Text Complexity and Close Readings © 2012 International© 2012 Reading Association 2

1 JANUARY 2012 ENGAGING THE ADOLESCENT LEARNER

BY DOUGLAS FISHER AND NANCY FREY

These sources, while not without value, cannot capture the nuance, subtlety, depth, or breadth of ideas developed through complex text. (CCSS, 2010, Appendix A, p. 4)

It is essential to note here that increasing students’ ability to read the complex texts of a discipline should not be misinterpreted as “pass and pray”— in essence, pass out hard books and pray for the best. As Allington (2002) stated, “you can’t learn much from books you can’t read” (p. 16). In order to steadily build students’ capacity for comprehending complex texts, teachers must carefully scaffold these reading experiences. As well, knowing the characteristics of a text, and of the learner, are critical to being able to accurately identify what a complex text is. In this column, we examine the nature of texts and of the learners who read them. In he advent of the Common how to understand the vocabulary of addition, we discuss how scaffolded Core State Standards (CCSS) their disciplines, to collaborate with instruction can increase learners’ T for English Language Arts is fellow learners, and to communicate ability to comprehend the texts drawing renewed attention to the through discussion and writing. Much deeply. characteristics and uses of texts, of this learning emanates from the both print and digital, in secondary texts used in each discipline, including classrooms. The CCSS, which scientific studies, essays, speeches, What Makes a have been adopted by 45 states technical documents, and narrative Text Complex? and the District of Columbia as of forms. Of special note is the topic of December 2011, are intended to text complexity and its implications for Observe shoppers at a bookstore or articulate a shared set of standards curriculum and instruction: library and you’ll get an idea of the in order to foster communication, array of techniques they use to size collaboration, and assessment among Being able to read complex text up a text to determine if it’s right for educators across the nation. The independently and proficiently them. Some will read the back cover English Language Arts portion of is essential for high achievement or fan the pages to eye the font size. the standards call for a coordinated in college and the workplace Others will turn the book sideways to effort of literacy instruction in English, and important in numerous life see how thick it is. Some will turn to science, history/social sciences, and tasks. Moreover, current trends the table of contents or the index to technical subjects. suggest that if students cannot gain a sense of its contents. A smaller read challenging texts with proportion will read the introduction Overall, the CCSS challenge us to understanding—if they have not in an effort to decide whether it think about how we teach students developed the skill, concentration, meets their needs. These techniques, across the disciplines. The developers’ and stamina to read such texts— however informal, encapsulate the intent to formulate standards that they will read less in general. In array of tools used to determine the are “fewer, clearer, and higher” (Bill particular, if students cannot read complexity of a text. These include and Melinda Gates Foundation, 2010) complex expository text to gain quantitative measures related to the is designed to illuminate a pathway information, they will likely turn to words and sentences, the qualitative to college and career. The ELA text-free or text-light sources, such factors surrounding the content, standards call for teaching students as video, podcasts, and tweets. and the unique characteristics of 3

the reader and his or her purpose for information about the content or the advocate for the use of readability reading. way in which the ideas that are built formulas like those mentioned above across the text hang together, a factor also provide a similar caution and advise Quantitative Factors. As humans, called coherence. that such quantitative measures should we gravitate toward numbers. Assign be used to initially screen a text, but a grade level or other quantitative Most teachers have learned through only in conjunction with other ways of measure to a text and we’re good to experience that quantitative factors, assessing a text’s suitability (Gunning, go. After all, that number allows us to although informative, do not go far 2003). The qualitative factors related to rapidly determine whether it is right for enough to provide the kind of guidance content, levels of meaning and purpose, our students or not. But how did it get needed to select text. “I remember text structure and organization, and there? my first year of teaching. I was at the even the presence of visual supports, middle school,” said seventh grade contribute to a text’s complexity. Most quantitative readability formulas, social studies teacher Mae-Ling Yung. including familiar ones such as the “I had to set up my classroom pretty Qualitative Factors. The appeal of Fry (Fry, 2002), the Dale-Chall (Chall quick, so I went to the bookroom at the quantitative factors is in the ease of & Dale,1995), and the Flesch-Kincaid school and just started pulling books calculation, made all the more efficient (Flesch,1948), rely on varying algorithms that said ‘Grade 7’ on the spine. But through the use of computers and that factor word length and frequency as I started using them,” she said, “I digital texts. But qualitative measures of use in English, number of syllables, realized that some were much too easy need a human being to assess them; and sentence length. This approach to for my students, while others were just they can’t be measured in the same calculating readability has existed since ridiculously difficult. I learned my lesson way as quantitative methods allow for the mid-twentieth century. Even newer that year—I need to read it to figure out (CCSS, 2010). Qualitative factors include readability formulas, such as those used whether it’s right for us or not.” the following: by Lexile (Smith, Stenner, Horabin, & Smith, 1989) and Degrees of Reading Ms. Yung’s frustration with her ♦ Content analysis—Although the Power (Koslin, Zeno, & Koslin, 1987) method of selecting texts highlights readability measure on a text may rely on these relatively straightforward the limitations of relying on only one be relatively low, the content can methods of measuring a text. However, element of a text’s characteristics: be quite challenging. One of our these formulas rely on the surface Ignore content, the reader, and the favorite examples is Kurt Vonnegut’s qualities of a text and do not provide task at one’s own peril. Those who Cat’s Cradle (1998). The author’s unique style using short sentences punctuated by longer ones, as well as lots of dialogue and poetry, results in an elementary-level readability, but the science fiction novel’s deeply satirical commentary on war, the coming apocalypse, and spies would elude a child, and in fact would challenge older ones as well.

