In the thesis the representation of the images of the Republic of Belarus as a tourism destination is analyzed. Recent years a great effort has been done to develop tourism in the country. The present research is analyzing the images of Belarus broadcast through the web-sites of Russian Federation and of Western countries as compared with those of the Belarusian web- sources. Semiotic analysis was chosen as research method that allows revealing hidden, latent meanings of the text. The analysis of the ―destination Belarus‖ image of three different groups of the Internet sites has shown that there is no common frame characterizing Belarus. Information that is provided depends on physical characteristics of the destination as well as on the psychological component, the set of attitudes and values through which the world is perceived.

Keywords: destination image, Belarus, cognitive and affective components, frame theory, media, Internet.

3 TABLE of CONTENTS

Abstract Table of Contents………………………………………………………………………………3 Summary…………………………………………………………………………….…………..5

1. Introduction…………………………………………………………………….……………..8

2. Literature Review……………………………………………………………………..……..11

2.1 Theories on Image……………………………………………………………………………...11

2.1.1 Definition of Destination Image, its structural components…………………..…………11

2.1.2 Frame Theory………………………………………………………………………………16

2.1.3 Model of Coding……………………………………………………………………….……18

2.2 Media in Tourism………………………………………………………………………….……..20

2.2.1 Influence of Media on Tourism……………………………………………………..………21

2.2.2 The role of the Internet…………………………………………………………..………….23

2.3 Theoretical Framework……………………………………………………………..…………...26

3. Methodology………………………………………………………………………….……………..27

3.1 Method of Analysis………………………………………………………………………………..27

3.2 Sampling Method………………………………………………………………………..……….28

3.3 Scheme of Semiotic Analysis…………………………………………………………………….29

4. Results………………………………………………………………………………………..……...31

4.1 Analysis of Russian web-sites……………………………………………………………….…..32

4.1.1 Received data ……………………………………………………………………………….32

4.1.2 Patterns………………………………………………………………………………………..38

4.2 Analysis of Belarusian web-sites………………………………………………...……………..43

4.2.1 Received data………………………………………………………………………………..43

4.2.2 Patterns…………………………………………………………………………………….…51

4.3 Analysis of Western Sites………………………………………………………………………..55

4.3.1 Received data………………………………………………………………………………..55

4.3.2 Patterns……………………………………………………………………………………....63

5. Discussion……………………………………………………………………………….…67

6. References……………………………………………………………………………………....71

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………….74

Appendix 1: A list of Russian web-sites……………………………………………………75 Appendix 2: A list of Belarusian web-sites………………………………………….……...76 Appendix 3: A list of Western web-sites………………………………………………...….77

5 Summary In the summary the most important information of the chapters of the thesis is presented. Introduction Belarus is a state that is situated on the border of two ‗worlds‘ – the East (Russian Federation) and the West (European Union). During its history the territory of the present Republic had belonged to different states from both sides that have caused the unique character of the culture that includes elements from both, Eastern and Western, traditions. Recent years the Belarusian government is focused on the developing of a tourism sector within the Republic. From that point it is interesting to learn the images of Belarus that are reconstructed by both sides – Russian Federation and the Western countries. Literature Review The chapter starts with the presenting of common theories that are used in the thesis. Also the theoretical framework on which the research is based is developed.

In the thesis the ‗destination image‘ is understood as based on evaluation of two psychological components: affective (feelings and emotions) and cognitive (beliefs and knowledge) (Baloglu and McClearly, 1999). The image is seen as a sumtotal of physical (climate, length of coastline, sightseeing, infrastructure, etc.) and psychological (feelings, emotions, believes) parameters of the destination. The thesis aims at revealing the subjective interpretation of Belarus as a tourist destination, at the analysis of individual experience that has an even greater influence on the image compared to that exercised by the physical characteristics of the place. The element of subjectivity in the image creates possibilities for different interpretations of the destination. This element is actively used by tourism agents who produce their own vision of the destination that can actually differ from the reality. We have an image that is created by others; we start to see the place in the light provided by media. Without having real experience of the place we start to accept the image that was produced by others (Gammack, 2005). But the image that is constructed by others can differ depending on who the author is. Here we come to the central concept of the thesis – the concept of framing. The image of Belarus can be represented in different ways due to different perceptions of socio-economic and political factors that have formed the frame of perceiving the destination image. With the help of frame theory it is possible to achieve a better understanding of factors that have caused the formation of the frame that influences the interpretation of the image. To find out the images of the destination the model of coding of TV messages developed by U.Eco (1972) was used. The model is based on the system of codes that helps to depict the structural elements of the image and to compare them.

