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Mythology and the brahmanization of the former in the latter, the reverse is not at all Indian : transforming the case. It is reasonable to assume, therefore, heterodoxy into orthodoxy that a change in medical thinking, or, according to the historian of science Thomas Kuhn, a “paradigm shift”, must have occurred some time Kenneth Zysk between the end of the Vedic and the beginning of the classical phase (c. 800-100 B.C.E.). Traditional Indian medicine does not recognise Introduction: a historic overview this break in its medical ideology, but rather notices a continuity from Veda to , and Based on the available literary sources, the makes Hindu divinities the ultimate fountains history of Indian medicine may be divided into from which medical knowledge issued. We may three main phases. The first or Vedic phase dates simply accept this traditional point of view and from about 1200-800 B.C.E. Information about proceed to evaluate Indian medical history medicine during this period derives from according to it. However, if we consider that numerous curative incantations and references to such a position offers an inadequate explanation healing rituals found in the and to a of its own medical history, we may seek a more much lesser extent in the Rgveda. The second or plausible solution by re-examining the period in “classical” phase is marked by the advent of the question from a wider perspective of social and 1 first medical treatises, the Caraka - and religious history. Susruta - , which probably date from a A close investigation of the Vedic sources few centuries before to several centuries after the reveals the presence of a particular vocabulary common era. This period includes all subsequent pertaining to medicine, elements of which derive medical treatises dating from before the Muslim from different levels of the society. The invasions of at the beginning of the 11th. specialised vocabulary that was used in the century - for these works tend to follow closely medical hymns was maintained and developed by the earlier classical compilations. The third or magicians who mastered the art of healing. “syncretic” phase is indicated by clear influences These Vedic healers, who originally probably on the classical paradigm from Islamic or Unani came from agrarian communities, supplemented and other non-classical medical traditions, as their understanding of the local flora and witnessed in Sarngadhara’s Sarngadhara , healing techniques with wisdom they gained by dating from the 14th century, and Bhavamisra’s observing the higher class priests who specialised 16th. century Bhavaprakdsa. The time span for this in sacrificial rites and used efficacious words and phase extends from the Muslim incursions to the actions to influence and control the cosmic 2 present era. This threefold division of Indian forces. By combining their expertise in medical history is simply our working model, manipulating the spirits to rectify a physical providing a convenient orientation to the vast wrong with potent words learnt from the subject matter. ritualists of the sacrificial cults, the healers A crucial problem that has bothered historians themselves became powerful priests in the realm of this subject is the intersection between the of curing, and probably modelled themselves first two phases. Simply stated, the issue centres after the higher order priests who clearly on an explanation for the epistemological maintained a superior social status. As a result, distance between the approach to healing in the these medical priests likely enjoyed considerable Vedic hymns and incantations, focusing on prestige in Vedic society, being equated to the demons of disease and their removal by means twin healing deities, the Asvins; served the needs of exorcism, and the approach codified in the of all peoples regardless of their social ranking; classical medical compilations, centring on an and were often compensated quite handsomely aetiology and therapy based on a system of three for their skills. “humours”. Although there is some evidence of Vedic sources also inform us that the ’s

1 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk seemingly privileged position declined toward renounced the trappings of orthodoxy and the end of the Vedic phase. This change in the abandoned family and society for the wilderness physician’s social standing could well have been in search of spiritual truths that the sacrificial the circumstance that helped bring about a religion could not provide. In short, these different mode of medical thinking which, at its religious ascetics became marginalized members core, runs counter to the ideology of Hindu of society, who included among others the orthodoxy as it is reflected in the socio-religious Buddhists. They sought knowledge about attitudes of the sacrificial cults. themselves and the world around them not by Traditionally, the orthodox priests were regarded the transmitted wisdom of the ancient sages but as the purest members of society and, fearing by an engagement with the world and an contamination, maintained a strict distance and intuition fostered by and representative of their separation from those elements considered to be continual involvement in reflective thought and impure and polluting. Utilising the sacred . scriptures of the sages (i.e., the ), these Early Buddhist literature, preserved in the Pali priests ordained that healers were corrupt as a language, reveals that Buddhist ascetics or result of the defilement they incurred from bhikkhus understood themselves and their contact with unclean people. Healers, therefore, relationship to their environment in ways similar must be avoided and, more importantly, excluded to those described in the classical ayurvedic from sacred rites. This priestly attitude became treatises. A shared intellectual curiosity seems to part of , established in the law books have existed between these mendicants who were beginning with the Manusmrti (c. 200 B.C.E.). on a spiritual journey and the transient healers The official social attitude towards doctors whose special craft led them to places and sanctioned by the helped to bring peoples from whom useful medical knowledge about a major “paradigm shift” in medicine, could be obtained. The effect of this intellectual which may well have emerged gradually over the disposition was that both the and the course of time. ascetics were receptive to new ideas when and where they encountered them. Already in the Athatvaveda. we notice that healers A rapport soon developed between the religious had extensive knowledge of the local flora, renunciants and the physicians who, like the implying that their sphere of activity extended mendicants, tended to be wanderers frequenting beyond the inner circle of priestly purity and the untamed regions of the forest. It is already hierarchy. In fact, it readied to the frontiers of implicit in the Atharvaveda that healers would the society where contact with native peoples traverse the countryside practising their skills provided them with specific knowledge about and searching for new cures and medical the healing efficacy of various plants unknown information. In all but dress and certain to the sacrificial cults. The exclusion of healers religious beliefs and practices, physicians were by the ritual priests was likely the result of an virtually indistinguishable from the ascetics ongoing tension between two types of specialists whom they might often have encountered on vying for the place of prominence in society. 3 their travels. The priestly denigration of healers and their A repository of medical information soon craft seemingly forced the medical practitioners developed among the healers who, unhindered to the fringes of society, where they eventually by orthodox strictures and taboos, began to found fellowship with oilier displaced conceive a radically new epistemology with individuals. During the later , which to codify the growing body of medical different ascetic movements began to emerge. data. The ascetics also seem to have participated The ideology of these groups likewise tended to in the process of systematising medical run contrary to that of the mainstream sacrificial knowledge. Indeed, evidence in the Pali sources cults. Members of these currents included indicates that the Buddhists were perhaps the mendicant and wandering ascetics who principal renunciant thinkers who aided in the

