This course material is designed and developed by Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU), New , Krishna Kanta Handiqui State Open University (KKHSOU), Guwahati and Vidya Mitra(MHRD).

BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONOURS) IN HISTORY (BAHI)

BHI-09 History of V (c.1526-1750)

BLOCK – 1

ESTABLISHMENT OF MUGHAL RULE

UNIT-1 INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF THE MUGHALS

UNIT-2 MILITARY TECHNOLOGY : FIRE ARMS

UNIT-3 SHER SHAH : ADMINISTRATIVE AND REVENUE REFORMS

UNIT 1 : INDIA ON THE EVE OF THE ADVENT OF THE MUGHALS

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Political Scenario on the eve of 's Invasion 1.3 Central Asia and Babur 1.4 The Lodi Empire 1.4.1 1.4.2 Ibrahim Lodi 1.5 Establishment of the Mughal Power 1.6 The Second Empire 1.7 Administrative Structure 1.7.1 Nature of Kingship 1.7.2 General Administration 1.8 Let Us Sum Up 1.9 Key Words 1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress 1.11 Exercises 1.0 OBJECTIVES

This Unit will tell you about:

 the political situation of India on the eve of Babur's invasion,  Babur's successful campaigns against the Lodis,  the conquests and conflicts of the Mughals with the local ruling powers, specially their clashes with the Afghans and the ,  the emergence and consolidation of Sher Shah, and  the circumstances and factors that led to the revival of Mughals in India under .

1

1.1 INTRODUCTION

The scope of the present Unit confines itself to the process of the establishment of Mughal rule in India under Babur and Humayun. Afghans' bid to challenge and overthrow Mughal authority is also discussed. A brief survey of the Afghan rule has also been attempted. The Unit deals mainly with the territorial expansion under Babur and Humayun.

1.2 POLITICAL SCENARIO ON THE EVE OF BABUR'S INVASION

The first half of the fifteenth century witnessed political instability with the disintegration of the Tughluq dynasty. Both the Saiyyad (1414-1451) and the Lodi (1451-1526) rulers failed to cope with 'the disruptive forces . The nobles resented and rebelled at the earliest opportunity. The political chaos in the North-West provinces had weakened the centre. Now let us examine what was happening in other parts of India. In Central India there were three kingdoms: Gujarat, and . The power of Mahmud Khalji II of Malwa was, however, on the decline. Gujarat was ruled by Muzaffar Shah II, while Mewar under the leadership of ruler was the most powerful kingdom. Rulers of Malwa were under constant pressure of the Lodis, Mewar and Gujarat. This was because it was not only the most fertile region and an important source for elephant supply but it also provided an important trade route to Gujarat sea-ports. Hence, it was an important region for the Lodis. Besides, for both Gujarat and Mewar it could serve as a buffer against the Lodis. The Sultan of Malwa was an incompetent ruler, and his prime minister Medini Rai could hardly hold the kingdom intact for long in the wake of internal strifes. Finally, Rana Sanga, succeeded in extending his influence over Malwa and Gujarat. By the close of the , Rana Sanga's sway over Rajputana became almost complete with the occupation of Ranthambhor and . Further south, there were powerful Vijaynagar and Bahmani kingdoms Towards the east, Nusrat Shah ruled . Towards the closing years of Ibrahim Lodi's reign, Afghan chieftains Nasir Khan Lohani, Ma'ruf Farmuli, etc. succeeded in carving out separate kingdom of Jaunpur under Sultan . Besides these major powers, there were numerous Afghan chieftaincies around - the most powerful ones being those of Hasan Khan in Mewat, Nizam Khan in Bayana, Muhammad Zaitun in Dholpur, Tatar Khan Sarang Khani in Gwaliar, Husain Khan Lohani in Rapri. Qutub Khan in Etawa, Alam Khan in Kalpi, and Qasim Sambhali in Sambhal, etc .

2

While analysing the political set-up on the eve of Babur's invasion it is generally said (Rushbrooke William) that there was confederacy of principalities which was ready to seize the control of . It is held that had Babur not intervened, the Rajputs led by their illustrious leader Rana Sanga would have captured power in northern India. It is argued that the political division of the regional states was religious in nature and that Rajput confederacy under Rana Sanga fired by religious zeal wanted to establish a Hindu Empire. This assumption is based on the famous passage of where Babur says that Hindustan was governed by 'five Musalman rulers': the Lodis (at the centre), Gujarat, Malwa,'Bahmani, and Bengal, and two 'pagans' (Rana Sanga of Mewar and Vijaynagar). Besides, the fathnama . issued after the battle of suggests that Rajput confederacy under Rana was inspired by religous zeal and organised with the intention to overthrow the "Islamic power".

However, such observations have been questioned by historians. Babur has nowhere suggested that these powers were antagonistic against each other on religious grounds. Instead, Babur himself admits that many rais and ranas were obedient to . Moreover, if we see the composition of the confederacy, there were many Muslim chieftains like Hasan Khan Mewati, Mahumud Khan Lodi, etc. who side with Rana Sanga against Babur. Rather Waqi'at-i Mushtaqi (1560) blames Hasan Khan Mewati for creating the confederacy to overthrow the Mughal power in India. In fact, it was not Rana Sanga, but Sultan Mahmud who proclaimed himself the king of Delhi. Though, the power of Rana was unquestionable, Babur was more anxious of Afghan menace: thus the theory of religious consideration does not seem to hold ground.

1.3 CENTRAL ASIA AND BABUR

We have already discussed political formations in Central Asia and Persia during the 16th century in . By the close of the 15th century, the power of the Timurids was on the decline. By this time the Uzbegs succeeded in establishing strong footholds in Transoxiana under Shaibani Khan. Around the same time, the Safavis rose into prominence under Shah Ismail in Iran; while further west the Ottoman Turks dominated the scene. We have already discussed how Shaibani Khan overran almost whole of Transmiaha and Khorasan. However, finally in 1510 Shah Ismail of Iran defeated Shaibani Khan. In a short while (1512) the Ottoman Sultan defeated Shah Ismail, thus leaving the stage again to the Uzbegs to become the master of the whole Transoxiana. Babur ascended the throne at Farghana (a small principality in Transoxiana) in 1494 at the tender age of twelve. However, it was not a smooth succession for Babur. Both the Mongol Khans as well as the Timurid princes, specially Sultan Ahmad Mina of

3

Samarqand, an uncle of Babur, had interests in Farghana. Besides, Babur had to face the discontented nobility. Against all odds Babur struggled to strengthen his foothold . in Central Asia and did succeed in taking Samarqand twice (1497,1500). But he could hardly hold that for long. With Shaibani Khan's success over Khorasan (1507) four Timurid centres of power finally sealed Babur's fate in Central Asia and he was left with no option but to look towards Kabul where the conditions were most favourable. Its ruler Ulugh Beg Mina had already died (1501). Babur occupied Kabul in 1504. Yet Babur could not completely leave the dream to rule over Central Asia. With the help of Shah Ismail Safavi, he was able to control over Samarqand (1511) but Shah Ismail's defeat in 1512 and the resurgence of the Uzbegs left Babur with no alternative but to consolidate himself at Kabul.