The overview of media influence on the sphere of tourism is also presented in the chapter. The theories are not presented in the theoretical framework however they are important for understanding the role of images and their influence through media. The way the destination is presented in media influence the attitude of tourists, and as a number of authors have argued (Gammack, 2005; Echtner and Ritchie, 2003) especially on those who have not visited the place yet. With the help of media tour operators create an image of a destination ‗frame‘ it in a particular way and sell it to tourists.

Internet as an interactive medium is a good source to share and transmit your personal experience through various discussion boards, FAQ‘s, blogs, chats. For that reason one of the chapters of Literature review examines the role of the Internet in tourism and the opportunities that this sort of media provides for tourism operators in developing marketing strategies and in communication with their potential customers. With the growth of Internet users a considerable number of offers have become available online, including hotel booking , car rent, air- and other tickets, access to various sources of information that allow to examine and compare different offers, sharing your own experience and learning about the experience of others. Nowadays it is becoming obvious that it is not enough to promise some outstanding luxurious experience. It is more important to create a system of communication with customers, listen to them and learn what their desires are. And further use this communication system to convince the consumer that the experience your company provides is the best one in the market. The Internet as no other source provides opportunities for business that meet these requirements. Methodology The method of semiotic analysis was chosen for the research design. Semiotic analysis reproduces a model of qualitative substantial analysis that allows revealing both the explicit data fixed in the text and the hidden, latent meanings of the message.

The main objective the research is to single out the images of the Republic of Belarus constructed on web-sites of Belarus, Russia and of Western countries.

For the research design a sample from the web-sites was taken. With the help of systematic sampling method 105 web-sites were selected. Of which 35 were Belarusian sites, 35 - Russian and 35 Western sites. There are some limitations of the sampling method: as there is no exact number of tourism sites about Belarus the general population was hard to define.

Using the concept of U.Eco (1972) the message of a web-site is seen as a system of two codes: Portrait Code and Linguistic Code. The web-sites will be analyzed using the scheme based on these two systems.

Results

In the chapter the main results of the analysis are presented. First, the data obtained through examination of each group of the web-sites is introduced. Second, the main patterns concerning the image of Belarus are singled out.

The main patterns created by the Russian sites are:

1. Belarus is a neighbuor state, an economic partner; 2. A country with a developed agricultural sector; 3. A destination where you can improve your health; 4. Beautiful, authentic nature; 5. Friendly, hospitable people and beautiful women. The main patterns created by the Belarusian sites are: 1. Unique nature of the country with diverse flora and fauna; 2. Authentic culture that is preserved in Belarusian villages; 3. Hospitable people; 4. Agricultural tourism as the main advantage of the sector. The main patterns that were found in the Western sites are: 1. A country with an authoritarian regime; 2. A ‗Soviet time‘ capsule; 3. A country that was affected by the Chernobyl disaster; 4. A destination with authentic nature and rare animals; 5. Hospitable people and attractive family oriented women. Discussion The analysis of the image of Belarus constructed on web-sources of three different regions – Belarus, Russia and Western countries (USA, UK, Canada, Germany) – has illustrated that the destination is ‗framed‘ in different ways. These differences are based on cultural, economic and political reasons. As each of the three regions has its own perception of the reality due to cultural, historical and other particular qualities, they present the destination differently.

