three in the "reachable through the Humber" region.

6.2 Research question 2

• How frequent are possibly Scandinavian place-names in each of the three regions?

In the "reachable through the Humber" region almost 40% of all place-names were categorised as Scandinavian and another 30% as Possibly Scandinavian. In Cumbria 50% of all place-names were categorised as Scandinavian and another 10% as Possibly Scandinavian. In Herefordshire only 2 place-names were categorised as Scandinavian but another 47 (14.8%) as Possibly Scandinavian. The concentration of possible Scandinavian place-names was highest in the area of upper Ure, upper Swale, upper Eden and upper Lune, i.e. the eastern part of Cumbria and the valleys in north-western Yorkshire.

124 / 237 Kahnberg 6.3 Research question 3

• What characteristics of a modern day place-name could indicate a Scandinavian place-name in the past?

The old forms of place-names frequently contain elements of names, terrain (e.g. hill, mountain, river, lake, island, moor, heath, ravine, valley, slope) and settlement (e.g. town, village, farm, house, home, shelter), but may also contain elements of animal (e.g. boar, fox, horse, cow, swine, ox) or other nouns (e.g. different nationalities or the word cross). Elements of protection (words for fortress, castle, protect, protection), church (e.g. monk, nun, church, saint) and wood (words for forest or specific kinds of trees) also featured, as did words for positioning (e.g. north, south, middle, upper) and description (e.g. bright, red, small, big, bare). A few place-names contained the element "-ing", generally thought to mean followers of someone or something.

Modern versions of place-names usually disguise remains of what used to be Scandinavian elements, but some traces can be visible. The "sk" combination where "sh" might have been expected (e.g. "skip" instead of "ship", "ask" instead of "ash") could be a sign, as would elements of "beck", "gill", "dale", "kirk" and "thwaite". "Rook" and "worm"/"orm" could also indicate an old Scandinavian place-name, as could versions of "howe" (hau, hou, hough, how). "Thorp(e)", "holm(e)", "by", "gar(th)" and "with" would normally be the best traces in modern day place-names. A future study would be needed to show whether any of these modern traces of old Scandinavian place-names remained in use for a long time and if any of them might still be considered when naming a new village today.

6.4 Research question 4

• What probable place-name derivations have been overlooked in the past?

Several place-names have been given Old Norse derivations in the past. Some of those derivations include personal names that were rare (e.g. the Old Norse name Ali) or that might have been nicknames (e.g. Ulfr and Ormr), and many of those personal names could refer to something else (e.g. Ali being Old Norse ale used for wood from alder trees, or Ormr referring to the Old Norse word ormr 'snake'). Section 4.7 contains a list of several probable place-name derivations that were overlooked in the past, especially the derivations of Agglethorpe, Aisby, Alkborough, Althorpe, Eardisley, Hessay, High Harrington, Knapton, Risbury, Rookwith, Scunthorpe, Uckerby, Wellington and York. 125 / 237 Kahnberg 6.5 Research question 5

• Does the geographical distribution of possibly Scandinavian place-names indicate areas where the Old Norse language could have been alive long enough to impact the Old English language? Yes, such an area was found in the combined areas of upper Ure, upper Swale, upper Eden and upper Lune/Rawthey, i.e. the south-eastern areas of Cumbria and the north-western areas of Yorkshire. Nigh on all place-names in this combined area have possible Old Norse derivations, even place-names where no written form could be found before the 17th century. This might have been a bilingual area, where Old and Middle English was used when communicating with people from afar but where a version of Old Norse was used locally. That way only the locals would know that Old Norse was still spoken in England and a language used that way could be kept (secretly) alive for a long time, just like Welsh was kept alive in the early 20th century. Bilinguals tend to swap elements form one language into the other and vice versa, so an area of bilingual Old Norse and Old English speakers would have the power to invoke the strong Old Norse influence on Old English - bringing on the change to Old English and spreading it southward from the north the way it seems to have spread (Strang, 1970).

6.6 Limitations and future studies

With a limited time frame and no access to physical old maps this study was based on findings in older studies. If those findings included mistakes those mistakes might cause errors in this study as well. The current study was based on written records only, and local pronunciation of place-names was neglected. Local pronunciation might give indications where old written forms diverge. With only second or third hand information on old place- names it has not been possible to check what kind of transcription style the old scribe used and what sounds the scribe had in mind when writing down the symbols.

Several place-names lacked information and were thus excluded from the study (only mentioned as "modern" or "no info" in the spreadsheet). A future study could look up those place-names and categorise them in a similar way as in this study and that way strengthen or weaken the claims made in the current study. Future studies could also show if old Scandinavian place-name elements are used when naming new villages today. Another possible future study could look for traces of old bilingualism in the regions with high concentrations of Scandinavian place-names, as traces of such bilingualism might exist in 126 / 237 Kahnberg local dialects. The existence of such bilingualism might explain some evolutionary steps in Old English and Middle English.

The current study has given rise to an urge to visit the regions of upper Ure, upper Swale, upper Eden and upper Lune/Rawthey to listen to the local pronunciation and to search for traces of the old dialects of those valleys. Perhaps this could really be the area that had such an influence on Old English in the past! Perhaps the old dialects might contain traces! Would that there still be time for such a journey - time for such discoveries! Place-names really have stories to tell, just like Tudur Owen claimed (Welsh Place Names, 2018).

127 / 237 Kahnberg References

Bangor University. (n.d.). The Welsh-Dictionary App: Language Technologies Unit, Canolfan Bedwyr. https://www.bangor.ac.uk/canolfanbedwyr/ap_geiriaduron.php.en Bleau, J. (1646). Cvmbria; vulgo Cvmberland. Old Maps Online. https://biblio.unibe.ch/web-apps/maps/zoomify.php?pic=Ryh_1810_34.jpg&col=ryh Bleau, J. (1646). Herefordia comitatvs. Old Maps Online. https://biblio.unibe.ch/web-apps/maps/zoomify.php?pic=Ryh_1808_40.jpg&col=ryh Bleau, J. (1646). Dvcatvs Eboracensis. Old Maps Online. https://biblio.unibe.ch/web-apps/maps/zoomify.php?pic=Ryh_1810_3.jpg&col=ryh Bleau, J. (1646). Lincolnia. Old Maps Online. https://biblio.unibe.ch/web-apps/maps/zoomify.php?pic=Ryh_1809_11.jpg&col=ryh Bleau, J. (1646). Nottinghamiensis. Old Maps Online. https://biblio.unibe.ch/web-apps/maps/zoomify.php?pic=Ryh_1809_17.jpg&col=ryh Coates, R. (2017). Popular Books on English Place-names - a Serious Issue in Onomastics. http://onomastics.ru/en/content/2017-volume-14-issue-2-7 Corrigan, L. (2011). Hunting the Vikings in South Cumbria from Ambleside to Haverbrack. In HIGHAM N. & RYAN M. (Eds.), Place-names, Language and the Anglo-Saxon Landscape (pp. 105-124). Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY, USA: Boydell & Brewer. doi:10.7722/j.ctt81rvc.12 Ekwall, E. (1922). The Place-Names of Lancashire. Longmans, Green & Co. English Place-Names Society. (1990-2020). The Place-Names of Shropshire. 9 vols. The University of Nottingham. Fellows-Jensen, G. (2011). Light thrown by Scandinavian Place-Names on the Anglo-Saxon Landscape. In HIGHAM N. & RYAN M. (Eds.), Place-names, Language and the Anglo- Saxon Landscape (pp. 69-84). Woodbridge, Suffolk, UK; Rochester, NY, USA: Boydell & Brewer. doi:10.7722/j.ctt81rvc.10 Fennell, B. A. (2001). A History of English: A Sociolinguistic Approach. Blackwell Publishing. Graham, A. (Development producer). (2012). The story of Wales, part 2 [TV-series]. BBC; Open university. Jamie van Brewen. (2011, Oct 3). Yorkshire Dialect. From BBC's "The Story of English" [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScELaXMCVis Keith, P. (Presenter). (2016). Hidden villages, season 3, part 3 [TV-series]. BBC. McClure, E. (1910). British Place-Names in their Historical Setting. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. Mills, A. D. (1991) A Dictionary of British Place Names. Oxford University Press.

128 / 237 Kahnberg Mitchell, B., & Robinson, F. C. (2012). A Guide to Old English. John Wiley & Sons Ltd. National Museum Wales. (2007, May 1). Vikings on Anglesey. https://museum.wales/articles/2007-05-01/Vikings-on-Anglesey/ Pettersson, G. (1996). Svenska språket under sjuhundra år. Studentlitteratur AB. Pillon, G. (2009). When "niman" became "take" - The influence of Old Scandinavian on Old English and on English place-names in the Viking period (research proposal). Università ca'Foscari di Venezia. Pollington, S. (1993). Wordcraft - New English to Old English Dictionary and Thesaurus. Anglo-Saxon Books. Powell-Smith, A. (n.d.). Open Domesday. http://opendomesday.org/ [retrieved between October 29 and December 13 2020] Round, J. H. (1922). Norse place-names in Essex. Colchester. Sedgefield, W. J. (1915). The Place-Names of Cumberland and Westmorland. Longmans, Green & Co. Shannon, B. (2021). Cumbria Domesday - Background General. Cumbria County History Trust. https://www.cumbriacountyhistory.org.uk/cumbria-domesday-background-general Strang, B. M. H. (1970). A history of English. Routledge. Svenska Akademien. (n.d.). Svenska Akademiens Ordbok. http://www.saob.se The Domesday Book Online. (2019). The Domesday Book Online. http://domesdaybook.co.uk/ [retrieved between October 29 and December 13 2020] Wahlberg, M. (2016). Svenskt ortnamnslexikon. Institutet för språk och folkminnen. Welsh Place Names. (2018). Disappearing Welsh Names [Video]. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yLQ6XlG0MQ4 Williamson, W. A. (1849). Local etymology or Names of places in the British isles, and in other parts of the world. Longmans, Green & Co. Wisconsin University (n.d.). Search Icelandic Online Dictionary. http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/IcelOnline/Search.TEId.html

129 / 237 Kahnberg

Appendix 1

All the place-names included in the study and their (sometimes hypothetical) derivations, listed area by area.

Humber

Kingston Kyngeston o

Barton Bertune possibly Ber-tune, björn-boplats

Hessle Hesel possibly OE hæsel, ON hesli – hassel

Ferriby Ferebi scand ferjeby (ferja + by) known

Melton Medeltone possibly Methal + tun – mellanboplatsen

Welton Welleton o

Brough Burg possibly OE burh, ON borg

Elloughton Elgendon possibly ON helgi, ON elgr – elgatun

Crabley creek o

Broomfleet Brungareflet possibly ON brúnn (brown) or brúnnr (well) + ON garða (farm) + ON flet (flat piece of land). The brown farm on the flat land, or the farm with the well on the flat land.

Whitton Witenai possibly Hwita's island (ON øy), Hwita's land (OE ég) (also possibly ON “víðir” = willow)

Winteringham Winteringeham o ON vetr = winter

Faxfleet Faxflete o Stream near which coarse grass grows (possibly Old Swedish “Fäx” = Mod Swedish “Ladugård”)

Thorngumbald Torne o OE thorn / ON þyrnir 130 / 237 Kahnberg Ryehill Ryel o

Keyingham Caingeham o

Ottringham Otringeham possibly ON Otur (otter) + Hring + Heim

Winestead Wifestede o

Patrington Patringtona o

Welwick Welwic o

Weeton Wideton possibly ON “víðir” (willow) or “víðr” (wood) + tun

Skeffing Sckeftling o 1200

Easington Esintone possibly ON “asni” = donkey + tun (or “as” in plural + tun – enclosed field of the gods)

Grimsby Grimesbi scand Grimr + by known

Healing Hegelinge possibly ON haga (pasture) + lyng ( = heather ) (ljunghage)

Stallingborough Stalingeburg o

Immingham Immingeham o

Habrough Haburg mixed OE heah → ON hár (hair) + burh/borg known

Killingholme Chelvingeholm possibly ON Kjúklingur, Danish Kylling + holme

Halton Haltune o

Ulceby Ulvesbi scand Ulfr + by known

Wootton Udetune possibly ON Óðinn + tun = Odin's field/pasture/place (other possibility, see Weeton above)

Thornton curtis Torentune possibly OE thorn / ON þyrnir or ON Thor + tun

131 / 237 Kahnberg Barrow Barewe o

New Holland g 1800

Paull Pagele o

Salthaugh Saltehache 1150, Saltehagh 1172 scand ON salt (salt) + haga (pasture) known

Sunk island modern (wiki) a sand bank that started appearing out of the sea in the 17th century

The old hall no info

Humber Humbri fluminis 720 Humbre 9c latin name of unknown origin (Mills, 1991)

Salt end modern established in the 20th century

Anlaby Unlouebi, Anlauebi 1203 scand ON name Óláfr + ON by, or possibly ancient Swedish “anlofva” (sailing term used when approaching land with the wind from the side) + by partly known

Swanland Swein's land, Suenelund 1189 scand ON name Swein + ON Lunrd (grove) known

Goxhill Golse, Gosla 12c, Gousele 12c scand ON *”gausli” (place at the gushing spring), or western ON “gás” (goose) + ON “hlid” (slope) or ON “sil”/”sel” (calm water). The place-name doesn't seem to be near any hill, so “sel”/”sil” seems likely. partly known

South end no info

132 / 237 Kahnberg Trent

Adlingfleet Adelingesfluet possibly ON Adelinge + floti / OE Aethelinge + fleot

Alkborough Alchebarge possibly Albergen, ON bjarg, German “gebirge”. Old/Mod Swedish “Al” = Alder. +40m hill range close to the river, i.e. a very possible place for alders to grow.

Coleby Colebi possibly Kolby, ON Kol = coal, ON by = village

Thealby Tedulfbi scand Thjóthulfr + by known

Burton Burtone scand Borg + tun, Stather = plural of ON stoth known

Garthorpe Gerulftorp scand Geirulfr + torp known

Fockerby Fulcwardby scand ON Folk ( = people ) + “varða” ( = protect ) + By

Luddington Ludintone o

Eastoft Eschetoft scand Eski (ash tree) + toft known

Flixborough Flischesburg scand Flik's borg known

Winterton Wintringatun o

Roxby Roxebi scand Hrókr + by. Hrókr = rook, castle. Råkeby – Rook-village

Dragonby Corieltauvi ? Pre-Roman

Appleby Aplebi scand Äpple + by known

Crowle Crule o

Ealand Aland possibly ON á (river) + land / OE ea + land

Keadby probably modern

133 / 237 Kahnberg Gunness Gunness scand ON Gunnar + ON nes (headland) known

Scunthorpe Escumetorp scand (outlying land of Skuma?????) probably not! Most likely connected to ancient Swedish ”skotmather” (ON skotmaðr) just like the old Swedish village ”Skummeslöv”. “Skotmadher” means shooter, though in this case it could also mean “scotsman”. partly known

Althorpe Aletorp scand Altorp. Alder + thorp. Old/Mod Swedish “al” + “torp”. (NOT someone called Áli) partly known

Sandtoft Sandtofte scand ON sandr + toft known

Belton Beltone scand ancient Swedish “bol” (farm/farmhouse) + tun partly known

Beltoft Beltot scand ancient Swedish “bol” (farm/farmhouse) + toft partly known

West Butterwick Butruic o

Epworth Epeurde possibly Upp + jord (ON upp + iorð) = up + earth

Messingham Mæssingaham possibly ON “messing” (brass) + ON “heim”

Westwoodside modern, (previously 5 villages – Park, Newbigg, Nethergate, Upperthorpe/Overthorpe and Commonside)

Haxey Acheseia scand ON Hakis ey (Haki's island) or aker + ey (cultivated island) known

Owston ferry Oston scand ON Aust + tun (east town) known 134 / 237 Kahnberg East ferry East Kinnard's ferry founded in 13c

Susworth Susworth o founded in 13c

Scotterthorpe Scaltorp scand Possibly ON “skál” (bowl) instead of “Skalli” known

Scotter Scottere scand scotsmen known

Scotton Scottun o Scot + tun

Northorpe Nortorp / Torp scand ON nor + torp

Laughton Loctone o Loc + tun

Blyton Blitone possibly ON / ancient+modern Swedish “bly” (led) + tun

Misterton Minstretone o Minister + tun

West Stockwith Stochithe possibly Stocc + hyth (or ON ”stokkr” (log) + ”víðr” (wood))

East Stockwith Stochithe possibly Stocc + hyth (or ON ”stokkr” (log) + ”víðr” (wood))

Walkeringham Wacheringham possibly ON “vakti” (quail) + hring + heim

Walkerith modern

Pilham Pileham possibly Old Eastern Norse “pil”/”pile” (willow) + heim

Aisby Asebi scand Probably Old Danish / Old Norwegan “as”/”æs” (Norse God) + ON by (probably not someone called Ási) partly known

Morton Mortune possibly Mor + tun (OE = ON)

Gainsborough Gainesburg possibly probably ON “gagn” (shortcut) + borg

135 / 237 Kahnberg Gringley on the hill Gringeleia possibly possibly ON “hring” (ring) + “lag” (water) or ON “hringl” (rattle) + “eiga” (possess)

Beckingham Bechingeham o OE bæc + ing + ham

Clayworth Clauorde o

Saundby Sandebi scand ON sandr + by partly known

Springthorpe Springetorp possibly ON “springa” (burst/crack/unfold) + “torp”

Sturgate ? no info

Heapham Iopeham o

Upton Upptune possibly ON = OE

Kexby Cheftesbi possibly possibly ON “hefta” (bind, hinder) + “by”

Willingham Wilingeham possibly possibly ON “velr” (fish trap) or ON “víðir” (willow) + ”lung” (sandy ground). Compare Swedish “Velinga”

Knaith Cheneide o

Lea Lea o

South Wheatley Wateleie possibly ON = OE (vete + leie)

Clarborough Claureburg possibly ON = OE (klöver + borg)

Sturton le steeple Estretone o Stræt + tun

Fenton Fenton 1242 o

Leverton Leuretune possibly Possibly ON “ler” (clay) + tun

Gate burton ? medieval settlement but modern name

Littleborough Litelburg possibly ON = OE

136 / 237 Kahnberg Stow Stou possibly OE “stow” (holy place) / ON “stof”, ancient Swedish “stova” (cottage)

Little Gringley ? no info

Grove Grava possibly OE graf (grove) / ON grafar (graves)

Treswell Tireswelle o

Rampton Rametone o

Woodbeck modern

Marton Martone o Ouse 76

Brampton Brantune possibly possibly ON “brandur” (fire) or ON name Brand + tun

Torksey Turecesieg 900 / Torchesey DB

possibly possibly ON “sigur” (victory) or ON “síga” (sink) combined with ancient Danish “thora” (hill), but most likely the earliest version is slightly off and it should be the name Torkil and ON “ey” - Torkilsey.