2 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk organisation, development and dissemination of Vedic to the classical phase. Key players in the Indian medical theories and practices. In a process seem to have been the heterodox ascetic significant way the intellectual freedom enjoyed traditions, principally Buddhists, who helped to by the heterodox renunciants, especially the bring about the earliest extant codification of Buddhists, in a very real way fostered new ways medical knowledge. The conversion of this of thinking medically. medical lore into the orthodox Hindu tradition We shall now examine .how the repository of of ayurveda, as expounded in the two classical medical information was transformed into a compendia of Caraka and Susruta, required Hindu science. In order to do this, we shall first another step. This involved the transformation explore the notion and function of of a largely heterodox repository of medical brahmalization and the importance of knowledge into an orthodox brahmanic science mythology, and then examine how both apply in by the application of a Hindu veneer which used the case of early Indian . a Hindu mythological structure to sanction this new source of useful knowledge. The completion of this process marks the beginning I of the “classical” phase of Indian medical history. In his book Righteous , J.L. Brockington explains brahmanization as a literary technique In order to begin to understand the way in which of altering a text and a story in the direction of the brahmanization of Indian medicine took brahmanical orthodoxy. 4 While Brockington’s place, we shall explore the opening verses of the explanation applies to orthodox Hindu classical compendia, since these parts, like all literature, I should like to extend it include both Hindu Sastras, contain the traditional myths that orthodox and heterodox texts. In this way, recount the divine origin of the science and its brahmanization would also involve the process transmission to humans. of superimposing orthodox ideas on material The Caraka Samhita, Sutrasthana 1.2-40, tells the that is largely heterodox by the use of story of medicine in this way. The powerful mythology. ascetic , desirous of longevity, came Myths serve important functions for different to , the protector and lord of the gods, to people the world over. They help define culture obtain the science of medicine. Indra had and establish a population’s identity and previously received the entirely of ayurveda from orientation toward life. One only need look into the twin horsemen healers, the Asvins, who got the biblical myths of creation to learn about the it from , the Lord of Beings, who in Judeo-Christian altitude toward the world and its turn obtained the whole of the science from orientation to time. For example, based on the , the creator of the universe. Book of Genesis, people in the west maintain an It would have been sufficient in position of dominion over their environment context to establish the origins of medicine by and plan their activities around a week of seven means of this unbroken transmission from days. divine to semi-divine entities.5 However, from Because of their place of primacy in peoples’ what appears to be an interpolation, the text lives, myths have also served to sanction and continues to explain how medicine was brought legitimise new and different ways of thinking to humankind. and acting. I hope to show that it was precisely When disease began to impede humans in their this function of myth that was utilised by the religious practices, great ascetic sages,6 who were Hindu intellectual elite in ancient India to receptacles of the knowledge of and appropriate a well-established and useful corpus full of sympathy for all beings, gathered on an of medical knowledge. auspicious side of the Himalayas to discuss the We have noticed that an incredible paradigm problem of human disease and its solution. The shift occurred in medical thinking from the religious practices that were inhibited by disease