8 1. Introduction

In the present thesis the images that are understood as ‗…an abstract concepts incorporating the influences of past promotion, reputation and peer evaluation of alternatives.‘ (Gensch, 1978) of the Republic of Belarus have been analyzed and the way how they are presented through tourist sites of Russia, Belarus and Western countries are discussed

The Republic of Belarus is situated in the Eastern Europe, and has common borders with the Russian Federation in the North and in the East, Ukraine in the South, Poland in the West, and Lithuania and Latvia in the North. Throughout centuries the territory of today‘s Belarus were part of different states – Kievan Rus, The Great Dutchy of Lithuania, Rzsecz Pospolita (Poland)., the Russian Empire and the USSR. ´Due to its geographical position it has suffered from all wars going from North to South, from South to North, from West to East, from East to West. As an outcome of these historical events, Belarusians had learnt to live side by side with people of different national and religious backgrounds.´ (Korshuk, 2002)

This is one of the reasons that Belarusian cultural tradition includes elements from both – the Eastern and the Western cultures.

These preconditions form the unique character of the culture and at the same time produce it‗s double meaning. On the one hand, western countries have seen Belarus as a part of Russia, former communistic country where the problem of the lack of democracy still exists. As an example, the World Fact book (https://www.cia.gov) describe Belarus as

„…Republic in name, although in fact a dictatorship‟.

On the site of one of the most influential travel guides ‗Lonely Planet‘ (https://www.lonelyplanet.com) Belarus is categorized as an unsafe place to travel to:

„…few people consider venturing into this hermetically sealed Soviet time capsule, notoriously ruled with an iron fist by its mustachioed megalomaniac, Alexander Lukashenko. But that‟s exactly why you should visit. Only in Belarus – where the KGB still listens in to phone calls and people keep their politics to a low whisper – will you feel as if the Cold War never ended. Although getting a visa isn‟t a problem, the government isn‟t crazy about foreign influences and encourages xenophobia with all- pervasive propaganda. Westerners cool enough to come here are living, breathing

examples that the world outside Belarus is not going to hell in a hand basket – at least not in the near future, anyway‟.

On the other hand, in Russian internet sources Belarus is often characterized as a ‗small neighbor‘ (Korbalevich, 2002), a gate to Europe, a place with authentic nature and hospitable people. Here is one of the examples of such characteristics:

„Belarus is a country with exciting history and culture. Old temples, mansions, magic castles and unforgettable beauty of nature: huge forests, meadows and fields, rivers and lakes – tourists from different countries have fascinated by scenic landscapes of Belarus‟ (https://www.ayda.ru).

In the present paper the representation of the images of Belarus as a touristic destination will be analyzed. In the recent years the Belarusian government makes a great emphasis on developing the tourism sector of economy. From that point of view it is interesting to investigate what image of the country exists in the media of the Western countries and in the Russian Federation. This analysis will help to single out the images of the country created in the electronic media of Russia and of Western countries, recognition of Belarus as a travel destination, the type of tourists visiting it and their expectations from it.

The research is focused on destination image that is constructed in the Internet. This choice is explained by

 The number of internet users that is growing every year (Baloh, 2003)

 Decision about distant travel is usually taken only after an extensive search of information about the place. „In the absence of actual visitation, destination images are formed through induced agents‟. (Gartner, 1989)

The main objective of the research is

1. To find out the frames in which the Republic of Belarus is presented in the Internet sources.

According to the main objective of the research the next sub goals are selected:

1. To find out the frame of Belarus as a travel destination constructed by the Russian web- sites;

2. To find out the frame of Belarus as a travel destination constructed by the web-sites of Belarus;

3. To find out the frame of Belarus as a travel destination constructed by the web-sites of the Western countries. To achieve the main objective of the research the next stages of the research were decided on: 1. To select the web-sources of Russia, Belarus and Western countries that will be analyzed; 2. To identify the system of codes that is constructed by the selected Internet sources;

3. To find out the main patterns of Belarus that have formed its images which are constructed by the selected Internet sources; 4. To find out the main factors that have influenced the construction of the images (frames) of Belarus in web-sites of Russia, Belarus, and of Western countries. According to the frame theory the frame is defined as ‗…a narrative that encourages those perceiving and thinking about events to develop particular understandings of them‘ (Robinson, 2001). To find out and analyze the frames that are constructed by the means of the Internet the method of semiotic analysis that allows revealing both the explicit data fixed in the text and the hidden, latent meanings of the message.