Sturton Stratone o Stræt + tun

Bransby Branzbi possibly possibly ON “brandur” (fire) or ON name Brand + by

Ingleby Englebi scand village of the Englishmen known

Trent celtic a Celtic river name possibly meaning “the trespasser” (Mills, 1991) known

137 / 237 Kahnberg Ouse

Blacktoft Blaketoft scand OE “blæc” (black) or ON “bleikr” (pale) + ON toft known

Ousefleet Useflete o

Yokefleet Iucufled scand ON name “Jókell” + ON “fleyta” (float) or ON “flet” (bunk) known

Metham modern

Whitgift Witegift scand possibly ON “gifta” (marry) or “gifting” (wedding) + “hvitur” (white) partly known

Reedness Rednesse possibly OE ”red” (reed) + ”næs” (headland), or possibly ON “reið “ (ride) + nes (headland, cape)

Laxton Laxinton o

Saltmarshe Saltemersc o

Swinefleet Swyneflet 1195 o possibly ON “svin” (swine), but not likely due to date

Goole Gulle 1362 o

Hook Huck 12c o possibly eastern ON “hok” (hook, corner, peninsula), like the Swedish village “Hok”.

Kilpin Celpene 959, possibly ON “kalfr” (calf) + “penn” (nice) or Chelpin DB “pinni” (pin, stick), or OE “celf” + “penn” (enclosure for calves)

Howden dyke modern

Howden Heafuddene 959, possibly ON “höfði” (headland) or “höfuð” (head) Hovedene DB + tun

138 / 237 Kahnberg Knedlington Cledinton possibly ON “hlaða” (barn), ”hlaði” (pile) or “klénn” (poor) + tun

Asselby Aschileby scand ON name “Æskil” + by known

Airmyn Ermenie scand ON “mynni” (river mouth) + Aire known

Newsholme Neuhusam possibly ON = OE ((at the) new houses) partly known

Drax Drac scand ON “draga” (pull) known

Brind Brende possibly ON “brenndi” (burned)

Wressle Weresa, o OE “wræsel” = eastern ON “vrese”

Wresel 1183

Camblesforth Camelesforde o

Barlow Bernlege 1030, possibly ON “ber” (bear) + “hlýja” (lair, den)

Berlai DB

Hemingbrough Hemingburgh 1080, Hamiburg DB

scand probably ON “heim” (home) or “hamr” (shape) + borg (though possibly ON name Heming) partly known

Cliffe Clive possibly OE “clif” (cliff) or ON “hlífa” (protect) or “klifa” (climb). Very flat area, so why call it “cliff”?

South Duffield Suddufeld possibly ON (sud+dufe+felt) = OE (south + dove + field) – common germanic?

Brayton Breithe-tun 1030, Bretone DB

scand ON “breiðr” (broad) + tun

Thorpe Willoughby Torp scand ON “torp” known 139 / 237 Kahnberg Selby Seleby scand ON “selja” + by known

Osgodby Asgozbi scand ON “as” + “guð” + by

Barlby Bardulbi scand ON name “Barðulfr” + by

Wistow Wicstow possibly ON “vik” (bay) + stue (1-room cottage), OE wic + stow, (common germanic?)

Skipwith Schipewic possibly ON “skip” (ship) + genitive + “vik” (bay) (skeppsvik)

Riccall Richale possibly ON “reykr” (smoke) + “hola” (hole)

Kelfield Chelchefeld possibly ON “kalk” (chalk) + felt” (field), or OE calc + feld, (common germanic?)

Cawood Kawuda o

Biggin modern

Fenton Fentune 963, Fentun

possibly ON “fen” (marsh) + tun, OE “fenn” + tun

North Milford Myleford o

Kirkby wharfe Chirchebi scand known

Ulleskelf Oleschel, Ulfskelf 1170

scand ON name “Ulfr” or ON “ulfr” (wolf) + “skjalf” (shelf) partly known

Bolton percy Bodeltune possibly possibly ON “bál” (OE “bæl”, pile of wood for a fire) or “bulr” (timber) + tun, or OE “bothl” + tun one version known

Appleton roebuck Æppeltune + Rabuk

140 / 237 Kahnberg scand ON “rábukkr” (roebuck) + “æpli” (apple) + tun

Acaster selby Acastre, Acastre Seleby 1285

scand ON “á” (river) + OE ceaster + ON “selja” + by

Stillingfleet Steflingefled scand ON “stefni” (prow) + “fleyta” (float) or “flet” (bunk, flat piece of land)

Escrick Ascri, Eskrik 1169

scand ON “eski” (ash) + “rikr” (rich) or ancient Danish ”righæ” (kingdom) partly known

Deighton Distone, Dicton 1176

possibly ON = OE (“diki” + tun / “dic” + tun), (common

germanic?) known

Acaster malbis Acastre, Acastre Malebisse 1252

scand ON “á” (river) + OE ceaster + family name

Crockey hill - modern?

Bishopthorpe Torp scand known

Copmanthorpe copeman torp scand Outlying village belonging to the merchants known

Askham bryan Ascham scand ON “askr” + “heim” / OE “æsc” + “ham” (the hard k indicates scandinavian influence) known

Middlethorpe Thorpe scand ON “thorp” known

141 / 237 Kahnberg Knapton Cnapetone possibly ON “knapi” (rider) or “knapi” (squire) + tun (possibly connected with Swedish place name “Knapasjö”)

York Ebórakon 150, Euruic

celt + scand Celtic place-name replaced by Scandinavian Euruic based on ON ”iorð” (earth, soil) + “vik” (bay).

Huntington Huntindune o hill where the hunting takes place known

New earswick modern

Rawcliffe Roudeclife scand ON “rauthr” (red) + “hlifa” (protect) or eastern ON “klippe” (cliff) or OE “clif” (cliff) partly known

Poppleton Popeltune 972, Popletone DB possibly ON = OE (ON “poppel” + tun), (common germanic?)

Overton Ovretun possibly ancient Swedish “öfra” (upper) + tun

Skelton Scheltun possibly ON “skel” (shell) + tun (“skjelf” and “skál” are other alternatives)

Hessay Hesdesai, Heslesaia 12c

possibly possibly ON “hest” (horse) + genitive + ey (island), later modified due to “hests” being hard to pronounce when the word “hest” was no longer used

Shipton Hipton o

Beningbrough Benniburg o

Moor monkton Monechetone, Moremonketon 1402

o 142 / 237 Kahnberg Nun monkton Monechetone, Nunmonkton 1397

o

Newton Neuuetone o common germanic

Linton Luctone, Linton 1176

possibly ON = OE (“lin” (flax) + tun), possibly ON “hlynur” (maple)

Thorpe underwood possibly no references available, but thorpe indicates scand

Kirk hammerton Hambretone, Kyrkehamerton 1226

scand ON “hamar” (hammer) + tun. Kirk/kyrke indicates Scandinavian influence partly known

Green hammerton Hambretone, Grenhamerton 1176 possibly ON “hamar” (hammer) + tun. Possibly ON “grein” (ancient Swedish/Danish/Norwegian “gren”) (twig)

Whixley Cucheslage possibly Ancient Swedish “kokker” (cook) + genitive + “lavi”/”lage” (simple sleeping place)

Great ouseburn Useburne o

Marton mertun? o marton, west riding

Aldwark Aldeuuerc o

Youlton Ioleton scand possibly ON “hjól” + tun partly known

Tollerton Toletun 972, Tolentun

scand ON “tollr” / ancient Danish “toln” + tun

143 / 237 Kahnberg Alne Alna 1050, Alne DB

scand ON “alin” (the distance from the fingertips to the elbow)

Flawith Flathwayth scand ON “flatr” (flat) + “vath” (ford) known

Tholthorpe Turulfestorp scand ON name “Torulfr”/”Thorulfr” + genitive + torp known

Lower dunsforth Dunesford possibly ON “dunesvördr” (protector of the downs), phonetic assimilation

Balkholme Blackholme, 1646 possibly no record of how old it is, but “holme” indicates a possibly ON background (ON holm – small island)

Ouse celtic celtic or pre-celtic river name (meaning “water”) (Mills, 1991) known

Ure

Aldborough Burg, Aldeburg 1145

possibly ON “borg” (fort)

Boroughbridge Pontem de Burgo 1155, Burbrigg 1220

o

Milby Mildebi possibly ON “mildr” (mild, gentle, soft) + by

Langthorpe Torp, Langliuetorp scand ON “lang” (long) + “lif” (life) + “torp” partly known

Kirby hill Chirchbi scand ON “kirkia” + by known

Minskip Minescip o

Roecliffe - modern

144 / 237 Kahnberg Bishop monkton Munecatun 1030, Monucheton

o

Littlethorpe Thorpe scand ON “torp”

Skelton Scheldone possibly ON “skel” (shell) + tun

Bridge hewick Heawic, Hewik atte brigg 1309

possibly possibly ON “heiðr” (heath) + “vik” (bay), or OE “heah” + “wic”

Marton-le-moor Marton 1198 o

Copt hewick Heawic, Coppedehaiwic 1208

possibly possibly ON “heiðr” (heath) + “vik” (bay), or OE “heah” + “wic”

Ripon Hrypis 715, Ripum possibly ON “rjúpa”, ancient Danish “rype” (grouse)? An old tribe was called “Hrype”, but word origin unknown

Sharow Sharou 1130 o

Hutton conyers Hotone, Hotonconyers 1198

possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE “hoh”+tun

North lees - medieval/roman settlement, but modern name

Nunwick Nonnewic o

Sutton grange Sudtone scand ON “sud” (south) + tun

North stainley Stanleh 972, Nordstanlaia

mix OE “stan”+”leah” replaced by ON “steinn”+”leie” known

145 / 237 Kahnberg Wath Wat scand ON “vath” (ford) known

Melmerby Malmerbi scand ON “malmr” (sandy field) known

Azerley Asserle scand ON “Æsir” (gods) + “lægi” (Danish “leje”, Norwegian “leie”) (place) partly known

Kirkby malzeard Chirchebi, Kirkebi Malesard 1105

scand ON “kirkia” + by known

Grewelthorpe Torp, Gruelthorp 1281

scand ON “torp” known

Mickley - modern

West tanfield Tanefeld possibly ON “tana” (stretch) + “felt” (field)

Thornborough Thornbergh 1198 possibly ON “þyrnir” + “berg”, but oddly late date

Nosterfield Nostrefeld 1204 o

Binsoe Binzhou 1190 o

Aldburgh - no info

Warthermarske Wardonmersk mix Marsh at a Watch-Hill (OE + ON) known

Fearby Federbi scand ON “fjóðr” (feather) (Danish “fjeder”) + by known

Masham Massan, Masham 1153

possibly ON “masse” (mass, dough) + “heim”

Low burton Burtone possibly ON “borg” (fort) + tun

Well Welle o (possibly ON “volla”/”vellir” = slope, place, open high field, pasture)

146 / 237 Kahnberg Low ellington Ellintune possibly ON “áll” (eel), “alr” (alder tree) or “aldin” (fruit) + tun (similar to OE “el” + tun)

Snape Snape 1154 possibly OE *”snæp” (boggy piece of land) or ON “snap” (poor pasture) known

Thornton watlass Torretum + Wadlespossibly ON “þurr” (dry) + tun, ON “vath” (ford) + “lægi” (place)

Thirn Thirne possibly ON “þyrnir” or OE ”thyrne” (both meaning ”thorn” / “thorn tree”)

Charlcot - no info

Rookwith Rocwid possibly ON “hrókr” (rook) + “víðir” (willow) or ”víðr” (wood)

Burrill Borel o OE burh + hyll

Cowling Collinghe possibly ancient Swedish “kol” (carbon) + “land” + “hedh” (heath) / “hereth” (county) → (“Kullings härad” in southwestern Sweden)

Firby Fredebi scand eastern ON “fred”/”fredh” (peace) + by

Patrick brompton Brunton scand ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brunnr” (well) + tun

Newton-le-willows Neweton o

Arrathorne Ergthorn 13c o (possibly ON “erg” - see the Cumbria section)

Hunton Huntune scand ON “hundr” (dog) + tun

Akebar scand Danish name in origin, one of Yorkshire's lost villages. A village settlement even before the Viking invation, an early church in the early 7c. known

Finghall Finegala, Finyngale 1157

147 / 237 Kahnberg possibly ON “fen” (marsh) + “gjalla” (cry out, sound) or “gala” (cry, scream, crow)

Hutton hang Hotun possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE “hoh”+tun

Thornton steward Tornentone possibly ON “þyrnir” or OE ”thyrne” (both meaning ”thorn” / “thorn tree”) + tun

Jervaulx Jorvalle 1145 scand ON “iorð” (earth, soil) + ancient Danish “voll” (low ridge)

East witton Witun scand ON “víðir” (willow) or “víðr” (wood) + tun

Coverham Covreham o cover (old Celtic name of the river) + ham, though could possibly be ancient Danish “kove” (hut, shelter) as in “Torekov” in southern Sweden. known

Caldbergh Caldeber scand ON “kaldr” + “berg” known

Agglethorpe Aculestorp scand ON “á” (river) + “kollr” (rounded hill) + “torp” (ancient Swedish “kulle”). Compare ”Åkulla” in southwest Sweden.

West witton Witun scand ON “víðir” (willow) or “víðr” (wood) + tun

Wensley Wendreslaga scand eastern ON “vandre” (walk, wander) + ON ”logr” (lake, wetness) or ON “lag” (lie, remain still)

Leyburn Leborne possibly eastern ON “ly” / “læ” (shelter) + “boren” / “baaren” (carried) (or OE “hleg” (shelter) +”burna” (stream))

Harmby Hernebi scand eastern ON “hjerne” (brain) + by

Spennithorne Speningetorp, Speningthorn 1184 scand ON “spann” (bucket), ON “speni” (nipple) or eastern ON “spening” (someone to mock) + torp

148 / 237 Kahnberg Constable burton Bortune scand ON “borg” (fort) + tun

Garriston Gerdestone scand eastern ON “gærde” (open field close to a farm) + genitive + tun

Bellerby Belgebi scand ON “belgr” / eastern ON “bælg” (bellows) + by partly known

Swinithwaite Swiningethwait scand ON “svithningr” (burning) + “thveit” (long and narrow area) known

Redmire Ridemare scand eastern ON “ride” (ride) + “mare” (the being thought to cause nightmares)

West burton Burton o Burh + tun

Newbiggin - o none of the “newbiggin”s seem to be old enough to be in the domesday book, though the name sounds like ON “ny” + “bygging” j ust like in the Cumbria section)

Thoralby Turoldesbi scand ON name “Thóraldr” + by known

Aysgarth Eschescard scand ON “eiki” (oak) + “skarth” (pass, gap) or ”garð” (farm), or eastern ON “æsk” (logs from ash trees) + “gard” (farm) (phonetic assimilation) partly known

Carperby Chirprebi possibly eastern ON “karpe” (carp) + by (or old Irish name Cairpre + ON by)

------

Thornton rust Toreton scand ON name “Tor” + tun

Woodhall - o

Worton Werton o OE “wyrt” (herb) + tun

Newbiggin - o 149 / 237 Kahnberg Askrigg Ascric scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + “hryggr” (back, ridge) known

Bainbridge Bainebrigg 1218 scand ON “bein” (leg, bone) + “bryggja” (bridge)

Buttersett - possibly eastern ON “borte” (far) + “setr” (place to take the animals in the summer) (+metathesis rt → tr)

Gayle - possibly ON “geil” (ravines)? (like Gayles a few miles further north)

Hawes Hawes 1614 modern

Appersett Appeltresate scand ON “appeltre” (apple tree) + “setr” (place to take the animals in the summer)

Hardraw - possibly ON “harðr” (hard) + “á” (river)

Simonstone - o Simon + tun ?

Fossdale - scand ON “foss” (rapids) + “dale” (valley)

Cotterdale - scand ON “kotar” (huts), or eastern ON “korter” (short) + “dale” (valley). Compare ”Kortedala” in Gothenburg, Sweden.

Garsdale (cumbria)

Grisdale (cumbria)

Great shunner fell - scand possibly linked to western ON “sjá” / eastern ON “skåda” (to see) or ON “hungur” (hunger) + ON “fjall” (mountain)

Ure ear w 1025, Jor 1140 (wiki) possibly possibly ON “iorð” (earth, soil), meaning a muddy/sandy river, or a Brittonic “Isura” meaning “swift/strong river”

150 / 237 Kahnberg Swale

Myton Mytun 972, Mitune possibly OE “gemythe” + tun, or ON “mót” + tun (both OE and ON versions correspond to “village at meeting place”, and the settlement is where Swale and Ure meet)

Humberton Burtun, Burtone possibly OE burh + tun, or ON “borg” + tun

Helperby Helperby 972, Helprebi scand ancient Swedish “hiälpare” (Danish “hjælper”, Icelandic ”hjálpari”) meaning helper + by

Brafferton Bradfortune o Brad + ford + tun

Raskelf Raschel scand ON “rá” (roe-deer) + “skjalf” (shelf) known

Easingwold Eisingewald possibly Possibly ON “ising” (glare ice) + “vollr” (wood, low ridge), ancient Danish “vold”

Husthwaite Hustwait 1167 scand ON “hus” (house) + “thveit” (long and narrow area) known

Thormanby Tormozbi scand ON name “Þormundr” or ”Þormóðr” + by known

Angram grange Angrum 13c o

Carlton husthwaite Carleton scand ON name “Karl” + tun known

Birdforth Bernebi scand ON “ber” / “biorn” (bear) + by

Hutton-sessay Hottune possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE “hoh”+tun

Little hutton Hottune possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE “hoh”+tun

Sessay Sessay possibly ON “sef” (sedge?) + “ey” (island), or OE “sedg” + “eg”

151 / 237 Kahnberg Pilmoor - modern

Fawdington - modern

Crakehill Crecala scand ON “kráka” (crow) + “al” (adler), “hola” (hole) or “hallr” (flat slanting stone)

Cundall Cundel o OE cun (cows) + dæl known

Norton-le-clay Nortone possibly ON “norð” + tun, or OE “north” + tun (common germanic?)

