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1 Introduction: the Transformation of Social Democratic Parties Notes 1 Introduction: The Transformation of Social Democratic Parties 1. Gerassimos Moschonas, In the Name of Social Democracy: The Great Transformation, 1945 to the Present (London: Verso, 2002). 2. Herman Schwartz, ‘Social Democracy Going Down or Down Under: Institutions, Internationalized Capital and Indebted States’, Comparative Politics Vol. 30 No. 3 (April 1998). 3. Paul Pierson, ‘Coping with Permanent Austerity: Welfare State Restruc- turing in Affluent Democracies’, Paul Pierson, ed., The New Politics of the Welfare State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 432. 4. Herman Schwartz, ‘Internationalization and Two Liberal Welfare States: Australia and New Zealand’, Fritz Scharpf and Vivian Schmidt, eds., Wel- fare and Work in the Open Economy, Volume 2: Diverse Responses to Common Challenges (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 69. 5. John Stephens, ‘The Scandinavian Welfare States: Achievements, Crisis, and Prospects’, Gøsta Esping-Andersen, ed., Welfare States in Transition: National Adaptations in Global Economies (London: Sage Publications, 1998), p. 55. 6. Paul Pierson, ‘Post-Industrial Pressures on the Mature Welfare States’, Pierson, ed., p. 99. Pierson further states that ‘Welfare state conflict is often portrayed as a clash between those wedded to the status quo and those eager to dismantle basic social protections. In countries where aggressive advocates of neoliberalism have been in power, such as New Zealand ...this has not been too inaccurate a portrayal.’ Ibid, p. 102. 7. Adam Przeworski and John Sprague, Paper Stones: A History of Electoral Socialism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), p. 34. 8. Adam Przeworski, Capitalism and Social Democracy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985), p. 56. 9. Marx’s prediction ...that the displaced members of the old middle classes would either become proletarians or join the army of the unem- ployed did not materialize. The old middle classes, particularly the small agricultural proprietors, have become less numerous in industri- alized countries, but their sons and daughters were much more likely to find employment in an office or a store than a factory. Moreover, while the proportion of the adult population engaged in any activity outside the household has fallen drastically in the course of capitalist development, those excluded from participation in gainful activities did not become a reserve proletariat. Extended compulsory education, forced retirement, large standing armies, effective barriers to partici- pation by women—all had the effect of reducing entry into the ranks 118 Notes 119 of the proletariat. As a result ...the proletariat has continued to be a minority of the population. Przeworski and Sprague, Paper Stones, p. 40. 10. Przeworski, Capitalism and Social Democracy, p. 62. 11. Przeworski, Capitalism and Social Democracy, p. 240. 12. Przeworski and Sprague, Paper Stones, p. 184. 13. Dean Jaensch, The Politics of Australia (South Melbourne: MacMillan Education, 1992), p. 225. 14. Geoff Eley, Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850–2000 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 386. 15. John J. Rodger, From a Welfare State to a Welfare Society: The Changing Context of Social Policy in a Postmodern Era (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2000), pp. 27, 69–70. 16. Eley, Forging Democracy, p. 386. 17. Jack H. Nagel, ‘Social Choice in a Pluralitarian Democracy: The Politics of Market Liberalization in New Zealand’, British Journal of Political Science Vol. 28 No. 2 (April 1998): 230. 18. Nagel, ‘Social Choice’: 230. 19. Donald Sassoon, One Hundred Years of Socialism: The West European Left in the Twentieth Century (New York: The New Press, 1996), p. 654. 20. Jack Vowles and Ian McAllister, ‘Electoral Foundations and Electoral Consequences: From Convergence to Divergence’, Francis Castles, Rolf Gerritsen, and Jack Vowles, eds., The Great Experiment: Labour Parties and Public Policy Transformation in Australia and New Zealand (Auckland: Auckland University Press, 1996), p. 201. 21. Kimberly Earles, ‘The Gendered Effects of the Reregulation of the Swedish Welfare State’, Socialism and Democracy Vol. 18 No. 1 (2004): 107–134. 22. Bruce Jesson, Fragments of Labour: The Story Behind the Labour Government (Auckland: Penguin Books, 1989), p. 82. 23. Ronald Inglehart, Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 253, 259. 24. Nagel, ‘Social Choice’: 227. 25. Serge Halimi, ‘New Zealand: From Welfare State to Market Society: Test Tube Miracle of Total Capitalism’, Le Monde Diplomatique (April 1997), http://www.casi.org.nz/politicaleconomy/wstoms.html. 26. Martin Lloyd Thomas, ‘Postmodernisation and the Formation of a Postmodern Political Disposition’ (Sheffield: Sheffield University, 2000), p. 5, http://www.sheffield.ac.uk/polopoly_fs/1.71453!