The model of coding of TV-messages by U.Eco (1972) was used for the construction of the scheme of semiotic analysis. The system of codes developed by Eco helps to depict the structural components of the message from which the patterns are constructed, and this has determined the choice of the method for the present work. 105 web sites (35 Russian, 35 Belarusian and 35 Western) were selected by using the systematic sampling method. The sites were analyzed according to the developed scheme of semiotic analysis. The thesis consists of 5 parts: First, the ‗Literature review‘, where the main theories that will be used for designing the scheme of the analysis and the study of empirical data are presented. Second, the ‗Methodology‘ that presents the research method. The sampling method and the scheme of data analysis. Third, the ‗Results‘ where the data of the analysis of the three groups of internet sites – Russian, Belarusian and Western - is presented. Forth, ‗Discussion‘. The chapter is focused on the main findings of the research and presents the factors that influence the formation of images of Belarus in different groups of the web-sites. Fifth, ‗References‘, where the sources of information that were used in the thesis are presented.

11 2. Literature Review

Within the chapter the main theories on which this study is based will be presented. First, the theories that provide the background for the research will be discussed - Image theories, Frame theory, Concept of Coding, influence of Media – to ensure a better understanding of the destination image, and its reconstruction. After that special attention will be given to theories that concern the essence of the study. This will make the theoretical framework which forms the basis for the research. 2.1 Theories on Image 2.1.1 Definition of the Destination Image, structural components The chapter is dedicated to the analysis of the destination image – its definition and structural components as well as factors that influence the image construction. To illustrate the complex nature of the phenomenon I will start with an overview of the evolution of theories of destination image before defining the term. The chapter also focuses on the description of the components of the image: the cognitive and the affective ones. Also the factors that influence the image will be described. First, the definition to destination image should be given. It was with the works by Boulding (1956) and Martineau (1958) that researchers started showing interest to the object of the present paper. They suggested that human behavior depends on image rather than on objective reality. On this statement the ‗image theory‘ was based. It suggests that the world is

„…a psychological representation of objective reality residing and existing in the mind of the individual‟. (Myers, 1968)

Boulding and Martineau say that attention should be paid to the sphere of personal interpretations rather than to physical parameters of an image. Later studies by Albers and James (1988) on presentation of images by tour operators found out that information is presented selectively to the audience in order to create a particular image of a place designed to attract potential tourists. So, images do not provide objective representations of landscape and culture, but are based on subjective interpretations of reality designed to give significance and meaning to certain elements in the environment of a particular place. A number of the researchers (Britton, 1979; Adams, 1984; Valentine, 1985; Weightman, 1987) stated that

„Touristic brochures represent a particular image of place that presents an alternative, distorted view of people and place‟.

