Hindawi BioMed Research International Volume 2018, Article ID 6215025, 12 pages https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/6215025

Review Article Mummification in Korea and : , Song, Ming and Joseon Dynasty Mummies

Dong Hoon Shin ,1 Raffaella Bianucci,2,3,4 Hisashi Fujita ,5 and Jong Ha Hong 1

1 Lab of Bioanthropology, Paleopathology and History of Diseases, Department of Anatomy/Institute of Forensic Science, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Republic of Korea 2Legal Medicine Section, Department of Public Health and Pediatric Sciences, University of Turin, Italy 3Warwick Medical School, Microbiology and Infection Unit, Te University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK 4UMR 7268, Laboratoire d’Anthropologie Bio-Culturelle, Droit, Etique et Sante(Ad´ es),´ FacultedeM´ edecine´ de Marseille, France 5Department of Bioanthropology, Niigata College of Nursing, Joetsu, 943-0147 Niigata, Japan

Correspondence should be addressed to Dong Hoon Shin; [email protected]

Received 1 June 2018; Accepted 9 August 2018; Published 13 September 2018

Academic Editor: Heather F. Smith

Copyright © 2018 Dong Hoon Shin et al. Tis is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Over the decades, mummy studies have expanded to reconstruct a multifaceted knowledge about the ancient populations’ living conditions, pathologies, and possible cause of death in diferent spatiotemporal contexts. Mainly due to linguistic barriers, however, the international knowledge of East Asian mummies has remained sketchy until recently. We thus analyse and summarize the outcomes of the studies so far performed in Korea and China in order to provide mummy experts with little-known data on East Asian mummies. In this report, similarities and diferences in the mummifcation processes and funerary rituals in Korea and China are highlighted. Although the historical periods, the region of excavation, and the structures of the graves difer, the cultural aspects, the mechanisms of mummifcation, and biological evidence appear to be essentially similar to each other. Independently from the way they are called locally, the Korean and Chinese mummies belong to the same group with a shared cultural background.

1. Introduction theseremainsandhavereleasedvaluableacademicreports. Due to language barriers, however, most reports were not Te dead do speak and mummies speak up. Trough a widely and efciently difused to English-speaking academia. comprehensive and holistic approach to the civilizations of From an academic point of view, scholars outside of Asia the past, scholars aim at tracing the biological and sociocul- were unable to comprehensively understand the complexity tural profles of ancient populations back. Over the decades, of these studies. the living conditions, pathologies, and possible cause of Actually, the reality of the academic tradition of mummy death of ancient populations in diferent spatiotemporal contexts (i.e., ancient Egyptians mummies, bog bodies, the studies in East Asia is distinct from other continents. East Similaun Man (Oetzi), crypt mummies, the Arctic and Asian mummies are culturally and biomedically so unique high-altitude permafrost mummies, and South American that extensive dissemination of cutting-edge research is precontact mummies) were progressively reconstructed by paramount. Except for short introductions and sporadic mummy studies [1–3]. reports [2, 4, 5], however, a review containing perfect data East Asian countries have created rich cultural heritages about the East Asian mummies is still lacking. And western in the continent for a long time. Over the past 60 years, researchers’ knowledge of East Asian mummies has remained several important studies were also carried out on East sketchy until recently. Here we thus analyse and summarize Asian mummies and meaningful achievements were reached. all previous studies written in Korean, Chinese, and English Although East Asia is not a region where a large number so to provide mummy experts with little-known information of mummies are found, researchers have extensively studied to date. 2 BioMed Research International

Figure 1: Mummies of China and Korea in the historical frame. Tere are two peaks in the discovery of Chinese mummies. Te frst peak (shaded in blue) corresponds to the Warring States (402-221 BCE) and Western Han Periods (202-8 BCE); the second peak (shaded in brown) dates to the Song (960-1279 CE) and Ming Dynasties (1368-1644 CE). Te box shaded in green indicates the South Korean mummies of the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 CE).

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Perfectly preserved Korean mummies (Gangneung). (a) Skin and hair were intact. (b) Mummifed intestines were perfectly preserved.

