The Legacy of , M.D. Gerald H. Anderson

orn in Framingham, Massachusetts, on June 18, 1804, The BPeter Parker was the fifth of six children, the son of a poor farmer.1 There was no reason to imagine that he would Following his ordination as a Presbyterian minister on May 16, become one of the American pioneers in developing relations Parker was commissioned on June 1 in New York City as a mis- with in the nineteenth century. sionary to China and given formal instruction by the Prudential As a teenager in a pious Christian family, he had a religious Committee of the American Board. In the instructions, he was conversion experience, which led him to feel that God was calling advised to focus his work on “the circulation of the Scriptures him to the ministry. He preached his first sermon on November & other religious books, & tracts, & the direct preaching of the 2, 1826, on the text Luke 21:30 (“As soon as [fig trees] sprout Gospel.” Beyond that he was told: leaves, you can see for yourselves and know that summer is already near”).2 The following year, at the age of twenty-three, The medical and surgical knowledge you have acquired, you already contemplating the possibility of missionary service to an will employ, as you have opportunity, in relieving bodily afflic- overseas field if not to the American Indians, he entered Amherst tions of the people. You will also be ready, as you can, to aid in giving to them our arts and sciences. But these . . . are to receive (Mass.) College. your attention only as they can be made handmaids to the gos- After three years at Amherst he became dissatisfied with the pel. The character of a physician, or of a man of science, . . . you life and resources there. He considered transferring to Harvard will never suffer to supersede or interfere with your character of for his senior year, but, concerned about the Unitarian influ- a teacher of religion.4 ence at Harvard, he transferred instead to Yale in New Haven, Connecticut. Little did Parker realize the momentous tensions that these After graduating from Yale with a B.A. degree in September instructions, with competing demands, would create for him—and 1831, Parker visited Rufus Anderson, senior secretary of the for the American Board—in the years ahead, primarily because American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, who the role of “medical missionary” was only beginning to emerge, encouraged him to continue his studies at Yale. In October 1831 and he would be caught in the process of clarifying that role. Parker applied to the ABCFM for missionary service and began The basic issue was over the relation of a ministry of healing to graduate studies at Yale in both theology and , with a a ministry of evangelism: did the task of healing have its own view to service in China. He chose to study medicine and sur- integrity as a form of Christian mission, or was it only a means gery because he believed it would make him a more effective to an end—an instrument for conversion? Parker was instructed missionary. In 1833, as he began his final year of study, Parker reactivated his application to the ABCFM, which approved him for service and assigned him to China following his expected graduation in Little did Parker realize the September 1834. However, in January 1834 he met David W. C. momentous tensions that Olyphant, an American merchant in the China trade, who offered him free passage to China on the Morrison in May or June, which these instructions, with seemed to be a providential opportunity. competing demands, would There was a problem, however. Parker was already in an create for him—and for the accelerated program at Yale to complete both the M.D. degree and his theological studies (for which no degree was given then) American Board. in three years, with graduation in September 1834. Normally, at that time, each graduate program would have required two years. Now Parker wanted to finish in March, a total of only two to do both, but what did it mean to say that “his medical and and a half years for both programs. He appealed to both faculties surgical knowledge” should be employed “only as they can and, eventually, after examination, was approved for graduation. be handmaids to the gospel”? The issues of relating healing to There is an undocumented legend at Yale that the faculties of evangelism, and the relative priority of each, would be defining divinity and medicine had reservations about approving Parker issues for Parker’s missionary career. for graduation under this accelerated schedule, but they finally On June 4, 1834, Parker sailed from New York for Canton did so on the condition that he would neither preach nor practice on the merchant ship Morrison. He went with some apprehen- medicine in the .3 sion that he would never return or see his family again.5 He also went as a single man, apparently with little thought about his prospects for marriage. Gerald H. Anderson, a senior contributing editor, is Parker was not the first trained medical person to be sent Director Emeritus of the Overseas Ministries Study overseas as a Protestant missionary, but before this time, persons Center, New Haven, Connecticut. with medical training were sent abroad as part of the general —[email protected] missionary effort to meet human needs and to care for their fel- low . They were not designated as a special category and did not spend the majority of their time in medical work among the indigenous population. Whether or not he was the