The need to take into account the psychological part of the image formation is dictated by the need to choose the correct positioning strategy of a place. Betting only on the physical parameters, such as landscapes, climate, facilities and attractions, one can achieve rapid economic indicators of profitability. However, for long-term goals must be taken into consideration. This issue was raised by Echtner and Ritchie (1991) who distinguished the tribulations that can occur with using the economically based approach. According to the researchers image studies have tended to be goal-oriented (making a place economically successful), rather than process- oriented (understanding the dynamics of place production and consumption). Combining the physical parameters that cannot be overlooked with psychological interpretation will create a positive complete image of the destination and stimulate its development that will benefit both tourist companies and local industries. As can be seen from the analyzed studies an image is constituted by physical parameters and the psychological factor. In a new era of tourism decisions of potential tourists are increasingly influenced by emotional reactions and triggers (WTO, 2007). For that purpose unique selling propositions of tourism agents should be reorganized into unique emotional propositions. As what persuades tourists to select the destination and to return to the place is whether they have empathy with the destination and its values. (Morgan, 2002) In the analysis of image and its parameters little attention has been given so far to destination image. First, a number of authors such as Stringer, Baloglu, McCleary, Brinberg, Gallarza, etc. connect the term ‗image‘ with the tourist destination. In their studies they looked at image as segmentation variable, ‗the constituents of a destination‘s image‘ and ‗destination image measurement‘ (Baloglu and McCleary, 1999; Baloglu and Brinberg, 1997; Leisen, 2001; Gallarza et al., 2002). The term ‗image‘ was defined as „…an abstract concept incorporating the influences of past promotion, reputation and peer evaluation of alternatives. Image connotes the expectation of the user.‟ (Gensch, 1978)

As Breckler (1984) noted ‗image‘ in these studies fits more with the three-component model of attitudes. The central concept of the model is that attitudes are formed through the interaction of three components: cognitive, affective and behavioral.

„Cognitive component represents the beliefs and knowledge one holds regarding an object or person, the affective component represents ones feeling towards an object (sad, happy etc.) and the behavioral component is how one acts towards the object, and numerous studies have supported this conceptualization‟ (Bootzin, 1991).

Taking into consideration the three-component psychological model of attitudes Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) developed a concept of destination image formation based on two psychological components: affective and cognitive. Affective component refers to feelings or emotions about an object and cognitive, also referred to by the authors as perceptual, was concerned with beliefs and knowledge about the object. Baloglu and Brinberg (1997) also suggested that affective responses are formed as a function of the cognitive responses. An overall image of a place is formed as a result of both perceptual and affective evaluations of the place.

The overview of image theories shows that destination image is formed of knowledge about physical parameters such as climate, length of coastline, infrastructure development, places of interest (physical factor), It also includes a subjective interpretation that is based on individual experience and on the opinion of others ( i.e. on the psychological factor). Identifying psychological structural components of the destination image – cognitive and affective - we need to find out what factors influence the constitution of the image. Baloglu (1999) has developed a model of a destination image formation (Table 2). As the author states, according to a number of studies within different fields, the image is influenced by two major factors: stimulus factors and personal factors. „Stimulus factors stem from the external stimulus and physical object as well as previous experience. Personal factors are the characteristics (social and psychological of the perceiver)‟. (Baloglu, 1999)

When a person has no previous experience of the destination three major determinants that influence on the construction of an image of a place can be singled out: motivation of the tourist, socio-demographic characteristics of the audience for which the image was constructed, and the range of information sources. According to the model proposed by Baloglu (1999) information sources represent a stimulus factor, whereas motivation and socio-demographics stand for personal characteristics.

Table 2: A General Framework of Destination Image Formation

Personal Factors Destination Image Stimulus Factors

Psychological Perceptual/Cognitive Information Sources values amount Affective motivations → ← type personality Global Previous Experience Social Distribution age

education

marital status

other

According to Um and Crompton's (1990) ‗Model of pleasure destination choice‟, the cognitive picture is formed by external factors that include various information sources: ‗symbolic stimuli‘ (media used as a source for promotion of a destination) and ‗social stimuli‟ (stories, impressions of friends and relatives, comments and discussion in blogs, ‗word-of-mouth‘). Burgess (1978) hypothesized that the type, quality, and quantity of information will determine the type of image. The empirical results of Holbrook's (1978) study indicated that information sources do influence the cognitive (but not affective) component of image.

Now we come to the conclusion that in image formation model the cognitive component plays a major role as under its influence the affective component is formed. In turn, the cognitive elements are influenced by external factors that include informational sources. Media play a major role in an image construction model as it influences the image formation model at all the levels. The analysis of the destination image theories and concepts can lead to the following conclusions 1. Destination image should not be viewed as a sumtotal of physical parameters only. It is also includes a psychological construct. And if physical parameters are constant the psychological component (that is based on cognitive and emotional elements) of the image can be constructed over and over again, which results in a variety of possible interpretations of the place and gives a possibility to tourism agents to create a variety of images.