Dishforth Disforde o

Rainton Rainincton possibly possibly ON “hreinn” (reindeer) or “hreina” (make clean) + tun

Asenby Æstanesbi scand ON name “Eysteinn” + by known

Topcliffe Topeclive possibly possibly ON “toppr” (top) + “kleif” (cliff), or OE “topp” + “clif” with same meaning

Dalton Deltune possibly ON “dale” + tun” or OE “dæl” + tun

Little thirkleby Turchileby scand ON name “Þorkell” + by known

Kilburn Chileburne o

Osgodby Asgozbi scand ON name “Ásgautr” + by (but more likely ON “as” (god) + “guð” (god) + by) known

Sutton-under-whitestonecliff Sudtune possibly ON “suðr” (south) + tun

Thirlby Trillebia scand ON “þræll” (slave) + by known

Felixkirk Felicekirke 13c scand Scandinavian “kirk” + name of saint known

Thornbrough - modern

South kilvington Chelvinctune possibly possibly ON “kalfr” (calf) + tun, perhaps combined with ON “hegna” (fence in)

152 / 237 Kahnberg Thirsk Tresh scand ON “thresk” (marsh) known

Sowerby Sorebi scand ON “saurr” (sour) + by known

Thorpefield Torp scand ON “torp”

Carlton miniott Carletun scand ON name “Karl” + tun known

Skipton Schipetune scand ON “skip” (ship) + tun

Baldersby Baldreby scand ON god “Balder” + by

Middleton quernhow Middletun scand ON “meðal” (in-between) + tun. Quernhow sounds very much like Swedish “Kvarnhög” (Mill hill)

Sutton howgrave Sudtone scand ON “suðr” (south) + tun

Howgrave Hograve o OE hol + graf (grove in the hollow)

Kirklington Cherdinton, Chirtlintuna 1150 possibly ON “skyrta” (shirt) + “lín” (flax) + tun

Pickhill Picala possibly ON “púki” (devil, evil spirit) or “pík” (peak) + “hola” / “holr” (hole) or “hallr” (flat slanting stone)

Sinderby Senerebi scand ON “sunnr” (south), “syndari” (sinner), ”sendinn” (sandy) or ”seinn” (late) + by. Compare to Norwegian “seinere” and Swedish “senare”.

Ainderby quernhow Aynderby scand Eindrithi's village (Eindrithi was a Viking, and the name means “sole-ruler”), Quernhow comes from Whernhowe and means mill-hill (Swedish “kvarnhög”). known

Howe scand ON “haug” (hill) known

Sandhutton Hotune, Sandhoton 12c possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE

153 / 237 Kahnberg “hoh”+tun. Sand from ON “sandr” or OE “sand”.

Breckenbrough Bracheberch scand ancient Swedish “brækne” (bracken) + “berg” (mountain)

Holme Hotone possibly ancient Danish “høgh” (high) + tun, or OE “hoh”+tun.

Kirby wiske Kirkebi scand usually from ON “kirkia” + by known

Thornton-le-street Torentun possibly ON “þyrnir” or OE ”thyrne” (both meaning ”thorn” / “thorn tree”) + tun

North kilvington Chelvintun possibly possibly ON “kalfr” (calf) + tun, perhaps combined with ON “hegna” (fence in)

Upsall Upsala or Opsala scand most likely linked to Uppsala in Sweden

Knayton-with-brawith Cheniueton scand ON “knapi” or ancient Danish “knabe” (squire) or ON “knífr” (knife) + tun

Borrowby Bergebi scand ON “berg” + by known

Thornton-le-beans Torentun possibly ON “þyrnir” or OE ”thyrne” (both meaning ”thorn” / “thorn tree”) + tun

Thornton-le-moor Torentone possibly ON “þyrnir” or OE ”thyrne” (both meaning ”thorn” / “thorn tree”) + tun

Otterington Otrinctun scand ON Otur (otter) + Hring + tun

Maunby Mannebi scand ON name “Magni” + by known

Carthorpe Caretorp scand ON “kári” (shiver, breeze) + torp partly known

Burneston Brenningston scand ON name “Brýningr” + tun known

Theakston Eston, Thekeston 1157 possibly possibly ON “tak” (take (noun)) or “díki” (ditch) + tun

154 / 237 Kahnberg Bedale Bedale scand ON “beð” (bed, garden bed) or “ber” (bare) + “dale” (valley)

Aiskew Echescol, Aykescogh 1235 scand ON “eik” (oak) + “skógr” (forest) known

Leeming Leming 12c o

Londonderry modern

Gatenby Ghetenesbi scand possibly ON “geit” (goat) + by, or Old Irish name “Gaithan” + by

Warlaby Werlegesbi scand possibly ON “vorðr” (watch) or “vær” (calm) + “lǽgi” (place, position) + by

Northallerton Aluretune, North Alverton 1293 scand ON “alfr” (gnome) + tun

Bullamoor - modern

Brompton Bruntun scand ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brunnr” (well) + tun

Yafforth Iaforde o OE “ea” + “ford”

Ainderby steeple Aynderby scand Eindrithi's village (Eindrithi was a Viking, and the name means “sole-ruler”) known

Thrintoft Tirnetofte scand ON “þyrnir” + “toft” known

Scruton Scurvetone scand ON name “Skurfa” or ”skurðr” (cut, ditch) + tun known

Little holtby Holtebi scand ON “holt” (elevated forested slope) + by

Kirkbridge - scand ON “kirkia” + “bryggja” (bridge)

Little crakehall Crachele scand ON “hrókr” (rook) or “kráka” (crow) + ”hallr” (ancient Swedish ”häll”) (sloping stone)

Langthorne Langetorp, Langethorn 1100 scand ON “lang” (long) + torp

155 / 237 Kahnberg Hackforth Acheford o

Kirkby fleetham Fleteha mix OE name converted to Scand

Fencote Fencote scand ON “fen” (marsh) + “kot” (cottage)

Lovesome hill - no info

Danby wiske Danebi scand ON “danir” (danes) + by known

Streetlam - modern

Great langton Langeton scand ON “lang” (long) + tun = OE

Kiplin Chipeling possibly ON “kippr” (stretch) + “lyng” (heather)

Whitwell - possibly possibly ON “hveiti” (wheat) + “volla”/”vellir” (slope, place, open high field, pasture)

Forest - o

Ellerton Elreton scand ON “elri” (alders) + tun known

Catterick Katouraktónion 150, Catrice Celtic latin misunderstanding of original Celtic name known

East appleton Apelton scand most likely ON “apaldr” (apple) + tun, possibly OE “æppel” + tun

Tunstall Tunestale scand tun + genitive + dale

Scotton Scottune o OE “scotta” (scots) + tun known

Hipswell Hiplewelle o OE “hyp” (landing-place) + welle known

Colburn Corburne, Coleburn 1198 possibly ancient Swedish/Norwegian “kåre” (shiver, breeze) + ancient Swedish “burin” (born, carried), or OE “col” + “burna”

156 / 237 Kahnberg Bolton Boletone possibly possibly ON “bál” (OE “bæl”, pile of wood for a fire) or “bulr” (timber) + tun, or OE “bothl” + tun

Scorton Scortone scand ON “skor” (ditch, ravine) + tun known

Uckerby Ukerby 1198 scand possibly ON “akur” / ”akr” (field) + by, or (though unlikely) named after someone called “Ukyrri”

Pepper arden no info

Birkby Bretebi scand ON “bretar” (britons) + by known

Cowton Cudtone, Cotun possibly OE “cu” or ON “kú” (cow) + tun, common Germanic? known

Moulton Moltun possibly ON “mold” (powder) or ancient Swedish “muld” + tun, or OE “mul” (mule) + tun

Skeeby Schirebi, Schittebi 1187 scand possibly ON “skyti” (protect) or “skytta” (shoot) or ancient Danish “sketh” (where roads meet) + by (compare Swedish “Skedala”) partly known

Richmond Richemund 1110 french OF “riche” + “mont” known

Brokes no info

Hudswell Hudreswelle, Hudeleswell 12c o Hude's well known

Middleton tyas Middletun possibly ON “meðal” (in-between) + tun, or OE ”middel” + tun

Gilling west Ingetlingum 731, Ghellinges scand ON “engi” (meadow) + “ling” (heather) in dative (Note the early date!)

Hartforth o 157 / 237 Kahnberg Downholme Dune, Dunum 12c possibly ON “dunr” / “dúnn” (horde), or OE “dun” (down)

Marske Mersche o OE “mersc” (marsh) or opssibly ON ”marr” with the same meaning known

Skelton Scelton 12c possibly OE “scelf” (shelf) or ON “skel” (shell), “skelfa” (startle, frighten), “skelfur” (shake) + tun

Stainton scand ON “steinn” + tun known

Ellerton abbey Elceton or Elreton scand ON “elri” (alders) + tun known

Marrick Marige scand ON “marr” (marsh) + “ríki” (kingdom, country, land), ancient Danish ”righæ” partly known

Grinton Grinton possibly ON “grind” (gate) + tun, or OE “grene” (green) + tun partly known

Fremington Fremington possibly ancient Swedish “främade” (stranger) or ON “framr” (forward, brave) + tun

Reeth Rie, Rithe 1184 possibly ON “ríki” (kingdom, country, land) or ancient Danish “righæ” (same meaning), or possibly OE “rith”

Healaugh Hale, Helagh 1200 scand ancient Swedish “heþ”, ON ”heiðr” (heath) + ancient Swedish “lagh”, ON “lag” (law) or ancient Swedish “lagher” (lake, water) or ON “lág” (hollow) or ON “lágur” (low)

Kearton Karretan 13c, Kirton 1298 scand ON “kiarr” (swamp, bog, marsh) + tun

Feetham Fytun 1242 scand ON “fitjum” (dative plural of “fit”) known

Low row comes from Norse “The Wra” + Raw scand known

158 / 237 Kahnberg Crackpot Crakepote 1298 scand ON “kráka” (crow) + ME “potte”. Note that the ancient Swedish word “potta” and old Danish word “potte” have the same meaning as ME “potte”. known

Gunnerside comes from ON “Gunnar” + “sætr” scand known

Satron comes from ON “sætr” scand known

Ivelet possibly possibly ancient Swedish “idhe” (timber from yew) + ON “lǽgr”, ancient Swedish “läghe” (position, camp) - “the yew camp”

Muker Meuhaker 1274 scand ON “mjór” (narrow) or ancient Swedish “mo” (sandy area) + ON “akr” (field, acre) partly known

Thwaite (thveit) scand ON “thveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Angram Angram 12c possibly possibly ON “angra” (trouble, bother) or “angur” (greif, remorse)

Keld Appeltrekelde 1301scand ON “apaldr” (apple) + “tre” (tree) + “kelda” (bog, morass). “Appeltre” means apple tree in Swedish, Danish and Norwegian.

West stonesdale scand coal mining village as far back as 14c

Birkdale Birkedale c1200 scand ON “birki” (birch) + “dalr” (valley) known

Swale possibly OE “swalwe” (rushing water) or ON “svala” / eastern ON ”swalae” (swallow, i.e. the bird) partly known

159 / 237 Kahnberg Cumbria

Kershopefoot Kirkfop foot, 1646 k / o English version based on a possibly Celtic river root (or related to Welsh “câr” meaning relative), or something based on Scandinavian “kirkia”?

Nook no info

Blackpool gate o Roman settlement, but not on the 1646 map

Oakshaw possibly Possibly ON “eiki” + “haugh” (oaks' hill)

Catlowdy Hathowate, 1646 possibly Possibly ancient Swedish / ancient Danish “haghi” (pasture) + ”tveit” (long and narrow area) - ”hagtveit” / “hatveit”

Roadhead no info

Bewcastle Bothecastre 12c, Buchastre 1178 scand ON “búð” + OE “ceaster” (possibly ON “bók” / OE “boc”) known

Roweltown scand probably modern, but based on ON name “Hroald” known

Stapleton Stalelthein 1188, Stapelton 1190, Stapleto, 1646 o OE “stapol” (hewn stone) + tun known

Spadeadam Spathe Adam 1294, Spaladam 1485, Spade Adam, 1646 possibly possibly connected to ON “spaði” (shovel)

Kirkcambeck Camboc 1177, Kirkecamboc 1280 scand ON “kirkia” + Celtic river name “cam” + ON “bekkr” (small river) known

Castlesteads Caftel ftead, 1646 remains of a Roman fort in the area

Walton Waltun 1175, Walton 1352, Walston, 1646 possibly ON “vollr” (open grassy area) or OE “wall” (wall) + tun

160 / 237 Kahnberg Lanercost Lanercost 1169, Lanercoft, 1646 celtic “lannerch” (glade, clearing) known

Banks no info

Upper denton Dentun 1180, Over denton, 1646 o OE “denu” (wooded valley) + tun (very likely considering that the place is in a wide valley 100m over the sea) known

Gilsland Gillesland 1240, Gilsland, 1646 scand ON name “Gisl” or “Gilli” + land known

Tindale Silverfide (?), 1646 no info

Hallbankgate no info

Farlam Farlam 1169, Farlham 1234, Forlam, 1646 o known

Brampton Braunton 1252, Brancton c1200, Brampton 1295 possibly possibly ON “brúnn” (brown), “brunnr” (well) or “brandr” (pillar) + tun. The earliest form hints at the vowel not being an 'a' from the start. partly known

Forest head no info

Talkin Talcan 1200, Talkan 1215, Talkaneterne 1294 celtic compare Welsh “talcen” (brow of a hill) known

Laversdale Leversdale 1302, Leveresdale 1295 scand probably ON “leira” (clay) + dale - “leiersdale”. Compare “Lerdala” in SW Sweden, Leiredal (Lærdal) in Norway and Lerdalsjökul in Iceland.

Irthington Irthington 1290, Erthington 1295 o 161 / 237 Kahnberg Warwick Wardwyk 1216, Warthwik 1257, Wardswyk 1263 scand ON “varða” (ward, guard, beacon) + “vik” (bay) known

Corby hill Chorkeby 1120, Corchebi 1167 scand possibly Germanic word “kork” (used early in all Nordic languages, but might not have been present in ON unless the tree was already known by then) or perhaps ON “kyrkia” (present day Nordic dialects differ very much on the pronunciation of the current word even within the same language) though why would the same word become “chorke” here when it became “kyrke” or “kirk” in other places around Carlisle? The ending is ON “by”.

Hayton Eiton 1193, Haiton 1195, Eton 1197, Hayton 1285 possibly probably ON “heiðr” (moor, heath) + tun

How mill scand ON “haugr” (hill) known

Heads nook Heddesnucke 1572 modern

Faugh dialect word “faugh” (fallow land) known

Wetheral Wetherhala 1100, Wederhala 1186, Wetherhal 1229 scand ON “veðr” (ram) + “hola” (hole), or OE “veðer” (ram) + “halh” (meadow) known

Scarrowhill Scalewra 1240 scand ON “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) + “vrá” (tiny space) known

Cumrew Comreu 1202, Cumreu 1211, Cumrewe 1346 celtic possibly akin to Welsh “cwm rhew” (cold/frozen valley)? partly known

Cotehill Cotehill 1457 o How old is this place? known

162 / 237 Kahnberg Low hesket Heskaith 1337, Haskethes 1394, Hesketh 1404 scand ON “hestr” (horse) + “skeið” (spoon, time period) known

Aiketgate scand ON “eik” (oak) + tun + “gate” (road) known

Armathwaite Ermitethwayt 1231, Hermituait 1250, Ermingwith 1235 mixed name Hermetson + ON “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Croglin Crogline 1150, Crogelin 1195, Croclyn 1274 scand ON “krókr” (bend, turn, hook) + “lin” (flax) known

High hesket Heskaith 1337, Haskethes 1394, Hesketh 1404 scand ON “hestr” (horse) + “skeið” (spoon, time period) known

Calthwaite Calvethweyt 1285, Calnethwayt 1347, Caltwayt 1380 scand ON “kalfr” (calf – lamb child) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Brackenburgh scand ON “braka” (creak, crackle) + ”berg” (mountain). Another possibility would be eastern ON “brækne” (bracken)

Plumpton Plumton 1238, Plumpton 1274, Plomton launde 1342 scand ON “plóma” (plum tree) + tun + “lundr” (grove)

Salkeld dykes Salchild 1100, Salkylly 1251, Salehhild 1164, Saleghill 1180, Saulhill 1212, Salkhull 1230, Salochild 1237, Salighild 1242 scand probably ON “selja” (willow) + “hlíd” (hill slope). Similarity with OE “salh” (willow) + hill.

Little salkeld Salchild 1100, Salkylly 1251, Salehhild 1164, Saleghill 1180, Saulhill 1212, Salkhull 1230, Salochild 1237, Salighild 1242 scand probably ON “selja” (willow) + “hlíd” (hill

163 / 237 Kahnberg slope). Similarity with OE “salh” (willow) + hill.