Thus, it was the Central Asian situation which pressed and convinced (after 1512) Babur to abandon the hopes of creating an Empire in Central Asia and look towards India. The rich resources of India and the meagre income of Afghanistan, as Abul Fazl comments, might have been another attraction for Babur. The unstable political situation after Sikandar Lodi's death convinced him of political discontentment and disorder in the Lodi Empire. Invitations from Rana Sanga and Daulat Khan Lodi, the governor of , might have whetted Babur's ambitions. Perhaps 's legacy also provided some background for his invasion. (After the siege of Bhira in 1519, Babur asked Ibrahim Lodi to return western Punjab which belonged to his uncle Ulugh Beg Mirza.) Thus, Babur had both reasons and opportunity to look towards India.

Check Your Progress 1 1) Discuss the political condition of India on the eve of Babur's invasion. …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 2) "It was Central Asian situation that forced Babur to look towards India". Comment. …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

The first half of the 16th century in was a period of political turmoil and instability. This period witnessed frequent changes of ruling dynasties and emergence of diverse ruling groups. The most significant event was the Mughal conquest of India. This influenced in a major way the Indian polity, economy and

4 society of coming 200 years. In this Unit we focus our attention mainly on the first half of the 16th century. Our aim here is to familiarise you with the political and economic background in which the powerful established itself in India. At first we discuss the political developments during this period. Our discussion stands with the of the Afghans. After that we see how the Mughals defeated the Afghans and established their own political power. Next, we discuss the overthrow of the Mughals by the Afghans. The Unit ends with the account of the reestablishment of Mughal power under Humayun: In the sphere of economy, the major developments taking place during this period under the Afghans have been discussed .

1.4 THE LODI EMPIRE

By the end of 15th century Bahlal Lodi firmly established the Lodi dynasty at Delhi. He succeeded in bringing large area of North India under his control. After his death, his son Sikandar Lodi succeeded him to the throne.

1.4.1 Sikandar Lodi

In the sixteenth century the Lodi Empire, under Sulta'n Sikandar Lodi, in North India reached its zenith. In 1496, Sultan Hussain Sharqi, the ex-ruler of Jaunpur was driven away from south and the Rajput chieftains in alliance with him were either forced into submission, or uprooted. Their zamindaris were brought under the control of the Sultan or reduced to the status of vassal principalities. Likewise, the power of those Afghan and non-Afghan nobles, reluctant to acquire to the Sultan's authority, was eliminated in the area around Delhi. In the first decade of the sixteenth century, the annexation of Dholpur paved the way for the expansion of the Afghan rule in the regions of Rajputana and Malwa. The forts of Narwar and Chanderi were annexed while the Khanzada of acknowledged the suzerainty of the Lodi Sultan in 1510-11. In short, the whole of North India; from Punjab in the north-west to Saran and Champaran in north Bihar in the east, and Chanderi to the south of Delhi were brought under the Lodi rule.

1.4.2 Ibrahim Lodi

Unlike his father, Sultan lbrahim Lodi (1517-1526) had to face the hostility of the Afghan nobility soon after his accession to the throne in 1517. He found himself surrounded by powerful nobles bent upon weakening the centre.to gain an upper hand for themselves. His father had to fight against his brother; and relatives and was supported by the nobles who wanted to replace the princes in the resourceful

5 provinces. Upon the death of Sultan Sikandar, the nobles decided to divide the Empire between Sultan lbrahim Lodi and his younger brother Prince Jalal Khan Lodi, the governor of Kalpi.

Sultan lbrahim was forced by them to accept the division which naturally weakend the centre. Some time later, some of the senior nobles, like Khan Khanan Nuhani, who came from their provinces to do obeisance to the new Sultan, criticised the supporters of division, calling their action detrimental to the Empire. They also persuaded the Sultan to rescind the agreement. On their advice, Sultan lbrahim sent high nobles to Prince Jalal Khan. Their mission was to persuade him to withdraw his claim and acknowledge his elder brother as the Sultan. The efforts went in vain and this created a succession crisis.

At this juncture Sultan lbrahim appeared more powerful than his rival .brother. Hence, the old nobles rallied round him. However, there were few exceptions like 'Azam Humayun Sarwani, the governor of Kara and his son Fath Khan Sarwani. They stood by Jalal Khan but for some time only. When Sultan lbrahim marched in person, even these two deserted Jalal Khan and joined the-sultan.

The Sultan deputed Azam Humayun Sarwani against Raja Bikrarnajit of Gwaliar. This was done so because Prince Jalal Khan had taken shelter there. From Gwaliar, Jalal Khan fled towards Malwa but was captured by the Gonds and sent as prisoner to the Sultan in Agra. However, his escape from made the Sultan suspicious of the loyalty of the old nobles to him. Azam Humayun was recalled and thrown into prison. The Raja of Gwalior surrendered to the nobles and agreed to join the service of the Sultan. He was given the territory of Shamsabad (Farrukhabad district) in iqta. It was about this time that the celebrated wazir Mian Bhua also lost royal confidence and was put under arrest. The imprisonment of the old nobles sparked off wide- spread rebellion in the eastern region.

The Sultan raised his favourites to key positions at the court and sent others to the provinces as governors. As a result, the old nobles became apprehensive of their future and began to build up their power in the provinces. Darya Khan Nuhani, a powerful governor of Rihar, became a rallying point for the dissatisfied nobles in the the east.

6

About the same time, Babur occupied the sarkar of Bhera and Daulat Khan Lodi, the supreme governor of the trans-Sutlej Punjab, failed to liberate it.When summonedto the court, Daulat Khan did not come and revolted against the Sultan also invited the uncle of Sultan Ibrahim. 'Alam Khan Lodi (son of in ), and declared him as the new Sultan under the title of Sultan Alauddin. Both formed an alliance with Babur. the ruler of Kabul, against Sultan lbrahim . Rana Sangram Singh and Babur also seems to have reached to an understanding against lbmhim Lodi .

1.5 ESTABLISHMENT OF THE MUGHAL POWER

Babur, who had invaded with some success the border areas of the north-west 9 frontier, launched a well planned attack' with the help of his political allies in India. In 1526, Babur and his Indian allies fought against Sultah Ibrahim at . The used by Babur for the first time in north India helped him achieve easy victory. lbrahim Lodi was killed in the battle and the road to Delhi and Agra was cleared for Babur.

When Babur supplanted the Lodi rule by his own his Indian allies were disappointed. The dissatisfied Afghan and non-Afghan nobles accepted Prince

7

Mahmud lodi as their Sultan and decided to carry an armed struggle against the Mughals. The fifteen years of combined rules Babur and Humayun rule is to be treated as an interregnum between the fall of the Lodis and the foundation of Sher Shah Sur's Empire.

Babur (d. 1530) and Humayun adopted the same state system in India that they found existing under the Lodi . For example, the policy they followed towards the zamindars was the age-old tradition set by the Delhi Sultans. Babur mentions that the rais and rajas were found on all sides and quarters of Hindustan, obedient as well as disobedient to the Muslim ruler. In fact, he was satisfied when the rajas paid nominal allegiance to him as they did in the past. The Baburnama clearly shows that Babur assigned the charge of territories to the nobles, granting them the right to collect land revenue and carry on the government there on his behalf as was the prevelent system. The shiqqdars were posted in the parganas under khallsa. In short, Babur or Humayun do not seem to have made any important change in the political system in North India.