2. Media play a major role in the construction of the destination image. As a part of stimulus factor it influences the construction of the psychological component of the image.

Taking into consideration the above conclusions the following theories that will be used for the analysis of the destination image formation process will be presented: 1. Frame theory that will help to discover the process of the destination image construction that is based on the psychological components of the image. The theory is used in order to understand the process of frame construction. For selecting the patterns on the basis of which the frames are constituted the model of coding by U.Eco (1972) was used. 2. In order to define patterns that form the basis of the frame of the destination the model of coding developed by U.Eco (1972) was used for the scheme of the semiotic analysis of the text of the internet sites. The frame theory deals with psychological constructs and its construction the model of coding is used as it based on studying psychological elements of the message influence that will help to define the frames of the destination that are socially constructed on the Internet sites. 3. The overview of media theories and the way they construct reality. Internet and its functions will be given special attention.

2.1.2 Frame theory

As it was argued in the previous section the image is seen not as a sumtotal of physical parameters but as a psychological construct, a concept that is produced by communication. For this reason the frame theory is presented in the chapter to demonstrate how different concerns are produced. This theory is central for the thesis and needs to be analyzed in more detail.

The concept of framing refers to

„…specific properties of [a] narrative that encourage those perceiving and thinking about events to develop particular understandings of them‟. As „mentally stored principles for information processing‟ frames offer ways of explaining, understanding and making sense of events.‟ (Robinson, 2001)

According to the framing theory media do not just reproduce reality but construct their own vision, create its own understanding of an issue. One story can be characterized in different ways depending on who is talking. The main aim of tour operators is to sell their product at a good price that means that they will strive to produce a positive image of their holiday‘s packages.

How does this framing actually work?

Chong and Druckman (2007) analyzed the phenomenon and suggested a model of framing process.

First, a specific concept on the basis of which the frame will be constructed needs to be accumulated in the memory. For, example, if a person does not understand the concept of sustainable development, s/he will not be inclined to support sustainability measures planned to be introduced in her/his region.

Second, the constructed concept should be accessible; it should be easily recovered from long- term memory which becomes possible through regular contact to a communication frame accentuating the concept.

Third, a person can form his opinion on the base of obtainable concept that is stored in her/his memory unconsciously.

Framing helps to produce new attitudes about the issue, make them accessible and reinforced when assessed by a person. Strong frames are based on symbols, approval and have a link to ideology though not through intellectual arguments.

The war in Bosnia in 1992-1995 is a happy example of framing. During the war US wanted to avoid direct involvement into the conflict. The US Secretary of State framed the situation in the way that each side that was involved in the war was against all and Bosnia was not ready to make peace. That is why it was unsafe to involve US into solving the conflict at that particular moment. The Secretary of State used a symbol of ancient ethnic hatred to make the frame even stronger. This way of presenting the situation justified the nonintervention of US into the resolution of the conflict.

This is how the situation in Bosnia was described by analytics (Campbell, 1998):

„At this time during the war, news media coverage tended to reflect and reinforce this frame. As the war progressed, however, increasing numbers of congress persons, the executive and the public were outraged at the violence and brutality in Bosnia and actively sought direct US involvement. Towards the end of the war, the prevalent frame became one of Serbian nationalist brutality against the Bosnian government and news media coverage started to reflect this interpretation of events. Importantly, this framing, unlike that of ancient ethnic hatreds, demanded that something be done and focused blame on Serbian nationalism. To the extent that journalists framed media reports in this fashion, they also contributed to the political ambitions of those who sought greater involvement in Bosnia. In doing so, news media coverage became an active player in redefining the conflict in Bosnia as one the US should do something about.‟

The idea of framing is central for the research that is why it is important to understand the whole process of its construction. As can be seen framing has a great effect on peoples‘ opinion and behavior. For the identification of the images constructed about Belarus the frames should be displayed and analyzed. Using the concept of coding by U.Eco (1972) the scheme of semiotic analysis will be designed in order to define the patterns that construct the frame of the destination. Semiotic analysis helps to pick out the hidden constructs of the text, that form the frame through the prism of which the destination is perceived. The model of coding is based on studying two systems of codes – the Portrait and the Linguistic ones – that allow selecting and analyzing patterns that are derived from text messages and from pictures. Based on the selected patterns the frames that were produced about the destination by three different groups of the internet sites will be constructed and compared.