Lazonby Leisingebi 1086, Laysingbi 1237 scand ON “leisingi” (freeman) + by known

Glassonby Glassanebi 1176, Glassanesby 1229 scand OE/ON name “Glassam” (son of Brictric) + by known

Kirkoswald Kircoswall 1176, Kirkoswald 1260, Kirkeosewod 1265 mixed ON “kirkia” + OE saint name “Oswald” known

Staffield Stafhole 1225, Staffeld 1243, Stafole 1245, Stafele 1249, Staffol 1260 scand ON “stafr” (post, pole) + “hola” (hole) or “fjall” (mountain), depending on what the original name was known

Ruckcroft Rucroft 1211, Rowcrofte 1572, Alderruccrofte 1241 scand ON “rugr” (rye) + OE “croft” (small enclosed field) known

Dale no info

Scale houses Scal 1290, Skales 1293 scand ON “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) known

Renwick de Ravenwick 1178, Ravenewic 1237, Ranewich 1191, Raveneswic 1240 scand ON “hrafn” (raven) + “vik” (bay)

Gamblesby Gamelesbi 1176, Gamelesby 1262 scand ON “gamall” (old) + by - “the old one's village”

Melmerby Malmerbi 1086, Melmorby 1216 scand ON “málmr” (sandy ground) + by known

Kirkhaugh Kirk haugh 1646 scand ON “kirkia” (church) + “haugr” (hill, height)

Ayle (northumberland)

164 / 237 Kahnberg Alston Aldeniston 1232 o “original form would be Aldwines tun”known

Nenthall no info

Leadgate possibly Possibly ON “hlíd” (slope) + “gata” (road)

Ainstaple Ainstapelid 1178 scand ON einstapi + bracken + hlid known

Cross fell scand ON “kross” (cross) + “fjall” (mountain)

Kirkland Kirkland 1646 scand ON “kirkia” (church) + “land” (area, land, country)

Skirwith Skirewit 1205, Skirwiht 1254, Skerwyt 1272 scand ON “skirr” (bright) + “viðr” (wood, lumber) or “víðir” (willow tree) known

Blencarn Blencarn 1211 celtic rock summit known

Milburn Milnebrunn 1200, Millenburne 1291, Milneburn 1322 scand ON “mylna” (mill) + “brunnr” (stream, brook) known

Knock Chonok-Satchild 1150 celtic hillock known

Kirkby thore Kirkebithore scand ON “kirkia” + by + ON name “Thor” in genetive (Thor's church-village)

Temple sowerby Saureby 1226 scand ON “saurr” (dirt, soil) + by known

Newbiggin scand ON “ný” (new) + “bygging” (farmstead) known

Culgaith Culgait 1160, Colgayth 1324 celtic cúl + gaith (or Welsh “cul” + “gwaith” - narrow work)

Cliburn Clibbrun 1150, Clibburn 1231, Clifburn 1250 scand ON “klif” (cliff) + “brún” (edge) or “brunnr” (stream, brook) known

165 / 237 Kahnberg Morland Morlund 11c, Morland 1150, Murland 1200 scand ON “mor” (moor) + ON “lundr” (meadow) known

Newby scand ON “ný” (new) + by known

King's meaburn Maiburne 1115, Meabrun 1125, Mebrun 1190 o OE “mæd” (meadow) + “burna” (stream). Note that the OE “burna” changes to ON “brun” for a while, showing the strong Scandinavian influence. known

Bolton Boulton 1195, Bochelton 1220, Boleton 1231, Bothelton 1238 germanic Possibly ON “bók” (beech tree) or “ból” (dwelling) + tun, or OE “boc” + tun

Colby Coleby 1140, Colleby 1170, Colby 1355 scand ON “kol” (coal) + by

Appleby-in-westmorland Appelbi 1200, Appelby 1291 scand ON “apaldr” (apple) + by

Long marton modern

Dufton Dufton 1255 scand ON “dúfa” (dove) + tun

Keisley Kifisclive 1291, Kescliff 1293, Kesclyve 1325 scand ON name /nickname “Kefsir” (mistress) + ON “klif” (cliff) known

Flakenbridge no info

Murton Morton 1290, Moretone 1294 germanic OE / ON “mor” (moor) + tun known

Hilton de Helton 1329 scand ON name “Helgi” + tun known

Sleagill Selegile 1260, Slegill 1208, Slegelle 1245, Slegil 1300 scand probably ON “selja” (willow) + “gil” (ravine) partly known

166 / 237 Kahnberg Reagill Renesgill 1240, Reingill 1241, Reuegill 1259, Refgill 1271, de Revegil 1244 scand probably ON “refr” (fox) + “gil” (ravine), as I doubt there would be many reindeers (ON “reinn”) in the area

Maulds meaburn Maiburne 1115, Meabrun 1125, Mebrun 1190 o OE “mæd” (meadow) + “burna” (stream). Note that the OE “burna” changes to ON “brun” for a while, showing the strong Scandinavian influence. known

Crosby ravensworth Crossebiraueneswarth 1202, Rauensward 1301, Ravenswart 1314, Raueneswarth 1325 scand ON “kross” (cross) + by + ”hrafn” (raven) + ”varða” (ward, protect) known

Woodfoot no info

Oddendale scand ON god name “Odin” + ON “dalr” (valley)

Drybeck Drybec 1331 scand probably ON “drjúpa” (drip, fall in drops) + “bekkr”

Great asby scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + by known

Hoff Hoff 1278 o OE name “Offa” known

Burrells o probably a 12c family name

Great ormside Ormesheued 1202 scand ON “ormr” (worm) + “hofed” (head)

Brackenber Bracanbers 12c, Brakenber 1256 possibly OE “braken” (bracken) or ON “braka” (creak, crackle) + OE ”beorg” (mound) or ON ”berg” (mountain), so either a bracken-filled mound or a creaking mountain. Another possibility would be eastern ON “brækne” with the same meaning as OE “braken”. partly known

167 / 237 Kahnberg Sandford Sandford 1314, Sampford 1260 o known

Warcop Warthecop 1201, Warthecopp 1300, Wardecoup 1255, Wardecop 1225 scand ON “varða” (ward, guard, beacon) + eastern ON “køp”/”køpunger” (a place where you could buy and sell wares – like a permanent market town) partly known

Flitholme scand ON “fljót” (stream) + “hólmr” (small island) known

Bleatarn no info

Little musgrave Musegrave 1272, Mosegrave 1260, Musgrave 1248 germanic OE “mos” + “græf” (moss + pit), or ON “mosi” + “grof” with the same meaning. known

Great musgrave Musegrave 1272, Mosegrave 1260, Musgrave 1248 germanic OE “mos” + “græf” (moss + pit), or ON “mosi” + “grof” with the same meaning. known

Church brough o probably OE “burg”

Brough sowerby Saureby 1226 scand ON “saurr” (dirt, soil) + by known

Brough Burc 1173, Burgh 1228 o OE “burg” known

North stainmore Steynmor 1281, Staynesmor 1314, Staynesmore 1325 scand ON “steinn” (stone) + “mor” (moor) known

South stainmore Steynmor 1281, Staynesmor 1314, Staynesmore 1325 scand ON “steinn” (stone) + “mor” (moor) known

Barras modern

Rookby Rokeby 1291, Rukeby 1340 scand ON “hrókr” (rook, castle) + by partly known

168 / 237 Kahnberg Kaber Kaberge 1200, Kaberberghe 1202, Kakeberge 1278 scand probably ON “kaka” (cake) + “berg” (mountain) partly known

Winton Wyntuna 1094 o

Hartley o 14c castle with village built around it

Kirkby stephen Cherkaby Stephan 1100 scand ON “kirkia” + by known

Soulby de Suleby 1226, de Suleghby 1238, Swilbye 1244 scand probably ON “súla” (pole, cleft) + by

Little ashby no info

Crosby garrett Crosseby 1231 scand ON “kross” (cross) + by known

Smardale Smeredale 1202, Smerdale 1277, Smardale 1291 scand probably ON “smár” (small, tiny) in comparative form (“smærri”) + “dalr” (valley) partly known

Wartby possibly no info, but might be from ON “varða” (guard, protect, beacon) + by

Nateby Nateby 1246 scand ON “nata” (nettles) + by known

Brownber no info, but probably not Scandinavian

Newbiggin on lune scand ON “ný” (new) + “bygging” (farmstead) known

Ravenstonedale Rauenstamdal 1223, Ravenstandal 1251, Ravenstayndale 1291 scand ON name “Hrafnstein” (raven + stone) + ON “dalr” (valley). The name has been found in the area. known

Outhgill scand ON god name “Odin” + ON “gil” (ravine) partly known 169 / 237 Kahnberg Aisgill possibly possibly ON “ass” (god) + “gil” (ravine)

Orton Orreton 1226, Oreton 1376 scand ON “orri” (blackcock) + tun

Tebay de Tibbeie 1222, Tybay 1223, Thyby 1291, Thebeye 1291, Tybbeye 1294 possibly possibly ancient Swedish “Tybast” (a poisonous berry used in old medicinal cures) or ON “þybbinn” (stout) + ON “ey” (island)

Raisbeck scand ON name “Hrridarr” + ON “bekkr” (stream) known

Kelleth Keldelyth 1293, Kellet 1286, Kellok 1316, Keldlit 1336 scand ON “kelda” (spring) + “hlíð” (slope) known

Sunbiggin Sunnebygging 1291 scand ON “sunnan” (in/from the South) + “bygging” (building, farmstead)

Roundthwaite Rownerthwayt 1294, Rounerthwayt 1294, Rounesthwayt 1310, Ronnestwate 1310, Rounthwayt 1338, Rounnerthweyt 1345 scand probably ON “runoR” / “runaR” (runes) + “tveit” (long and narrow area)

Lowgill scand ON “gil” (ravine)

Beck foot scand ON “bekkr” (stream)

Firbank Frebanc 13c, Frithebanck 1245 mixed OE “fyrhðe” (ME “frith”) + ON “bakki” (hill- side, slope) known

Sedbergh possibly possibly ON “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) + “berg” (mountain). Church 12c

Millthrop no info

Rash no info

170 / 237 Kahnberg Garsdale possibly no info, but might be from ON ”garð” (farm) + “dalr” (valley)

Grisdale scand ON “gríss” (pig) + “dalr” (valley) partly known

Cowgill possibly no info, but second part is probably ON “gil” (ravine)

Dent Denet 1200 celtic

Gawthrop no info

Killington Kylington 1237, Kaylington 1245 scand ON “kiðlingr” (goat child) + tun

Beckside possibly no info, but might be from ON “bekkr” (stream) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture)

Middleton no info

Rigmaden park no info

Barbon Berebrune 1086, Berburn 1226, Berebrum 1253 scand ON “ber” (berry) + “brún” (edge) or “brunnr” (spring) partly known

Mansergh Manzsergh 1086, Mannissergh 1207, Manser 1359 scand ON “maðr” / ancient Swedish “mannr” (man) in genitive + ON “erg” (hill-pasture, shieling) known

Bullpot farm no info

Whernside scand ON “kvern” (mill) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) known

Casterton Casterton 1201 o OE “ceaster” (town) + tun known

High casterton Casterton 1201 o OE “ceaster” (town) + tun known

171 / 237 Kahnberg Kirkby lonsdale Kirkebilonesdale 1208 scand ON “kirkia” + by + “lón” (lagoon) + “dalr” (valley) partly known

Kearstwick no info

Hutton roof Hotun 1086, Hotun 1227 scand probably ON “hár” (high) or “haugr” (pile, heap, hill) + tun

Dalton scand ON “dalr” (valley) + tun (the place is in a river valley, so it makes sense)

Burton in kendal Borton 1086, Burton 1282 scand ON “borg” (fort, castle) + tun known

Clawthorpe scand probably ON “hlað” (farmyard), “hlaða” (barn, stack, pile) or “hlaði” (stack, pile, bundle) + “torp” (cottage) partly known

Holme scand ON “holmr” (small island) known

Hale Hale 1226 o OE “halh” / “haugh” known

Beetham Bieðun 1086, Beithum 1200, Biethum 1210 possibly possibly ON “biða” (wait) + “heim” (home)

Slack head scand ON “slakr” (flabby) or “slakki” (valley) partly known

Hazelslack Hesleslac 1244 scand ON “hasl” (hazel) + “slakr” (flabby) or “slakki” (valley)

Arnside Arnolheved 1244, Arnholvisheved 1244 scand ON name “Arnulf” + ON “hofuð” (head) partly known

Storth Storthes 1349 possibly possibly ON “storð” (wood) known

172 / 237 Kahnberg Sandside no info

Milnthorpe de Milnethorp 1398scand ON “mylna” (mill) + “torp” (cottage) known

Farleton Fareltun 1086, Farlton 1227 o known

Cow brow no info

Lupton Lupetun 1086, Lupeton 1200, Lupton 1249 possibly possibly ancient Swedish “loppa” / ancient Danish “loppe” (small iron melt) + tun

Foulstone no info

Crooklands no info

Preston patrick Prestun 1086, Preston 1255, Preston Patrik 1333 o OE “preosta” (priest) + tun known

Endmoor modern

Gatebeck possibly no info, but might be from ON “gata” (road, way) + “bekkr” (stream)

Old hutton Hotun 1227 scand probably ON “hár” (high) or “haugr” (pile, heap, hill) + tun

Garths possibly no info, but might be from ON “garð” (farm)

Oxenholme Ozinholme 1240 scand ON “uxi”/”oxi” (ox) + “hólmr” (small island) partly known

Natland Natalund scand ON “nata” (nettles) + “lundr” (grove, meadow) known

Barrows green no info

Sedgwick Siggiswyk 1333, Syggeswyke 1419 scand ON name “Siggi” + ON “vik” (bay) known

173 / 237 Kahnberg Crosscrake Crosstcrak 1528 modern (possibly based on ON “kross” + “krákr”; crow's cross)

Sizergh Sigredeshergh 12c, Schireserd 1341, Siresserwe 1245, Syricherd 1324 scand ON name “Sigrid” + ON “erg” (summer pasture) known

Hincaster Hennecastre 1086, Hanecaster 1260 mixed probably a Scandinavian name (“Heðinn” or “Hidhin”) + OE “ceaster” known

Heversham Evreshaim 1086, Eueresheim 1200, Heveresham 1301 scand ON name “Jofurr” + “heimr” (home) known

Leasgill possibly no info, but second part is probably ON “gil” (ravine)

Millside no info

Levens Lefuenes 1086, Levenes 1241 scand ON “leif” (life) or “lifa” (live) + “nes” (narrow stretch of land surrounded by water on two or three sides)

Brigsteer Brigster 1344, Brigstere 1345 possibly probably ON “bryggja” (bridge) + “þerra” (dry)

Crosthwaite Crosthwayt 1249 scand ON “kross” (cross) + “tveit” (long and narrow area)

Underbarrow no info

Crook Crok 1309 scand ON “krókr” (bend, turn, hook) or “hrókr” (rook, castle)

Bowston Bolteston 1262 scand ON “ból” (farmstead, home) + tun

Burneside no info

174 / 237 Kahnberg Kendal Kendal 1225, Kendale 1272 scand river name “Kent”/”Kentha” + ON “dalr” (valley) known

New hutton Hotun 1227 scand probably ON “hár” (high) or “haugr” (pile, heap, hill) + tun

Killlington lake no info

Meal bank scand ON “melr” (sandbank) + bank (sandbankbank) known

Grayrigg Grarigg 12c scand ON “grár” (grey) + “hryggr” (ridge, back). Note the similarity with modern Swedish “Grårygg” - a word (among many) also used in the past to talk about wolves. known

Garth row possibly no info, but might be from ON “garð” (farm)

Selside Selsate 1249, Selsete 1235 scand ON “selja” (willow tree) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) known

Garnett bridge o Gerard was the name of a family in the parish known

Staveley Staveleye 1240, Stavelay Godmond 1349, Staneley Godmond 1383 germanic OE “stæf” or ON “stafr” (both meaning staff) + OE “leah” (meadow) or ON “ey” (island) or ON “lyng” / eastern ON “ly” (heather, heather field) partly known

Ings scand ON “eng”/”engi” (open field, pasture) known

Bretherdale Britherdal 1247, Bretherdale 1291 scand ON “breiðr” (broad) + “dalr” (valley)

Sadgill possibly no info, but second part is probably ON “gil” (ravine)

175 / 237 Kahnberg Kentmere Kenetemere 1240, Kentemere 1262 o river name “Kent”/”Kentha” + OE ”mere” (lake) known

Greenholme scand ON “grein” (twig, branch) or “grænn” (green (colour)) + “hólmr” (small island) known

Hardendale Hardenesdal 1247, Herdendale 1376 scand ON “hirðir” (shepherd) + “dalr” (valley)

Keld scand ON name “Ketill” or ON “kelda” (spring)

Shap Hepp 1199, de Heppa 1220, Hep 1231, Yhep 1241, Heppe 1314, Shap 1332, Shapp 1390 mixed probably ON “keppr” (stick) transformed through its OE relative “cipp”

Burn banks no info

Rosgill Rossegyl 1255, Rosgill 1382 scand probably ON “rós” / “rose” (rose) + “gil” (ravine) partly known

Brampton grange possibly possibly ON “brúnn” (brown), “brunnr” (well) or “brandr” (pillar) + tun. partly known

Butterwick Butterwyk 1285, Buterwic 1289 possibly possibly ON “butr” (log) + “vik” (bay)

Little strickland Stercaland 1086 o known

Whale Qwalle 1244, Qwale 1345 scand ON “hváll” (isolated rounded hill) known

Helton Helton 1278 scand ON name “Helgi” + tun known

Askham Askum 1232, Ascum 1314, Ascome 1314 scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + “heim” (home). Compare Swedish villages “Askum” and

176 / 237 Kahnberg “Askome” partly known

Hackthorpe Hakethorpe 1256, Hakethorp 1278 scand probably ON “haka” (chin) + “thorp” (cottage) partly known

Melkinthorpe Milkanthorp 1281, de Melkanthorp 1287, Melkanthorp 1314 mixed Celtic name “Maelchon” + ON “torp” known

Clifton Clifton 1204 germanic OE “clif” + tun, or ON “klif” + tun known

Eamont bridge Amoteschalth 1291scand probably ON “aa” (river) + “mot” (meeting) + “skalf” (shook, shaking). Compare Swedish villiage “Åmotfors".

Penrith Pernith 1110, Pernred 1167 celtic probably Welsh “pen” (head, top) + “rhudd” (red), “rhydd” (free, loose) or “rhyd” (ford), but might also be the Welsh word “penrhydd” (unbridled)

Redhills modern

Yanwath Ywaneworth 1226, Yavenwith 1241, Yavenwyth 1293, Yanenwyt 1306, Yavenwithe 1314 scand last part is ON “viðr” (wood), so the first part is probably ancient Swedish “ydher” / “idhe” (yew tree) and not the name “Ivar” partly known

Tirril Tyrerghe 1289, Tyreher 1279, Thererg 1310, Tyrergh 1238 mixed OE name “Tirri” + ON “erg” (summer pasture) known

Howtown scand ON “haugr” (hill, height) + tun (might be modern) known

177 / 237 Kahnberg Watermillock Wethermelok 1244, Weddermeloke 1459 mixed ON “veðr” (ram) + Celtic “mel”/”moel” (little bare hill) known

Pooley bridge Pulhou 1257 scand probably ON “púl” (hard work) + “haugr” (hill, height)

Dacre de Dacre 1211, Daker 1244, Dacerbek 1300 celtic celtic river name, receiving a Scandinavian ending at a later stage known

Dalemain Dalman ald 1244, Dalman 1293 scand ON “dalr” (valley) + “man” (man, human)

Stainton Stainton 1166, Steynton 1238, Staynton 1291 scand On “steinn” (stone) + tun known

Newbiggin scand ON “ný” (new) + “bygging” (farmstead) known

Penruddock Penruddoc 1328 celtic probably Welsh “pen” (head, top) + “rhuddawc” (ruddy) known

Motherby Moderbi 1252, Mothersby 1293, Motherby 1300 scand ON “móðir” (mother) + by

Greystoke Creistock 1167, Crestoc 1229, Craystok 1244 scand probably ON “hreykja” (pile) + “stokkr” (tree log), though the modern Icelandic word “stokkur” also means “channel”. First element might also be ON ”hrein” (clean) or ”krækja” (hook, bend).

