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The Relationship Between Carbohydrate Restrictive Diets and Body Fat Percentage in the Female Athlete

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The Relationship Between Carbohydrate Restrictive Diets and Body Fat Percentage in the Female Athlete Georgia State University ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University Nutrition Theses Department of Nutrition Summer 7-22-2011 The Relationship Between Carbohydrate Restrictive Diets And Body Fat Percentage in the Female Athlete Lauren L. Lorenzo Georgia State University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/nutrition_theses Part of the Nutrition Commons Recommended Citation Lorenzo, Lauren L., "The Relationship Between Carbohydrate Restrictive Diets And Body Fat Percentage in the Female Athlete." Thesis, Georgia State University, 2011. https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/nutrition_theses/13 This Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Department of Nutrition at ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Nutrition Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks @ Georgia State University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. APPROVAL THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CARBOHYDRATE RESTRICTIVE DIETS AND BODY FAT PERCENTAGE IN THE FEMALE ATHLETE BY LAUREN LYNCH LORENZO Approved: ________________________________________________ Dan Benardot, PhD, DHC, RD, LD, FACSM, Major Professor ________________________________________________ Anita Nucci, PhD, RD, LD, Committee Member ________________________________________________ Walter R. Thompson, PhD, FACSM, Committee Member ___________________ Date AUTHOR’S STATEMENT In presenting this thesis as a partial fulfillment of the requirements for an advanced degree from Georgia State University, I agree that the Library of the University shall make it available for inspection and circulation in accordance with its regulations governing materials of the type. I agree that permission to quote from, to copy from, or to publish this thesis may be granted by the author, or in his/her absence, by the Associate Dean, College of Health and Human Sciences. Such quoting, copying, or publishing must be solely for scholarly purposes and will not involve potential financial gain. It is understood that any copying from or publication of this dissertation which involves potential gain will not be allowed without the written permission from the author. ________________________________ Signature of Author NOTICE TO BORROWERS All theses deposited in the Georgia State University Library must be used in accordance with the stipulations prescribed by the author in the preceding statement. The author of this thesis is: Lauren Lynch Lorenzo 6013 Brookside Oak Circle Norcross, GA 30093 The director of this thesis is: Dr. Dan Benardot Division of Nutrition School of Health Professions College of Health and Human Sciences Georgia State University Atlanta, GA 30307 Users of this thesis not regularly enrolled as students at Georgia State University are required to attest acceptance of the preceding stipulation by signing below. Libraries borrowing this thesis for the use of their patrons are required to see that each user records here the information requested. VITA LAUREN LYNCH LORENZO EDUCATION: JAMES MADISION UNIVERSITY B.B.A. HOSPITALITY AND TOURISM MANAGEMENT 1999 PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE: AMERICAN SPORTS MANAGEMENT VICE PRESIDENT OF TRAINING & DEVELOPMENT 2007-2010 BUSINESS MANAGER 2003-2004 THE RITZ-CARLTON BUCKHEAD SENIOR MEETING & SPECIAL EVENTS MANAGER 2005-2006 THE WESTIN BUCKEAD CATERING MANAGER CONVENTION SERVICES MANAGER 2004-2005 TORI, INC. CATERING CATERING & BUSINESS MANAGER 2001-2002 THE GREENBRIER HOTEL & SPA FOOD AND BEVERAGE MANAGER CULINARY APPRENTICE/ROUNDS CHEF 1999-2001 AFFILIATIONS: AMERICAN DIETETIC ASSOCIATION, STUDENT MEMBER 2008-2011 AMERICAN COUNCIL ON EXERCISE, MEMBER 2008-2011 SPORTS, CARDIOVASCULAR, & WELLNESS NUTRITIONISTS 2008-2011 AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SPORTS MEDICINE, MEMBER 2010-2011 NATIONAL STRENGTH & CONDITIONING ASSOCIATION 2008-2009 AEROBICS & FITNESS ASSOCIATION OF AMERICA 1999-2011 POWER PILATES METHOD ALLIANCE, MEMBER 2008-2009 ABSTRACT Purpose: To assess the dietary intake and body composition of recreational and competitive female athletes, for the purpose of analyzing the relationships between macronutrient intake and body composition.. The main aim was to determine the relationship between caloric intake, carbohydrate (CHO) intake and protein intake with body fat percentage in active females. Methods: Using an IRB approved protocol, 44 volunteer female recreational and competitive athletes 18 years of age or older were recruited. Interviews were conducted to gather information on within day energy balance by assessing the time and amount of foods/beverages consumed, and the duration and intensity (using a Rating of Perceived Exertion scale) of activity