152 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 37, No. 3 first Protestant medical missionary, “Peter Parker was clearly the Parker’s reputation as a skilled medical practitioner spread first Protestant medical missionary to go to China, and the key quickly and led to rapid growth of the hospital at Canton. To figure out of whose sustained work China’s mission hospitals, provide greater financial support for the hospital and to expand lay clinics, and medical schools chiefly derived,” according to the work of , Parker and others held a public Edward Gulick.6 meeting in Canton on February 21, 1837, to establish “The Medical Parker, at thirty years of age, arrived at Canton on October Missionary Society in China,” with the intent to encourage the 26, 1834, after a journey of 144 days. In Canton he was greeted practice of medicine among the Chinese. Parker was elected one by three other American missionaries: , of the vice-presidents, and later became the president. the first American missionary to China, who had arrived in 1830; Thus in less than four years after his arrival in Canton, Samuel Wells Williams, who arrived in Canton in 1833; and Edwin Parker had been instrumental in three significant initiatives: the Stevens, a friend from Yale who had arrived in Canton in 1832. founding of the first hospital in China, the beginning of train- As soon as he got settled, Parker happily began working ing students for the practice of Western medicine in China, and on the language and observing local the formation of the Medical Missionary customs in the small waterfront area Society in China. of Canton to which Westerners were Following his voyage on an ill-fated restricted. In December 1834, after a expedition to enter Japan in August 1837, visit and advice from Karl Gützlaff, which ended when their ship was attacked the imposing pioneer German mission- by the Japanese and they barely escaped, ary, Parker left Canton for Singapore, Parker apparently suffered a nervous where there was greater freedom of breakdown from the stress of the events. movement and contact with Chinese, to Remarkably, he recovered and resumed study the language for a few months. his work.12 Once there, however, he soon “opened In July 1840, with the outbreak of the a dispensary for Chinese where more between Britain and than one thousand patients were treated China, during which the port of Canton from January to August 1835,” which was blockaded and all foreigners were hindered his progress in language study ordered to leave, Parker reluctantly closed but provided an initial opportunity to the Canton hospital and departed for practice medicine.7 America after nearly six years in China. Already he was troubled by the It marked the end of the first phase of his tension of roles to which he had been career in China. assigned—between evangelism and healing—as seen in this journal entry Home Again for March 5, 1835: “I read last evening my instructions from the Board¸ and not Arriving in the United States in Decem- without grief to find that, in the deep- Peter Parker, M.D. ber 1840, Parker discovered that he was growing interest I have felt for the sick famous, as he received many invitations and dying among the Chinese, I have in a degree deviated from to speak in churches and to visit various dignitaries. After visits those instructions, . . . and have become involved in medical and with his family, and in New Haven, where he was hosted by surgical practice in a manner that I know not how to extricate the president of Yale, and with the American Board in Boston, myself.”8 The tension would never really be resolved for him. where he reported to Rufus Anderson, he went to Washington, Parker returned to Canton in September 1835, where “he D.C., in January 1841. There he spoke with outgoing president opened on November 4 of the same year a hospital and dispen- Martin Van Buren and with Daniel Webster, the secretary of sary” in a building secured with the assistance of Olyphant, the state designate, urging the American government to establish American merchant. As the number of patients at the hospital diplomatic relations with China and to send an American grew, Parker earnestly sought to recruit promising young Chi- minister plenipotentiary to represent American interests with nese men whom he could train to assist him. By 1837 he was the Chinese. instructing four young men. Thus Parker began the first class In the flurry of his activities in Washington, Parker met for the training of Chinese doctors for the practice of Western Harriet Webster, then twenty-one, fifteen years younger than medicine in China.9 Parker. After a whirlwind courtship, they were married on March 29, 1841, less than four months after Parker had arrived The Physician in the United States. Three weeks later he left his bride in Boston while he sailed for a speaking tour of England, Scotland¸ and Parker was now engaged in what he had come to China to do. He to publicize his work in China and to raise financial decided to specialize in patients with eye diseases because they support for it. In August 1841, after four months abroad, he were most numerous. But he could not limit his medical practice returned to the United States, where he and his wife took up to that, as many patients with other problems sought treatment residence in Philadelphia. While waiting for the end of the also, especially those requiring tumor surgery. Parker’s facility Opium War so they could go to China, Parker attended medical became known as Canton Hospital and has been claimed to be lectures to update his skills as physician and surgeon. He also “the first hospital established in China.”10 In the first ninety days, had opportunity to discuss his views about developments in Parker treated 925 patients, of whom 270 were women, which China with President John Tyler and Secretary of State Daniel made him the first Western physician to perform surgery on a Webster and again to urge that a diplomatic representative be Chinese woman.11 sent to China.13