Johnby Johanbi 1205, Joenbi 1210, Johanebi 1222, Joneby 1223 scand ON name “Ión” + by known

Ellonby possibly possibly ancient Swedish “allon” (acorn) + by

Skelton Schelton 1187, Skelton 1226 possibly probably ON “skel” (shell) + tun

178 / 237 Kahnberg New rent modern

Hutton in the forest Hotun 1227 scand probably ON “hár” (high) or “haugr” (pile, heap, hill) + tun

Newton reigny de Reigni 1185, de Regini 1187, Newton Reynye 1293 o OE “niwe” + tun + OE name “Regenwig” known

Bowscar no info

Inglewood bank Foresta de Engleswoda 1150 scand probably ON name “Engill” + ”búðr” (small house, shop, shelter). partly known

Ivegill Yuegill 1361 scand ancient Swedish “ydhre” (Icelandic “ýr”, yew tree) + ON “gil” (ravine, gully) known

Southwaite Touthwayt, Thoughtwaite 1350, Thoughtwaite 1380 scand probably ON “tá” (toe) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Wreay Wra 1234 scand ON “vrá” (tiny space) known

Cocklakes Coklayk 1279 possibly possibly ON “kokka” (to cook) or “kokkur” (lump in the throat) + “leikur” (play, game, sport), but uncertain partly known

Durdar celtic? no info – but compare with “Aberdar” in Wales

Dalston Daleston 1187, Dalaston 1187 scand ON “dalr” (valley) + tun (the place is in a river valley, so it makes sense)

Cummersdale Cumbredal 1222, Cumbrisdale 1399 o OE name “Coembeorht” (aka “Cumbra”) + “dæl” (valley), although ON “dalr” is also 179 / 237 Kahnberg possible since the pronunciations were most likely very close known

Blackwell Blek hall 1646 possibly possibly ON “blakkr” (bleak, faded) + “volla”/”vellir” (slope, place, open high field, pasture)

Brisco Byrkscawe 1231, Brikscawe 1232, Birchawe 1253, Birkscagh 1290 scand ON “birki” (birch tree) + “skógr” (woods, forest). Note that OE ”sceaga” (woods) usually became ”shaw” while ”skógr” became ”scough” or “sceugh”. known

Carleton Karleton 1170, Carleton 1231 scand ON name “Karlr” + tun known

Cumwhinton Cumquintina 1150, Cumquinton 1227, Conquintun 1235 celtic Cwm Cwentyn (the valley of st Quentin) known

Scotby Scoteby 1155, Scottebi 1167, Scotteby 1242 o “manor of the King of Scots in the 12c” known

Aglionby Aglunby 1225 scand Agyllun was a Norse family living there in 1195 known

Carlisle Karlioli 1100, Carduill 1125, Karleol 1219, Karlesle 1279 celtic ”Luguwallum”in 4c (Latinised form of the Celtic town), probably from “Caer Ligualia” known

Stainton Stainton 1166, Steynton 1238, Staynton 1291 scand On “steinn” (stone) + tun known

Grinsdale Grinesdale 1190, Grenesdale 1200 scand ON “grein” (twig, branch) or “grænn” (green (colour)) + “dalr” (valley)

180 / 237 Kahnberg Cargo Kargho 1195, Kargou 1254, Cargou 1286 possibly possibly Eastern ON “karghr” (barren) + “høgh”/”høi”/”høw” (hill)

Houghton Hocton 1261, Hochton 1297, Hoghton 1346 o OE name “Hoc” + tun known

Tarraby Terreby 1176, Terriby 1324 mixed probably an OE name followed by ON “by” known

Rickerby Ricardeby 1237, Ricardby 1297 scand ON name “Rikarðr” + by known

Linstock Linstoc 1212, Linstoke 1253 scand probably ON “lindr” (lime tree) + “stokkr” (log) partly known

Parkbroom no info

Crosby on eden Crosseby 1231 scand ON “kross” (cross) + by known

Scaleby Scal 1290, Skales 1293 scand ON “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) + by known

Barclose no info

Walby Walby 1254 scand ON “vollr” (open grassy area) + by

Harker Hertker 1294 scand ON “hjortr” (stag) + “kjarr” (copse) known

Blackford modern

Todhills o known

Smithfield no info

Heathersgill possibly no info, but second part is probably ON “gil” (ravine)

181 / 237 Kahnberg Kirklinton Levinton 1176, Leventon 1188, Lingiveton 1191, Levington 1263 o Levin / Leven was the old name for river Lyne. known

Westlinton no info

Longtown no info

Carwinley Carwendelowe 1248 celtic known

Mossband no info

Rockcliffe cross de Rodcliva 1185, de Roudecliva 1185, Radeclive 1204, Routheclive 1235, Routheclif 1244, Rouckecliffe 1304 scand ON “rauðr” (red) + “klif” (cliff) known

Rockcliffe de Rodcliva 1185, de Roudecliva 1185, Radeclive 1204, Routheclive 1235, Routheclif 1244, Rouckecliffe 1304 scand ON “rauðr” (red) + “klif” (cliff) known

Beaumont Begmund 1289 o name “Beagmund” known

Kirkandrews Kirkandres 1257 scand ON “kirkia” + ON name “Andrés” (Andrew) known

Monkhill no info

Burgh by sands Burg 1265, Burgh 1295 scand probably ON “borg” instead of OE “burh” considering the ending /g/

Longburgh no info

Boustead hill Bourstede 1324 scand possibly ON “búðarstaðr” (hut with some land), but hard to know due to late written form known

Drumburgh Drumboc 1230, Drombogh 1289, Drumburgh 1369 celtic known

182 / 237 Kahnberg Glasson de Glassan 1259, Glassan 1275 possibly OE/ON name “Glassam” (son of Brictric) known

Port carlisle modern

Bowness on solway Bounes 1287, Bownes 1283 scand ON name “Bolli” or ON “ból” (dwelling, simple house) + “nes” (narrow strip of land surrounded by water) partly known

Cardurnock Cardunnoke 1386, Cardronok 1485 celtic

Anthorn Aynthorn 1289 scand ON “einn” (one) + ON “þorn” (thorn bush/tree) known

Newton arlosh Arlosk 1304 celtic + o “Arlosh is probably a Celtic name meaning 'burnt place'” known

Kirkbride Kirkebride 1189 scand ON “kirkia” + ON name “Brigit”/”Birgit”

Fingland Flynglandrig celtic known

Little brampton possibly possibly ON “brúnn” (brown), “brunnr” (well) or “brandr” (pillar) + tun. partly known

Thurstonfield no info

Great orton Overton 1252 possibly ON “ofarr” or OE “ofer” (both mean upper) + tun known

Little orton Overton 1252 possibly ON “ofarr” or OE “ofer” (both mean upper) + tun known

Baldwinholme mixed no info, but might be a OE name “Baldwin” + ON “holmr” (small island)

Thursby scand ON god name “Thor” + by known

183 / 237 Kahnberg Curthwaite Kirkethuait 1285, Kirkethwayt 1348 scand ON “kirkia” +”tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Crofton Crofton 1201 o known

Whinnow de Quinhou 1292, Quynhowe 1330 scand probably ON “hvinur”/”hvina” (whistle) + “haugr” (height, hill). A common concept in Scandinavian hill-naming, e.g. “sushögda”, “vinberg” partly known

Wiggonby Wiganby 1299, Wyganby 1346 mixed Celtic name “Wigan” + ON “by” known

Thornby Thornesby, Thornby 1485 scand ON name “þór” (Thor) + ON “nes” (tongue of land between water) + by

Micklethwaite Micheletweit 1485 scand ON “mikill” (much, many, very) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Aikton Ecton, Aykton 1231 scand ON “eik” (oak) + tun known

Biglands Biglande 1537 scand ON “bygg” (barley) + land known

Gamelsby Gamelesby 1305 scand ON “gamall” (old) + by

Oulton Ulveton 1252 scand ON “ulfr” (wolf) + tun partly known

Wigton Wiggeton 1163, Wigeton 1262, Wygeton 1303 o OE name “Wicga” + tun known

Red dial no info

Waverton Waverton 1232 o OE “waefre” (wavering) + tun known

184 / 237 Kahnberg Dundraw Drumdrahrigg 1194, Dundrawe 1231, Dumdrawe 1233, Dundrag 1259 Celtic + Scand Celtic “drum” + ON “drag” (pull, tow) + “hryggr” (back, ridge) known

Wheyrigg possibly possibly ON “veiða” (catch, hunt) + “hryggr” (ridge, back)

Blencoco Blencoghow 1190, , Blencogo 1261, Blencagney, 1646 possibly ending is ON “haugr”, the rest could be ON “bellinn” (aggressive) + “kogr” (Icelandic “kögur” = fringe), making the whole name Bellinnkogrhaugr, which simplified in a series of assimilations partly known

Holme abbey Holmcoltria 1150, Holcoltram 1201, Holcultram 1235, Holkolterham 1252, Holmcoltram 1290 scand ON “holmr” (tiny island) + ON name “Koltorfa” + ON “heim” (home) known

Blackdyke no info

Causewayhead no info

Silloth Victorian seaside resort

Blitterlees Bletterley 1537,Blatterless 1537 modern

Wolsty Wolsstibay 1324 mixed modern

Beckfoot no info

Pelutho Pollathow celtic Probably Welsh “pwll” (pool) + “llathau” (yards)

Aldoth Aldlathe 13c mixed OE “ald” (old) + ON “hlaða” (barn) known

Holme st cuthbert possibly no info, but might be ON “holmr” (small island)

185 / 237 Kahnberg Bromfield Brumfeld 1150, Brunefeld 1245, Brimpfhild 1285, Brounfeld 1353 scand possibly ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brunnr” (well) + “felt” (field)

Langrigg Langrug 1189, Langrig 1195 scand ON “langr” (long) + “hryggr” (ridge, back). (also OE “lang” + “hrygc”, but that wouldn't have given rise to “rug”) known

High scales Scal 1290, Skales 1293 scand ON “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) known

Mawbray Mayburg 1175, Mawbrugh 1537 possibly probably ON “maie” (to dress roofs and buildings in green leaves in early May) + “borg” (fort, castle), though the word “maie” is a product of the Julian calendar and I don't know when it was introduced in Britain/Scandinavia.

Edderside Edderside 1537 possibly possibly ON name “Edda” + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) partly known

Allonby Alemby 1267 scand possibly ancient Swedish “allon” (acorn) or “alm” (elm tree) + by

Westnewton no info

Hayton possibly probably ON “heiðr” (moor, heath) + tun

Aspatria Estpateric 1224, Ascpatric 1230, Aspatric 1233, Askpatrik 1291 scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + name Patric known

Harriston modern

Baggrow scand most likely ancient Swedish “baker”/”bak” (back, behind) + ON “vrá” (land-tongue) partly known

186 / 237 Kahnberg Watch hill no info

Crookdake de Crokedayke 1293, de Crokedaik 1299, Crokydake 1363 scand ON “krókr” (bend, turn, hook) + “eik” (oak) known

Fletchertown modern

Mealsgate scand ON “melr” (sandbank) + “gata” (way, road) known

Bolton low houses de Boteltun 1180, Bolton 1231 germanic Possibly ON “bók” (beech tree) + tun, or OE “boc” + tun

Boltongate scand Possibly ON “bók” (beech tree) + tun + “gata” (way, road)

Aughertree possibly Very old settlement on the Aughertree fell, but no record of older name versions. The foundations of the settlement looks surprisingly similar to the round forts on the Swedish island of Öland, but might be older and perhaps imported to Öland. Place- names on the Aughertree fell have names that seem to be Scandinavian (Green how = ON ”gren haugh” - green hill). Name might be from ON “ágerast” (grow) + “tre” (tree).

Ireby Yrebi 1185, Ireby 1236, Irby 1296 scand probably ancient Swedish “ydhre” (Icelandic “ýr”, yew tree wood) or ON “írar” (Irishman) + by partly known

Bothel no info

Parsonby no info

Plumbland Plumlund 1229, Plumland 1279, Plomland 1318 scand ON “plóma” (plum tree) + “lundr” (grove) 187 / 237 Kahnberg partly known

Arkleby Arkelby 1298 scand old Danish name Arkil + by known

Oughterside Ughtredsate 1344, de Ughtrichassat 1297, Ughtreset 1297, Owterfide, 1646 scand name “Uhtred” + ON “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) known

Allerby Alwarby, 1646 scand ON “álfr” (gnome) + by (possibly plural version)

Crosby villa Crosseby 1231 scand ON “kross” (cross) + by known

Bullgill modern

Crosscanonby Crosseby 1231 scand ON “kross” (cross) + by known

Maryport 1756 modern

Ellenborough de Alneburg 1235, Alinburh 1285, Alenburgh 1301 scand ancient Swedish “al”/”äle” (alder tree) + borg (fort, castle)

Dearham Derhame 1285, Derham 1292 o “home of Deor” known

Tallentire celtic Welsh “tâl” (brow) + “tir” (land) known

Blindcrake Blanecreck 1240, Blenckrayk 1245, Blencrayk 1249 possibly possibly ON “bellinn” (aggressive) + “hreykja” (stack), bellinnhreykja, simplified through assimilation

Moota no info

Sunderland scand ON “sund” (straight) + “land” (country, area)

Isel Ysala 1195, Yshale 1261, Ishale 1307 scand ON name “Isi” or ON “íss” (ice) + ON “hala” (pull, tow)

188 / 237 Kahnberg Bewaldeth Bualdith 1255, Boaldith 1277, Boualdith 1295 scand ON “buð” (shed) + “alr” (alder tree) + “viðr” (willow tree) – a shed made of alder and willow, or a shed for storage of cut down alder and willow trees

Snittlegarth scand probably “snitta”/”snitte” (Swedish/Danish/Norwegian for “cut”) + ON “garðr” (farm). Not sure how early ”snitta”/”snitte” was present in the Scandinavian languages.

High ireby scand ON “Irar” (Irishmen) + by known

Ruthwaite Rugthwayt 1255, Ruthwayt 1255, Ruthwuuayt 1285, Rughthweyt 1295 scand ON “rugr” (rye) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Uldale Ulvedal 1261, Oulfdale 1329, Ulnedale 1343 scand ON “ulfr” (wolf) + “dalr” (valley)

Caldbeck Caldbec 1175, Caudebech 1201, Caldebec 1222 scand ON “kaldur” (cold) + “bekkr” (stream). OE “cald” + “bæc” is unlikely with the hard /k/ at the end. partly known

Hesket newmarket Heskaith 1337, Haskethes 1394, Hesketh 1404 scand ON “hestr” (horse) + “skeið” (spoon, time period) known

Sowerby row Saureby 1226 scand ON “saurr” (dirt, soil) + by known

Middlesceugh scand ON “meðal” (middle) + “skógr” (forest, woods) known

Lamonby Lambingby 1243, Lambenby 1332, Lambeneby 1267, Lambanby 1348 scand ON “langbein” (long-legs) + by. (the modern Swedish form “långben” is a petname for common house spiders) known

189 / 237 Kahnberg Little blencow Blenco 1231, Blenkhow 1244 scand ON name “blæingr” or ON “bellinn” (aggressive) + haugr” (hill) partly known

Berrier Berhgerge 1166, Bergher 1241 scand ON “berg”, determined form plural – the mountains, the mountain range. Could possibly be a contraction of ON “berg” + “riki” (the mountain country) – compare “Sverige” - “Svea”+”riki”.