2. The Spatiotemporal Scope of This Review century mummies buried in their original graves (Figure 1). Interdisciplinary studies [6–8] were performed on mummi- East Asia includes the countries, districts, or municipality of fed tissues and organs; and precious information was gained Korea, Japan, China, Mongolia, Taiwan, Macau, and Hong on the lifestyle and pathologies of premodern Korean people. Kong.However,thisreviewwillfocusmainlyonthemum- Anatomical, histological, and radiological techniques mies discovered in Korea and China. Here we examined the were applied to verify the state of preservation of the Chinese mummies of the Warring States (402-221 BCE) and Korean mummies (Table 1; Figure 2). According to anatom- Western Han Periods (202-8 BCE), those discovered in the ical examination, skin and hair were perfectly preserved. tombsoftheSong(960-1279CE)andMingDynasties(1368- Histology revealed that Korean mummies’ hard and sof 16th 18th 1644 CE) and the to South Korean mummies of the tissues showed an excellent state of preservation. Te most Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910 CE) (Figure 1). As to the ancient common histological component observed in the mummifed and excellently preserved mummies from the Tarim Basin organs was represented by collagen fbers; nevertheless, cell (northwest China), their description will not be included in debris of red blood cells, chondrocytes, hepatocytes, and the present review. Given the complexity of their cultural muscle cells were also identifed. Although the brain size had background and antiquity (1800 BC to the frst centuries BC), shrunken, the organ still kept its original morphology. Brain aseparateanalysisisrequired. tissue histology showed that myelin remnants were mainly preserved components [9–12]. Lim et al. [13] found that th th 3. The 16 to 18 Century Korean autofuorescence was emitted from cell residues preserved Mummies of Joseon Dynasty in some tissues, a fnding which was interpreted with great care. As a matter of fact, during microscopic observation, it Over the last decade, archaeological excavations carried out is important to ascertain whether the immunofuorescence th th inSouthKoreahaveledtouncoverseveral16 to 18 observed in ancient tissues is specifc or not [13]. BioMed Research International 3

Table 1: Joseon Hoegwakmyo graves investigated by interdisciplinary research.

Research institute Conducted Mummy Year Discoveredduring Sex Preservation concerned research Dankook Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Kunkook 2001 Female Mummy University excavation aDNA Gyeonggi Cultural Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Yongin 2006 Female Half mummifed Foundation excavation aDNA Jinju National Am, PP, PPr, CT, Hadong-1 2006 Moving a grave Female Half mummifed Museum aDNA Gangneung Choi Am, PP, PPr, CT, Gangneung 2007 Moving a grave Male Mummy clan MRI, aDNA Hangang Institute Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, SN1-2 of Cultural 2007 Male Half mummifed excavation aDNA Heritage Hangang Institute Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, SN PK of Cultural 2007 Male Half mummifed excavation aDNA Heritage Chungnam Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, GJ1-2 Institute of History 2007 Male Half mummifed excavation aDNA and culture Gyeonggi Cultural Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Seocheon 2008 Female Half mummifed Foundation excavation aDNA Daedong Institute Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Waegwan of Cultural 2008 Male Half mummifed excavation aDNA Heritage Chungnam Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Dangjin Institute of History 2008 Female Half mummifed excavation aDNA and culture Descendant of Am, PP, PPr, CT, Hadong-2 Gangneung 2009 Moving a grave Female Half mummifed aDNA Onyang Jung clan Gyeongju National Research Institute Am, PP, PPr, CT, Mungyeong 2010 Moving a grave Female Mummy of Cultural aDNA Heritage Dong-Seo Institue Archaeological Jinju of Cultural 2010 Male Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Half mummifed excavation Heritage Chungcheong Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Sapgyo Institue of Cultural 2011 Male Half mummifed excavation aDNA Heritage Gyeong-Sang Archaeological Sacheon Cultural Heritage 2011 Female Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Half mummifed excavation Research Center HanBeak Institue Archaeological Hwasung of Cultural 2012 Male Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Mummy excavation Heritage Honam Institute of Archaeological YG2-4 2012 Female Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Half mummifed Cultural Heritage excavation Honam Institute of Archaeological YG2-6 2012 Female Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Skeleton Cultural Heritage excavation DongGuk Institute Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Andong of Cultural 2013 Male Mummy excavation aDNA Properties Gyeong-Sang Archaeological Am, PP, PPr, CT, Dalsung Cultural Heritage 2014 Female Mummy excavation aDNA Research Center 4 BioMed Research International

Table 1: Continued. Research institute Conducted Mummy Year Discoveredduring Sex Preservation concerned research Han Ul Research Archaeological Junggye Institute of 2014 Male Am, PP, PPr Skeleton excavation Cultural Heritage Daedong Institute Archaeological Daegu HS of Cultural 2014 Female Am, PP, PPr, aDNA Skeleton excavation Heritage Yeongnam Am, PP, PPr, CT, Cheongdo Institute of 2015 Moving a grave Male Mummy aDNA Cultural Properties Jungbu Institute for Archaeological Yeong weol 2015 Male Am, PP, PPr Skeleton Archaeology excavation Chungcheong Archaeological Jangsung Institue of Cultural 2017 Male Am, PP, PPr Skeleton excavation Heritage Am, anthropometry; PP, paleopathology; PPr, paleoparasitology; CT, computed tomography; MRI, magnetic resonance imaging; aDNA, ancient DNA.