The Afghan and non-Afghan nobles who fought against Babur and Humayun under the nominal leadership of Sultan Mahmud Lodi, failed to achieve success. This was primarily due to rivalry and dissensions among themselves. Their defeat in 1531 by Humayun finally sealed the fate of the old Afghan nobility. Thereafter the leadership of the anti-Mughal Afghans was taken over by Sher Khan Sur who, by now, had established his control over the fort of and the region of south War. The old Afghan nobles fled to Gujarat. This they did to join the service of Sultan Bahadur Shah who wanted to capture Delhi.

Sultan Bahadur Shah of Gujarat was financially as well as militarily the most powerful of the lndian rulers. Some of the coastal towns in Gujarat had already emerged as emporium of international trade. These port-towns were visited by merchants from different foreign countries. Thus, this trade yielded huge revenue to the state exchequer through customs dues. He also possessed a strong artillery.

In 1531, Sultan Bahadur Shah started on an expansionist career. He conquered Malwa and annexed it to his Sultanate. In 1533, he laid siege to Chittor and conquered it. Thereafter, he decided to march to Gwaliar against the Mughals. About this time, Rumi Khan, the commander of the Gujarat artillery, secretly entered into alliance with Humayun and assured him of his help. The Gujarat army was completely demoralised by the treachery of Rumi Khan. Finally, Bahadur Shah took shelter in the island of Diu and the whole of Malwa and Gujarat was occupied by Humayun. But this Mughal conquest was short-lived. Soon after his victory in

8

Gujarat, Humayun received the alarming news of the rebellion of Sher Khan Sur who had declared himself as Sher Shah Sur. He seized vast land from the Sultan of Bengal and raided the eastern territories held by the Mughals. Humayun left his brother Askari along with other Mughal nobles in Gujarat and retreated to Agra. On Humayun's departure, Gujarat rose in revolt against the Mughals. Bahadur Shah came back from Diu and chased the Mughals out from Gujarat and Malwa. Meanwhile, Humayun made war preparation in a haste and started towards Chunar, a stronghold of Sher Shah. About this time Sher Shah took the impregnable fort of Rohtas from its Raja. Humayun conquered the Chunar fort, and entered Bengal without meeting any serious resistance put by the Afghans. In Gaur (Bengal) there was a period of inactivity on the part of Humayun. Sher Shah took full advantage of the situation. He closed the line of communication between Agra and Gaur and attacked the Mughal forces in the eastern territories upto Benaras. lnformed about the deterioriating circumstances, Humayun started on the journey back to Agra. He met the Afghan army near Chausa in 1539 and was defeated with heavy losses. In 1540 Humayun met the Afghan forces under Sher Shah at the battle of Qannauj. He was defeated and fled to Kabul.

1.6 THE SECOND AFGHAN EMPIRE

Finally, after expelling Humayun, Sher Shah became the Emperor of North India from the lndus to the Bay of Bengal in the east and from Himalaya in the north to Malwa in the south. The Biloch chiefs of and upper Sind and Maldeo in western Rajputana and Bhaiya Puran Mal of Raisin were defeated. A centralised political system was again revived by Sher Shah Sur.

With Sher Shah Sur, a new era began in the history of North India, Certain important changes took place in the realm of ideas and institutions.

In 1545 he did in a mine blast. His son and successor lslam Shah (1 545-1 553) not .only retained his system but also took steps towards its improvement whenever necessary 'Indeed, theirs was a personal government that derived its strength and glory from their personal vigour.

Check Your Progress 1) Discuss the extent of Sikandar Lodi's Empire. …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

9

…………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 2) Match the following: I) Azam Humayun A)Governor of Bihar 2) Bahadur Shah B)Governor of Punjab 3) Darya Khan Nuhani C)Ruler of Gujarat 4) Jalal Khan Lodi D)Governor of Kara 5) Daulat Khan Lodi E) Governor of Kalpi

3) Under what circumstances Babur invaded India? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

1.7 ADMINISTRATIVE STRUCTURE

A number of new administrative measures were taken during this period. Afghan kingship also shows marked departure from the Turkish concepts. This change can well be seen in the formulation of almost all administrative policies.

1.7.1 Nature of Kingship

The kingship under the Turkish Sultans was highly centralized . The Sultan's powers were absolute. However, with the rise of the Afghan power, there also followed distinct changes in the monarchy. Afghan monarchy was primarily tribal in nature. For them. king was 'first among equals'. In fact, political expediency also played its own role. Bahlul. being Afghan. could not look towards Turks for support. He had to virtually accept the terms of his fellow Afghans. The Afghan nobles must have enjoyed complete local autonomy. The only bond between them and the Sultan was to render military service when the need arose or required to do so. Such was the position under Bahlul that he neither ever sat on the throne in front of his fellow Afghan nobles. nor did he organised an open darbar. He used to call his Afghan nobles masnad i ali.

However, a distinct change came with Sultan Sikandnr Lcdi who clearly saw them of.an unrestrained nobility. He is credited with having introduced such important changes into the political system of the Empire that transformed it into a highly centralised political entity.

10

Unlike Sultan Bahlul Lodi (his father), Sultan Sikandar Lodi demanded obedience from nobles. His military success made the nobility completely loyal and subservient to him. It also suppressed its sentiments of equality with the Sultan. He is reported to have sat on the throne regularly in an open darbar where the nobles were required to stand. showing due respect to the Sultan like servants. Even in his absence, his farmans were received by high nobles with respect. The noble to whom the farman was sent had to come forward six miles to receive it. A terrace 'was prepared upon which the courier stood and placed the farman on the head of the noble who had to stand below. Then all those concerned had to listen to it standing. The nobles who failed to retain the confidence of the Sultan fell into disgrace. according to a contemporary writer, 'any one who turned from the path of obedience, he (the Sultan) either got his head severed off the body or banished him from the Empire.

" Though, in general the Sultan did not tamper with their autonomy at local level, at times the nobles were transferred and sometimes even dismissed. The Sultan expelled Sultan Ashraf. son of Ahmad Khan Jilawani, who had declared his independence in Bayana after Sultan Bahlul Lodi's death. He also exiled the twenty- two high Afghan and non-Afghan nobles for their involvement in a conspiracy against him in 1500. Jalal Khan Lodi. who succeeded his father as the governor of Kalpi in 1506. incurred the displeasure of the Sultan by not properly conducting the siege operations against the fort of Nanvar in 1508, for which he was thrown into prison.

The nobles were also put to more closer scrutiny of their iqtas. But, in spite of these changes, the Afghan kingship basically remained unchanged. Some of the offices were made hereditary. The Afghans continued to assume high titles, Khan-i Jahan, Khan-i Khanan, Azam Humayun, Khan-i Azam, etc. They also enjoyed freedom to maintain informal relations with the Sultan on playground, marches, hunting etc. Thus, monarchy under Sikandar was more of a compromise between the Turkish and tribal organisations.