♦ Levels of meaning and purpose— We’ll use Vonnegut’s novel again to illustrate this factor. On the surface, the Cat’s Cradle is an entertaining tale about a chase for a valuable substance that can turn water solid at room temperature. But its reputation as one of the most important novels of the 20th century is not due the author’s ability to weave a good yarn. Vonnegut likely had more subversive intentions when he wrote the book, especially in offering biting 4

commentary on the roles of religion that allow the reader to follow a words that alert the reader to a and technology in a society. Without plot (narrative), gain information structure, such as first, next, and an understanding of the time it was (informational), or be persuaded finally in a chronologically ordered published (at the height of the Cold (expository). These structures include text. Organizational features such War) and its references to historical problem and solution, chronological as headings and subheadings make events (such as the development of order, cause and effect, and compare the reading easier. In addition, the atomic bomb and the bombing and contrast. In addition, some texts that provide examples, of Hiroshima and Nagasaki), a reader texts, especially narrative pieces, rely embedded definitions, and extended would not discern the author’s more on dramatic structures including descriptions are usually a bit easier to subtle messages. exposition, rising and falling action, understand than those that assume climax, and denouement. Texts high levels of prior knowledge on the ♦ Text structure and organization— are generally a bit easier to read part of the reader. Most texts use text structures when they include more signal ♦ Visual supports—It isn’t the mere presence or absence of visual supports like photographs, diagrams, How Do Texts Differ Across the and charts that makes a text more or less difficult. If it were, we could Disciplines? simply flip through the pages of a By the time students enter middle school, the texts they use in book and be done with it. But visual their core and elective courses differ widely from one another. supports that are closely tied to the In elementary school, portions of their science and social studies main part of the text can be helpful. For example, a science passage on texts drew on their knowledge of narrative to explain concepts, the rock cycle can become easier such as telling about the Oregon Trail from the perspective of a to understand if accompanied by child. But these texts become far more specialized in secondary a clear, accurate illustration that classrooms. Fang and Schleppegrell (2010) describe features of closely matches what is offered in discipline-specific texts: the text. If, however, the same great ♦ Science: Technical vocabulary and dense sentences that require illustration is only briefly referenced the reader to draw on multiple concepts simultaneously. For in the passage, it is less helpful. example: “Eukaryotic cells also have a variety of subcellular Conversely, an ill-designed chart in a mathematics textbook can make the structures called organelles, well-defined, intracellular bodies main part of the text more confusing, that perform specific functions for the cell. (Modern Biology, not less. 2006, p. 75, cited in Fang & Schleppegrell, 2011, pp. 588–589).

♦ History/Social Science: Nominalizations (nouns derived from Just as a qualitative examination of a adjectives and verbs) that reference abstract ideas, and the text to determine its appropriateness presence of evaluative judgments. For example, requires an expert eye, so does inspection of the reader. Each student In retrospect, the Volstead Act was hopelessly inadequate, brings a host of strengths and areas because it grossly underestimated the willingness of the of need to a text, and these variables lawbreakers to risk conviction, the degree of human ingenuity further influence their understanding displayed to get around its provisions, and the ease with of it. These factors specific to the which the lawbreakers would be able to subvert all those reader include language proficiency, whose job was to enforce it. (Behr, 1996, cited in Fang & background knowledge and Schleppegrell, 2011, p. 589) experiences, and level of motivation.