In Korean mummy researches, radiology showed to be a from 24 Korean mummies, allowing the parasite infection th th highly efcient diagnostic tool [14] that enabled researchers prevalence of 16 to 18 century Joseon people [25, 26] toestablishthestateofpreservationoftheinnerorgansand to be estimated. Te prevalence of soil-transmitted parasites th th to estimate the patient's pathological conditions in a nonin- among the 16 to 18 century Joseon mummies was esti- vasive way. However, the radiological approach also has its matedtobe58.3%forAscaris sp. and 83.3 % for Trichuris own biases. Since mummifed tissues and organs underwent sp.; and this prevalence is quite similar to the one described taphonomic changes over the centuries, it may be difcult to in the 1971 Korean National Survey. Te infection rate of apply modern radiological knowledge to ancient bodies. To soil-transmitted parasites dropped with the rapid industri- overcome these biases (pathology versus pseudopathology), alization occurred during the 1980s [26]. More specifcally, post factum dissections were performed to confrm the actual concerning the Trematode species, the Joseon mummies pattern of the mummifed organs previously observed by showed very high infection rates (25 % for Clonorchis; 33.3 computed tomography (CT) [15]. Magnetic Resonance Imag- %forParagonimus)whereasonly4.6%(Clonorchis)and ing(MRI)wasalsoappliedonahydratedKoreanmummy, 0.09 % (Paragonimus) infection rates were detected in the providing researchers with invaluable information on the 1971 National Survey [26]. Tis implies that the Trematode state of preservation of the organs with minimal damages infection rates had already decreased way before the begin- [16]. Lastly, endoscopy showed that the organs of the Korean ning of modernization in South Korea whereas the changing mummies displayed a “vivid” appearance though Kim et al. pattern of the infection rates of soil-transmitted parasites [17] were skeptical about the real efciency of this minimally in South Korea occurred around the time of modernization invasive technique applied to the study of ancient bodies. [26]. Why the Trematode infection rates varied before the Mummies have been a valuable source of information modernization has still to be determined. on the diseases that plagued the ancient Korean people Cases of parasitism rarely seen among clinical patients (Table 2). For instance, atherosclerotic cardiovascular dis- were reported in the Korean mummies. For examples, ectopic th th ease was confrmed in a 17 century Korean mummy by (hepatic) paragonimiasis was identifed in a 17 century anatomical [18] and paleogenetic techniques [19]. Kim et al. Korean mummy [27]. A liver mass just underneath the [20] identifed calcifed pulmonary nodules in a 350-year- diaphragm was identifed through CT scanning; a subsequent old-Joseon mummifed individual, thus providing scholars microscopic examination revealed the presence of multiple with the oldest evidence of ancient pulmonary tuberculosis ancient Paragonimus sp. eggs inside the mass. Actually, this in South Korea. Tanks to multiple biomedical techniques, was the frst archaeoparasitological case of liver abscess congenital diaphragmatic hernia [21] and Cherubism [22] caused by ectopic paragonimiasis. Another case of ectopic werealsodiagnosedinKoreanmummies. paragonimiasiswasalsoobservedin400-year-oldKorean Research on ancient parasites was a particularly success- female mummy [28]. Here, Paragonimus eggs were detected ful feld of investigation. Since the frst paleoparasitologi- in lung, feces, intestine, and liver samples, but not in the cal report performed on a child mummy [23], remarkable brain nor in pelvic-cavity-debris (Table 2). Te repeated evidence of ancient parasitism was accumulated through reports of ectopic paragonimiasis indicate that the disease multiple studies. Using light and electron microscopy, Shin et was widespread in the Korean people during the Joseon al.[24]showedanexcellentstateofpreservationofancient period. parasite eggs in coprolites. To date (December 2016), the Gymnophalloides seoi infection was also a unique paleop- paleoparasitological studies were conducted on coprolites arasitological fnding. G. seoi eggs were detected in specimens BioMed Research International 5

Table 2: Pathological fndings observed during Korean mummy studies (until September 2018).