Troutbeck Bek Troyte 11c, Trutbek 1357 scand ON “þrútna” (trout, throat) + “bekkr” (stream)

Mungrisdale scand ON name “Mundgerðr” + ON “dalr” (valley) known

Bowscale Bowscales 1485 scand ON name “Bolli” or ON “ból” (dwelling, simple house) + “skáli” (mountain hut) partly known

Mosedale Mosedale 1252 scand ON “mosi” (peat bog) + “dalr” (valley)known

Blencathra celtic

Threlkeld scand ON “thraell” (slave) + “kelda” (spring) known

Applethwaite Appelthweit 1222 scand ON “apaldr” (apple) + ON “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Millbeck no info

Skiddaw Skythou 1260, Skydehow 1247 scand ON “skyti” (shooter) + “haugr” (hill, height) known

Bassenthwaite Bastenethwait 1208, Bastingwait 1235, Bastuntwait 1240, Bastanswayt 1255 scand most likely ON “bast” (the part of the tree between the outer “shell” and the pure wood) 190 / 237 Kahnberg + “tveit” (long and narrow area) – probably a storage area for that substance or an area where it was handled (“bastene” is an inclined version of “bast”, most likely what would be “bastinar” using modern Icelandic grammar but in old Swedish “bastene” would be “the bast's” - singular determined genetive)

Thornthwaite Thornthwayt 1244 scand ON “þyrnir” (thorn) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Braithwaite Braythwayt 1285 scand ON “breiðr” (broad) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Thackthwaite Thactwayt 1252, Thackthuuayt 1285, Thakthweyt 1307 scand ON “þak” (roof) + “tveit” (long and narrow area)

High lorton Lorton 1198 o

Low lorton Lorton 1198 o

Cockermouth Cockermouth 1227 o known

Papcastle Papecaster 1265, Papecastre 1286, Papcastre 1301 latin

Redmain de Rademan 1202, de Radoman 1203, Redman 1291 o OE name “Rædmund” known

Bridekirk Brudeskyrkefeld scand ON “brúðr” (bride) + “kyrke” (later form of “kirkia” – church) + “felt” (field)

Dovenby de Dolphinerbi 1203, Dolfanbi 1252, Douanby 1285, Duuvaneby 1286 scand Dolfin's village. ON name “Dólgfinnr” + by known

191 / 237 Kahnberg Broughton moor Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

Flimby Flemingeby 1200 germanic “Fleming” - a Flemish person. Most likely a Flemish settler in 11c/12c. Ending most likely ON ”by”, but could also be OE ”by” (farm)

Siddick o “seagate” known

Seaton Setone 1280 scand ON “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) + tun known

Camerton Camberton 1285, Cambreton 1307 o

Workington de Wirkeinton 1190, Wirchingetona 1150, Wirchington 1100, Wirgington 1240 o OE name “Weorc” + ing + tun known

Stainburn Steinborn 1230, Steinburn 12c, Steinburna 1189 scand ON “steinn” (stone) + “brunnr” (stream) known

Great clifton Clifton 1204 germanic OE “clif” + tun, or ON “klif” + tun known

Little clifton Clifton 1204 germanic OE “clif” + tun, or ON “klif” + tun known

Bridgefoot no info

Greysouthen Creiksothen 1231, Craysothen 1292 possibly possibly ON “hreykja” (pile) + ON ”sót” (soot) – the blackened pile, the blackened big stone

Little broughton Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

192 / 237 Kahnberg Great broughton Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

Brigham Briggeham 1210, Bricham 1212 scand probably ON name “Birgir” + “heim” (home), as the place is a mile off the closest river and there's never been any record of a bridge (ON “bryggja”) at the place (Sedgefield 1915) known

Eaglesfield Egelesflet 1265, Eglesfeld 1286 scand ON name “Egill” + ON “flet” (flat land) or “felt” (field) known

Deanscales Scal 1290, Skales 1293 scand ON “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) known

Mosser Mosergh 1298, Moserghfeld 1349 scand ON “mosi” (peat bog) + “erg” (the ON form of the Celtic “airidh”/”airigh”) + “felt” (field) known

Pardshaw Perdyshow 1396 scand name “Perdy” + ON “hough” (hill). The place is on a hilltop. “Perdy” might be Welsh name “Parry” + Welsh “du” (black) - “Parry du” easily becomes “Perdy” if said quickly. partly known

Dean Dene 1175 o OE “denu” (wooded valley) known

Mockerkin Moldcorkin 1208, Moldcarkyn 1208, Molcorkilne 1220, Morcorkin 1230 celtic “the centre of a group of Welsh legends which make Molkerkin the site of the city and castle of Morken, king of the Cumbri”known

193 / 237 Kahnberg Ullock Ulvelayk 1245, Ullayk 1285, de Ulvelaik 1300 scand ON “ulfr” (wolf) + ”lækr” (stream, brook) or “leikr” (play, game, match)

Branthwaite Brankethweit 1226, de Breinweyt 1242, Brankethweyt 1254, Braynthwayt 1290, Brampeweyt 1330 scand probably ON “brengla” (confuse, mix up) + “tveit” (long and narrow area)

Gilgarran Gilgarran 1298 celtic Gaelic “kil” (church) + name Garran/Garbhan known

Distington Distington 1274 o known

Lillyhall no info

High harrington Haveringtuna 1200, Haverington 1274 possibly possibly ON “hagi” (enclosed pasture) + “hring” (circle) + tun. Compare Swedish village “Haverdal”

Salterbeck modern

Harrington o OE “harr” + “ingas” + tun known

Pica Pikehou 1304 scand probably ON “píkr” (peak, point, tip) + “haugr” (hill, height) partly known

Lowca modern

Low moresby Moryceby 1394, de Moriceby 1195 mixed name “Maurice” + by, so the locals used the Scandinavian “by” when referring to villages run by non-Scandinavians. known

Parton Partan 1288, Partane 1396 o OE name “Pearta” would be Peartan in genitive. known

Moresby parks no info

194 / 237 Kahnberg Whitehaven Withofd 1153, Wytofthavene 12c, Qwithofhavene 12c, Whitothavene 1202, Whytheweyhame 1295 scand ON “hvitr” (white) + “hofeð” (head) or “hofn” (harbour) known

Sandwith de Sandewath 1294 scand ON “sandr” (sand) + “vaðr” (shallow, shoal) known

Bigrigg scand ON “bygg” (barley) + “hyrggr” (back, ridge) known

Cleator Cleterhe 1201, Cletergh 1294, de Cleter 1322, Cletter 1490 scand ON “klatr” (rubbish) or “klettr” (rock, cliff) + “heiði” (heath, moor). “heiði” is frequently shortened to “he” in Norwegian and Westcoast Swedish dialects. partly known

Moor row modern

Cleator moor scand See Cleator above

Frizington Fresington 1259, Frisington 1298, Frysington 1409 o OE “Friesa” (Frisian) + tun known

Arlecdon Arlochdene 12c k / o possibly OE name + “dene” (valley) or old Welsh “hardd” (beautiful) + “llech” (slab) + “tenau” (thin) (compare with Harlech)known

Rowrah Rucwrabec 1248 scand ON “hrókr” (rook, castle) + “vrá” (tiny space) + “bekkr” (stream) partly known

Asby Essebi 1158, Askeby 1226 scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + by. Essebi is the Norman spelling known

Ennerdale bridge Eghnerdale 1298, Enderdale 1303, Eynordale 1322 scand ON name Einarr, ON “engi”/engjar” (meadow/meadows) or “eiginn”/”eighen” 195 / 237 Kahnberg (own – possessive pronoun as in “my own”) + “dalr” (valley) – compare “Engerdal” in Norway

Loweswater Lowswater 1190, Laweswator 1188, Lousewatre 1343 possibly possibly ON “lafa” (hang down, also a kind of vegetation) + “vatn” (water, water place, lake)

Buttermere Butermere 1230 possibly possibly ON “butr” (log) + “mergð” (mass) with the ending changed to OE “mere” (sea, lake). Several Scandi place names in the close area partly known

Gatesgarth possibly no info, but might be ON “gata” (way, road) + “garð” (farm)

High stile no info, but sounds like an English hill name

Grasmoor scand ON “grise” (pig, wild boar) + “mor” (moor) known

Grisedale peak scand ON “grise” (pig, wild boar) + “dalr” (valley) + “pik” (top, point)

Dale head possibly probably ON “dalr” (valley) + “hofed” (head)

Stair Stare 1597 modern

Little town modern

Brandelhow no info

Manesty no info

Grange Grange 1491 o (medieval) known

Seatoller see “seatallan” (which I can't find in the paper)

196 / 237 Kahnberg Seathwaite Seuethwayt 1292 scand ON “sef” (sedge) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Stonethwaite possibly no info, but probably ON “steinn” (stone) + “tveit” (long and narrow area)

Borrowdale Borcherdale 1210, Borgedale 1231 scand ON “borg” (castle, town) + “dale” (valley)

Rosthwaite Rossethwayte 1537 scand ON “rós” (rose) or “hross” (small horse) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Watendlath Wattintundelau 1209 scand ON “vatn” (water) + “endi” (end) + ON “lane” replaced by ON “hlaða” (barn) known

Portinscale scand possibly ON “pottur” (pot) + “skáli” (shed, hut). First part might be name “Pearta”. partly known

Keswick Kesewyk 1288, Kesewik 1290 scand ON “köstr” (pile, dative “kestir”) or “ker” (tub, pot) + “vik” (bay). Considering the position between steep hillsides I think “ker” is far more likely than a scandification of OE “cese” (cheese). partly known

Castlerigg Castelrich 1228, Kastelrigg 1293 possibly possibly ON “kastel” (small fortification) + “hryggr” (back, ridge) – the fortification ridge

St Johns in the vale no info

Helvellyn celtic Welsh “hel” (gather, hunt) + “melyn” (yellow) known

Dowthwaitehead Dowthwate 1459 scand most likely old Swedish name “Dudh” + ON/Swedish “tveit” known 197 / 237 Kahnberg Dockray Dockewra 1292, Dokwra 1324 scand ON “dokka” (doll) + “vrá” (small place, modern Swedish “vrå)

Matterdale end Matherdal 1300, Mathirdale 1348, Maderdale 1486 scand person name “maðhere” + ON “dalr”. Note that this name is newer, but the ON “dalr” is still used. known

Ulcat row Ulcotwra 1486 scand ON name “Ulgot”/”Algot” + “vrá” (tiny space)

Glenridding mixed Celtic “glen” (valley) + ON “hryding” known

Patterdale Patricdale 1237 germanic name “Patric” + ON “dalr” or OE “dæl” (valley) known

Hartsop modern

Red screes o known

Fairfield peak no info

Wythburn Wythebotten 1302 scand ON “viðr” (wood, lumber) or “viðir” (willow tree) + ON “botn” (bottom, cove) known

Grasmere Gresmere 1240, Grismere 1244, Gressemere 1275 possibly probably ON “gríss” (pig) + “mergð” (mass) partly known

Rydal Ridale 1240, Rydul 1257, Ridal 1291, Ryddle 1361 scand ON “rjóðr” (manmade clearing) + “dalr” (valley). Compare “Rydal” in SW Sweden. known

Ambleside Amelsate 1275, Hamelsete 1300 scand probably ON “almr” (elm tree) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) partly known

198 / 237 Kahnberg Skelwith bridge Schelwath 1246 scand ON “skiallr” (loud), “skáli” (shed, hut) or “skel” (shell) + “vað” (ford) partly known

Elterwater scand ON “elptr” (swan) + OE “water” replacing ON “vatn” (water) known

Chapel stile no info

Clappersgate no info

Scafell pike scand probably ON “skalli” (bald) or “skagi” (cape, headland) + “fjall” (mountain) known

Great gable no info

Pillar no info

Wasdale head Wascedale 1231, Wastedale 1322 scand ON “vaska” (wash, clean) + “dalr” (valley), but normally considered as “vatndalr” (“vatn” + “dalr”)

Wilton Wilton 1211 possibly possibly ON “hvíla” (bed, rest) + tun

Egremont Egremunde 1218, Egremund 1134, Egermund 1298 french known

St Bees Sancte Bege 12c, Begekirk 1358 celtic “Irish Viking settlement in 9c” known

Howman no info

Coulderton Culdertone 1294 possibly Possibly ON “kaldur” (cold) + tun

Nethertown germanic OE “neoðor” / “niðor” or ON “neðarr” (all meaning “lower”) + tun known

Braystones Breydestanes scand ON “breiðr” (broad) + “steina” (stones), where “steina” was replaced by OE “stanas” with the same meaning partly known 199 / 237 Kahnberg Beckermet Bikyrmet 1188, Bikermet 1190, Bekermet 1241 scand ON “bekkr” (stream), genitive singular “bekkjar”, + “mót” (meeting place, crossing) known

Thornhill modern

Haile Hale 1226 o OE “halh” / “haugh” known

Blackbeck no info

Calder bridge de Calder 1179, Kaldre 1231 possibly named after the river Calder. Possibly Celtic name (Welsh “dŵr”, Gaelic “dobhar”), but another possibility would of course be ON “kaldur” (cold). partly known

Ponsonby Puncuneby 1243, Punzanby 1242, Punzineby 1246, Punchonby 1322 French + oe French name “Puncun”/”Punzun”/”Pounchoun” + OE “byr” (farm) known

Sellafield Sellofeld 1576 scand ON “selja” (willow tree) + “haugr” (hill, height) + “felt” (field) known

Seascale Sescales 1165 scand ON ”sær” (sea) + “skáli” (hut, shelter, shielding) known

Gosforth Goseford 12c, Gowseford 13c, Gosseford 1294 o OE “gos” (goose) + ford known

Drigg Dreg 1248, Dregge 1322 scand ON “drög” (pull, tow), a very common name for places in Sweden where boats were pulled over land between rivers/lakes or past waterfalls known

Holmrook scand ON “holmr” (tiny island) + ”hrókr” (rook, castle)

200 / 237 Kahnberg Irton possibly probably ancient Swedish “ydhre” (Icelandic “ýr”, yew tree wood) or ON “írar” (Irishman) + tun

Santon bridge Santon 1294 scand ON “sandr” (sand) + tun known

Eskdale green possibly no info, but probably ON “eski” (ash tree) + “dalr” (valley)

Boot modern

Beckfoot no info

Woodend modern

Ravenglass Renglas 1208, Renglass 1208, Ravenglass 1297, Ranglas 1294 scand ON “regn” (rain) + “áss” (mountain range, ridge). Another possibility would be ON name “Hrafnkell” partly known

Hall dunnerdale no info

Seathwaite Seuethwayt 1292 scand ON “sef” (sedge) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Cockley beck modern

The old man of coniston no info

Torver Thoruergh 1190, Thorwerghe 1202, Thorfergh 1246, Torweg 1252 scand ON name “þór” (Thor) or ON “torf” (turf, peat) + ON “erg” (hut on a pasture) known

Bowmanstead no info

Coniston Coningeston 12c scand ON “konungr” (king) + tun known

Hawkshead hill Hyll 1535 modern

Hawkshead Hovkesete 1198, Haukesset 1220, Haukesheved 1336 scand ON “haukr” (hawk) + “sætr” (seasonal

201 / 237 Kahnberg dwelling/pasture) partly known

Outgate no info

Barngates no info

Low wray Wraye 1535 scand ON “vrá” (tiny space) known

High wray Wraye 1535 scand ON “vrá” (tiny space) known

Ecclerigg no info

Troutbeck bridge Bek Troyte 11c, Trutbek 1357 scand ON “þrútna” (trout, throat) + “bekkr” (stream)

Windermere Wynendamere 1240, Winandirmer 1249, Wynandermer 1262, Wynandremere 1299, Wynandermere 1354 mixed ON “vindr” (wind) + “erg” (hut on a pasture) + OE “mere” (lake, pool) known

Heaning no info

Bowness on windermere Bounes 1287, Bownes 1283 scand ON name “Bolli” or ON “ból” (dwelling, simple house) + “nes” (narrow strip of land surrounded by water) partly known

Mitchelland no info

Winster Winstirthwaytes 1249 scand probably ON “vinstri” (left) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) partly known

Grizedale scand ON “grise” (pig, wild boar) + “dalr” (valley)

Graythwaite Graythwayt 1336 scand ON “grár” (grey) or “greiðr” (ready, free) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

202 / 237 Kahnberg Bowland bridge scand ON “ból” (farmstead, home) + “land” (land, country, area) known

Cartmel fell C(e)artmel 12c scand ON “kartr” (rocky ground) + “melr” (sandbank) + “fjall” (mountain) known

Lakeside modern

Finsthwaite Fynnesthwayt 1336 scand ON name “Finnr” + ON “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Newby bridge New bridge 1577 modern known

Ayside Aysshed 1491, Aysett 1537, Ayshead 1573 possibly probably ON “eik” (oak) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture) or “hofuð” (head) known

High newton o OE “niwe” + tun known

Lindale Lindale 1220 scand ON “lindr” (lime tree) + “dalr” (valley) known

Meanthop and Ulpha Ulfhau 1337 scand ON “ulfr” (wolf) + “haugr” (hill, height)partly known

Field broughton Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

Backbarrow Bakbarowe mill 1537 germanic ON “bak” or OE “bac” (both meaning back) + ON “berg” or OE “beorh” (both meaning hill or mountain) known

Haverthwaite Haverthwayt 1336 scand ON “hafri” (oats) + “tveit” (long and narrow area) known

Arrad foot no info

Greenodd Green odd 1774 modern 203 / 237 Kahnberg Penny bridge no info

Broughton beck Broctunebec 1246 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun + ON “bekkr”. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

Gawthwaite Golderswatt 1552 scand ON “tveit” (long and narrow area), but the first half is unknown known

Lowick green Lofwic 1202 scand ON “lauf” (leaf) + “vik” (bay) known

Spark bridge no info

Bouth Bouthe 1336 scand ON “búð” (hut) known

Colton Coleton 1202 possibly probably ON “kola” (charcoal burning) + tun known

Oxen park no info

Crosslands rusland Rolesland 1336, Rwselande 1537 scand ON name “Hrólfr” or “Hróaldr” + ON “land” (area, country, land) known

Lowick Lofwic 1202 scand ON “lauf” (leaf) + “vik” (bay) known

Blawith Blawit 1276, Blawith 1341 scand ON “blá-viðr” (the black wood) known

Water yeat Wateryate myll 1539 modern

High nibthwaite Thornebuthwait 1202, Tornbeteweit 1207, Thornubythuieitht 1208 scand probably ON name “þór” (Thor) + “ný” (new) + by + “tveit” known

Broughton mills Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in ancient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”). 204 / 237 Kahnberg Bank end no info

Duddon bridge no info

Broughton in furness Brocton 1208, Brochton 1252, Brouton 1265 scand ON “brak” (debris) or “braka” (creak, crackle, crunch) + tun. The /a/ has changed to /ɑ/ in a ncient Swedish and ancient Norwegian (becoming /o/ in modern Swedish “bråka”).

Foxfield no info

Grizebeck scand ON “grise” / “griss” (pig, wild boar) + “bekkr” (stream)

Kirkby in furness scand ON “kirkia” + by known

Lady hall no info

Hallthwaites possibly no info, but second element is probably ON “tveit” (long and narrow area)

Arnaby Arnoldby 1292 (?) scand ON name “Arnulf” + by known

Whicham Witingam 12c, Witingham 1086, Wytingeham 1277 possibly possibly ON “hvitr” (white) + “engi” (meadow) + “heim” (home), or OE “Hwiting” + “ham” (farm)

Whitbeck Whidbek 16c possibly possibly ON “viðr” (wood) or “viðir” (willow tree) + “bekkr” (stream)

Bootle Botle early 12c, Botele 1254, Bottehale 1255, Bothale 1258, Botehill 1302 possibly OE name “bota” + “halh”, or ON name “Bótolfr” known

Corney Cornai 12c, Cornay 1354 scand ON “korn” (grain, barley) + ey (island), though it's odd to call a hill 80m above sea level an island. The second part might actually be the Eastern ON ”høi” (hill, height),

205 / 237 Kahnberg losing it's /h/ in confusion with ”ey” (which was ”øi” in eastern ON)

Eskmeals scand probably ON “askr” (ash tree) + “melr” (sand hill covered with coarse grass) partly known

Bootle station Bodele 1086 o OE “boðl” (building) known

Hycemoor no info

Hyton no info

Annaside Aynerset 1241 scand ON name Einarr + ON “sætr” (season dwelling with seasonal pasture fields) known

Silecroft Selecroft 1211 mixed ON “selja” (willow tree) + OE “croft” (enclosed field) known

Kirksanton Santacherche 1086, Kirkesanton 1202, Kirkesantan 1190 mixed ON “kirkia” + saint name “Anna” or Irish saint name “Sanctan” known

Haverigg Haverigge 13c scand ON “hagi” (enclosed pasture) or ON "haf" (ocean, sea) + ON “hryggr” (ridge, back). “hagi” became “have” in ancient Danish.