July 2013 153 Return to China work. When Parker received the letter in the summer of 1845, he was devastated. After prayerful consideration, he replied Anticipating that an end of the war was near, the Parkers to Anderson that he regretted the board’s decision, and that sailed for China in June 1842; before they arrived, the Treaty he had accepted a part-time position as secretary and Chinese of Nanking was signed in August 1842. It is remembered as interpreter to the U.S. Legation to provide support for himself an “,” especially in China, whereby Hong Kong and his work. However, because of his dedication to the mis- was ceded to Britain, five treaty ports (including Canton) were sionary cause, Parker requested that he be allowed to continue opened to trade with the West, and China paid $21 million as his connection with the American Board, even if they would indemnity for the war. not support him financially. In late 1842 Parker reopened his hospital in Canton.14 The correspondence went on for nearly two years, until In 1844 he performed the first lithotomy (an operation for finally in August 1847 Anderson wrote to inform Parker that the removal of bladder or kidney stones) in China. This surgery board had decided to terminate him as a missionary because he was probably a new procedure that he had learned while tak- had accepted a paid position with the U.S. government, which ing courses during his home leave in America.15 In 1847 he was against board policy. Clearly Anderson used Parker’s paid introduced the use in China of sulfuric ether as anesthesia. position with the U.S. Legation as a pretext for dismissing him, the real reason being Anderson’s rejection of medical work as a valid missionary vocation. Parker recorded that he had performed a lithotomy, The Diplomat followed by the removal After Parker’s return to China in 1842, Caleb Cushing was appointed as the first American Commissioner to China by of a tumor from another President John Tyler, with the assignment to secure a commercial patient’s hand, and several treaty that would enable American ships and merchants to have access to Chinese ports, as did the British. As soon as he arrived other surgical procedures in Macao on February 27, 1844, Cushing appointed Parker as —all successful. “Chinese Secretary to the Mission” and as confidential adviser, at a salary of $1,500 per annum plus expenses. While lamenting that this would require him to be absent from the Canton hospital He also, in November 1849, successfully introduced the use for several months, Parker felt that he had a duty to accept this of chloroform, which he had received from New York, and it “providential opportunity” to serve both countries in a position became his preferred form of anesthetic, because it was easier where he “might do more in a few months . . . than by all the and safer to use than ether.16 rest of my life.”18 With permission of the American Board (which Along with medical services, worship services were offered had not yet severed its relationship with him), he accepted this at the hospital. In his report for 1845 Parker mentioned that temporary position and left one of his Chinese assistants in “Divine service has been conducted at the Hospital for the charge of the hospital. last eight Sabbaths.” However, it was a disappointment to the The Treaty of Wanghsia—the first between China and the missionaries and to the American Board that, despite the great United States—was signed on July 3, 1844, ratified by the emperor success of the hospital ministry, “there was not a single convert in August, and approved by the U.S. Senate in January 1845. [in Canton] until 1847, seventeen years after Elijah Bridgeman Parker played a significant role in the negotiations, which not of the American Board had begun his preaching in that city. only provided for commercial access of Americans to the five Another convert was made two years later, and then there were no converts for many years.”17 The heavy demands the hospital made upon Parker, along with the negligible results in terms of converts, may help to The American Board, explain a development in 1845 that was to change the course however, had doubts about of his career and cause him great anguish. In light of the very positive response to his medical services, Parker believed that the validity of his medical in relieving human suffering he was serving the Gospel, and it work as a missionary. became increasingly difficult for him to limit his medical work or to make it secondary to other forms of Christian witness. Meanwhile, back in Boston, Rufus Anderson, the secretary treaty ports of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, of the ABCFM, viewed things differently. For him, missionaries but also allowed for the building of houses, hospitals, schools, should be first and foremost evangelists engaged in preaching and places of worship by foreigners in each of the ports. In the Gospel; any other form of service could be justified only return, contrary to the British position, the United States agreed as secondary insofar as it served to advance the cause of evan- to support the Chinese prohibition of the opium trade. And all gelism. While initially supportive of Parker’s medical work, this was accomplished without bloodshed. Anderson had increasing reservations as time passed and few Subsequently, in response to negotiations by the French converts emerged. envoy Théodore de Lagrené, two imperial edicts of toleration In March 1845 Anderson wrote to Parker, advising him (of Christianity) were issued in 1844 and 1846 that granted addi- that the American Board had doubts about the validity of his tional concessions to Christians, both foreigners and Chinese, to medical work as a missionary, and saying that he should find practice and propagate their faith in the treaty ports.19 Cushing, another source of support if he wanted to continue his medical the U.S. commissioner, sailed back to America from Macao on