3 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk were those observed by most pious and system of medicine based on these three included austerities (), avoidance of principles was not originally a brahmanic unwholesome thoughts and actions (upavasa), inspiration. However in its final form, it clearly study of the Veda (adhyayana), celibacy before bears Hindu characteristics. marriage (), and religious observances Bharadvaja then quickly comprehended the three (). principles ayurveda and passed them on in their These holy men posited that a physical state entirety to the assembled sages. The sages with devoid of disease was the proper condition in their divine eyes saw that medical epistemology which to pursue the caturvarga or four aims of according to the categories (padarthas) of , viz. righteousness (), prosperity Vaisesika. They noticed that a proper framework (), sensual and mental enjoyment (), and for understanding medicine contained final release from the round of rebirths (moksa). similarities (samanya), differences (visesa), The stale of disease, on the other hand, properties (guna), substances (dravya), actions destroyed this condition, as well as welfare and (karman), and inheritances (samavaya).9 After life, thus making disease the greatest obstacle in coming to know this, they followed the life. The ascetics began to meditate on what to prescriptions of medical science and attained the do about the problem of disease. With their highest well-being and imperishable life. Here divine eyes, they saw Indra, their protector, who the steady hand of brahmanism was painting could explain to them the proper means to ayurveda with the recognisable colours of Hindu remove disease. philosophy. In this part of the myth, brahmanic ideology is An abrupt introduction of the name Punarvasu clearly advocated in the forms of the typical at this point in the narrative story Hindu practices and the traditional four aims of suggests an addendum to the story. Out of Hinduism. It is no accident that these central friendliness and for all beings, doctrines of Hinduism are inserted early along Punarvasu Atreya expounded ayurveda to his six in this account of the origins of ayurveda.7 disciples (, Bheda, Jatukarna, Parasara, Next, the sages sent one of their number, , and Ksarapani) who immediately Bharadvaja, to Indra, glowing like fire in the comprehended the words of the sage. Agnivesa midst of the gods and sages, to obtain the was the first to compose a work on ayurveda proper means to remove disease. Indra then because his mind was best attuned to the science. imparted ayurveda to Bharadvaja in small quarter After him, works were composed by Bheda and verses. He explained that ayurveda, previously the others. Both the great sages and the gods understood by Brahma, consisted of three were pleased with the works which were now principles (trisutra): aetiology (hetu), established on earth for the benefit of all beings. symptomatology (linga), and knowledge of This completes the mythological account of the therapeutics (ausadhajnasa), and that this medicine transference ayurveda from the gods to the was the best way to secure well-being for both humans. Agnivesa is given special mention the healthy and diseased alike.8 because his treatise was eventually redacted by The mention of these three principles points to Caraka and Drdhabala into what is now the an early codification of ayurveda and reveals a Caraka Samhita. Moreover, in this traditional concrete approach to dealing with the problem telling, it is unclear how the knowledge of of disease in humans. First, determine the cause medicine was given to Punarvasu Atreya, who of the disease and it symptoms, and then was introduced into the story as the key figure prescribe an appropriate remedy. The threefold providing the link between gods and humans. paradigm reflects a distinctly practical approach The Caraka Samhita never tells us who gave to curing, and bears a general resemblance to the medical knowledge to Atreya, so we are left to Buddhist doctrine of the Four Noble Truths wonder if it came directly from the god Indra or (i.e., suffering, its cause, its ending, and the via the semi-mythical Bharadvaja. means to end it). It is possible. therefore, that the A later text, the Astangahrdaya Samhita (see