Mummy Estimated date Pathological fndings Yongin 15C-16C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani Jinju 15C-16C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani YG2-4 15C-16C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani YG2-6 15C-16C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani Andong 16C Congenital Diaphragmatic Hernia, T. trichiura, C. sinensis Sapgyo 16C T. trichiura, C. sinensis, M. yokogawai, G. seoi Hadong-1 17C C. sinensis, M. yokogawai, G. seoi Hadong-2 16C-17C P. w este r man I (Ectopic paragonimiasis) Dalsung 16C-17C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura Junggye 16C-17C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, Taenia Cheongdo 17C H. pylori, A. lumbricoides, P. westermani (Liver abscess, ectopic paragonimiasis) Sacheon 17C M. yokogawai Gangneung 17C Lesion in the mandible, Calcifed descending aorta, T. trichiura Dangjin 17C H. pylori, A. lumbricoides, E. vermicularis, P. w este r mani Mungyeong 17C Atherosclerosis, M. tuberculosis T. trichiura, C. sinensis Waegwan 17C T. trichiura, C. sinensis PJ SM 17C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura Seocheon 17C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura Yangju 17C Hepatitis B virus, A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, C. sinensis SN1-2 17C-18C T. trichiura SN3-7-1 16C-17C T. trichiura SN2-19-1 18C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura SN2-19-2 18C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura GJ1-2 17C-18C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani , S. stercoralis, Trichostrongylus spp., Taenia Hwasung 18C A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, P. w este r mani Te full names of pathogens: Ascaris lumbricoides; Trichuris trichiura; Enterobius vermicularis; Clonorchis sinensis; Paragonimus westermani; Metagonimus yokogawai; Gymnophalloides seoi; Strongyloides stercoralis; Helicobacter pylori; Mycobacterium tuberculosis.

from two diferent mummies discovered on the coastal areas not resort to embalming techniques [42]. Cultural beliefs of the Korean peninsula [25]. Considering that G. seoi is implied that the intact preservation of the ancestors’ corpses not currently endemic in the counties and that the endemic was an ominous sign for the descendants. In this regard, the focus is confned to a restricted portion in the coastal areas discovery of a series of perfectly preserved mummifed bodies of the Korean peninsula [25], we speculate that this parasitic became a sensational topic in South Korea. infection was more widespread during the Joseon period. Actually, the mummifcation process was not likely to be Ancient DNA (aDNA) analysis has become an important induced solely by natural or artifcial causes, but is more likely tool for revealing the phylogenetics of pathogens and the the result of multiple, complex and synergic mechanisms. genetic profles of the deceased. Ancient DNAs of Hepatitis Korean researchers interested in the actual mechanism of Bvirus,Helicobacter pylori, Ascaris sp., Paragonimus wester- mummifcation paid attention to the unique structure of mani, Clonorchis sinensis (C. sinensis), and Trichuris trichiura the graves (called Hoegwakmyo or the grave with lime soil (T. trichiura) were sequenced [28–35]. Single Nucleotide mixture barrier)wheretheJoseonpeoplehadbeenlaidto Polymorphisms were analyzed to identify ABCC11, EDAR, rest[43].DuringtheJoseonperiod,lime,redclay,andsand FGFR2, and ABO genotypes [36]. In addition, various studies (called sammul or lime soil mixture) were blended together in such as palynological analysis [37] or forensic craniofacial given proportions to construct the Hoegwakmyo tomb. Te reconstructions [38] were successfully performed. mixture was poured around the cofn and, once hardened, it completely sealed the grave (Figure 3). Since the Korean 4. Why Did the Korean Mummies mummies were rarely found in partially or totally destroyed Spontaneously Preserve? Hoegwakmyo graves, it can be inferred that the sealing itself played a major role in promoting the mummifcation [44]. It Which kind of mummifcation allowed the Korean mummies was also noted that a large amount of clothing was used to fll to preserve? Climate in Korea is not suitable for natural the cofns [7] (Figure 4). Te use of textiles combined with th mummifcation and, before the 20 century, the Joseon did the sealing produced a shortage of oxygen inside the cofn. 6 BioMed Research International

(a) (b)

(c)

Figure 3: (a) and (b) An example of complete lime soil mixture (LSM) sealing around the cofn (Cf) of Joseon grave discovered at the Hadong archaeological site, South Korea. (c) Perfectly preserved cofn wood.