Steel green dialect Northumbrian/Scottish word “steel” meaning ridge, precipiece, tongue of land known

Millom de Millum 1229, Millum 1234, Milneholm 1274, Millom 1298 scand ON “mylna” (mill) + “holmr” (small island) known

Askham in furness Askum 1232, Ascum 1314, Ascome 1314 scand ON “askr” (ash tree) + “heim” (home). Compare Swedish villages “Askum” and “Askome” partly known 206 / 237 Kahnberg Marton Merton 1250 o OE “mere” (lake) + tun known

Lindal in furness Lindale 1220 scand ON “lindr” (lime tree) + “dalr” (valley) known

Dalton in furness Daltune 1086 scand ON “dalr” (valley) + tun (the place is in a river valley, so it makes sense)

Newton Newtona 1191 o OE “niwe” + tun known

Stank Stanke 1509 modern

Roose Rosse 1086, Ros 1155 celtic Welsh “rhos” (moor, heath, plain) known

Barrow in furness Barrai 1190, Barray 1292 Celtic + Scand probably Celtic “barr” (Welsh “bar”, Irish “barr” meaning summit, top) + ON “ey” (island) known

Rampside Rameshede 1292, Ramesheved 1336 o OE “ram” (ram) + “hefod” (head) known

Roosebeck Rosbech 1227 Celtic + Scand Welsh “rhos” (moor, heath, plain) or ON "rós" (rose) + ON “bekkr” (stream) partly known

Leece Lies 1086 o plural of OE “leah” (pasture) known

Dendron gleaston Glassertun 1086 germanic OE “glæs” or ON “glis” (shining, gleam) + tun known

Stainton with Adgarley Stainton 1166, Steynton 1238, Staynton 1291 scand On “steinn” (stone) + tun known

Aldingham Aldingham 1086, Aldingeham 1292 o known

Baycliff Bellecliue 1212, Beelclyff 1418 o OE “bæl” (fire) + “clif” (slope) known 207 / 237 Kahnberg Little urswick Ursewica 1150, Hursewic 1189, Vrswic 1198 scand probably ON “úrr” (ancient ox) + “vik” (bay), since the place is at the end of a valley

Urswick Ursewica 1150, Hursewic 1189, Vrswic 1198 scand probably ON “úrr” (ancient ox) + “vik” (bay), since the place is at the end of a valley

Bardsea Berretseige 1086, Berdeseia 1155, Bardeseia 1202 o OE name “Beornred” + OE “eg” or ON “ey” (both meaning island) known

Swarthmoor Swartemore 1537 possibly probably ON “svartr” (black) + “mor” (moor)

Pennington Penningetun 1086 o OE “pening” (penny) + tun known

Rosside Reuesath 1270 scand ON “refr” (fox) + “sætr” (seasonal dwelling/pasture)

Ulverston Vlurestun 1086, Oluestonam 1127, Olueston 1155, Ulveston 1191 scand ON “ulfr” (wolf) + tun

River Lune Loin 1156, Lon 1180 celtic linked to Welsh “lôn” (lane) or Welsh “llawn” (full, healthy, pure) partly known

River Eden celtic meaning “water” known

River Esk Ask 1200 celtic from Brythonic “isca” (water) known

Crummock water celtic from Brythonic “crumbaco* (crooked)known – wiki

Derwent water Deruuentionis fluvii 8c celtic from Brythonic “derventio” (valley thick with oaks) known

Wast water scand ON “vatnsa” (lake river) known – wiki

208 / 237 Kahnberg River Kent Kent 1208, Kenet 1246 celtic no known meaning known

Herefordshire

Brampton bryan Brantune 1086 o OE brom” (broom) + tun known

Leintwardine Lenteurde 1086 Celtic + OE Celtic river name + OE “worth” (enclosure) known

Downton Duntune 1086 o OE “dun” (hill) + tun known

Downton castle Duntune 1086 o OE “dun” (hill) + tun known

Pipe aston Estone 1086 o OE “east” + tun known

Burrington Boritune 1086 o OE “burh” (fort) + tun known

Elton Elintune 1086 o OE name “Ella” + tun known

Leinthall starkes Lentehale 1086 Celtic + OE celtic river name + OE “halh” (nook of land) known

Wigmore Wigemore 1086 o Oe “wicga” (quaking) + “mor” (marsh) known

Adforton no info

Birtley o OE “beorth” (bright) + “leah” (clearing) known

Lingen Lingen 704, Lingham 1086 Celtic probably originally the name of the brook known

Lower lye Lege 1086 o OE “leah” (clearing) known

Yatton Getune o OE “geat” (gap, gate) + tun known

Leinthall earls Lentehale 1086 Celtic + OE celtic river name + OE “halh” (nook of land) known 209 / 237 Kahnberg Bircher common Burchoure 1212 o OE “birce” (birch) + *“ofer” (ridge) known

Orleton Alretune 1086 Germanic OE “alor” or ON “alr” (both meaning alder) + tun known

Orleton common Alretune 1086 Germanic OE “alor” or ON “alr” (both meaning alder) + tun known

The goggin no info, but might be Celtic

Overton o OE “uferra” (upper) + tun known

Richards castle Castellum Ricardi 1180 French Frenchman Richard Scrope's son Osbern held this castle in 1086 known

Brimfield Bromefeld o OE brom” (broom) + feld (field) known

Little hereford Lutelonhereford 1086 o OE “lytlan” (dative of “lytel”) + Hereford known

Middleton on the hill Miceltune 1086 o OE “micel” (large, big, much) + tun known

Ashton Estune 1086 o OE “east” + tun (just like Pipe Aston), even though the DoBPN explains it as OE ”æsc” (ash) + tun

Luston Lustone 1086 o OE “lus” (louse) + tun known

Eyton Ettone 1086 o Probably OE “east” or “ea” (river) + tun

Leominster Leomynster 10c, Leominstre 1086 Celtic + OE Celtic area name “Leon” + OE “mynster” (church) known

Kimbolton Kimbalton 13c o OE name “Cynebald” + tun known

Leysters Last 1086 o OE “last” (track)

Hennor Celtic? no info – small village on the top of a ridge east of Leominster. ”hen” could be Welsh

210 / 237 Kahnberg (old), but the ”nor” part doesn't make any sense (perhaps ”gorllewin” (west), “hen orllewin” (old west) shortened by the English to “hennor”).

Whyle Hvilech 1086, Whilai 12c, Wihale 12c Celtic? no clear etymology – perhaps it might come from Welsh “chwil-” or “chwilio” or something in that area?

Pudleston Pillesdune 1086, Putlesdone 1212 o OE “pyttel” (mouse-hawk) + “dun” (hill) known

Hatfield Hetfelde 1086 o OE “hæth” (heather) + feld (field) known

Bredenbury Bridenberie 1086 possibly possibly ON “breiðr” / eastern ON “bredher” (both meaning “wide”, broad”) + ON “berg” (mountain)

Thornbury Thornbyrig 1000, Torneberie 1086 Germanic OE “thorn” + “burh” (“byrig” as dative) or ON “thorn” + “berg”, though the OE version is more likely since the place is on a very low hill between two small streams at the end of a valley with far higher ridges on three sides known

Edwyn ralph Gedeuen 1086 o OE name *”Gedda” + OE “fenn” (fen, marshland) known

Edvin loach Gedeuen 1086, Yedefen Loges 1242 o OE name *”Gedda” + OE “fenn” (fen, marshland) known

Tedstone wafre Tedesthorne 1086 o OE name *”Teod” + OE “thorn” known

Wolferlow Wolfelow 14c o

211 / 237 Kahnberg Upper sapey Sapian 781, Sapie 1086 o OE “sæpig” (juicy, sappy), originally applied to Sapey brook known

Sapey common Sapian 781, Sapie 1086 o OE “sæpig” (juicy, sappy), originally applied to Sapey brook known

Tedstone delamere Tedesthorne 1086 o OE name *”Teod” + OE “thorn” known

Whitbourne o no info, but likely OE

Brockhampton Brockampton 1251 o OE “broc” (brook) + tun known

Bromyard downs Bromgeard 840 o OE “brom” (broom) + “geard” (enclosure) known

Bromyard Bromgeard 840 o OE “brom” (broom) + “geard” (enclosure) known

Risbury Riseberia 1086 possibly OE “hris” (brushwood) + “burh” (fortress, dative “byrig”) or ON “hris” (brushwood) + “berg” (mountain). The place is near a hilltop, so the ON version can't be ruled out (compare “Riseberga” in southern Sweden).

Stoke prior o OE “stoc” (secondary settlement) known

Aulden no info

Ivington Ivintune o OE name “Ifa” + tun known

Monkland Leine 1086, Munkelen 1180 Celtic + OE Celtic area name “Leon” + OE “munuc” (monks) known

Pembridge Penebruge 1086 o OE name *”Pena” + OE “brycg” (bridge) or ON "pen" (nice, worried) + ON "bryggja" (platform, half-bridge) partly known

212 / 237 Kahnberg Eardisland Lene 1086, Erleslen 1230 Celtic + OE Celtic area name “Leon” + OE “eorl” (earl) known

Shirl heath no info

Cobnash no info

Kingsland Lene 1086, Kingeslan 1213 Celtic + OE Celtic area name “Leon” + OE “cyning” (king) known

Lucton Lugton 1185 Celtic + OE Celtic river name + tun known

Yarpole Iarpol 1086 o OE *”gear” + “pol” (pool). (Welsh “iâr” (hen) or “iard” (courtyard) + “pwll” (pool) would've been combined as ”pwll iâr” or ”pŵll iard” and not ”iâr pwll”) known

Mortimer's cross no info

Ledicot no info

Shobdon Scepedune 1086, Scobbedun 1242 o OE name *”Sceobba” + OE “dun” (hill) known

Coombes moor Welsh / OE probably Welsh “cwm” (wide valley) or OE “cumb” (valley) + OE “mor” (moor)

Byton Boitune 1086 o OE “byge” (bend, river bend) + tun known

Kinsham Kingesehemede 1216 o OE “cyning” (king) + *”hemm-mæd” (border meadow) known

Staunton on arrow Stantun 958, Stantune 1086 o OE “stan” (stone) + tun known

Titley Titelege 1086 o “woodland of a man called Titta” (OE) known

213 / 237 Kahnberg Eywood Modern – not on the 1646 map

Knill Chenille 1086 o OE *”cnylle” (hillock) known

Kington Chingtune 1086 o OE “cyne” replaced by OE “cyning” (king) + tun known

Lyonshall Lenehalle 1086 Celtic + OE Celtic area name “Leon” + OE “halh” (nook of land) known

Moorcot o no info, but likely OE “mor” (moor) + “cot” (cottage) like Morcott in Rutland.

Holme marsh possibly no info, but probably ON “holmr” (small island) + perhaps ON “mosi” (bog) even though the place seems to be either very small or established after 1646.

Broxwood Broxwood 1646 o probably OE “brocc” (badger) + wood

Huntington Huntyngton 1646 o probably OE “hunting” (hunting) + tun

Dilwyn Dilven 1086 Welsh / OE probably linked to Welsh “dilyn” (follow) or “dilynwyr” (followers), but the usual interpretation would be OE “digle” (secret) partly known

Brilley mountain Brunlege 1219 o OE “brom” (broom) + “leah” (clearing) known

Brilley Brunlege 1219 o OE “brom” (broom) + “leah” (clearing) known

Whitney on wye Witenie 1086 Germanic OE “hwit” (white) + “eg” (island), or ON “hvítr” + “ey” with the same meaning partly known

Clifford Cliford 1086 o OE “clif” (cliff) + “ford” (ford) known

Hay on wye Hagan 958, Haya 1144 possibly ON “hagi”/”haghi”/”haga” (pasture) in 214 / 237 Kahnberg determined form (the pasture - ”hagan”), but generally considered as being from OE ”hæg”.

Cusop Cheweshope 1086 Celtic + OE Celtic river name ”cyw” (actually meaning ”chick” in Welsh) + OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Dorstone Dodintune 1086, Dorsington 1138 o OE name “Deorsige” + ing + tun known

The bage The bache 1646 possibly possibly eastern ON “bakke” (slope), but impossible to know without older sources. The place is on a 40 metre high slope between two higher ridges.

Winforton Widferdestune 1086, Wynfreton 1265 possibly possibly ON “vída” (widespread, further) + “ferð” (travel, journey, trip) + genitive + tun, perfectly matching the old name. The old name is generally thought as being a mistake, making the general interpretation as OE name “Winefrith” + tun.

Eardisley Herdeslege 1086 possibly possibly ON “hirðir” (shepherd) + “lǽgi” (place, position), or OE name “Ægheard” + “leah” (pasture) partly known

Almeley Elmelie 1086 possibly possibly ON “almr” (elm tree) + “hlíd” (slope), or OE “elm” (elm tree) + “leah” (pasture). Place on a hill, so ON version is possible. partly known

Woonton Wonton 1646, Wenetone 1086 o probably OE

Sarnesfield Sarnesfelde 1086 Celtic + OE old Welsh “sarn” (road) + OE “feld” (open land) known 215 / 237 Kahnberg Weobley Wibelai 1086 o OE name “*”Wiobba” + OE “leah”, though an ON interpretation isn't impossible known

Weobley marsh Wibelai 1086 o OE name “*”Wiobba” + OE “leah”, though an ON interpretation isn't impossible known

King's pyon Kings pion 1646, Pionie 1086 o OE “pie” (gnat) + “eg” (island) known

Bush bank no info

Canon pyon Pionie 1086 o OE “pie” (gnat) + “eg” (island) known

Burghill Burgelle 1086 o OE “burh” (fort) + “hyll” (hill) known

Tillington Tullington 1086 o OE name “Tulla” + tun known

Tillington common Tullington 1086 o OE name “Tulla” + tun known

Yarsop Ardes, Edreshope, Erdeshop, Sope (all 1086) Welsh / OE OE “eorðe” (soil) or Welsh “gardd” (garden) + OE “hop” (small enclosed valley)

Norton canon Nortune 1086 Germanic OE “north” (north) + tun, or ancient Swedish “norr” / ON “norþr” (north) + tun partly known

Moorhampton no info

Yazor Iavesovre 1086 Celtic + OE Welsh name “Iago” + OE *”ofer” (ridge) known

Mansell gamage Mælueshylle 1045, Malveselle 1086 o OE *”malu” (gravel ridge) + “hyll” (hill) known

Staunton on wye Standune 1086 o OE “stan” (stone) + dun (hill) known

Kinnersley Cyrdes leah 1030, Curdeslege 1086 o OE name “Cyneheard” + “leah” (clearing) known

216 / 237 Kahnberg Letton Letune 1086 o OE “leac” (herb) + tun known

Bredwardine Brocheurdie 1086, Bredewerthin 12c o OE “bred” (board, plank) + “worthign” (enclosure) known

Brobury Brocheberie 1086 o OE “broc” (brook) + “burh” (dative “byrig”) known

Preston on wye Presetune 1086 o OE “preost” (priest) + tun known

Byford Buiford 1086 o OE “byge” (bend, river bend) + ford known

Bridge sollers Bricge 1086 o OE “brycg” (bridge) known

Bishopstone Stoches 1086 o OE “stoc” (secondary settlement) known

Kenchester Chenecestre 1086 o OE name “Cena” + OE “ceaster” (Roman fort) known

Credenhill Cradenhille 1086 o OE name “Creoda” + OE “hyll” (hill) known

Brinsop Hope 1086 o OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Stretton sugwas Stratone 1086 Germanic OE “stræt” (road) or eastern ON "strat" (road) + tun partly known

Canon bridge no info

Swainshill possibly no info, but might indicate Scandinavian presence in the area for a while (“Svein” being a popular Scandinavian name, and there's record in DB of a “Godmund” at the “Swanston court” which further indicates Scandinavian presence).

Hope under dingmore Hope 1086 OE + Welsh OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) + Welsh “din mawr” (great fort) known

Bodenham Bodeham 1086 o OE name “Boda” + OE “ham” (farm) known

217 / 237 Kahnberg Pool head no info

The vauld no info

Sutton lakes no info

Sutton st nicholas Su(d)tune o OE “suth” (south) + tun, or eastern ON “sud” + tun partly known

Marden Maurdine 1086, Magewurdin 1177 o OE “worthign” (enclosure) + area “Mauld” known

Wellington Weolintun 11c, Walintone 1086 possibly probably ON “vollr” (flat and grassy area) + tun, instead of being built on the OE name *”Weola”. Compare “Vallentuna” in Sweden.

Wellington marsh Weolintun 11c, Walintone 1086 possibly probably ON “vollr” (flat and grassy area) + tun, instead of being built on the OE name *”Weola”. Compare “Vallentuna” in Sweden.

Moreton on lugg Mortune 1086 Germanic ON “mor” (moor) or OE “mor” + tun partly known

Pipe and lyde Pipe 1086 Germanic ON “pípa”/”pipe” (a pipe, make a tiny sound, make u-shaped) or OE “pipe” (a conduit) partly known

Munstone Modern – not on the 1646 map

Holmer Holemere 1086 possibly OE “hol” (hollow) + “mere” (lake), or ON “hola” (hole) + “mergð” (mass) with the ending changed to OE “mere” partly known

Lugwardine Lucvordine 1086 Celtic + OE Celtic river name + OE “worthign” (enclosure) or possibly ON ”varða” (ward, 218 / 237 Kahnberg protect, beacon) partly known

Bartestree Bertoldestreu 1086 Germanic Germanic name “Barthold” (records from Prussia in 9c) + OE “treow” or ON “tré” (tree, wood). Why change the name to OE “Beorhtwald”?