4 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk below) states that it came directly from Indra. If the stories in the Hindu . indeed this is the way the later tradition Once, when Lord , King understood the transmission process, what of Kasi (Banaras), was residing in his hermitage, significance did Bharadvaja have in this early his sages11 approach him and said: “Lord, there account. The eleventh century commentator on is trouble in our minds concerning peoples’ Caraka, Cakrapanidatta, being puzzled by the suffering from various ailments and injuries problem, offers a possible solution. He suggests because of different physical, mental, and that Indra gave ayurveda to several sages, one external diseases. Even though well cared for, being Bharadvaja and another being , who they behave helplessly and cry out in agony. In passed it on to his son Atreya.10 Because this order to relieve their misery and to enable them explanation requires that Atri be read into the to remain healthy, we desire to hear your myth, it cannot be accepted as what the original teaching on ayurveda, for it provides the ultimate intended. This sudden insertion points to a well-being of people in this world and in the fundamental flaw in this traditional version of next.” the transmission of medicine. It implies that the In Susruta, as in Caraka, the reason for the mythological origins of ayurveda may well have teaching of medicine was to eliminate human been an artificial creation, superimposed on suffering caused by disease. The notion of previously existing material before all the removing human physical and mental pain is, it inconsistencies were rectified. would seem, more a Buddhist than a Hindu The account of its origins of ayurveda in the attitude and teaching; and a sentiment of opening section of Caraka’s medical fundamental compassion for all living beings compendium provides a good example of the might well have sprung from the ancient ascetic process of establishing a body of knowledge as principle of , “not desiring to do harm to brahmanic by the application of a veneer of any living thing,” prevalent among ascetic . Members of the Hindu communities before the Buddha. pantheon serve as the sources for the Dhanvantari proceeds to explain that ayurveda is transference of new and specialised information, a subdivision of the Atharvaveda, that it was and a direct transmission through the pantheon composed in one hundred thousand verses, and to Hindu sages and disciples completes the arranged into one thousand chapters by Lord process. The brahmanization procedure is Brahma before he created the world. However, enhanced along the way by obvious references to because of the short life span and limited Hindu religious practices, ideologies, and intellect of humans, Dhanvantari reduced doctrines. Seemingly non-brahmanic medical ayurveda to the eight parts, viz. major surgery principles are reworked to disguise any (salya), supraclavical surgery (salakya), general connection with heterodoxy. The textual material medicine (kayacikitsa), demonology (bhutavidya), is skilfully crafted, except perhaps for a flaw left paediatrics and obstetrics (kaumarabhrtya), for a later commentator to try to rectify, so that toxicology (agadatantra), use of organic elixirs it could leave no doubt in the minds of the (rasayanatantra), and the science of fertility and medical students and practitioners that ayurveda virility (vajikaranatantra). These are the classical is a Hindu science from its inception. eight limbs (angas) of ayurveda. A similar technique is employed in the opening The principal source of ayurveda here again is the verses of the Susruta Samhita [Sutrasthana 1.1- god Brahma who, the twelfth century 21), the second of the classical medical treatises commentator Dalhana insists, is rather a of early ayurvedic literature, which has surgery transmitter than an originator. As a subdivision as its special emphasis. It presents the origins of of the Atharvaveda, one of the four Vedas, ayurveda as expounded by Dhanvantari, the medicine is situated firmly among the brahmanic patron deity of surgical medicine. This account sciences, even though the Atharvaveda has held a has even more of a mythic flavour than that rather spurious place in the corpus of sacred found in the Caraka Samhita, and is non unlike Vedic scripture, being recognised as a revealed

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Vedic scripture only from about the fourth these were the three types of human conditions century C.E. The division of medicine into eight young Gautama observed on his three separate parts or limbs illustrates an early codification of journeys away from the security of his palace medicine which is quite unlike the division into before his great renunciation. However, when three principles mentioned in Caraka’s account put into the mouth of Dhanvantari, the words (above). It is reflective of a different, perhaps assume a brahmanic significance, leaving no more brahmanic, mode of thought. doubt that surgery was and is a Hindu science. Major surgery (salya) is deemed to be the The accounts of the origins of ayurveda found in foremost part of the surgical tradition of these two early medical treatises reveal a type of Susruta because previously it helped to heal brahmanization process, whereby a storehouse traumatic wounds and in mythology was used to of heterodox medical knowledge is transformed rejoin the head of the sacrificed victim. A into an orthodox science by the application of a version of the Vedic myth of the severed head is brahmanic veneer. The elements that make up appropriately recounted in this context. “The this veneer include first and foremost a head of the sacrifice was cut off by the violent mythology that establishes the direct god . Thereupon, the gods approached the transmission of knowledge from the gods to twin horsemen healers, Asvins, and said, ‘You humans via a pantheon of and Lords are the best among us. You two must semi-divine and human individuals. This rejoin the head of the sacrifice.’ The two said, legitimises the information and confirms it as an ‘Let it be so.’ Then for their sake, the gods orthodox system through connection will) the propitiated Indra with a portion of the sacrificial past. Secondly, elements of brahmanic religious offerings, and the head of the sacrifice was ideologies and practices are interwoven in the joined by those two.” The legend of the severed narrative to affirm the orthodox orientation of head originally occurred in the Vedic literature the science. Finally, as noticed in the account of the , and is found in slightly altered from the Susruta Samhita links are established but popular version in the (4.2- with the earlier Vedic tradition of the 7).12 Here again the Veda is invoked to Atharvaveda, and mythical stories from Vedic and authenticate surgery and to make it an acceptable Puranic literature are recounted to affirm activity in the context of Hindu orthodoxy. connections with the Hindu past through its Next follows the account of the transmission of literature. Although elements indicative of medicine from the gods to humans. Brahma first and perhaps other forms of ascetic explained ayurveda to Prajapati who transmitted heterodoxy might be identified in the passages it to the Asvins. Indra learned it from the from each treatise, they have been recast and Asvins, and Dhanvantari got it from Indra. altered to appear brahmanic. Dhanvantari taught it to Susruta and others for This form of brahmanization is not new in the the well-being of all humans. As in the Caraka Indian intellectual traditions, for it occurs Samhita an unbroken transmission is offered for throughout the didactic Sastras of orthodox the Susruta Samhita, and thereby fixing it too in Hinduism.13 What is different however, is its use the mainstream of brahmanic orthodoxy. Unlike to effect an assimilation of heterodox ideas and Caraka however, Susruta gives a flawless information. The precise date this took place transmission. cannot be accurately determined, but it is likely Dhanvantari concludes the mythical story by that the process happened gradually over time as saying, “I am Dhanvantari, the first god to the two texts were redacted into their current remove old age (jara), disease (ruja), and death forms. It is reasonable to assume that the (mrtyu) from the gods. I have come forth in this brahmanization of ayurveda was completed world to teach major surgery and the other parts during the Gupta Age (4th.-7th. centuries C.E.). It of ayurveda.” In this conclusion, the triad “old was in this period that the Atharvaveda was first age, disease, and death” has a definite Buddhist reckoned as one of the four sacred Vedas, along ring to it, for, according to Buddhist legend, with the Rg, Sama, and Yajur Vedas, and it was