♦ Mathematics: Math texts switch between both natural The Reader. Every time we read, language and mathematical language and symbols, requiring we bring a host of experiences, readers to make similar shifts in the grammars of both. Consider knowledge, and opinions to the text. this word problem: “If a rectangular solid has side, front and In turn, the text acts upon us as we bottom faces with areas of 2x, y/2 and xy cm2 respectively, what read to further evoke and inform those is the volume of the solid in centimeters cubed?” (problem 33, experiences. Rosenblatt (1978) called cited in Fang & Schleppegrell, 2011, p. 590). 5

this “transaction” and noted that text efficiently. We find it helpful to of the fashions of the time is the reciprocal relationship between think of all our students as language incidental and not necessary to the reader and the text influences learners; that is, learners of the address in great detail. This is not its understanding. Although widely language of the discipline. All readers to say that incidental background accepted today, it was a revolutionary must tackle unfamiliar vocabulary knowledge is unimportant; Lee stance when Rosenblatt first proposed and rhetorical structures that can details how characters are dressed as this in the early twentieth century, make a text more difficult. a way of describing their social and when the primary role of the reader economic status, and class conflict was limited to correctly interpreting ♦ Background knowledge factors— is a theme in the novel. However, what the author meant. These Formal academic learning acquired instruction prior to the reading is not unique factors, once believed to be by a reader affects his or her ability needed, as it can be easily addressed unimportant, have taken center stage to understand the text. Formal during it. in the ensuing decades. Today, it would knowledge includes the academic be unthinkable to fail to consider knowledge needed to correctly ♦ The reader’s experiences—Closely language, knowledge, experiential, and interpret the reading. In evaluating related to the academic knowledge motivational factors when considering a text, it is helpful to consider needed to bring to a reading are a text. what background knowledge is the collective experiences a student core to the reading, and what is has had. Variance in experiences ♦ Language proficiency factors— incidental. A challenge is that while may include economic, social, Students identified as English we want students to have adequate familial, and individual factors and learners do additional cognitive work background knowledge, we don’t are undoubtedly present in every because they must attend both to want to frontload this to the point classroom. When it comes to a the message of the text and to the where the reading itself becomes reading, these experiences should necessary cognitive resources needed unnecessary. For example, a working be taken into account. These to make sense of a text written in knowledge of the racial relations in may involve the whole class, as in a less familiar language. In similar the American South of the 1930s U.S. History, where virtually every fashion, students with learning is core background knowledge for student lacks the experience of a or reading disabilities must use understanding To Kill a Mockingbird society without child labor laws compensatory resources to process (Harper Lee, 1960), while knowledge and therefore can’t draw on this to understand the need for legal changes in the Progressive Era. At other times, it is situational, as What’s Core and What’s Incidental with a student whose own life Background Knowledge? experiences have not adequately prepared her to understand the It’s essential to determine what is core background knowledge— familial responsibilities felt by Tom which may need to be taught in advance of a reading—and what Joad in The Grapes of Wrath (Joseph is incidental and can therefore be allowed to emerge during and Steinbeck, 1939). even after the reading. We rely on a series of four questions to allow us to identify each: ♦ The reader’s motivation—The intrinsic interest a reader brings to a 1. Representation: Is it essential? text can make it accessible in ways 2. Transmission: Can it be easily explained, or must it be taught? that defy conventional measures of ability. We recall a time when 3. Transferability: Will it be used for future understanding? one of our students, a survivor of political persecution in an African 4. Endurance: What will be remembered after the details are nation, devoured A Long Way Gone: forgotten?” (Fisher & Frey, 2009, p. 36). Memoirs of a Boy Soldier (Ishmael Identification of core background knowledge necessary for a Beah, 2008). His motivation to read reading also guides the development of questions we ask during an autobiographical recounting of the discussion of the text. By checking for understanding in this forced conscription in Sierra Leone’s way, we can also locate students who may not have the presumed civil war trumped his nascent skills as an English language learner. It is also background knowledge needed, allowing us to fill in the gaps through subsequent instruction. 6

Strategies modeled/ Text Teacher commentary during the think-aloud practiced

“As I look over this piece of text, I see a photo of pancakes cooking on a griddle. Some are golden Predicting and using titles brown and others are still a beige batter color. The Going Through Changes and graphics provides title of this reading is Going Through Changes. I (Photo of pancakes) focus and motivation to wonder if the pancakes, some uncooked and others read further. fully done, represent changes at a chemical level. I’ll read the first paragraph.”