/file/thomas.pdf. 27. Clive Bean, ‘Class and Party in the Anglo-American Democracies: The Case of New Zealand’, British Journal of Political Science Vol. 18 No. 3 (July 1988): 309–310. 28. Arend Lijphart, Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-Seven Democracies, 1945–1990 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994); Fiona Barker and Elizabeth McLeay, ‘How Much Change? An Analysis of the Initial Impact of Proportional Representation on the New Zealand Par- liamentary Party System’, Party Politics Vol. 6 No. 2 (2000): 131–154; Jonathan Boston, Stephen Levine, Elizabeth McLeay, and Nigel S. Roberts, 120 Notes New Zealand’s Changing Political Identity, New Zealand Under MMP: A New Politics? (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 58; Thomas Brechtel and Andre Kaiser, ‘Party System and Coalition Formation in Post-Reform New Zealand’, Political Science Vol. 51 No. 1 (July 1999): 7. 29. Geoffrey Evans, ‘The Continued Significance of Class Voting’, Annual Review of Political Science Vol. 3 (2000): 412–413. 30. Muldoon’s popularity among the middle and lower-middle classes depended not only on his appeal to their social conservatism but also on his concern for their economic interests, which centred on the maintenance of economic security .... To protect the ordinary bloke, he reverted to New Zealand’s statist tradition and embraced a series of desperate, dramatically interventionist programmes. Nagel, ‘Social Choice’: 230. 31. Further, ‘Where survey research exists prior to the 1980s, it points to the Labour Party’s strong hold over the votes of the working class.’ Bryce Edwards, Political Parties in New Zealand: A Study of Ideological and Organi- sational Transformation, PhD dissertation (University of Canterbury, New Zealand, 2003), p. 265. 32. Vowles and McAllister, ‘Electoral Foundations’, p. 197. 33. Marcia Russell, Revolution: New Zealand from Fortress to Free Market (Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett, 1996), p. 28; Edwards, Political Parties in New Zealand, p. 273. 34. Vowles and McAllister, ‘Electoral Foundations’, p. 204. 35. Some writers do link these aspects to the ‘politics of postmodernism’, defined by ‘fragmented interests ...[t]he decline of the traditional work- ing class organizations and industrial interests ...the absence of a uni- fying political interest’. Rodger, From a Welfare State to a Welfare Society, p. 71. 36. Vowles and McAllister, ‘Electoral Foundations’, p. 204. 37. Moschonas, In the Name of Social Democracy, pp. 290–291. 38. Paul Pierson, ‘The New Politics of the Welfare State’, World Politics Vol. 48 (January 1996): 144. 39. Cf. John Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism (London: MacMillan Press, 1979), p. 46. 40. Peggy G. Koopman-Boyden, ‘Social Policy: Has There Really Been One?’, Martin Holland and Jonathan Boston, eds., The Fourth Labour Govern- ment: Politics and Policy in New Zealand, 2nd edition (Auckland: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 231. 41. Tom Bramble and Rick Kuhn, ‘Social Democracy after the Long Boom: Restructuring Under Australian Labor, 1983 to 1986’, Martin Upchurch, ed., The State and ‘Globalization’: Comparative Studies of Labour and Capital in National Economies (New York: Mansell, 1999), p. 41. 42. Richard Clayton and Jonas Pontusson, ‘Welfare-State Retrenchment Revisited: Entitlement Cuts, Public Sector Restructuring, and Inegalitarian Trends in Advanced Capitalist Societies’, World Politics Vol. 51 No. 1 (1998): 67–98. Notes 121 43. I use the term ‘working class’ in Marxist fashion: those separated from the means of production, who cannot survive solely through income derived from property ownership, and therefore must find remunera- tive employment. This usually means working for a capitalist employer in what Marxists deem an exploitative social relationship. This defini- tion does not include professional and managerial personnel located in a position in-between labour and capital, whom I consider ‘middle class’. 44. New Zealand subsequently adopted mixed member proportional repre- sentation in 1993. 45. Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1959). 46. Yves Mény and Andrew Knapp, Government and Politics in Western Europe (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 94. 47. Mény and Knapp, Government and Politics in Western Europe, pp. 94–95. 48. Stephens, The Transition from Capitalism to Socialism; Walter Korpi, The Democratic Class Struggle (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1983); Gøsta Esping-Andersen, Politics against Markets: The Social Democratic Path to Power (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985). 49. David R. Cameron, ‘The Expansion of the Public Economy: A Compara-
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