6 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk during this time that the major Puranas were of wisdom () is a fundamental principle composed. and the use of power utterances () is an Both the Caraka and Susruta Samhitas are large important part of the lives of Buddhist monks. corpora of medical information. We have only The next verse is another invocation dial occurs examined a small, but significant part of these in all the versions of the Astangasamgraha and in compendia to illustrate a trend that persists slightly altered form in Astangahrdaya. It makes throughout these works. Their complete what appears to be a veiled reference to the , with an eye toward identifying further Buddha, as indicated by the used of the word examples of the Hindu veneer, is required to raga, “passion,” that also occurs in connection determine more precisely and completely the with Buddha in the previous verse. Because the process by which medicine was made a variations in the verse are important, the brahmanic science. The next group of medical versions from both texts will be cited, beginning texts demonstrates the connection both to with Astangahrdaya (Sutrasthana 1.1) Buddhist heterodoxy and brahmanic orthodoxy. Let there lie obeisance to the Unique (apurvavaidya) who destroys all diseases II beginning with passion (raga) which continually cling to and permeate the entire The next phase of medical literature body, and cause anxiety (autsukya), delusion acknowledges the Buddhist contribution to (moha), and dissatisfaction (arati). medicine. At the same time, it maintains brahmanic authority by recounting the The version found in Astangasamgraha mythological origins of ayurveda on the model of (Sutrasthana 1.2) is very similar, but adds the earlier texts. another line that brings medicine back into the Vagbhata the Elder’s Astangasamgraha and realm of orthodox Hinduism by paying Vagbhata’s Astangahrdaya Samhita are two reverence to traditional teachers of ayurveda, compilations of ayurvedic medical knowledge including Pitamaha, who is either the god based on the earlier Caraka - and Susruta - Brahma or an old teacher. This line is wanting in Samhitas. Best estimates place them around the the version found in the Astangahrdaya. seventh century C.E., with the Astangahrdaya Samhita generally recognised as being slightly I bow my head to the One Doctor (ekavaidya) older than the Astangasamgraha.14 who quickly drove away from this very world The first verse of the Astangasamgraha, found in all innate diseases beginning with passion one version,15 pays homage to the Buddha as (raga), together with their causes; and [I bow healer. to] those beginning with Pitamaha who know the traditional medical texts (vaidyagama). Obeisance to the Buddha who, by the power of wisdom (prajna) and powerful utterances The correct identification of the Unique or One (). subdued the dreadful snake of the Doctor who removes innate diseases is crucial, mind (cittoraga), sleeping in the cavity of its but remains uncertain. The commentators Indu own body. Its length represents desire (trsna), (12th.-13th. cent.) and Arunadatta (13th. cent.) its head failure (asiddhi), its vibrating hood offer no identification but simply explain that he aversion (pradvesa), its poison sensual pleasure is unique because no other doctor has his (kama) and anger (krodha), its fangs uncertainty qualities and no other doctor could conquer (vitarka), its terrible eyes passion (raga), and its such innate and thus incurable diseases. The face delusion (moha). commentator Paramesvaradvijottama to Ah (date uncertain)16 identifies him with Mahadeva. The The form of Buddhism referred to in this verse commentator Sridasapandita to Ah (early 14th. is likely rooted in Mahayana, in which the notion cent), however, gives three possibilities: 1. the