At a dinner table, a cook is making pancakes. He mixes “So the cooking batter does represent chemical together an egg, milk, and changes. I see from reading these paragraphs that flour into a batter. When the chemical changes involve substances breaking down batter is placed on the griddle, and substances joining together. it becomes solid and golden The prediction is confirmed brown. I think the next section will tell me about how this by reading the text. process of breaking down and building up occurs. Note that sometimes The batter has had a chemical Do you have any ideas?” (Maria listens as the the prediction is refuted change. All the atoms of students share a few possibilities.) after reading the text. the original ingredients are Afterward, the main still in the batter. But the Janette, a student in Maria’s class, responds, ideas are identified by griddle’s heat has arranged “Maybe the next section will talk about molecules summarizing a few lines of those atoms in a different being broken down or atoms being joined the text, which is followed pattern. Like the pancake together.” by another prediction batter, many substances go based on the text just read. through chemical changes. Dave adds, “Yes, I remember when I was in 8th These changes can break grade we talked about how salt molecules are down complex substances broken down when salt is added to water.” Maria into simpler parts. Or they can then continues. “OK, let’s read on to see if we’re join simple parts into complex correct.” substances.

“An endothermic reaction. Wow, I’m not sure what Segmenting words into that means, but I do know that thermic sounds like word parts brings attention It usually takes energy to a word part from thermometer or thermal and both to root words or affixes combine substances in a of those terms relate to heat. that might offer clues chemical reaction. This to meaning. In addition, kind of reaction is called an Maybe endothermic also relates to heat in some understanding that endothermic reaction. way. I’ll continue to read. Maybe I’ll gain an clarification might come understanding of the meaning of this word if I read from context or from on.” continued reading.

Again, confirmation of a For example, heat was needed prediction, in this case of “I guess I was right—endothermic does relate to to turn the batter into a a word’s meaning, may be heat.” pancake. confirmed or refuted by reading upcoming text.

If iron and powdered sulfur were mixed together, nothing Synthesizes and restates— would happen. But apply heat “So heat added to a mixture can cause a new examples offered in the to those combined substances substance to form. Interesting. Maybe endothermic text can help the reader to and you would form iron means that heat is added.” infer word meaning. sulfide. This is an entirely new substance.

From “‘You can read this text—I’ll show you how’: Interactive comprehension instruction,” by D. Lapp, D. Fisher, and M. Grant, 2008, Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(5), 372–382. Copyright 2008 by the International Reading Association. Reprinted with permission. Note: Quotes from TIME and Teacher Created Materials (1993).

FIGURE 1 Sample Teacher Modeling in Physics 7

likely that his experiences provided The Task. Reading complex texts is O’Connor, & Resnick, 2008), him with a deeper understanding of not supposed to be a private affair— students can learn to apply the author’s message. readings should be punctuated with elements of argumentation in teacher modeling and think-alouds, order to reach deeper levels of The quantitative and qualitative collaborative learning in the company of understanding in the company measures of a text, as well as the peers, and discussion propelled through of peers. (More information characteristics of the reader must be text-based questions. about fostering discussion in the taken into consideration when selecting classroom can be found in the June a complex piece. These factors should ♦ Teacher-led tasks provide students 2011 issue of this column, The First further inform the design of the task with insight into how the text is 20 Days: Establishing Productive itself. After all, a text is just ink on understood by an expert in the Group Work in the Classroom.) a page (or an image on a screen) discipline: you! This is accomplished until a reader interacts with it. These through modeling, especially when ♦ Text-based questions are designed interactions are realized through the students, after reading the passage to encourage students to return tasks we design. themselves, get to hear how you to the reading in order to locate read the text. Prosodic reading, information. An intended outcome the smooth, fluent, and expressive of this approach is to cause students oral reading of a text, promotes to engage in multiple readings comprehension for them. They of a piece—a necessity when Five Ways to get to hear how you pronounce considering a complex text. We use Ensure a Task words, use phrase boundaries, the Question-Answer Relationship and apply intonation, as an active framework (Raphael, 1986) to move Will Work or Fail reader who is making meaning students from the literal level of McRae and Guthrie (2009) while reading. Of course, this is meaning to inferential levels, where summarized the research on the much more effective when you have students can apply critical and relationship between task design read the passage several times in creative thinking skills. QAR describes and student motivation to read. advance. In addition, think-alouds four types of questions. (Davey, 1983) give students insight These conditions are essential to into how you use your background 1. Right There questions ask for keep in mind when considering knowledge, resolve problems when information using the question the kinds of tasks students will comprehension breaks down, or stem itself to locate the answer, be engaged in when reading and solve an unfamiliar word or phrase. usually within a single sentence. discussing complex texts. First, Figure 1 contains a sample of a the instruction practices that physics teacher’s think-aloud as she 2. Think and Search questions are impact motivation positively: read a passage from a science article also at the literal level, but require 1. Relevance (Lapp, Fisher, & Grant, 2008). the reader to compile the answer across several sentences or 2. Choice ♦ Collaboration with peers offers paragraphs. students the opportunity to further 3. Success clarify their understanding of 3. Author and You questions require 4. Collaboration complex text. Simple instructional students to use their inferential routines such as Think-Pair-Square skills as they pair information from 5. Thematic units (Kagan, Kagan, & Kagan, 1997) the text with their background And the five practices to avoid allow students to discuss the text knowledge. first with a partner, then with because they have a negative another pair of students as a group 4. On Your Own questions invite effect: of four. Of course, the conversation students to formulate opinions 1. Non-relevance needs to have parameters so that based on their experiences as well it is an enriching experience and as what they have learned from 2. Excessive control not merely a chance to socialize the text. 3. Difficult lessons for a few minutes. By teaching discussion-based strategies such Woven through these experiences 4. Frequent individual work as accountable talk (Michaels, are opportunities for discussion and 5. Disconnected units 8