The process of centralization accelerated under Ibrahim. He believed that "kingship knows no kinship". Under him, the prestige of the Sultan went so high that even the royal tent was considered worthy of respect. However, Ibrahim's policy had severe consequences and proved ruinous to the interests of the Afghan kingdom. The Afghan nobles were not prepared for the master-servant relationship. This led to dissatisfaction and rebellions to the extent that some of them even collaborated with Babur to depose the Sultan. When the second Afghan Empire was established in India (Surs), they had learnt the lesson well for they never attempted to establish tribal monarchy. Instead, Sher Shah Sur succeeded in establishing a highly

11 centralized autocratic monarchy. With the coming bf the Mughals on the scene, one finds the opening up of another chapter - the Mughals who were influenced by both, the Turkish and the Mongol traditions. 1.7.2 General Administration Sultan Sikandar Lodi is also praised for introducing a sound administrative machinery. He introduced the practice of audit in order to check, the accounts of Pollty in North lndia . muqtas and walis (governors). Mubarak Khan Lodi ,(Tuji Khail), the governor of Jaunpur, was the first noble whose accounts came under scrutiny in He was found guilty of embezzlement and, therefore, dismissed. Similarly, Khwaja Asghar, a non- Afghan officer-in-charge of Delhi, was thrown into prison for corruption. The Sultan also reorganised the intelligence system in order to keep himself well informed about the conditions in the Empire. As a result, the nobles feared to discuss the political matters among themselves, lest the Sultan be displeased.

Interested in the well-being of the general public, the Sultan had charity houses opened in the capital as well as in the provinces for the benefit of destitute and handicapped people. The deserving persons got financial aid from these charity houses. Scholars and poets were patronised and educational institutions were granted financial aid throughout the Empire. He imposed a ban on the use of any language other than Persian in the government offices. This led many Hindus to learn Persian and they acquired proficiency in Persian within a short time. Consequently, they began to look after and supervise the revenue administration. When Babur came to India, he was astonished to see that the revenue department was completely manned by the Hindus.

Likewise, the serious interest taken by Sultan Sikandar Lodi in ensurirg impartial justice to all and sundry in his Empire brought peace and prosperity.

Sher Shah seems to have been inspired by the history of Sultan Alauddin Khalji's (1296-1316) reign. He adopted most of the rules and regulations introduced by the Khalji Sultan. However, like Khalji he was not harsh in their implementation. In the doab region, the sarkar (the successor of shiqq under the Khaljis) was the administrative cum-fiscal unit; while willayat, comprising a number of sarkars in the outlying regions, such as Bengal, Malwa, Rajputana and Sind and Multan were retained for the convenience of defence. The sarkar comprised a number of parganas, each pargana consisting of a number of villages. The village was the primary fiscal unit.

12

The noble posted as incharge of sarkar or wilayat was not given unlimited powers. He was regularly directed through royal farman to implement new rules and regulations. The spies informed the king about the conduct of the officers. Anyone who was found failing in his work was punished, Khizr Turk, the governor of Bengal, was dismissed and 'thrown into prison because he married the daughter of the ex-Sultan of Bengal without Sher Shah's permission and acted independently.

Similarly, Sher Shah's policy with regard to the planting of Afghan colonies in the territories known for recalcitrant inhabitants also demonstrates the nature of kingship under him, for example, Gwalior was one of the places colonised by the Afghans during Sher Shah's reign. In short, Sher shah was an absolute monarch for all practical purposes. In organizing his nobility, Sher Shah took people belonging to different ethnic groups in such a way that his dynastic interest could be safeguarded. No group was strong enough to assume the shape of a pressure group. We find the non-Afghan nobles, Khawwas Khan, Haji Khan and Habib Khan Sultani holding the charge of important provinces with large iqtas. This shows that the establishment of a pure Afghan nobility was never a consideration with Sher Shah.

On Sher Shah's death, his second son Prince Jalal Khan ascended the throne under the title of Islam Shah. He overpowered and eliminated many senior and experienced nobles who supported his elder brother Adil Khan. After their elimination, Islam Shah was free to translate his political ideas into practice. He shifted his capital from Agra to Gwalior and also brought his father's treasures from Chunar. Thus Gwalior became the centre of Indo-Muslim Delhi culture.

It is also worth mentioning that Islam Shah went a step further from Sher Shah in centralizing the polity of the Empire. He took away the iqtas of the nobles and brought the whole Empire under khalisa. The officers were paid in cash instead of ' iqtas. The nobility and army were reorganized into new grades. Officers were appointed from among them to look after and inspect the proper maintenance of soldiers and necessary army equipment by the nobles. The nobles were also denied the possession of war elephants: it was a king's prerogative.

Islam Shah was very harsh in dealing with the nobility but he was benevolent', towards the public. He provided people with the security of life and property by holding the officer in charge of a territorial unit responsible for the loss of property and life in his jurisdiction. Consequently, the officer in whose territory any crime was committed, went out of his way to arrest the culprit. Like his father ,Islam Shah also ensured the administration of impartial justice in the Empire.

13

Check Your Progress 2 1) In what way did the Afghan polity differ from the Turkish polity? …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… 2) Discuss the measures taken by the Surs to curb the power of the nobles. …………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………..…………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………

1.8 LET US SUM UP

Polity in the first half of the 16th century was mainly dominated by the Afghans the Lodis. The Mughals also emerged on the scene, but they were still struggling to dominate the Afghan polity. This, in fact, was more a period of instability. The Afghan nobility was not prepared to accept the autonomy of the Sultan. It played a crucial role in determining the political events of the period. As political expediency demanded, Bahlul was virtually dictated by Afghan nobility. Sikandar, who succeeded in exerting his power, did attempt for a compromise. But, Ibrahim and later the Sur established an autocratic centralized monarchy, and made the nobility totally subservient to the Sultan.

In spite of political instability, people enjoyed prosperity and economic stability; prices were low, burden of taxation was reduced by eliminating various cesses. However, under Lodi Sultans iqtas became hereditary. Another characteristic of the period was the growth of urbanisation. A number of cities sprang up during this period including the famous city of Agra which was to acquire pivotal role under the Mughals.

1.9 KEY WORDS

Amin : revenue assessor Baburnama : memoir written by Babur(also know n as Tuzuk I Baburi) Iqta : revenue assighnments in lieau of salary Kankut : method of revenue assessment in which area was measured and the revenue realized was assessed in grain/ kind .

14

Karkhanas ; during this period karkhanas were the places where articles were manufactured for Sultan's and noble's household. Royal store houses were also called karkhanas Pargana : an administrative unit comprising a number of villages Sarkar : territorial division consisted of a number of parganas. Between parganas and sarkars were the shiqqs but from 's reign onwards shiqq was not commonly used Shiqq : an administrative unit comprising a number of parganas Supra : see the preceding tex Wali/Muqta : provincial governors/iqta holders Wazir : prime minister Wihyat : : province. Provinces in this period are not well defined administrative units. The well defined piovinces (subas) emerged for the first time during Akbar's reign in 1580

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1

1) See Sub-sec. 2.2.1. 2) Governor of kara, ruler of Gujarat, Governor of Bihar, Governor of Kalpi, Governor of Punjab.

Check Your Progress 2 1) Discuss the salient features of Afghan tribal polity; how it was based on decentralization; and compare it with the Turkish polity which was basically a centralized one (see Subsec. 2.5.1).

15

UNIT 2 : MILITARY TECHNOLOGY : FIRE ARMS

Structure 2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Overview Of Mughal Empire 2.3 The Mughal Military Structure

2.3.1 Short arms ranged into five classes

2.4 Let Us Sum Up 2.5 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 2.0 OBJECTIVES

After studying this lesson you will be able to:

 describe the dynamics of Mughal Empire in India and  explain the Mughal military structure

2.1 INTRODUCTION

As you have learnt in the previous lesson the Muslim rulers of Delhi who called themselves the 'Sultans' acknowledged the authority of the 'Caliph'. However, when the Mughal rulers came to power, they repudiated the authority of Caliph and called themselves as 'Padshah'. Another remarkable development during this period was that the European Trading Companies started establishing themselves in India. The Portuguese followed by the Dutch, the Danish, the English and the French-all came to India but they were not able to make much headway up to the time of . However, as you will see later the throne became virtually vacant after the death of Aurangzeb. For all these factors it is said that with the arrival of Mughals, a new age started in the .