7 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk views of Indu and Arunadatta (above); 2. the (ayurveda), known to be a secondary knowledge Supreme Being, who incorporates among other (upaveda) of the Atharvaveda. Ayurveda was thus Isana, Visnu, and Rudra; and 3. the Buddha divided into eight limbs19 which Pitamaha (=Sugata=Dharmaraja). The statement found in recognised as auspicious. both texts that only this doctor removed all The mention of Dhanvantari and Punarvasu mental diseases that were innate in human beings Atreya in the same context acknowledges and permeated their entire body strongly points Vagbhata the Elder’s indebtedness to both the to the Buddha as lord of medicine, especially Caraka- and Susruta-Samhitas. since the first invocation found in a version of Vagbhata the Elder continues his account by the Astangasamgraha explicitly mentions the explaining how medicine was brought to Buddha as performing this type healing humans. Understanding the ayurvedic teachings function.17 offered to them by Indra, and discussing them Having thus surreptitiously connected Buddhism among themselves, the great sages were pleased and ayurveda in their opening verses, both and returned home. There, they composed books Vagbhatas proceed with a typically brahmanic () in order to establish ayurveda in this account of the origins of ayurveda. The world and taught it to their students, who mythological story is based on the paradigm of included Agnivesa, Harita, Bheda, , the earlier works, but has a few variations. and Susruta. They learned the subject well and They begin to orient the student to a composed books of their own which they then brahmanical mode of thought by specifying that recited to their teachers at a gathering of very highest regard must be given to ayurvedic wise sages, Only those books the sages deemed teaching by one who desires a life that provides praiseworthy eventually received fame in this adherence to righteousness (dharma), prosperity world. This concludes the story of how medicine (artha), and happiness (sukha).18 Although the was brought to humans. commentators understand that sukha includes kama and moksa to fill out the four aims, it might Vagbhata’s simplified version in Astangahrdaya rather reflect a Buddhist influence. (Sutrasthana 1.3-4ab) states that Brahma, Next follows the two authors’ account of the recalling (smrtva) the knowledge of long life mythological origin of ayurveda on the lines given (ayurveda), explained it to Prajapati, who passed it in the earlier Samhitas. on to the Asvin-twins, who gave it to Indra, who taught it to the sages beginning with Atreya, who transmitted it to Agnivesa and others. They then Since Astangahrdaya is a simplification of what individually composed (medical) books (tantras). occurs in Astangasamgraha, we shall begin with The names mentioned in this abbreviated the longer version found at Astangasamgraha account connects Astangahrdaya closely with the (Sutrasthana 1.4-14a). Caraka Samhita. The god Brahma, recognising that the nectar These two retellings of the origins of ayurveda (amrta) of ayurveda is universal (or useful) and follow the earlier paradigms that establish the eternal, passed it on to Daksa (=Prajapati), who orthodox brahmanic basis of ayurveda by the gave it to the Asvin-twins, who in turn taught it application of a veneer of Hindu mythology. Yet to Indra. When humans became afflicted with both texts acknowledge a heterodox contribution diseases that obstructed their attainment of the to the system of medicine in the opening verses four aims of live, a group of physicians and by paying homage both explicitly and sages who included Dhanvantari, Bharadvaja, surreptitiously to the Buddha. One might say Nimi, Kasyapa, and Kasyapa, appointed that reverence is first given to the Buddha Punarvasu Atreya as their leader and went to the because the authors recognised him as the god Indra for help. The thousand eyed Indra principal teacher of medicine. Variations from recited to them in a traditional manner the earlier versions of the mythological stories (yathagama) the knowledge that preserves life could reflect the emphases of different schools,

8 ã INTERNET EXHIBITIONS MOESGAARD www.hindu.dk yet further investigation may revealing Abbreviations and Bibliography something more significant. Both authors acknowledge the importance of the academic tradition of ayurveda which emphasises textual Ah Astangahrdayasamhita. transmission rather than practical application. The examination of the earliest compilations of As Astangasamgraha. ayurveda reveal that a conscious effort was undertaken to render a body of medical Athavale. Damodara, comp. Srimad knowledge into a brahmanical science by the Vrddhavagbhataviracitah Astangasamgrahah application of a Hindu mythological veneer. This Induvyakhyasahitah. Puna: Mahesa Ananta brahmanization process appears to have been Athavale, 1980. cleverly disguised, yet nevertheless observed, in the Caraka - and Susruta - Samhitas. In the Bhishagratna, K.K., trans. An English Translation subsequent collections of the Astangahrdaya and of the Samhita. Vol. 1: Sutrasthana. Astangasamgraha, both the heterodox Buddhist : 1907; rpt. The Chowkhambha and the orthodox Hindu origins of medicine are Sanskrit Series Office. 1963. mentioned. The former is acknowledged both explicitly in one version and in a disguised way Brockington. J.L. Righteous Rama. New Delhi: in other versions, and the later by means of a Oxford University Press, 1984. paradigm established in the classical works of Caraka and Susruta. Further research of the next Gupta. Atrideva. ed. /Vrddha/Vagbhata’s group of classical ayurvedic texts could reveal Astangasamgraha, with Hindi Bhasanuvad. Vol. 1. the extent to which the paradigm was followed Bombay: Nirnaya Sagar Press, 1951. or abandoned. Hilgenberg, Luise and Willibald Kirfel, trans. Vagbhata’s Astanga-hrdayasamhita. Ein Altindischies Lehrebuch der Heilkunde. Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1941.