Animal experiments were carried out to reproduce the ideals. Terefore, the funerary rituals were modifed and mummifcation process. Rats and miniature Hoegwakmyo adapted to the teachings of the Confucianism masters. Te grave models were used. It was observed that while there is Confucianist ritual book, Jujagare (Zhouzijiali in Chinese), hardening around the cofn, the lime soil mixture generated was written by the great Chinese scholar master, Zhu Xi high temperatures. Since the heat lasted for quite a long (1130-1200 CE). Te introduction of the book in Korea time, it completely killed the bacteria in the animal intestines, deeply infuenced the funeral rites of the Joseon kingdom. promoting a successful mummifcation. Although the exper- In the Jujagare,theHoegwakmyo tomb was recommended iment was performed on an animal model using a miniature as the ideal Confucianist gentlemen’s burial. Te ruling class cofn, it is likely that a similar phenomenon occurred in the of the Joseon Dynasty assimilated this concept and the actual-sized Hoegwakmyo graves [42, 44]. Taken together, the Hoegwakmyo tomb became their elective type of grave [5, 43]. use of a lime soil mixture, the textile flling, the low content of However, what has become also evident nowadays is that the oxygen inside the cofn, and the high temperature produced Joseon people did not want their corpses to be mummifed. by the hardening of lime soil mixture operated in synergy and In that sense, the mummifcation in the Hoegwakmyo graves enhanced the mummifcation process. was a kind of unexpected accident. According to historians, the emergence of the Hoegwak- myo grave is closely related to the reform of the funeral rituals 5. Mummies of Sticky Rice Soup pursued by the Confucianists of the Joseon Dynasty (1392- Sealed Tombs in China 1910 CE). Te Confucianist ruling class people, who had overthrown the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392 CE), believed that Since there is a close relationship between the ancient Korean the funeral rituals had been seriously polluted by Buddhists’ people and Confucianism, researchers hypothesized that BioMed Research International 7

Figure 4: Clothing wrapped around the Korean mummy was found inside the Joseon grave (SN1-2).

similar tombs and mummies were present in China, the of the Xu Fan couple found in a tomb of the Ming Dynasty country where Confucianism originated [5]. Interestingly, [5, 40]. Histology showed intact, well-defned cartilage cells Chinese archaeologists reported that some graves dating to and nuclei in the mummifed tissues of both individuals. the Song and Ming dynasties were completely sealed by a Paleopathological investigations showed that the husband mixtureoflime,yellowclaysoil,sand,andstickyricewater. (Xu Fan) sufered from atherosclerosis and coronary artery Tese tombs were called ‘sticky rice paste (or soup) sealed disease [5, 40]. th tomb’ [5, 45]. In this regard, the Korean Hoegwakmyo tomb Anotherinterestingcasewasthatofthe13 century sticky was very similar to the Chinese ‘sticky rice paste (or soup) rice paste sealed tomb containing the mummifed body of sealed tomb’ (Figures 5(a) and 5(b)). the wife of the ofcial Wu Chou.Temummybelongedto May the sticky rice paste (or soup) sealed tomb be consid- theSouthernSongDynastyandwasfoundin1988inthe ered the prototype of the Korean Hoegwakmyo? According De’anCounty(Jiangxiprovince).Tegravedatedto1274CE to the Chinese archaeological reports, the earliest sticky rice [5, 47]. A circa 30 centimetres thick lime soil mixture layer paste (or soup) sealed tomb so far discovered is the Sun was present around the cofn. At the time of discovery, the Siniangzi mu (tomb) in the city of Jiangyin (Jiangsu province). body, originally wrapped in silk, was found fooding in the Te grave contained the mummifed body of the wife of a water rising from the foor of the cofn. Te preservation of Northern Song Dynasty (960–1127 CE) bureaucrat [5, 46]. themummywasexcellent.Teladywas152cmtall[5,47]. Since the Sun Siniangzi mu was constructed in 1055 CE, the In terms of quantity and quality, the scientifc information origin of the sticky rice paste (or soup) sealed tomb can be gained from the studies performed on the Chinese mummies th placed at the beginning-middle 11 century. wasexcellentandcomparabletotheachievementsobtained If this type of graves was related to the Hoegwakmyo bythestudyoftheJoseonmummies. tombs of the Joseon Dynasty, these fndings would have Te most advanced part of the scientifc study on the implications also in tracing the origin of the Korean mum- Song-and-Ming dynasty Chinese mummies is the paleopara- mies back. It has to be underlined that the Chinese sticky sitological one. As early as 1956, Ascaris eggs were identifed rice paste sealed tombs were not identical to each other and in a coprolite from a 450-year-old male mummy belong- varied in shape [5]. From this perspective, only a part of ing to the Ming dynasty. Ancient parasite eggs of Ascaris th th them showed similarities with the 16 to 18 century Joseon lumbricoides, Fasciolopsis buski, C. sinensis,andT. trichiura Hoegwakmyo graves. Tis implies that when the use of the [48, 49] were also found in mummies of the Song-and-Ming Hoegwakmyo graves emerged for the frst time in the Korean Dynasties. Te overall pattern of the paleoparasitological history, only a certain type of the Chinese sticky rice paste studies looks very similar to those carried on the Korean sealed tombs was selectively introduced in the Joseon society. mummies. Terefore,theunderstandingofthehistoryoftheChinese What kind of mummifcation occurred inside the sticky tombs provides scholars with additional information on the rice soup sealed tombs? Chinese archaeologists proposed that history of the Korean Hoegwakmyo tombs. multiple factors such as the complete sealing of the cofn Various biomedical studies were performed on the mum- by lime soil mixture (Figure 5(b)), the constant tempera- mies exhumed from the sticky rice soup sealed tombs.In ture/humidity inside the cofn, and other minor factors general, these corpses were very well preserved, wet-type were responsible for the excellent mummifcation [5, 40, 50]. mummies. Researchers observed that the Korean and Chi- Again, densely packed clothing was found inside the Chinese nese mummies shared several common features. Both had cofns. When clothes are flled up tightly leaving no empty elastic skin and fexible joints; hair, nails, and teeth showed space inside the cofn, bacteria are unable to proliferate a good state of preservation. Te inner organs were fairly well and die; thus, mummifcation occurs [5, 45, 50]. Moisture preserved. Tese features were particularly evident in the case absorbent, such as charcoal, put inside the cofns and the 8 BioMed Research International