2.2 OVERVIEW OF MUGHAL EMPIRE

Mughals from Central Asia ruled India for more than three hundred years - from 1526 up until 1857 - when ruler was overthrown and British established their control. During these three hundred years of Mughal period the military underwent many changes. We can learn all this from the recorded history of

16 the battles that they had fought. Who established the Mughal Empire? How did they come to India? And who were the prominent rulers? Here are the answers to these questions The Mughal Empire in India was founded by Babur. He established himself in Kabul and then invaded India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. It was in a battle at Panipat, which is now located in that Babur defeated the numerically superior forces of the last of Delhi Sultan Ibrahim Lodi. With the defeat of the last Delhi sultan ruler, Babur fought with the Rajputs under Rana Sanga of Mewar, and by 1529 he dismantled the Afghans of Gangetic Plains. On his death in 1530, he left behind a new Empire which encompassed all of northern India from the Indus River on the West to Bihar on the East, and from the Himalayas in the North to Gwalior in South.

After Babur's rule his son, Humayun took over power and assumed the throne in 1530, but in a short period of 10 years he was driven out of India into Persia by the Afghan rebels. However, Humayun made a triumphant return from Persia to India again in 1555. The other prominent ruler that the saw was Humayun's son Akbar, who established the throne under the administration of in 1556. It was during Akbar's rule, ‘Mughal influence' through out the country reached its political

17 height. Akbar left behind an internally stable state with reliable political, administrative and military structures. Akbar's son inherited both his father's administrative system and his tolerant policy toward subjects but he neglected the affairs of the state and came under the influence of rival courtiers. His rule did not continue for long and it passed on to his son who took over power in 1628. However, his rule also saw financial problems. The country witnessed maintenance of the court costing more than the revenue. Later in 1658, as a result of Shah Jahan's illness his eldest son, the liberal assumed the role of administrator. But, Shah Jahan's younger son, Aurangzeb took over power as the sixth Mughal emperor by executing Dara Shikoh. Although Aurangzeb succeeded in expanding the empire to its greatest extent, his political and religious intolerance proved fatal to the stability of Mughal society. The last emperor, "Kaiser-i-Hind" Bahadur Shah II was exiled by the British, after his involvement with the Great Uprising of 1857 .

Check Your Progress 1 1. Who were the Mughal kings after Babur ? Name any three kings. 2. When was the fought? 3. What was the reason for weakening of Aurangzeb's empire?

2.3 THE MUGHAL MILITARY STRUCTURE

As the Mughals came from Central Asia they brought the Central Asian military tradition along with them. A new style of combat was adopted due to the arrival of gunpowder and with that a new kind of tactics was also employed. Earlier, this was not the case since fighting predominantly revolved round the use of horses and elephants with weapons like bows, arrows, swords and shields. But from now on a new phase of military combat was adopted that focussed on the use of artillery and the use of muskets, bombs, etc. This does not mean that the older weapons were completely replaced. In fact, they were complemented with new ones particularly the artillery.

This contributed to the change in battlefield tactics about the deployment of the units in the battle, the positions of the infantry, cavalry and artillery in battlefield and how they had to be employed. And not only were there changes in the adoption of military tactics but also corresponding changes in the manner in which these different military units were to be maintained. New organisations were created with civilian administrative institutions.

18

As far as the structure is concerned, the Mughal Army consisted of cavalry, infantry, and artillery. Among these, artillery held a subordinate position compared to that of the infantry and cavalry. Besides, elephants were also used. Under the Mughals, the emphasis on the numbers and quality of the horse in an army. However, it was the artillery that was used extensively to break through the enemy forces and defeat them. Even during the first battle of Panipat, the artillery played an important role in defeating 's forces. a) Artillery: The general name given to this branch was Top-khanah. Babur's artillery was of two kinds, the heavy and the light, or "as they call the latter, the artillery of the stirrup. The heavy artillery was called the 'Kazan' or heavy canon . which was able to fire balls of about 20-25 pounds in weight while the lighter canon was called 'zarb-zan' which was mobile and could be moved in different places and was able to fire 3 to 4 pound weight of projectile. The Kazan were big guns and were used against forts and fortified positions. Since these canons were heavy it was difficult for the army to move or maneuver them effectively during battles. In such cases, it was the lighter canons the Zarb-Zan which was effective as it was quite mobile. Besides, there was also a third kind called 'firingi' or Frankish canon, which was much smaller than the zarbzan. The last kind of Babur's artillery consisted of a heavy siege gun which fired projectiles of about 100 pounds or more.

b) Elephants: Long before the Mughal Empire fell into decay, elephants had become principally beasts of burden or means of display, and their role in the battle reduced significant. Yet, Akbar made much use of elephants by bringing them into the field in great numbers. Under Akbar the elephants ridden by the emperor were called khasah (special), and all others were arranged in groups of ten, twenty or thirty, called halqah. The Elephants were aggregated as groups and formed a single division.

c) Discipline in the military was extremely lax, if not entirely absent. Once thrown into confusion, it was impossible to restore a Mughal army's discipline. During the march they moved without order, with the irregularity of a herd of animals. The Mughal military had an elaborate system of arrangement to take care of invasions. There was a person called Mir Tuzak (literally, Lords of Arrangement) whose responsibility was to identify the route, decide on the marches and proceed ahead, select a place for encampment and lay out the site of the various camps and the lines of shops. When carrying out these duties, the first Mir Tuzak was more commonly known as Mir Manzil, Lord of the Stages.

19

d) Camps: Each soldier had a tent as shelter. Outside the gate of the enclosure were the elephants and horses with their establishments on one side; and the records, the carts and litters, the general of artillery, and the hunting leopards on the other. The heavy artillery was ranged at a distance and defended the approaches.

e) On the March: The heavy artillery went first, followed by the units of the infantry called the advance guards. The baggage followed the combat unit. In the baggage first came the camels carrying the imperial treasure. Immediately behind these came the imperial kitchen. The army came after the baggage.

f) Equipments: During battles, the Mughals used a wide variety of weapons. The generic name for arms and armour was silah (plural aslah). Broadly, they can be classified into short arms and weapons for distant attacks.

2.3.1 Short arms ranged into five classes. They were: 1) swords and shields, 2) maces, 3) battle axes, 4) spears and, 5) daggers.

Besides the above, the Mughals also used weapons for more distant attacks. They were of three different types: 1) the bow (Kaman) and arrow (Tir), 2) the matchlock (banduq or tufang) and 3) the pistol (tamanchah).

Of these three, the Tir-Kaman was the most popular. In fact, it served as the primary weapon of the cavalry, and the Mughal horsemen were famed for their archery. "The sword was better than the dagger, the spear better than the sword, the bow and arrow better than the spear."

The generic name of a sword was tegh (Arabic), shamsher (Persian) or talwar (Hindi). The Arabic word saif was also used occasionally. One kind of short-sword was called the nimchah-shamsher. Apart from these there were many other kinds of weapons that were used. They are as follows:

20

DHUP (asa-shamsher, i.e. staff-sword): a straight sword, adopted from the Dakhin. It had a broad blade, four feet long and a cross hilt. It was considered as an emblem of sovereignty and high dignity and was therefore displayed on state occasions.