154 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 37, No. 3 August 27, 1844, and Parker returned to Canton, eager to resume citizens.”22 When the emperor refused to see Parker or even to his medical missionary work at the hospital. allow him to come to Peking, Parker proposed to the British and The following year in Canton, on June 22, 1845, Parker French envoys in 1856 that they form a triple alliance and carry recorded that he had performed a lithotomy, followed by the out a joint armed naval expedition to demand negotiations for removal of a tumor from another patient’s hand, and several other treaty revision. The British and French did not respond favor- surgical procedures—all successful.20 It was shortly thereafter ably to the proposal. that Parker received the letter from Rufus Anderson in Boston Undeterred, Parker suggested a more aggressive approach. telling him that the American Board was planning to terminate In December 1856 he recommended to Washington that, if Peking his support. It was a terrible shock. persisted in its refusal to renegotiate their treaties, then, as “a Then a few weeks later, near the end of 1845, Parker received last resort,” France should occupy Korea, Britain should take notification from James Buchanan, U.S. secretary of state, that he Chusan (Zhoushan), and the United States should seize Formosa had been appointed “Secretary and Chinese Interpreter to the Mission of the United States to China,” a part-time position that would enable him to continue his missionary work. In 1871 he was named a Parker did not reply to the notice of intended termination from the American Board until January 1, 1846. In that letter corporate member of the he explained that he had accepted a new assignment with the ABCFM, which had earlier American Legation, with the understanding and agreement that “it would be compatible with my continued labors in my withdrawn its support for missionary capacity.” He made it clear, however, that he had his work in China. accepted the position only after “having been placed in the predicament I was” by the action of the board cutting off his support. (Taiwan).23 These territories would be returned to China only A new U.S. commissioner died soon after arriving in China, after all Western demands for favorable treaty revision were and several other appointees served short terms in the position met. A few months later, according to Paul Varg, “Parker went over the next nine years. During this time Parker served not a step further and urged that the United States take Formosa only in his official capacity as secretary and Chinese inter- permanently,” because he believed the island would be a great preter but also as adviser and, periodically, chargé d’affaires, asset to America.24 and—unofficially—as acting commissioner during several long Parker’s notorious Formosa proposal was rejected by the U.S. periods when there was no commissioner in China. It was a State Department and probably contributed to his recall by the turbulent period that presented significant challenges to Parker new administration of President Buchanan in 1857.25 The Park- in his relations with both Chinese and American officials in the ers departed China on August 27, 1857, never to return. He was treaty ports. He had to deal with issues related to the Taiping fifty-three years old and had been in China only twenty years Rebellion, the coolie trade, and various legal cases involving (1834–57, less the time he was in the United States). Americans in China, in the midst of riots, insurrection, difficult living and traveling conditions, and health problems, while Retirement and Recognition trying also to continue his medical services when in Canton. The demands of his diplomatic duties necessitated extended Parker lived the last thirty years of his life with his wife in Wash- absences from the hospital, and in 1854 the hospital was closed ington, D.C., where he was a vice-president of the American because of disturbed conditions and later suffered a fire that Evangelical Alliance and a regent of the Smithsonian Institution. damaged the facilities. In 1871 he was named a corporate member of the ABCFM, which By April 1855 Parker—ill and despondent—was in Macao had earlier withdrawn its support for his work in China. It was with his wife, on leave from all official duties, resting and a belated act of rehabilitation and reconciliation. He never again pondering his future. On May 10, 1855, having resigned all his practiced medicine or served in the diplomatic corps. responsibilities, he sailed for home, with little expectation of In retirement Parker received numerous honors, including an ever returning to China. honorary M.A. degree from Yale in 1858. But nothing gave him Parker arrived in Washington in August 1855, having recu- greater joy than the birth of their first child in 1859, a son named perated on the long voyage home, and almost immediately was Peter Parker Jr., after eighteen years of marriage, when Parker invited by Secretary of State William March to return to China as was nearly fifty-five years old. The Parkers lived at 2 Lafayette American commissioner, a post he had long hoped for. Appointed Square, near the White House, and occasionally President Abra- by President Franklin Pierce as commissioner of the United States ham Lincoln visited their home, where he would sit and hold of America to the Empire of China, Parker sailed from Boston on young Peter on his lap.26 October 10, 1855, without his wife (who rejoined him later), and Parker died in his home with his wife at his side on January arrived in Hong Kong at the end of December. He established his 10, 1888, at eighty-three years of age. He was buried in Oak Hill legation in Macao, where he hired as his secretary Yung Wing, Cemetery in Washington.27 It was fifty years since the founding who had graduated from Yale in 1854, the first Chinese student of the Medical Missionary Society in China, at Parker’s initiative. to graduate from an American college.21 “In those fifty years,” says , “about one million Parker’s primary assignment as commissioner was to negoti- Chinese patients had been treated in the various medical institu- ate a revision of the Wanghsia treaty of 1844 that would provide tions under the society, scores of important medical works had for “the establishment of a United States diplomatic resident in been translated, and dozens of Chinese doctors trained in Western Peking, the free extension of foreign trade throughout China, and medicine.”28 Peter Parker’s vision of medicine in the service of the removal of restrictions to the personal liberty of United States mission was vindicated.