Iyer, S.V. Sanskrit Literature. A Bibliograpliy. Trivandrum: Department of Sanskrit, University of Kerala, 1976.

Jadavji, Trikumji Acarya, ed. The Carakasamhita, with the Ayurvedadipika Commentary of Cakrapanidatta. Bombay: Satyabhamabhai Panduranga (for Nirnaya Sagar Press), 1941. — and Narayana Rama Acarya (Kavyatirtha), eds. The Susrutasamhita, with the Nibandhasamgrha Commentary of Dalhanacarya and the Nyayacandrika or Panjika Commentary of Gayadasacarya on the Nidanasthana. 1938; rpt. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1980.

Kunjunni Raja, K, et al., eds., New Catalogus Catalogorum. Vol. 11. Madras: University of Madras, 1983.

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Kunte, Anna Moresvara, Srikantha Murthy, K.R., trans. Vagbhata’s Puratanavaidyakagranthasamgraha. A Collection of Astangahrdayam. Vol. 1. Varanasi: Krishnadas Sanskrit Medical Works. No. 1-5: Caraka edited , 1991. and Susruta translated. Bombay: Ganpat —, trans. Astangasamgraha of /Vrddha/Vagbhata. Krishnaji’s Press, 1877. Vol. 1. Varanasi: —. el al., comp. and Harisastrin Paradakara, ed. Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1995. The Astangahrdayasamhita, with the Sarvangasundara Commentary and of Arunadatta and the Su Sutrasthana. Ayurvedarasayana Commentary of Hemadri. 1939; rpt. Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia, 1982. Tarte, Ganesa, ed. Vagbhata’s Astangahrdayasamhita. 2 Vols. Bombay, 1888. Maharsivedavyasa. Srimadbhagavatamahapuranam (sthulaksaram mulamatram). Gorakhpur: Gita Vogel, Claus. ed. and trans. Vagbhata’s Press. 1976. Astngahrdayasamhita. The First Five Chapters of its Tibetan Version. Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1965. Moose. C.N. Narayanan. ed. Vagbhata’s Astangahrdayasamhita, with the Hrdayabodhika Wujastyk, Dominik. The Roots of Ayurveda. New Commentary of Sridasapandita. Pt. 1. Trivandrum: Delhi: Penguin Books, 1998. Superintendent, Government Press. 1940. Zysk, K. G. “Reflections on an Indo-European Mooss. Vayaskara N.S., ed. Astangahrdayasamhita, system of medicine”, in Perspectives on Indo- with the Sasilekha Commentary of Indu. Pt. 1. European Language, Culture and Society. Studies in Kottayam: The Proprietor. Vaidyasarathy Press, Honor of Edgar C. Polomé (McLean, Virginia: 1956. Institute for the Study of Man, 1992), pp. 321-36. —. Astangahrdayasamhita, with the Vakyapradpika —. Medicine in the Veda. Delhi: Motilal Commentary of Paramesvaradvijottama. Pt. 1. Banarsidass. 1997. Kottayam: The Proprietor, Vaidyasarathy Press, —. Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India. Medicine 1950. in the Buddhist Monastery. 1991; rpt. Delhi: , 1998. Pollock, Sheldon. “The Theory of Practice and the Practice of Theory in Indian Intellectual History,” Journal of the American Oriental Society 105 (1985), pp. 499-519.

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Notes: 12 For an account of it in the Brahmanas, see K.G. Zysk. Asceticism and Healing in Ancient India, pp. 22-23. A summary of the Puranic account, is as follows: Daksa (Prajapati) organised a sacrifice to which he invited all his 1 For a detailed discussion of this topic, see K. G. Zysk, Asceticism and daughters save and her husband Siva. Sati attended the sacrifice on her Healing in Ancient India. Medicine in the Buddhist Monastery (1991; rpt Delhi: own; and finding Siva was not given a share of the offering, she left her Motilal Banarsidass, 1998). See also K. G. Zysk, Medicine in the Veda (Delhi: body. When Siva learned of this, he assumed the terrible form of Motilal Banarsidass, 1997). Bhairava, denounced the sacrifice, and cut off Prajapati’s head. Seeing this the gods petitioned Bhairava as Siva to restore Prajapati’s head. Siva, being appeased, put the head of a goat on Prajapati’s body and brought him 2 See K.G. Zysk, “Reflections on an Indo-European system of medicine,” hack to life. [The parts pertaining the cutting and replacing of the head in Perspectives on Indo-European Language, Culture and Society. Studies in Honor occur at Bhagavata Purana 4.5.22-26 and 4.7.1-9: see also G.D. Singhal, et al. of Edgar C. Potome (McLean, Virginia: Institute for the Study of Man, Fundamental and Plastic Surgery Considerations in Ancient Indian Surgery (Varanasi: G.D. Singhal Publications, 1981), p. 25 n 1.] 1992), pp. 321-36.