Soil soil

Cofn Charcoal

Lime soil mixture Cofn Lime soil mixture (a) (b)

soil

Charcoal

Cofn Kaolin clay

(c)

Figure 5: Tomb structures: (a) Korean Hoegwakmyo of Joseon Dynasty [39]; (b) the sticky rice paste (or soup) sealed tomb of Song-and-Ming Dynasty, China [40]; (c) Mawangdui grave of Western Han Dynasty [41]. Kaolin clay in (c) possibly played the role of sealant performed by the lime soil mixtures in (a) and (b). Te fgures herewith were redrawn based on the previous reports about Hoegwakmyo [39], Song-and-Ming Dynasty tomb [40], and Mawangdui grave [41].

bactericidal efect of lime may have been also involved in the BCE - 221 BCE) and Western Han Period (202 BCE – 8 CE) mummifcation processes occurring in the sticky rice paste graves. sealed tombs [5, 45, 50]. Among the Warring States and Western Han period In brief, the Chinese sticky rice paste sealed tombs and the graves so far investigated, only three corpses were classifed Hoegwakmyo oftheJoseonsocietysharemanyfeatures,i.e., as mummies. Tese corpses, which have been thoroughly the structure of the cofn, the presence of lime soil mixture studied, are currently displayed in the and Hubei layer placed around the cofn, and the use of heavily packed provinces of China. Detailed information concerning these clothing. mummies is summarized in Table 3. Actually, the graves of the Warring States Period (402 6. Chinese Mummies of Warring States and BCE-221 BCE) were discovered in the territory of Chu, Western Han Period an ancient kingdom that prospered in the present Yangtze River basin. In February 1994, grave robbers plundered a While Korean scholars paid attention to the possible links Chu tomb (Guo-Jia Gang Tomb No. 1)locatedinthecity between the mummies exhumed from the sticky rice soup of Jingmen (Hubei province) [4, 51]. Many cultural artefacts sealed tombs and those from the Joseon Hoegwakmyo,Chi- were damaged or lost. Quite luckily, a female mummy, almost nese scholars focused on the similarities existing among undamaged, was recovered. According to the archaeologists, theChinesemummies.Morespecifcally,similaritieswere the grave was constructed before Qin’s unifcation of China identifed between the mummies from the sticky rice soup (221 BCE), more precisely in the middle stage of the Warring sealed tombs and those exhumed from the Warring States (402 States Period. Tis implies that this individual, whose corpse BioMed Research International 9

Table 3: Mummies of Warring States and Western Han Period, China.

Date of Death Mummy Year Excavated Sites Sex Archaeological fndings (or Estimated Period) Guo-Jia Gang Tomb Jingmen city/ Hubei Middle stage of Duplicated cofn (1 outer; 1 1994 Female No. 1 province Warring States Period inner); Well-preserved mummy Multiplicated cofn (2 outer; 4 inner); Charcoal and kaolin clay / Afer 168 BCE, but Mawangdui 1971 Female around the cofn; Water on the Hunan Province not too late foor of the cofn; Well-preserved mummy Triplicated cofn (1 outer; 2 Jiangling County/ inner); Clay around the cofn; Phoenix Hill No. 168 1975 167 BCE Male Hubei Province Water on the foor of the cofn; Well-preserved mummy