June 6, 1944

Soldiers, Sailors and Airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force!

You are about to embark upon the Great Crusade, toward which we have striven these many months. The eyes of the world are upon you. The hopes and prayers of liberty-loving people everywhere march with you. In company with our brave Allies and brothers-in-arms on other Fronts, you will bring about the destruction of the German war machine, the elimination of Nazi tyranny over the oppressed peoples of Europe, and security for ourselves in a free world.

Your task will not be an easy one. Your enemy is well trained, well equipped and battle hardened. He will fight savagely.

But this is the year 1944! Much has happened since the Nazi triumphs of 1940-41. The United Nations have inflicted upon the Germans great defeats, in open battle, man-to-man. Our air offensive has seriously reduced their strength in the air and their capacity to wage war on the ground. Our Home Fronts have given us an overwhelming superiority in weapons and munitions of war, and placed at our disposal great reserves of trained fighting men. The tide has turned! The free men of the world are marching together to Victory!

I have full confidence in your courage and devotion to duty and skill in battle. We will accept nothing less than full Victory!

Good luck! And let us beseech the blessing of Almighty God upon this great and noble undertaking.

SIGNED: Dwight D. Eisenhower

From D-day statement to soldiers, sailors, and airmen of the Allied Expeditionary Force, 6/44, Collection DDE-EPRE: Eisenhower, Dwight D: Papers, Pre-Presidential, 1916-1952; Dwight D. Eisenhower Library; National Archives and Records Administration.

FIGURE 2 General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s D-Day Invasion Statement to Troops

composition. In the next section, we will do so independently. However, close In Figure 2 and Figure 3, you will find detail how these tasks are organized reading doesn’t mean that you simply two short pieces from General Dwight into a process called close reading. distribute a complex reading and then D. Eisenhower, both written just before exhort them to read it again and again the launch of the D-Day operation in until they understand it. This is likely to June 1944. (Digital images of these Building Capacity provoke exactly the kind of negative primary source documents can be Through Close reaction McRae and Guthrie (2009) retrieved at http://ourdocuments.gov/ Reading cautioned against in their examination doc.php?flash=true&doc=75 and www. of tasks that motivate and detract archives.gov/education/lessons/d-day- The practice of close reading is not from learning. Instead, close reading message/ respectively). a new one, and in fact has existed should be accompanied by purposeful, for many decades as the practice of scaffolded instruction about the U.S. History teacher Melissa West reading a text for a level of detail not passage. selected both of these for a close used in everyday reading. The purpose reading so her students could is to build the habits of readers as Select Short, Worthy Passages. better understand the uncertainty they engage with the complex texts Because close readings can be time- of success and the risk of failure. “I of the discipline and to build their consuming, it is often best to select want them to see that leadership in stamina and skills for being able to shorter pieces of text for instruction. war is extraordinarily difficult, and 9

June 5, 1944

Our landings in the Cherbourg have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based upon the best information available. The troops, the air and the Navy did all that Bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt it is mine alone.

From Dwight D. Eisenhower Library Pre-Presidential Papers. Principal File: Butcher Diary, 1942-1945. ARC Identifier: 186470.