SIROHI: "Whoever was struck on the head by these Indian blades was cleft to the waist, or if the cut were on the body, he was divided into two parts."

PATTA: a narrow-bladed, straight rapier.

GUPTI: a straight sword having a walking stick as its sheath. Along with the sword naturally comes the shield; then known as chirwah & tilwah. The mace (gurz) usually formed part of the equipments of a Mughal warrior. The battle-axe (tabar) was a triangular blade with one broad cutting edge. The usual generic name used for spears of all kinds was the Arabic word sinan. The head or point was called sunain, and the butt was the bunain. Besides these, there were also other varieties of daggers that were in use. To name some of them: Jamdhar, khanjar, katta and peshqabz. Check Your Progress 2 1. Name the different branches of Mughal military. 2. What were the different kinds of artillery used by Mughals called? 3. How did the Mughals organize themselves during invasions? 4. List some of the weapons used by the Mughals.

2.4 LET US SUM UP

 The Mughals hailed from Central Asia;  Their military traditions were superior to those of the Delhi Sultanates who were not administered properly;  The Mughal army was well organized and reached its zenith during the rule of Akbar  Cavalry was the main arm as it provided greater mobility;  The artillery was the supporting arms of the Mughals;  The technological and tactical surprise that the artillery contributed was unparalleled;  Various kinds of weapons were used and discipline was ensured Check Your Progress 3 1. Who were the prominent rulers under Mughal dynasty?

21

2. How was the Mughal military system organized? 3. Give an account of the weapons used by Mughals.

2.5 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress 1 1. Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shahjahan and Anuragzeb etc. (Any Three) 2. April, 1526 A.D. 3. Policy of political and religious intolerance.

Check Your Progress 2 1. Infantry, Cavalry, Artillery and Elephants. 2. Heavy and light artillery. 3. Heavy artillery first followed by the infantry called as the advance guards and then logistics units comprising of the camels bearing the imperial treasure. The treasure was succeeded by the hunting establishment, which was followed immediately by the imperial kitchen. The entire army came after the baggage. 4. Swords, battle-axes, spears, daggers and maces.

22

UNIT 3 : SHER SHAH : ADMINISTRATIVE AND REVENUE REFORMS

Structure 3.1 Learning Objectives

3.2 Introduction

3.3 and his expansionist policy

3.4 Sher Shahs Administrative Reforms

3.5 Significance of his rule

3.6 Revenue Reforms

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Further Reading

3.9 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.10 Model Questions

3.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After going through this Unit, you will be able to:

 explain the political turmoil that occurred after the defeat of Humayun in the hands of Sher Shah,  discuss the rise of Sher Shah and his glorious rule in India,  describe the administrative measures initiated by Sher Shah, and  discuss the impact of the Second Afghan rule under Sher Shah in India

3.2 INTRODUCTION

In the previous Unit, we have discussed the foundation of theMughal Empire by Babur and his incessant battles to carve out a kingdom. He was successful in bringing the rebellious chiefs under his control. Humayun failed to consolidate his position and this paved the way for Sher Shah.

23

In this Unit, we will discuss the rise and fall of Sher Shah and his brilliant career. The victory of Babur at Panipath and Ghagra did not result in complete submission of the Afghan chiefs. They were seething with discontent against the newly founded Mughal rule and needed only a strong leadership to unite their isolated efforts into an organized national resistance against it. This was provided by Sher Khan Sur who effected the revival of the Afghan power and established a glorious though short- lived regime in the form of Second Afghan Empire in India by ousting the newly established Mughal authority.

3.3 SHER SHAH SURI AND HIS EXPANSIONIST POLICY

 Background From an obscure Sur family of Rahori in Afghanistan, Sher Shah Suri rose to prominence by dint of his personal merit. His original name was Farid. With the administration of his father's at Sasaram, Sher Shah began his career. For twenty one years (1497-1518) Sher Shah successfully managed the jagir, but was treacherously removed from his post by his step mother and half-brothers. Sher Shah left Bihar and entered into the services of Daulat Khan Lodi. Through his new master, Sher Shah requested Ibrahim Lodi to bestow on him the jagir of his father which was however rejected by the Sultan. But on the death of his father Hassan Ibrahim Lodi conferred on Sher Shah the jagir of his father. Still, because of strong opposition of his half-brothers, Sher Shah could not take full possession of his father's jagir. Sher Shah then entered into the services of Bahar Khan Lohani, the Afghan governor of South Bihar. After the defeat of Ibrahim Lodi at Panipath, Bahar Khan Lohani declared himself an independent ruler of South Bihar and made Sher Shah his deputy governor and the tutor of his minor son Jalal Khan. But as Bahar Khan Lohani was instigated against Sher Shah, the latter had to enter the Mughal services where he remained for a very short time, from 1527 to 1528. Sher Shah helped Babur in his campaign against Chanderi for which he got back his paternal jagir as a reward from the Mughal emperor. Again, Bahar Khan Lohani reappointed Sher Shah to his earlier position as the deputy governor and tutor of his minor son Jalal Khan. But in October, 1528 Bahar Khan Lohani died and his widow Dudu Bibi too followed him. Now, Sher Shah became the guardian and regent of the minor Jalal Khan who remained only as the nominal ruler. Slowly Sher Shah started grabbing all the powers of the kingdom. He virtually became the independent ruler of South Bihar and styled himself as Hazrat-i-Ala. Bahar Khan Lodhi gave the title of 'Sher Khan' to Sher Shah for killing a tiger single handedly.

24

The first great achievement of Sher Shah was the acquisition of the fort of Chunar as a consequence of his marriage with Lad Malika, widow of Taj Khan, governor of Chunar. Then in 1533, Sher Shah defeated the combined forces of the Lohani chiefs of Bihar and Mohammad Shah of Bengal at Surajgarh. By this victory he brought the whole of Bihar under his control. He defeated Mohammad Shah of Bengal thrice in 1536, 1537 and1538 securing large wealth of Bengal and even occupied the capital city of Gaud for a short period. All these victories enhanced the power and prestige of SherShah who tactfully kept Humayun busy in Gaud and cut off all lines of communication between Bihar and Delhi. On the return journey of Humayun from Bengal to Agra, Sher Shah effectively blockaded his way and inflicted a crushing defeat on the Mughal army in the battle of Chausa on June 26, 1539. Humayun somehow managed to save his life. Emboldened by this victory, Sher Shah retrieved his authority in Bengal and crowned himself at Gaud as Sher Shah ‘Sultan-i-Adil’. The very next year in 1540 Sher Shah again defeated Humayun in the battle of Kannauj or Bilgram and occupied the throne of Delhi. Sher Shah re-established the Afghan Empire which he ruled for five years, from 1540-1545. During this short period Sher Shah proved himself to be a conqueror. He sent an expedition against Malwa and with the submission of the governor of the fort of Gwalior, Malwa was conquered in 1542. The fort of Raisin was captured by Sher Shah after a desperate struggle offered by Pooran Mal. Multan, Punjab, and Sindh were occupied in 1543. Jodhpur under Maldeo had become powerful and Humayun was offered shelter by its ruler. This infuriated Sher Shah who took it up as a pretext to raid Jodhpur. Maldeo was defeated and was conquered in 1544. His last expedition was against the Raja of Kalinjar and it was during the raid on the fort at Kalinjar that Sher Shah lost his life due to a grievous injury caused by a blast to blow off the walls of the fort. Kalinjar was won in 1545. CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: 1. What was the original name of Sher Shah? ______2. Who was Lad Malika? ______3. Who offered shelter to Humuyan? ______

25

3.4 SHER SHAH'S ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS

The success of Sher Shah lies in his administrative reforms that have served as an inspiration for his successors. The important officials at the court were- Diwan-i Wizarat, Diwan-i Ariz, Diwan-i Rasalat, Diwan-i Insha. The Diwan-iWizarat handled the income and expenses of the state and also supervised the other ministers. Diwan-i- Ariz looked after the administration of the military affairs. The Diwan-i Risalat was in charge of diplomatic correspondence through a network of ambassadors and envoys. The Diwan-i Insha drew the royal proclamations and was in charge of maintaining the Government reports. The Diwan-i Qazi and Diwan-i- Barid were related to the department of justice and intelligence respectively.