Withington Widingtune 1086 possibly possibly ON “viðr” (wood, lumber) or “viðir” (willow tree) + tun, but generally thought as being OE *”withign” (willow copse) + tun

Westhide Hide 1086 o OE “híd” (hide) known

Shucknall Shockenhulle 1377 o OE “scucca” (evil spirit) + “hyll” (hill) known

Weston beggard Westune 1086 possibly OE “west” or eastern ON “væst” (both meaning “west”) + tun partly known

Yarkhill Geardcylle 811, Archel 1086 possibly OE “geard” (yard) + “cyln” (kiln), or possibly ON “garðr” (farm) + “kollr” (round hill). The is a rounded hill next to the place. partly known

Monkhide no info

Stretton grandiston Stratune 1086 Germanic OE “stræt” (road) or eastern ON "strat" (road) + tun partly known

Lower eggleton Ingleton 1646 modern

Ocle pychard Aclea 1030, Acle 1086 o OE “ac” (oak) + “leah” (clearing) known

Burley gate Modern – not on the 1646 map

Moreton jeffers Mortune 1086 Germanic ON “mor” (moor) or OE “mor” + tun partly known

219 / 237 Kahnberg Little cowarne Cuure 1086, Couern 1255 o OE “cu” (cow) + “ærn” (house) known

Pencombe Pencumbe 12c Welsh / OE Welsh “pen” (head) + “cwm” (wide valley) or OE “penn” (enclosure) + “cumb” (flat valley) partly known

Much cowarne Cuure 1086, Couern 1255 o OE “cu” (cow) + “ærn” (house) known

Bishop's frome Frome 1086 Celtic Celtic river name known

Stanford bishop Stanford o OE “stan” (stone) + ford known

Linley green Modern – not on the 1646 map

Acton green Modern – not on the 1646 map

Suckley

Longley green

Cradley Credelaie 1086 o OE name “Creoda” + OE “leah” (clearing) known

Mathon Matham 1014, Matma 1086 o OE “mathm” (treasure) known

Evesbatch Sbech 1086, Esbeche 12c possibly OE name “Esa” + “bece” (stream valley), or ON “ás” (ridge) + “bekkr” (stream). There is a stream running down from the ridge at this place. partly known

Fromes hill Modern – not on the 1646 map

Castle frome Frome 1086 Celtic Celtic river name known

Pow green Modern – not on the 1646 map

220 / 237 Kahnberg Bosbury Bosanbirig 12c, Boseberge 1086 possibly possibly eastern ON “bose” (strong man, skinner, devil) + ON “berg” (mountain) (compare “Bosarp” in southern Sweden). Generally thought to be OE name “Bosa” + OE “burh” (fortress, dative “byrig”), but the earlier form point in the Scandinavian direction. partly known

Coddington Cotingtune 1086 o OE name “Cota” + ing + tun known

Old colwall Colewelle 1086 o OE “col” (cool) + “wella” (spring, stram) or possibly ON "kol" (coal) + ON "vollr" (flat and grassy area) since the area appears to be flat on the map partly known

Staplow Modern – not on the 1646 map

Munsley Muleslage, Muleslai 1086 possibly generally OE name “Mul” + OE “leah” (clearing), but possibly ON “múli” (nose of a horse) or ”múll” (mule) + eastern ON ”lagh” (water, liquid) or ON ”lǽgi” (place, position) partly known

Ashperton Spertune 1086, Aspretonia 1144 possibly possibly eastern ON “asp” / ON “osp” (asp tree) + tun, but generally thought to be OE name “Æscbeorht” + tun partly known

Canon frome Frome 1086 Celtic Celtic river name known

Tarrington Tatintune 1086 o OE name “Tata” + ing + tun known

Little Tarrington Tatintune 1086 o OE name “Tata” + ing + tun known

221 / 237 Kahnberg Stoke edith Stoches 1086 o OE “stoc” (secondary settlement) known

Dormington Dorminton 1206 o OE name “Deormod” + ing + tun known

Wellington heath Weolintun 11c, Walintone 1086 possibly probably ON “vollr” (flat and grassy area) + tun, instead of being built on the OE name *”Weola”. Compare “Vallentuna” in Sweden.

Massington Modern – not on the 1646 map

Upper colwall Colewelle 1086 o OE “col” (cool) + “wella” (spring, stream) or possibly ON "kol" (coal) + ON "vollr" (flat and grassy area) since the area appears to be flat on the map partly known

West malvern Mælfern 1030, Malferna 1086 Celtic Celtic “moel” (bare) + “bryn” (hill). Compare Welsh “moelfryn” (bald hill). known

Storridge Storugge 13c possibly OE “stan” (stone) + ”hrycg” (ridge), or possibly ON ”stórr” (big, large) + ”hryggr” (back, ridge) partly known

Eastnor Astenofre 1086 o OE “eastan” (east) + *”ofer” (ridge), but interesting to compare with “Östnor” in Sweden even though it's not applicable here known

Ledbury Liedeberge 1086 possibly generally thought to be a Celtic river name “Leadon” + “OE “burh” (fortress), but possibly ON “hlíd” (slope) + “berg” (mountain) (i.e. “mountain slope”, “the slope of the mountain”). The place is definitely at the foot of the mountain slope. (”Lidberg” is a common Swedish surname built from “hlid” + “berg”) partly known 222 / 237 Kahnberg Parkway modern, built in 17c known

Donnington Dunninctune 1086 o OE *”duning” (hill-place) + tun known

Little marcle Merchelai 1086 o OE “mearc” (boundary) + “leah” (clearing) known

Much marcle Merchelai 1086 o OE “mearc” (boundary) + “leah” (clearing) known

Lyne down Modern – not on the 1646 map

Perrystone hill Modern – not on the 1646 map

Old gore Modern – not on the 1646 map

Hole in the wall Modern – not on the 1646 map

Foy Lann Timoi 1150 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + saint name “Moi” known

Fawley chapel Falileiam 1142 o OE “fælethe” (making of hay) + “leah” (clearing) known

How caple Capel 1086 Welsh Welsh “capel” (chapel), probably with the Welsh name “Huw” added later on

Ballingham Badelingeham 1215 o OE name *“Badela” + ing + OE “ham” (farm) or “hamm” (river-bend) known

Brockhampton Brockampton 1251 o OE “broc” (brook) + “ham” (farm) + tun known

Sollers hope Hope 1086 o OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Fownhope Hope 1086 o OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Woolhope Hope 1086 o OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Putley Poteslepe 1086, Putelega 1180 possibly possibly ON “pottr” (pot) + “slípa” (polish,

223 / 237 Kahnberg grind, smooth) or ON ”puta” (hump, hunch) + ON ”hlaup”/eastern ON ”löp” (steep slope where water or logs can reach lower ground), but generally thought to be ON name “Putta” + OE “leah” (clearing). Situated at the lower end of a steep slope from a hunch on the ridge. partly known

Aylton Aileuetona 1138 possibly OE name “Æthelgifu” + tun, or possibly ON “eilífur” (eternal) or “ON “olr”/”alr” (alder tree) + ”líf” (life) + tun partly known

Pixley Picheslei 1086 possibly possibly ON “píka” (lady) or “pikr” (peak, tip, point) + “lǽgi” (place, position) (would be “Pigesleie” in Danish)

Trumpet named after the inn (800 years old) known

Durlow Modern – not on the 1646 map

Prior's frome Frome 1086 Celtic Celtic river name known

Mordiford Mord(e)ford 12c French possibly French?

Hampton bishop Hantune 1086 o OE “hamm” (river-bend) + tun known

Holme lacy Hamne 1086 o OE “hamm” (river-bend) known

Dinedor Dunre 1086 Celtic Celtic *”din” (fort) + “breʒ” (hill) known

Rotherwas Retrowas 1086 can't figure this one out

Hereford Hereford 958, 1086o OE *”here” (army) + ford known

Grafton Crafton 1303 o OE “graf” (grove) + tun known

Callow Calua 1180 o OE “calu” (bare hill) in dative known

224 / 237 Kahnberg Aconbury Akornebir 1213 o OE “acweorna” (squirrel) + “burh” (fortress), though possibly also ON “ikorne” (squirril) + by known

Bolstone Boleston 1193 o OE name “Bola” + OE “stan” (stone) known

Little dewchurch Lann Deui 7c, Dewischirche 1150 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + saint name “Dewi” (St David) known

Hoarwithy La Horewythy 13c o OE “har” (beam) + “withig” (white) known

Llandinabo Lann Hunapui 1130 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + name “Iunapui” known

Llanwarne Ladgvern 1086, Lann Guern 1130 Welsh Welsh ”llan” (church of) + ”guern” (alder tree). Church among the alder trees. known

Much birch Birches 1252 o OE “birce” (birch) known

Little birch Birches 1252 o OE “birce” (birch) known

King's thorn Modern – not on the 1646 map

Wormelow possibly mentioned in DB. Possibly ON “ormr” (worm) + “log” (law, Danish “lov”). Compare “Danelaw”.

Much dewchurch Lann Deui 7c, Dewischirche 1150 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + saint name “Dewi” (St David) known

Kivernoll Kevernall 1646 possibly possibly ON “kífa” (fight, struggle, argue) + eastern ON “knall”/”knalle”/”knoll” (small steep hill)

Tram inn Modern – not on the 1646 map

Didley Dodelegie 1086 possibly OE name “Doda” + OE “leah” (clearing), or possibly ON “dauðr” / eastern ON 225 / 237 Kahnberg “döþer”/”død” (dead) + ON “lǽgi” (place, position). Swedish “dödläge” = standstill partly known

Kilpeck Chipeete 1086, Cilpedec 1150 Welsh Old Welsh “cil” + *”pedec” = nook of land where snares for animals are placed known

Wormbridge Wermebrig 1207 possibly Celtic river name meaning “dark stream” + OE “brycg” (bridge), or possibly ON “ormr” (worm) + “bryggja” (bridge, halfbridge, platform) partly known

Thruxton Torchestone 1086, Turkelestona 1160 Scand ON name “Thorkell” + tun known

Clehonger Cleunge 1086 o OE “clæg” (clay) + “hangra” (wooded slope) known

Eaton bishop Etune 1086 possibly OE “ea” (river) + tun, or ON “á” (river) + tun partly known

Warham Werham 1086 possibly said to be OE “wær” (weir) + “ham” (farm), just like other Warham places (but considering the amount of ”possibly Scandinavian” place-names in the area it could be eastern ON “ værn” (protect) + “heim” (home) just like the Viking village of “Varnhem” in sw Sweden

Breinton common Brynton 1646 not enough info. Could be Welsh (“bryn” = hill), could be ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brúnnr” (well), or OE.

Madley Medelagie 1086, Maddeleia 1200 possibly possibly ON “meðal” (middle) + “lǽgi” (place, position) 226 / 237 Kahnberg Shenmore Modern – not on the 1646 map

Webton Webetone 1086 possibly possibly eastern ON “vidh” (wide) + ON “breiðr” (broad) + tun. Compare “Veberöd” in southern Sweden

Kingston, wormside Chingestone 1086 o OE “cyning” (king) + tun known

Great brampton Modern – not on the 1646 map

Monnington court Manitune 1086 o OE “(ge)mæne” (for everyone) + tun known

Peterchurch Peterescherche 1302 o OE “cerice” (church) + Peter known

Vowchurch Fowchirche 1291 o OE “fah” (colour) + “cerice” (church) known

Newton st margarets S. Margretes 1646 o

Michaelchurch escley Michaeleschirche 1257 o OE saint name + OE “cerice” (church) known

Craswall Cressewell 1231 o OE “cærse” (water-cress) + “wella” (spring, stream) known

Llanveynoe Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + name “Beuno” or “Meuno”, giving the Welsh version of the place-name “Llanfeuno”

Longtown Longa villa 1540, Ewias 1086 Welsh Old Welsh “ewyas” (sheep district) known

Lower maes-coed Welsh no info, but Welsh “maes” (field) + “coed” (trees)

Bacton Bachetone 1086 possibly possibly ON “bakki” (slope) + tun. The place is located 60m up a steep slope with another 40m less steep slope to the top of the hill.

Abbey dore Dore 1147 Celtic Celtic river name ”Dore” (the waters – compare Welsh ”dŵr”) known 227 / 237 Kahnberg Clodock Ecclesia Sancti Clitauci 1150 Welsh Welsh saint name “Clydog” used in the latin church name, and clearly the modern name comes from the Welsh version of the saint name. known

Walterstone Walterestun 1249 o name “Walter (de Lacy)” + tun known

Rowlstone Rowlston 1646 possibly Welsh “rhywel” (rowel) + “stôf” (stove), or something like “Caer Rywel” or “Cerrig Rywel” translated into simple ME.

Ewyas harold Ewias 1086 Welsh Old Welsh “ewyas” (sheep district) known

Pontrilas Elwistone 1086 Welsh + Scand The current name is Welsh, “pont” (bridge) + “tri” (three) + “glas” (blue, alive) meaning “three- river bridge”. The DB name is most likely Scandinavian, from ON “alfr” (gnome) + “steinn” (stone) or tun

Kentchurch Lan Cein 1130 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + saint name “Ceina” (although there seems to be something missing, since those two words would combine as “Llangeina”). known

Bagwyllydiart Welsh Welsh “bag” (bag) + “gwyll” (darkness) or “gwyllt” (wild) + “daear” (land, ground, soil)

Garway hill Lagademar 1086, Garou 1137, Langarewi 1189 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of), probably followed by “cad” (battle) + “mawr” (big, large), “church of the big battle”

Garway Lagademar 1086, Garou 1137, Langarewi 1189 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of), probably followed by “cad” (battle) + “mawr” (big, large), “church of the big battle”

228 / 237 Kahnberg Llanrothal Lann Ridol 1130 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of), probably followed by a name or Welsh ”rhyd” (ford) + ”dôl” (valley, meadow)

Llangrove Longe grove 1372 o OE “lang” (long) + “graf” (grove) known

Llangarron Lann Garan 1130 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + river name “Garron” or Welsh “garan” (heron, stork, crane) known

Llancloudy possibly Pembridge on 1646 map

Three ashes possibly Penroshe on 1646 map

St weonards Lann Sant Guainerth 1130 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) +saint name “Gwennarth” known

Orcop Orcop 1138 o OE “ora” (top) + “copp” (slope, ridge) known

Orcop hill Orcop 1138 o OE “ora” (top) + “copp” (slope, ridge) known

Harewood end no info, but there is a Harewde mentioned in DB and listed as the lost village of Harewood.

Pencoyd Pencoyt 1291 Welsh Welsh “pen” (head) + “coed” (trees) partly known

Hentland Welsh derived from Welsh “hen” (old) + “llan” (church). A 6c Welsh monastery. known

Kings caple Cape 1086 Welsh Welsh “capel” (chapel)

Peterstow Peterestow 1207 possibly OE name “Peter” + OE “stow” (holy place) or ON ”stofa” / eastern ON “stova”/”stuwæ” (cottage, hut) partly known

St owen's cross no info

229 / 237 Kahnberg Michaelchurch Lann Mihacgel 1150 Welsh Welsh “llan” (church of) + name “Mihangel” (Michael) known

Tretire Rythir 1212 Welsh Welsh “rhyd” (ford) + “hir” (long) known

Glewstone Gleanston 1212 possibly OE name “Gleaw” + tun, or possibly ON “glensa” (jeer, deride, shine) or “gliðna” (glide, depart) + tun partly known

Pencraig Penncreic 1150 Celtic Welsh “pen” (head) + “craig” (rock, cliff) known

Marstow Lann Martin 1130 Celtic Welsh “llan” (church of) + saint name “Martyn” known

Goodrich Castellum Godric 1102 Latin + OE OE name “Godric” + Latin “castellum” (castle). Godric is the landholder in DB. known

Kerne bridge possibly ON “kvern” = OE “Cweorn” → “Quern. The place was known as “The Quern” until early 19c when spelling was simplified to “The Kerne”. The bridge was then built in 1828 giving rise to the modern name.

Walford Walecford 1086 o OE “walh” (Briton) + ford known

Howle hill Hulla 1086 possibly possibly ON “kullr” (rounded hill) turning into OE “hyll” (hill). “The rounded hill” would've been “kulla” in eastern ON.

Coughton Coctune 1086 o OE “cocc” (hillock) + tun known

Ross on wye Rosse 1086 Welsh Generally thought to be Welsh “rhos” (moor, heath), though the Welsh name of the town is “Rhosan-ar-wy” meaning “promontory on egg/wye”. partly known 230 / 237 Kahnberg Wilton Wiltone 1086 possibly possibly ON “villr” (lost, wild, mad) or “hvíla” (rest) + tun, though generally thought to be OE *”wilig” (willow, ON “víðir”) + tun.

Bridstow Bridestowe 1277 o OE/Irish saint name “Brigid” + OE “stow” (holy place). The church is dedicated to St Brigid. known

Brampton abbotts Bruntune 1086 possibly possibly ON “brúnn” (brown) or “brúnnr” (well) + tun, though generally thought to be OE “brom” (broom) + tun

Phocle green Modern – not on the 1646 map

Upton bishop Uptune 1086 possibly OE “upp” = ON “upp” (up, upper, further up- stream) + tun

Linton Lintune 1086 possibly OE “lin” (flax) + tun, or ON “lín” (flax) + tun, or ON “lindr” (lime-tree) + tun

Bromsash possibly possibly “Eck Ieswoll” on the 1646 map, which could come from ON “eiki” (oak) + “vollr” (open and flat grassy ground).

Little gorsley Gorstley 1228 o OE “gorst” (gorse) + “leah” (clearing)

Ashton ingham Estune 1086 o OE “east” + tun (just like Pipe Aston), even though the DoBPN explains it as OE ”æsc” (ash) + tun

Lea Lecce 1086, La Lee 1219 o OE “leah” (clearing) known

Weston under penyard Westune 1086 possibly OE “west” or eastern ON “væst” (both meaning “west”) + tun partly known

Pontshill Panchille 1086 possibly possibly ON “penn” (nice, neat, respectable) + “kullr” (rounded hill), sliding into OE “hyll” (hill)

231 / 237 Kahnberg Hope mansell Hope 1086 o OE “hop” (small enclosed valley) known

Welsh bicknor Bykenore Walens 1291 possibly probably ON “bogi” (curve, arc) or ”beygja” (bend) + “nor” (narrow water strip connecting two wider water parts)

Symonds yat Symundesyate 1256 o OE name “Sigemund” + OE “geat” (gate) known

Whitchurch o OE “hwit” (white) + ”cerice” (church) known

Ganarew Genoreu 1150 Welsh Welsh saint name “Gwynwarwy” known

Buckholt (Monmouthshire)

Welsh newton Welshe Newton 1646 o OE or ME

River Terne Celtic celtic river name meaning “the stong one” known

River Wye Celtic Pre-English river name of unknown meaning (Mills), but possibly related to Welsh ”gŵyr” (crooked) (cy.wiki)

232 / 237 Kahnberg

Appendix 2

Appendix 2 is the spreadsheet used for the study, available as a .xls file (place-names.xls) for open use.

233 / 237