FIGURE 3 Eisenhower’s Draft Statement in Event of the Operation’s Failure

that our historical ‘rear-view mirror’ struggles fairly private,” she said. I’m going to read it straight through, glances don’t always let us see the Instead, she asks them to annotate the with no interruptions. The second time, contemporary issues of the day,” she text, or as she puts it, “to read with a I’m going to tell you about what I’m said. She selected the letter General pencil,” reminding them to circle words thinking as I read it.” She begins by Eisenhower wrote to the Allied troops or phrases that are powerful, and to reading Eisenhower’s message to the as they embarked on this mission. But underline those that are confusing Allied troops, then the draft message tellingly, he also drafted a message to (For more information on annotating written in the event the invasion was a be delivered in the event the operation text, please see the December 2011 failure. failed. Members Only column, Notetaking and Notemaking For Academic Success). The second time, she thought aloud. Design the Lesson so Students Re- After reaching the fourth sentence read. “These two readings are not very For the next several minutes, her of the first text, she remarked, “I’m long, and I know their tendency is going students read silently and mark the text. noticing how he’s using inspirational to be to read them quickly and move Ms. West also has two students with language in the first part of this on,” Ms. West said. “I want to make disabilities that make it difficult for them message. He’s got an exclamation mark sure they stay with these two readings, to read the text independently; they in the title, which is unusual, and in the and take the time to compare the listen to a podcast version of the two first sentence he references the ‘Great differences in the messages.” Therefore readings she made for them as they Crusade.’ Right away I’m reminded of she has designed the overall lesson to follow along. what I know about the Crusades of encourage students to read the texts the Middle Ages, and their belief that several times. “I prepare my questions Remind Students to Note they were eliminating evil, or at least a in advance so I can remember to ask Confusions. As she examines her Christian version of it, from the Earth.” them for information they need from students’ notes, she finalizes her She continues reading aloud, noting the the reading,” she said. In addition, she decisions about the modeling and use of exclamation marks throughout has constructed a series of tasks that thinking-aloud she will do next. the text. “Publicly, he seemed very will require them to read the messages “I already have a draft plan of my enthusiastic and confident, and he used at least three times. think aloud prepared, but I find that that in this message,” she concluded. sometimes their confusions vary from Ask Students to “Read With a one period to the next.” Wanting to She then turns her attention to the Pencil.” After introducing the two be sure she gets a clearer idea of any second piece, reading it all the way pieces to her students to set the difficulties they might have, she then through. “It’s so much shorter than context, Ms. West asked them to read leads a short discussion about their the first message,” she says, “only four both over independently. Importantly, impressions, initial observations, and sentences long. I’m also seeing that she did not draw their attention to confusions. even though it’s written by the same the dates, or tell them about how man, he’s not using any exclamation they revealed Eisenhower’s internal Model the Text. “I’d like you to marks this time. I’m wondering if that conflict. “It’s important that they see follow along as I read through these same confidence isn’t there.” She now the struggle leaders must confront, two pieces,” Ms. West tells them. “I’m places both pieces of text side by side especially in having to keep these going to read it twice. The first time, on the document camera. “Wow, now 10

♦ Think and Search questions for Reading 2: Does Eisenhower use similar words and phrases in this message? (Only one—Bravery and devotion to duty)