Sher Shah provided an administrative framework. The whole Empire was divided into forty seven units called sarkars. Munsif-i-Munsifan was in charge of trying civil cases in the sarkars and supervised the works of the Amirs. The Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran was in charge of maintaining law and order and was to oversee the work of shiqdars. Each sarkarwas sub-divided into several parganas. Every pargana had some important officials like Shiqdar, Amin, Munsif, a clerk and middlemen like Chaudhari, Patwari and Muqaddam. Fotahdar was given the charge of handling the treasury of a pargana. The clerks were known as Karkuns. The Amins and Shiqdars were transferred every two years to curb the possibilities of an internal revolt. He introduced a fine revenue administrative system which served as a rolemodel for future agrarian reform. Land was divided into three types, measured by the officials against every cultivator and the cultivators were supposed to pay one-third of their produce. The revenue collection for the village was the duty of the village Headman who charged 5 per cent for his labour. Revenues were remitted in case, crops were destroyed and loans were granted to the cultivators which gave impetus for more land to come under cultivation. Patwaris were appointed for the purpose of maintaining records of the accounts for more than one village. Leniency was shown to the cultivators and the rights and obligations of the cultivators were defined through Patta and Qabuliyat. Thus, Sher Shah was able to avoid corruption in the revenue department. The Amir headed the revenue department and the shiqdar was responsible to collect the revenues and send the same to the treasury. Sher Shah has been praised for his efficient police system. Local responsibility was enforced to maintain law and order. In a sarkar, the duty to watch over the criminal activities was set upon Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran and for the pargana it was the shiqdar. In the deliverance of justice, Sher Shah ensured that no criminal was set free. The Qazi and Mir Adi were in charge of trying the civil cases. Criminal law was subject to the state law and severe punishments were meted out to the guilty.

26

In matters of trade, various duties imposed on goods were abolished under his reign. Internal customs too were abolished so as to facilitate trade and the free flow of goods. Prior to Sher Shah, the currency system provided no hope for the people. He introduced a new coin Dam and abolished old currency made of mixed metal.

LET US KNOW Sher Shah introduced a regular postage system. The Sarais built along the roads served as dak-chowkis of the postal department. Two horsemen were always kept at every sarai or dak-chowki to receive the dak or mail from the previous chowki and deliver it to the next one

Sher Shah instructed for the building of roads. Four roads were constructed covering a long distance. Trees were planted and Sarais were built for the travellers. As a result towns grew near these Sarais and trade improved. The Sarak-i-Azam or the Grand Trunk Road from Sonargaon to Indus was one of his greatest achievements. Sher Shah could not give much time to architecture, but the located at New Delhi, Rohtasgarh on the banks of Jhelum and such meritorious buildings were constructed during his reign. His mausoleum at Sahasram is unequalled in its beauty and grandeur.

 Successors of Sher Shah Suri The Second Afghan Empire or the founded by Sher Shah Suri did not last long as his successors were inefficient. Sher Shah was succeeded by his second son Jalal Khan under the title of Islam Shah or Salim Shah who ruled from 1545 to1553. Islam Shah was very suspicious in nature and hastened the process of liquidation of the Empire. After his death, Nizam ascended the throne under the title of Muhammad Adil Shah. He ruled for only for four years from 1553 to1557. Although Muhammad Adil Shah ruled for four years, he lost his throne of Delhi to a usurper named Ibrahim Khan Sur, a nephew of Sher Shah. He ruled Delhi from Chunar where he made his new headquarters. Another nephew of Sher Shah, Sikandar Shah occupied Punjab. An administrative chaos prevailed in the Empire. Muhammad Adil Shah made his Chief Minister entrusting him with all the administrative responsibilities. This was resented by the Afghan nobles. A serious scramble for power started among the Afghan nobles with the prominent ones declaring themselves as independent. A civil war also started among Muhammad Adil Shah, Ibrahim Khan Sur and Sikandar Shah. Taking advantage of this, Humayun made an attempt to recapture his lost Empire. He defeated the Afghan army under Sikandar Shah at Machhiwara on the bank of the river Sutlej. Punjab was occupied and Akbar, son of Humayun, was made its

27 governor. Then a conflict took place near Sirhind on June 22, 1555. Humayun entered Delhi on July 23, 1555 and became the emperor of India once again after an interval of fifteen years. The Sur Empire or the Second Afghan Empire came to an end and the Mughal rule was restored. But Humayun did not live long. He died following an accident on January 26, 1556. He nominated his son Akbar as his successor before his death.

3.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF HIS RULE

During the short period of his rule, Sher Shah's achievement was impressive. According to Dr. R. P. Tripathy, "Had Sher Shah lived longer he might have taken the wind out of the Akbar's sails."

Sher Shah has often been called a precursor of Akbar due to his administrative measures. As an administrator, Sher Shah laid the foundation of the administrative structure which was later on followed and improvised by Akbar. His reforms in the police system, the judiciary, the revenue and tariff, communication and transport etc, revealed his indefatigable spirit in the service of the state. He embodied in himself the spirit of an enlightened despot by following a liberal policy towards his people. Smith had made an observation which rightly sums up the greatness of Sher Shah. He marks "If Sher Shah had been spared, the 'Great Mughals' would not have appeared on the stage of history."

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS Answer the following questions: 4. Where is the Mausoleum of Sher Shah located? ______5. What was the duty of shiqdar? ______6. Who was in charge of trying the civil cases? ______

3.6 REVENUE REFORMS

Land Revenue system of Sher Shah has immortalized his name in the history of Medieval Age. Sher Shah was a benevolent despot so he treated his subjects very kindly and won their love and gratitude. At the very beginning of his career while he was working as in charge of his father’s Jagir, he gathered a lot of experience and

28 knowledge of land revenue problems, hence he used to believe in the welfare of cultivators. His revenue administration can be described as under. There were two chief resources for the income of the empire : (i) Central Revenue (ii) Local revenue. The local revenue was realized through various taxes which were known as Abwabs. The taxes were mostly imposed on production and consumption and the traders were required to pay the same. Among the resources of central revenue unclaimed property, trade, mint, gifts, salt, Octroi, Jaziya, Khams and land revenue were prominent. The government also realized import and export tax on raw material as well as on manufactured gods. The royal mint was also a great source of income of the kingdom. In case of the death of a trader, all his property was confiscated by the State if he had no successor. All the subordinate kings, government officials, nobles and foreign travelers had to offer presents to the Emperor. These precious gifts were also a significant source of income of the State. Jaziya which was imposed on Hindus, and Khams, the booty, were also a means to enrich the royal treasury, but the chief source of the income of the empire was land revenue. As Land Revenue was the primary source of income of the empire, Sher Shah paid due attention towards the welfare of the peasants. He used to say, “The cultivation depends on the humble peasants, for if they be ill-treated they will produce nothing. But if prosperous, they will produce much.” With this end in view he set upon their job of land revenue reforms in the following manner:

1. He paid great attention towards the increase in agriculture produce and also made some improvements in living conditions of the peasants. 2. The huge produce fetched greater revenue tax and enriched the treasury.