wasburiedinthetombatleast2,300yearsago,representsthe showed that both peripheral nerves and skeletal muscles were earliest case of mummifcation ever reported in East Asia to well preserved [55]. Many signs of ancient diseases were date [52]. identifedintheMawangdui lady: atherosclerosis, coronary According to the archaeoanthropological reports, a dupli- artery disease, cholelithiasis (gallstones), lead and mercury cated cofn (an outer and an inner cofn) was used for her chronic poisoning, and fracture and malunion of the distal burial and the cofn was found at circa 7 meters below the end of the right ulna and radius. Based on the pathological soil level. Te state of preservation of the mummy was perfect. evidence, it was hypothesized that the most likely cause Aged70-75atdeath,thewomanwas160cmtall.Herblood of death was a myocardial infarction or an arrhythmia type was AB. Parasitology revealed that she was infected by due to heart attack possibly consequent to a biliary colic C. sinensis and T. trichiura [52]. Te mummy is currently [4,56].Muskmelonseeds(n=138.5)werefoundinsideher displayed in Jingmen Museum. intestines and paleoparasitology showed that she had sufered Apart from the Chu female mummy, another tomb called from Schistosoma japonicum, T. trichiura,andEnterobius Mawangdui (Mawangtui) graveprovidedscholarswithan vermicularis [49]. All these studies provided scholars with exceptional fnding. In 1971, during the construction of an unexpected information about the life of a 2,000-year-old air-raid shelter, a grave of the Western Han period was Chinese woman. Te mummy is currently displayed in discovered at a depth of circa 20 meters. Te archaeologists, Hunan Museum, along with other artefacts. whosuccessfullyexcavatedthetombinaperiodofpolitical Another mummy of the Western Han period was dis- constraints, found multiple cofns (two outer and four inner covered in 1975. Te mummy was uncovered in a Western cofns) of diferent sizes ftted one within another. When the Han Dynasty grave (Phoenix Hill No. 168)intheJiangling innermost cofn was opened, the archaeologist discovered County (Hubei Province) [57]. According to the archaeolo- the ‘cadaver’ofawomanthatdidnotshowevidenceof gists, a triplicated cofn (one outer and two inner cofns) decomposition [4]. According to archaeologists, at the time was identifed approximately 10 meters underneath the soil of discovery, the mummy was fooding in a liquid that flled surface [4, 58]. Similar to the Mawangdui’s Lady, the corpse the cofn. was immersed in dark red fuids (100 litters at a depth of 75 Te lady’s name was confrmed to be Xin Zhui,the cm) [4]. Te body belonged to a male, named Sui, an ofcial wife of Li Cang (or Li Tsang), Marquis of Dai (or Tai) (wutaifu or wutafu)ofWesternHanDynastywhohaddied during the Western Han Period. Since she died in 168 BCE, in 167 BCE when he was ca 60 years old [4]. shemusthavebeenburiedabout100yearslaterthanthe Anatomical and histological studies confrmed that the above-mentioned Jingmen mummy [4]. Afer two thousand state of preservation of the mummy was excellent. Sof years, the mummifed lady and her tomb assemblage were tissues had maintained their elasticity. No hair was preserved amazingly well preserved. Researches performed on the tomb whereas all teeth were present. Te body measured 167.8 assemblage found in the Mawangdui grave provided scholars cm and weighted 52.5 kg; the blood type was AB. Autopsy with valuable information about the life of this ancient showed well-preserved inner organs. In general, histology Chinese lady [2]. showed that most cells had disappeared whereas the collagen Te Mawangdui mummy underwent thorough biomedi- fbers were still abundant. Te main component of the cal investigations [53, 54]. Te body of the lady, who was 154 nervoustissuewasrepresentedbymyelinremnants[4,59]. cm tall, weighted 34.3 kg. Her blood type was A. Her skin No osteoporotic changes were found. Te man sufered of and hair were intact, sof tissues had maintained the original chronic cholecystitis, parasitic hepatic cirrhosis, gallstone, elasticity, and the joints could be moved freely. X-rays showed and atherosclerosis. Te cause of death was attributed to that the skeleton was complete. At autopsy, it was shown acute peritonitis due to a chronic gastric ulcer at the lesser that although the inner organs were remarkably shrunken, curvature of stomach complicated by acute perforation [2, 59, their relative positions had remained unaltered. Histology 60].ParasitologyshowedthepresenceofancienteggsofS. 10 BioMed Research International japonicum, C. sinensis, Taenia sp., and T. trichiura [2, 49, 59, Actually,KoreanandChinesemummiessharemany 61].Sui’smummifedbodyiscurrentlydisplayedinJingzhou cultural and biological characteristics. Researchers agreed Museum. that both the mummifcation and the artefacts’ preservation Te 2,000-year-old mummies of the Warring States (402 in the Mawangdui like graves were most likely due to the BCE - 221 BCE) and Western Han period (202 BCE – 8 presence of a kaolin clay layer surrounding the cofn [56, 63– CE) have a high reputation in China. Te perfectly preserved 65]. Wang and Zhang [50] also proposed that the complete artefacts recovered from their graves provided scholars with sealing of the cofn obtained resorting to the lime soil mixture information that, otherwise, would not have been obtained was an important inducing factor for mummifcation in the through the historical and archaeological