♦ Author and You question for Reading 1: Ike’s message to the troops acknowledges the difficulty of the mission, but assures them that they will be triumphant. In what ways does he accomplish this? (He describes the fierceness of the enemy, the defeats and setbacks earlier in the war. But he also reminds them that there have been many victories since then. In addition, he reminds them of the support at home and in the collective strength of a multi-national response. He also tells them of their skill, bravery, and training) Why is it essential that I’m noticing the dates—a day apart.” that they need to be able to support the general of the Allied Forces She continues, “I’m really struck by the their assertions with evidence,” she acknowledges both? (If he doesn’t, very different tones of these messages, said. “But unless I know where that the troops might feel that he is not both written about the same time.” evidence is, it’s really difficult for me to realistic, and does not understand the be able to teach toward the underlying complexity of the invasion, and result Discuss the Text. Turning her attention patterns in the text.” in undermining their confidence to the class, Ms. West invites discussion, in their leader. Their confidence in but she knows that it is often richer ♦ Right There questions for Reading him and his judgment is essential to when her students have an opportunity 1: Who is Eisenhower addressing? completing a successful mission.) to first talk with peers in small groups. (Allied troops) What was the goal “I’d like for you to talk about your initial of the invasion? (the destruction ♦ Author and You questions for impressions of these two readings with of the German War machine, the Reading 2: Eisenhower’s tone is very your table groups, and listen to theirs,” elimination of Nazi tyranny, and different in the second message. she tells them. As they talk, she visits security for ourselves) What is the tone? (His tone is terse several groups to listen to conversations, and gets to the point. He doesn’t then calls the class back together. “So ♦ Right There questions for Reading blame anyone and places all fault let’s talk about this,” she says. After 2: What event does Eisenhower on himself, even though many each table shares summaries of their describe? (withdrawal of the troops) others were involved). Why is this an conversations, she transitions to text- Who does he fault? (himself) appropriate tone for a defeat? (As dependent questions to cause them to a military general, it is important for analyze the messages more closely. ♦ Think and Search questions for him to demonstrate his leadership in Reading 1: What words and phrases defeat as well as in victory. Anyone Ask Text Dependent Questions. does he use to evoke religious images can be triumphant; fewer are able Using a Question-Answer Relationships and ideology? (Great Crusade, to face defeat publicly in order to framework (Raphael, 1986) as a guide, prayers, devotion, beseech the maintain his respect for his troops, she moves students from text-explicit blessing of Almighty God) What demonstrate courage, and accept to text-implicit questions. She prepared words and phrases does he use to blame.) both the questions and possible inspire the troops as a righteous answers in advance so she could steer mission? (liberty-loving people, free The previous questions require students their attention as needed to evidence in men of the world, great and noble to shift their focus from one reading the text. “I’ve got them understanding undertaking) to the other. With these last questions, 11

Ms. West wants them to compare and questions, Ms. West’s students are (US Army, 2007, p. 6). contrast both documents in order to ready to write. In the remaining time draw conclusions about the man who in the period, her American History In what ways do these two wrote them, and the circumstances that students use evidence from both messages demonstrate General prompted both. of these documents to address the Eisenhower’s commitment to his following question: responsibilities? Be sure to use ♦ On Your Own questions for both evidence from both texts to support readings: General Eisenhower The US Army lists twelve your claims. wrote both of these messages responsibilities of every military within hours of one another. What leader. Among them are the “As a US History teacher, it’s important conclusions can you draw about a following: that I use primary source documents man who must entertain two very so that students can witness history different beliefs simultaneously? (His ♦ “Ensure the physical, moral, unfolding. Sometimes they view this leadership abilities were extraordinary personal, and professional only as being about events in the in being able to exhort his troops wellbeing of subordinates. past, without fully appreciating the before battle, while at the same complexities of the moment,” she time understanding the very real ♦ Effectively communicate vision, said. “I hope that these experiences possibility that it might result in purpose, and direction. with close readings of text allow them an awful defeat. It is likely that to place themselves in the context of his pragmatic assessment of both ♦ Build discipline while inspiring the times to more fully appreciate the possible outcomes is reflective of the motivation, confidence, uncertainty of the moment.” care he had for his troops, as well as enthusiasm, and trust in the great responsibility he carried on subordinates. his shoulders. At the same time, it Conclusion was necessary for him to be tough- ♦ Anticipate and manage change minded and decisive. These traits are and be able to act quickly and The factors that make a text complex essential for military command.) decisively under pressure. include quantitative and qualitative measures, including content, cohesion, After this close reading of the two ♦ Treat subordinates with dignity, and organization. In turn, both the documents and discussion of these respect, fairness, and consistency.” reader and the task must be considered in making these determinations. Importantly, text differs across disciplines, and many students are not equipped to engage in deep understanding of the readings that define a content area. The practice of close reading invites students to read repeatedly and is guided by discussion of text-dependent questions. When practices such as close reading are consistently implemented across content areas, students become better equipped to handle more difficult texts. 12