Prior to the accession of Sher Shah there was no definite rule regarding the measurement and classification of land. Royal share was quite high in the total produce, government officials, Muslim soldiers and Hindu Muqaddams, all exploited the helpless peasants. She Shah endeavored his best to abolish all these malpractices. His land revenue system was based on the following principles: 1. The welfare of the people should never be forgotten 2. Liberal attitude should be taken in fixing the taxes but they should be realized with all dexterity and sternness. 3. There must be proper average between the produce and the tax. 4. The peasants should get the ownership of the land which they used to cultivate.

29

In order to achieve the above objectives he took the following significant steps:

1. Sher Shah restarted the system of measuring the land in his empire. The land was measured on a uniform policy and in every village account was maintained of cultivable land. He made use of Gaz sikandari and a Zarib of rope for measurement. In order to ensure the accuracy of measurement and honesty of collection, he fixed the salaries of the persons who were employed in the work of measurement so that they could perform their duties with honesty and peasants might not be subjected to any exploitation. 2. Sher Shah after getting the entire land surveyed by Ahmad Khan, an intimate friend and trusted officer of his empire, decided the revenue to be paid by the cultivator. He divided the land into three categories : (i) Good, (ii) Medium, (iii) Bad. As historians are divided in their opinions nothing can be said definitely about the rate of land revenue; yet keeping aside the examples of his predecessors, he ordered that 1/3 of the total produce should be realized as revenue tax. Besides land revenue the peasants were required to pay Jaribana (the fees of the surveyor) and Mahasilana (the fee of the tax collection). Tese taxes were realized from 2.5% to 5% of the total produce. 3. The cultivators had to pay land revenue in cash but facility was granted to apy the same in the form of grain. The amount was settled in cash at the prevalent market rate of the crop. 4. The central and provincial governments used to help the peasants at the time of famine. For the good of the peasants, the government officials were directed to be liberal at the time of fixing the revenue but no concession was granted to anybody at the time of collection of revenue. 5. The soldiers were ordered not to harm the corps at the time of expeditions. If anybody violated this rule, he was liable to be punished, but if some of the crop was spoiled due to some unavoidable circumstances, the loss of the peasant was made good form the royal treasury. 6. The cultivators were given two documents, viz, Pattas (title deeds) and Qabuliat (deeds of agreement). The Patta specified the revenue which its owner had to pay and through Qabuliat the cultivators promised to pay the specified amount of land revenue. 7. The peasants were encouraged to deposit their revenue direct in the royal treasury so that the importance of Muqaddams and headmen might be minimized and a direct relation could be established between the government officials and the peasants. The practice came to be known as Rayatwari system but the Emperor failed to enforce the same revenue system in the Iqtas of Multan, Malwa and Rajputana. 8. The cultivators were allowed to pay their revenue in two installments in a year in accordance with the crop season and facility of advancing Taqawi loans was

30

granted to the peasants at the time of famine or drought. Sher Shah also introduced Schemes of canal irrigation and digging of wells for the good of the peasants.

Result of Revenue Policy As a result of uniform revenue policy of Sher Shah the public was freed from the burden of some illegitimate taxes. The former could plough his field without any tension and passed his days happily. The stated was also benefited as the revenue was fixed once for all and it could be realized very easily. Sher Shah removed the intermediaries and thus relieved the cultivators of their exploitation. His revenue policy encouraged the settlement and Rayatwari system but he could not remove the system of jagirdari as the Afghans liked this practice very much.

Defects of the Revenue Policy No doubt, the revenue settlement of Sher Shah was praised from all quarters and it provided a solid base to Todar Mal’s Bandobust but there were some defects in it:

 The peasants, who were in possession of medium and bad lands, had to pay more in the form of revenue that those who possessed good lands, but Moreland opines that “inequality might have adjusted itself by variation in the crops grown.”  The procedure of making payment of land revenue in cash required a long time due to red tapism of the administrative machinery, so it affected the efficiency of the local collectors and harassed the people.  Although the practice of making transfers o f revenue officials was introduced but it did not check corruption.  The practice of annual measurement not only created problem for the cultivators but it also affected the royal treasury otherwise. Besides this it encouraged bribery and harassed the peasants.  The Jagirdari system remained in vague and Jagirdars went on creating problems.  Sher shah has also been condemned for introducing the practice of rigorous collection of land revenue but it is not justified because Sher Shah was the first ruler who laid stress on the welfare of the people. He helped the peasants at the time of famine and warned his shoulders not to destroy the crops even at the time of expeditions.

31

3.7 LET US SUM UP

After going through this Unit, you have learnt that:–

 Sher Shah could rule for a short time during which he extended the territory of his Empire and provided a good administrative system.  The successors of Sher Shah were inefficient and they quarreled among themselves. Taking advantage of this, Humayun defeated  the successor of Sher Shah Suri and re-established the Mughal Empire by overthrowing the Afghan rule. Thus the Second Afghan Empire or Sur Empire came to an end.

3.8 FURTHER READING

1) Chandra, Satish. (Reprint 2008): Medieval India: From Sultanateto the Mughals, (1206-1526) Part one. New Delhi, India: Har-Anand Publications Pvt. Ltd 2) Majumdar, RC., Raychaudhuri, HC. and Datta, K. (2007). An Advanced History of India. Delhi, India: Macmillan. 3) Prasad, Ishwari. (1965). A Short History of Muslim Rule in India. Allahabad, India, The Indian Press. 4) Maiti, Provatansu and KumarSaha, Prabhat. (2000). Medieval India (1206 A.D.- 1707 A.D.). Calcutta, India: Sreedhar Publishers.

3.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Answers to Q. No. 1: Farid Answers to Q. No. 2: Widow of Taj Khan Answers to Q. No. 3: Maldeo, ruler of Jodhpur Answers to Q. No. 4: Sahasram Answers to Q. No. 5: To maintain peace and order in the pargana Answers to Q. No. 6: Qazi and Mir Adl

32

3.10 MODEL QUESTIONS

(A) Very Short Questions (answer each within 50 words): Q.1. How much did the Headman charge for his labour of collecting taxes? Q.2. What is Patta? Q.3. Why did the Second Afghan rule not last after the death of Sher Shah?

(B) Short Questions (asnwer each within 150 words): Q.1. What was the role of Patwari in land revenue system? Q.2. How did Sher Shah check the anomalies in the revenue department? Q.3. What is the significance of the battle of Kanauj?

(C) Long Questions (answer each within 300-500 words): Q.1. Discuss the career and military feats of Sher Shah Suri as an Empire builder. Q.2. Analyse the achievement of Sher Shah as the precursor of Akbar.

33