studies. sticky rice paste sealed tombs. In brief, the complete isolation Te three Warring States and Western Han mummies of the inner cofn, either with kaolin clay or lime soil mixture, seem to share some factors that favoured their preservation. was responsible for mummifcation both in China and in Besides temperature, humidity, pressure, and pH, more Korea.Tefunerarycustomsalsoplayedanimportantrole inducing factors were suggested to be responsible for such an in the mummifcation process. For example, the tight packing excellent preservation. Among these factors are the air-tight of the cloths inside the cofn was a shared funerary custom sealing of the cofn, the depth of the burial (Figure 5(c)), and in China and Korea. And above all, both in Korea and in the presence of cinnabar (HgS) in the liquid found inside the China, the tombs’ construction followed the precepts of the cofns at the time of discovery [4, 59]. It is also noteworthy Confucianist tradition. that charcoal and kaolin clay (Bai gao ni) were used in sealing From a biomedical perspective, the mummies of Korea thecofns[56].Kaolinclaymayhaveplayedthesameroleof and China show considerable similarities. In both countries, sealant performed by the lime soil mixture in the Hoegwakmyo the dead body did not undergo embalming and the internal gravesandinthesticky rice paste sealed tombs (Figure 5). organs were not removed from the body cavities. Te macro- Te complete sealing of the Warring States-Western Han scopical and radiological appearance of the mummifed graves by kaolin clay may have prevented the percolation of organs was similar in the Chinese and Korean examined water and air into the cofn, thus creating anoxic conditions cases. All inner organs were considerably shrunken and dis- inside the inner cofn and halting the decomposition [56, 62]. torted, displaced dorsally but fxed in their relative position. Te charcoal layer of the Mawangdui tomb may have also Also, the histological fndings were similar in mummies contributed to the preservation of both mummy and artefacts from both countries. In the case of the Mawangdui type by absorbing the moisture that otherwise would have seeped mummies, microscopy revealed that the collagen fbers were inside the cofn [56]. the best preserved component. A considerable number of chrondrocytes were also found in cartilages and myelin remnants were the predominant structures identifed in the 7. Mummies of Korea and China in nervous tissue [4]. A closer look at the histology of the East Asian History Korean mummies reveals a strict similarity with the Chinese Mawangdui type mummies. As shown in the present review, the Chinese mummies date back mainly to two historical periods. Te frst period 8. Conclusions corresponds to the Warring States and Western Han Periods (circa 2,000 years ago). Te majority of the mummies dating Interdisciplinary researches performed on the Korean mum- to these periods were uncovered in the Hubei and Hunan mieshaveledtogaininvaluablescientifcinformationon Provinces. For next almost 1,000 years, very few mummies the health and disease statuses of past populations. Tanks dating to the frst millennium CE were found in China. When to a growing body of literature written in English, the the second millennium began and the Chinese constructed international scientifc community has rapidly recognized the the sticky rice paste sealed tombs during the Song and Ming distinctiveness of the Korean mummies. Conversely, except dynasties, mummifed bodies were newly recovered. for some brief reports, the investigations performed on the As previously stated, the Korean mummies unearthed Chinese mummies were seldom presented to the interna- from the Hoegwakmyo graves appear to be closely related tional academia [2, 5]. Nevertheless, since the 1970s, China totheChinesemummiesfoundinthesticky rice paste had a long history of high quality research on mummifed sealed tombs. Interestingly enough, the Chinese scholars did bodies. Te present review contains a synthesis of the studies not consider the mummies belonging to the two distinct carried out so far on the Korean and Chinese mummies. historical phases (Warring States and Western Han period It is worth noting that strict cultural and biomedical simi- versus Song/Ming dynasties) as separate entities. Rather, the larities can be identifed among the Chinese Mawangdui type corpses were classifed as wet corpses [50], ancient corpses [4], mummies, the mummies of the Song-and-Ming dynasties or just cadavers [4, 54, 56], thus emphasizing the diferences (the sticky rice soup sealed tombs), and the Korean mum- between the Chinese mummies and the mummies from mies of Joseon dynasties. Even if the historical periods, the other continents. In China, the so-called ‘Mawangdui type regions of excavation, and the structures of the graves varied, cadaver’ generally includes the Warring States and Western similarities in the mummifcation processes and funerary Han Period mummies as well as the Song/Ming period rituals are also highlighted. In this study, this statement is also mummies [4]. In our opinion, the corpses exhumed from confrmed by biological evidence. Independently from the the two diferent Chinese historical phases and the Korean way they are locally called, the East Asian mummies belong mummies should be included in the same category. tothesamegroupwithacommonculturalbackground. BioMed Research International 11

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