REFERENCES Douglas Fisher and Nancy Frey Allington, R.L. (2002). You can’t learn much from books you can’t read. Educational Leadership, 60(3), 16–19. are professors in the College of Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. (2010). Fewer, clearer, higher: Moving forward with consistent, rigorous Education at San Diego State standards for all students. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from http://www.gatesfoundation.org/highschools/ University and teacher leaders at Documents/fewer-clearer-higher-standards.pdf Health Sciences High and Middle College. They are interested Chall, J.S., & Dale, E. (1995). Manual for the new Dale- Chall readability formula. Cambridge, MA: Brookline. in quality instruction for diverse learners and are coauthors Common Core State Standards. (2010). Common Core with Diane Lapp of In a Reading State of Mind: Brain State Standards for English Language Arts and Literacy in History/Social Sciences, Science, and Technical Research, Teacher Modeling, and Comprehension Instruction Subjects: Appendix A: Research supporting key elements of the standards and glossary of key terms. (International Reading Association, 2009). You may contact Retrieved January 10, 2012, from www.corestandards. org/assets/Appendix_A.pdf Doug at [email protected] and Nancy at nfrey@mail. Davey, B. (1983). Think-aloud: Modeling the cognitive processes of reading comprehension. Journal of sdsu.edu. Reading, 27(1), 4 4 – 47. Fang, Z., & Schleppegrell, M.J. (2010). Disciplinary literacies across content areas: Supporting secondary reading through functional language analysis. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(7), 587–597. Fisher, D., & Frey, N. (2009). Background knowledge: The missing piece of the comprehension puzzle. Additional Resources From IRA Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. Flesch, R. (1948). A new readability yardstick. Journal of International Reading Association. (n.d.). Common Core Standards: Overview. Applied Psychology, 32(3), 221–233. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from www.reading.org/Resources/ResourcesByTopic/ Fry, E. (2002). Readability versus leveling. The Reading CommonCore-resourcetype/CommonCore-rt-overview.aspx Teacher, 56(3), 286–292. Use this portal to access the latest information and resources about the Common Core Gunning, T.G. (2003). The role of readability in today’s State Standards, including archived webinars, Reading Today articles, and links to IRA’s classroom. Topics in Language Disorders, 23(3), 175–189. online social network, Engage. The Common Core Collaborative Community on Engage is Headquarters of the Department of the Army. (2007). Army leadership: Army regulation 600-100 [Publishing actively discussing issues related to text complexity, close reading, and informational texts. Directorate]. Retrieved January 10, 2012, from www.apd.army.mil/pdffiles/r600_100.pdf Kagan, L., Kagan, M., & Kagan, S. (1997). Cooperative Buehl, D. (2011). Developing Readers in the Academic Disciplines. Newark, DE: learning structures for teambuilding. San Clemente, CA: Kagan Cooperative Learning. International Reading Association. Buehl’s book, published this year, discusses the importance of building literacy within the Koslin, B.L., Zeno, S., & Koslin, S. (1987). The DRP: An effective measure of reading. New York: College academic disciplines and places texts at the center of instruction. Chapters are devoted Entrance Examination Board. to such topics as matching readers with text, using inquiry and essential questions, and Lapp, D., Fisher, D., & Grant, M. (2008). “You can considering instructional strategies that work well in content classrooms. read this text—I’ll show you how”: Interactive comprehension instruction. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 51(5), 372–382. McRae, A., & Guthrie, J.T. (2009). Promoting reasons for Blatteau, L.H. (2008). In the Style of Ernie Pyle: Reporting on World War II. Retrieved reading: Teacher practices that impact motivation. In January 10, 2012, from www.readwritethink.org/classroom-resources/lesson-plans/ E.H. Hiebert (Ed.), Reading more, reading better (pp. 55–76). New York: Guilford. style-ernie-pyle-reporting-1107.html This U.S. History lesson plan designed for high school students includes a close reading Michaels, S., O’Connor, C., & Resnick, L. (2008). Deliberative discourse idealized and realized: of a war report issued by legendary journalist Ernie Pyle. Using multimedia resources, Accountable Talk in the classroom and in civic life. students read, discuss, and write about Pyle’s use of language to convey both the factual Studies in Philosophy and Education, 27(4), 283 –297. and emotional aspects of war. Even if you are not a history teacher, the lesson resources Raphael, T.E. (1986). Teaching children question-answer provide a good guide for developing a close reading in your content area. relationships, revisited. The Reading Teacher, 39(6), 516–522. Rosenblatt, L.M. (1978). The reader, the text, the poem: The transactional theory of the literary work. Fang, Z., & Schleppegrell, M.J. (2010). Disciplinary literacies across content areas: Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Supporting secondary reading through functional language analysis. Journal of Smith, D.R., Stenner, A. J., Horabin, I., & Smith, M. (1989). Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53(7), 587–597. The Lexile scale in theory and practice: Final report. Washington, DC: MetaMetrics. [ERIC Document The authors examine the discipline-specific characteristic of texts in core content areas and Reproduction Service No. ED 307577] detail a process for helping students closely examine these language structures to better TIME & Teacher Created Materials. (1993). Science: comprehend complex texts. Exploring nonfiction. Lesson 4: Chemical reactions— Going through changes. New York: Authors. 13

FIGURE 1. Sample Teacher Modeling in Physics