performed on the day of assessment. All analyses were performed using Nutritiming™ (Calorie and Pulse Technologies, Atlanta, GA) to assess energy surpluses, energy deficits, and end of day energy balance. Information on date of birth, race/ethnicity, menstrual status, sleep and wake times, and prior diagnoses of metabolic disease and/or eating disorders were collected at the time of the interview. Height was assessed using a standard stadiometer. Weight and body composition were assessed via Bioelectrical Impedance Analysis (BIA) using InBody 230 (BioSpace Co. USA). The BIA assessment was performed to determine body fat percentage, Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR), Body Mass Index (BMI), segmental body composition, and fat and lean mass in kilograms. Nutrient data were derived using an interviewer-led, 24-hour recall. Results: CHO intake/kg total mass was significantly and inversely correlated with body fat percentage and BMI, (p=0.018 and p=0.001 respectively). Protein intake/kg total mass was also inversely and significantly correlated with body fat percentage (p=0.006). Fat intake was not significantly associated with BMI, body fat percent, or lean mass in kilograms. Total energy intake/kg total mass was inversely associated with BMI (p=0.001), with fat mass (p=0.001), and with body fat percentage, (p=0.001). CHO intake/kg total mass was positively associated with the total number of hours spent in an anabolic (i.e., EB>0) state (p=0.001), and was inversely associated with the total number of hours spent in a catabolic (i.e., EB < 0) state (p=0.001). CHO intake/kg total mass was the only substrate to be significantly correlated with the number of hours spent ± 400 kcal EB over a 24 hour period (p=0.001). Z-scores were created to establish categories of body composition and energy balance values. Utilizing Chi-Square tests, it was determined that more hours spent in an energy surplus (> 400kcal) was associated with higher body fat percent (p=0.042). Conclusions: CHO restriction, whether done intentionally or as a function of an energy restrictive intake, was commonly observed in this subject pool. Of the females surveyed, 79% did not meet their daily energy needs and, on average, consumed 49% of the recommended daily intake of CHO established for active people. The findings that subjects with lower CHO intakes had higher body fat levels, and that CHO was associated with improved maintenance of energy balance, which was also associated with lower body fat percent, suggest that physically active women should not restrict CHO to achieve a desired body composition. It was also observed that end-of-day energy balance was not associated with either energy substrate consumption or body composition. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CARBOHYDRATE RESTRICTIVE DIETS AND BODY FAT PERCENTAGE IN THE FEMALE ATHLETE BY LAUREN LYNCH LORENZO B.B.A., JAMES MADISON UNIVERSITY, 1999 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty Of Georgia State University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree MASTER OF SCIENCE SCHOOL OF HEALTH PROFESSIONS DIVISION OF NUTRITION GEORGIA STATE UNIVERSITY Atlanta, GA July 22, 2011 ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to acknowledge and thank the following people who contributed to this thesis research and were important to making this work possible: Dr. Dan Benardot for his undying patience and guidance through this journey. He has not only taught me about the field of nutrition, but about how to inspire others. I am forever in his debt. Matthew Lorenzo for sticking with me through all the twist and turns of the last 3 years. You have sacrificed as much as I have. You are my hero. Luke Lorenzo for putting up with my stressful days. Dr. Anita Nucci Dr. Walter Thompson Barbara Hopkins Stephen & Joanne Lynch Dr. Deron Boyles Rod Renner Tracy Blakely Eve Cohen Luis Boscan Karen S. Foley Cami & Abel Brand Mari Fridenmaker iii TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Tables……………………………………………………………………. iv List of Figures …………………………………………………………………... vi Abbreviations ………………………………………………………………….... vii Definitions ………………………………………………………………………. ix CHAPTER I Introduction……………………………………………………… 1 CHAPTER II Review of Literature………………….…………………………. 4 CHAPTER III Methods ….……………………………………………………… 30 CHAPTER IV Results…………………………………………………………… 33 CHAPTER V Discussion and Conclusions..…………………………………… 55 References ……………………………………………………………………… 63 Appendices ……………………………………………………………………... 70 iv LIST OF TABLES Results Tables Table 1: Study Participants Demographic Data …………………………………………… 33 Table 2: Athlete Type of Study Participants………………………………………………. 34 Table 3: Sport/Activity Type of Study Participants……………………………………….. 34 Table 4: Anthropometric/Activity Data…………………………………………………… 35 Table 5: Body Fat Percentage by Athlete Type ……………………………………………. 36 Table 6: Body Fat Percentage and Athlete Type (ANOVA) ………………………………. 36 Table 7: Body Fat Percentage by Age (ANOVA) …………………………………………
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