July 2013 155 Selected Bibliography

Works by Peter Parker and Development of Medical Missions. Lanham, Md.: Univ. Press Many of Parker’s letters, journals, sermons, and memorabilia are in of America, 2005. the Peter Parker Collection, Archives of the Historical Library of the ———. “Proclaiming the Gospel by Healing the Sick? Historical and School of Medicine, , New Haven, Connecticut. Others Theological Annotations on Medical Mission.” International Bulletin are in the American Board Archives at Houghton Library, Harvard of Missionary Research 14, no. 3 (July 1990): 120–26. University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. A detailed listing is in Gulick, Gulick, Edward V. Peter Parker and the Opening of China. Cambridge, Peter Parker, 253–56. Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973. Hume, Edward H. “Peter Parker and the Introduction of Anesthesia Chinese Repository (1832–51), published at Canton, Macao, and Hong into China.” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 1, Kong, has numerous articles by Parker and others, reporting on no. 4 (1946): 670–74. their medical work, especially at the Canton Hospital. Latourette, Kenneth Scott. “Peter Parker: Missionary and Diplomat.” Yale Speech, in The Semi-Centennial Anniversary of the Divinity School of Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 8, no. 3 (1936): 243–48. College, May 15th and 16th, 1872. New Haven, 1872. Reprinted in Spence, Jonathan D. To Change China: Western Advisers in China, 1620–1960. Stevens and Marwick, Peter Parker, 326–30; it contains a personal Rev. ed. New York: Penguin, 1980. See chap. 2, “Peter Parker: retrospective of his career. Bodies or Souls.” Stevens, George B., and W. Fisher Marwick. The Life, Letters, and Journals Works about Peter Parker of the Rev. and Hon. Peter Parker, M.D.: Missionary, Physician, and Anderson, Gerald H. “Peter Parker and the Introduction of Western Diplomatist; The Father of Medical Missions and Founder of the Medicine in China.” Mission Studies 23, no. 2 (2006): 203–38. Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton. Boston: Congregational Sunday Cadbury, William Warder, and Mary Hoxie Jones. At the Point of a Lancet: School & Publishing Society, 1896. One Hundred Years of the Canton Hospital, 1835–1935. Shanghai: Varg, Paul A. Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats: The American Protestant Kelly & Walsh, 1935. Missionary Movement in China, 1890–1952. Princeton: Princeton Grundmann, Christoffer H. Gesandt zu heilen! Aufkommen und Univ. Press, 1958. Entwicklung der ärztlichen Mission im neunzehnten Jahrhundert. Wong, K. Chimin, and Wu Lien-the. History of Chinese Medicine. 2nd ed. Gütersloh: Gerd Mohn, 1992. English trans. Sent to Heal! Emergence Reprinted Taipei: Southern Materials Center, 1985.