13 See in particular Sheldon Pollock, “The Theory of Practice and the 3 It is quite reasonable to assume that much of the medicine of the Vedic Practice of Theory in Indian Intellectual History,” [Journal of the American phase might well have derived from what we may call indigenous Oriental Society 105 (1985)], pp. 499-519. traditions, but unfortunately evidence necessary to confirm this supposition is largely unavailable. 14 See Dominik Wujastyk, The Pools of Ayurveda (New Delhi: Penguin Books, 1998), pp. 236-9. Cf. Claus Vogel, ed, and trans. Vagbhata’s 4 J.L. Brockinglon, Righteous Rama (New Delhi, New York: Oxford Astangahrdayasamhita. The First Five Chapters of its Tibetan Version University Press, 1984), pp. 206-13, 307-27. (Wiesbaden: Franz Steiner, 1965), pp. 6-7.

5 It should be pointed oul that throughout this account the traditional 15 AsSu 1.1. This verse occurs in the texts based on a manuscript in the commentaries insist that Brahma was merely a transmitter or redactor collection of the Asiatic Society of Bombay (No. BD 263/ 1-6), which is rather than a creator of ayurveda. dated Sake 1782 (=1859 C.E.). All versions of the text containing Indu’s commentary lack this verse. 6 The great sages are the following: , , Vasistha, Kasyapa. Bhrgu, Atreya, Gautama, Sankhya, , , Asita. 16 Paramesvaradvijottama is member of the Bhargavagotra and lived at . , , Asvalayana, Pariksi, Bhiksu Atreya, Asvatthagrama (Alattur) on the banks of the river in Kerala. No date Bharadvaja, Kapinjala (Kapisthala), Visvamitra, Asmarathya, Bhargava. is given for him. Sec K. Kunjunni Raja, et al., eds., New Catalogus Cyavana, Abhijit, Gargya, Sandilya, Kaundilya (inya), Varksi, , Catalogorum, Vol 11 (Madras: University of Madras, 1983), p. 191, and S.V. Galava, Samkrtya, Baijavapi, Kusika, , Badisa, Saraloman, lyer, Kerala Sanskrit Literature. A Bibliography (Trivandrum: Department of Kapya, Katyayana, Kankayana, Kaikaseya, Dhaumya, Marica, Kasyapa, Sanskrit, University of Kerala, 1976), p. 153. Sarkaraksa, Hiranyaksa, Lokaksa, Paingi, Saunaka, Sakuneya, Maitreya, Maimatayani. the sages of the Vaikhanasa and Valakhilya orders, as well as other great sages. It is important to note in this long list of names that all 17 Claus Vogel comes to the same conclusion after having examined this the sages belong to the brahmanic religious system, and that several (e.g., verse in both the Sanskrit and Tibetan versions of the Astangahrclaya Kasyapa. Atreya, Bhiksu Atreya, and Kasyapa) have specific connections to (Claus Vogel, ed. and trans. Vagbhata’s Astangahrdayasamhita.), p. 45. medicine. The commentator Cakrapanidatta explains that the sages fall into four categories: sages (rsika), sons of sages (rsiputraa), divine sages (devarsi), and great sages (maharsi). 18 AsSu 1.3-AhSu 1.2.

7 Cakrapanidatta states that dharma is connected with the Self (atman) and 19 The eight limbs enumerated al Astangasamgraha (Su- 1.9bc) (also found is to be inferred from a proper discernment of deeds; artha is (the at AhSu 1.5) have different names from those give in the Susruta Samhita acquisition of) gold, etc.: kama involves the embracing of a woman, etc.; (see above): kaya (), bala (paediatrics), graha and moksa is the release from the round of rebirth (samsara). (demonology), urdhvanga (supraclavical medicine), salyaa (major surgery), damstra (toxicology), jara (use of organic elixirs), and vrsa (science of fertility and virility). 8 Cakrapanidatta explains that these three principles encompass the entirety of ayurveda. He says that aetiology includes immediate and distant causes; symptomatology includes all the signs and indications of both disease and health; and therapeutics includes all wholesome things, drugs and diet.

9 This formulation of the padarthas corresponds to that in ’s Vaisesikasutra (4), but not in the same word order.

10 The name atreya derives from atri.

11 These sages are Aupadhenava, Vaitarana, Aurabhra, Pauskalavata, Karavirya, Gopuraraksita and Susruta. Important among them is Susruta, the original author of the Susruta Samhita.

11