Notes 1. This is a revised and abridged version of my article “Peter Parker and 9. Gulick, Peter Parker, 150; Wong and Wu, Chinese Medicine, 315–17. the Introduction of Western Medicine in China,” Mission Studies 23, 10. William Warder Cadbury and Mary Hoxie Jones, At the Point of a no. 2 (2006): 203–38, where more details and further documentation Lancet: One Hundred Years of the Canton Hospital 1835–1935 (Shanghai: can be found. The most important secondary sources for biographi- Kelly & Walsh, 1935), 276; Gulick, Peter Parker, 55. cal information on Peter Parker, to which I am greatly indebted, are 11. Cadbury and Jones, Point of a Lancet, 39. Edward V. Gulick, Peter Parker and the Opening of China (Cambridge, 12. Gulick, Peter Parker, 68–70. Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press, 1973), and George B. Stevens and W. 13. Ibid., 107–8. Fisher Marwick, The Life, Letters, and Journals of the Rev. and Hon. 14. Ibid., 111. Peter Parker, M.D.: Missionary, Physician, and Diplomatist; The Father 15. Cadbury and Jones, Point of a Lancet, 78–79. of Medical Missions and Founder of the Ophthalmic Hospital in Canton 16. Edward H. Hume, “Peter Parker and the Introduction of Anesthesia (Boston: Congregational Sunday School & Publishing Society, 1896). into China,” Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 1, Gulick’s work is a scholarly study, whereas Stevens and Marwick’s no. 4 (1946): 673; see also Cadbury and Jones, Point of a Lancet, 81. is an authorized biography—somewhat hagiographical—that was 17. Paul A. Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats: The American Prot- commissioned by Yale and paid for with money from Parker, so there estant Missionary Movement in China, 1890–1952 (Princeton: Princeton is nothing critical or negative in it. The portrait of Dr. Parker on page Univ. Press, 1958), 7. 153 is from the frontispiece of Stevens and Marwick’s biography. 18. Quoted by Stevens and Marwick, Peter Parker, 252. 2. Remarkably preserved, the manuscript for this first sermon is in 19. Kenneth Scott Latourette, The History of Early Relations between the the Peter Parker Collection, Archives of the Historical Library of United States and China 1784–1844. Transactions of the Connecticut the School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 22 (New Haven, Conn.: Yale Univ. (hereafter YSM Archives). In the top margin of the first page of each Press, 1917), 144. See also Angelus Francis J. Grosse-Aschhoff, The of his sermons, Parker noted the date and place where he preached Negotiations between Ch’i-ying and Lagrené, 1844–1846 (St. Bonaven- the sermon, and he sometimes also mentioned the number of people ture, N.Y.: Franciscan Institute, 1950). in attendance. One of his sermons, which he first preached in New 20. For paintings of tumors presented, see “Peter Parker’s Lam Qua Paint- Haven in 1832, must have been his standard or favorite sermon, ings Collection,” http://library.medicine.yale.edu/find/peter-parker. because he preached it at least seventeen times, including onboard 21. Gulick, Peter Parker, 185. the Morrison, June 15, 1834; at Malacca in 1835; onboard the Marmo 22. Ibid., 183. at Singapore in 1835; in Canton in 1835; onboard the Niantic on 23. Ibid., 189. November 15, 1840 (he also gave the longitude and latitude of the 24. Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and Diplomats, 10. ship’s location); and at Canton again on December 3, 1848. 25. Gulick, Peter Parker, 189; See also Varg, Missionaries, Chinese, and 3. Gulick, Peter Parker, 19, and Kenneth Scott Latourette, “Peter Parker: Diplomats, 9–10. Missionary and Diplomat,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 8, no. 26. Gulick, Peter Parker, 198. 3 (1936): 244. 27. Harriet Webster Parker died July 10, 1896, and is buried next to 4. The Prudential Committee’s instructions are in the Parker Collection, her husband in Lot 511 East, Oak Hill Cemetery, Washington, D.C. YSM Archives. During a visit to the cemetery and the gravesites on April 3, 2006, 5. Stevens and Marwick, Peter Parker, 78. the author was kindly provided by Ella P. Pozell, superintendent 6. Gulick, Peter Parker, viii, 61. of the cemetery, with photocopies of the burial certificates for both 7. K. Chimin Wong and Wu Lien-the, History of Chinese Medicine, 2nd Peter Parker and his wife. ed. (repr. Taipei: Southern Materials Center, 1985), 315. 28. Jonathan D. Spence, To Change China: Western Advisers in China, 8. Quoted by Stevens and Marwick, Peter Parker, 111. 1620–1960, rev. ed. (New York: Penguin, 1980), 55.

156 International Bulletin of Missionary Research, Vol. 37, No. 3