2.1.3 The model of coding by U.Eco

On the premises of the theory of coding by U.Eco (1972) a semiotic scheme for the interpretation of the internet sites is constructed in order to find out particular patterns that form the ‗frame‘ of the destination.

Eco (1972) used the idea of aberrant decoding for the interpretation of TV programs that could rarely cause misunderstanding among individuals and thus become a rule of mass media. The message that is produced by the media can be described as based on two systems of codes: Linguistic Code and Portrait Code. Linguistic Code includes the analysis of the text through defining its structural elements. Portrait Code is based on interpretation of visual symbols. In his work Eco stressed that in defining the system of codes he took into consideration the differences that could appear while interpreting the same symbol by the researcher and the addressee of the message. Also the analysis of codes can be simplified if one is familiar with the subject of information. For my analysis the subject was common for all the groups of web-sites –destination image of the Republic of Belarus. That makes it possible to define the codes and compare the patterns that are selected by each group of internet sites.

As it was already mentioned the message of the internet sites is based on the interpretation of two systems of codes.

First, The Portrait Code that is seen as a natural relationship between Signifier and Signified, where ‗Signifier‘, according to F. de Saussure (1916), means what is available in the sign of perception (vision or hearing). The Signifier carries a mediating function: it needs the material. The ‗Signified‘ is the semantic content of the sign which gives meaning to the mediator. The Signified is "something" means the entity that uses this mark. Thus, photography presents portrait code, because a signifier represents a signified. Accuracy of representation is an inverse measure of conventionality of representation. For portrait code it means that I do not need to know any conventions in order to understand what the sign means, for example, a picture of a chair means a chair. The Portrait Code includes a group of sub codes:

Iconic subcode Some images have meanings due to the power of traditions. National flag symbolizes a country, but in some contexts it can also denote ‗national spirit‘. A geometric form that reconstructs an antique temple in miniature can symbolize ‗harmony, Hellenism‘.

Esthetic subcode

Aesthetic code is defined by traditions of taste. Some representations are traditionally defined as ―beautiful‖. Erotic subcode Bridget Bordo is a beautiful sexy woman, whereas plump women are not. This statement is based on conventions. Erotic subcode defined the standards of beauty based on conventions.

Second, the Linguistic Code that includes the analysis of the text, its style, the definition of the components of communicative act, functions of communication.

Using U.Eco‘s concept it is possible to go more in-depth in the interpretation of images that are constructed by the web-sites and to come up with the patterns that have formed the frames of the destination constructed by different ‗authors‘ (Russian, Belarusian and Western tourism agents).

2.2 Media in Tourism

As shown in part ‗Theories on Image‘ media is a key element of image formation process and hence the role it plays deserves more attention. It is even more important nowadays when people use a variety of information sources in combination with their own ideas, interpretations, and understanding of the places they visit. It is necessary to note that for tourist industry it is easy to be selective with information it presents to potential clients. This part of the thesis is dedicated to the role of mass media in the development of destination image. The aim is to show that without media the influence of different images and frames could hardly have such power and effect on the destination development.

Nowadays media is compared with the Forth Estate (the term was proposed by Thomas Carlyle) and ranks almost equal to Legislative, Executive and Judicial power. Naumenko (2007) has elaborated on the question of media in Russian Federation and concluded that „Players in the sphere of social interests can best reach their goals by influencing public opinion as a state of mass consciousness through media. This has served as a premises for the appearamnce of the "fourth power" term, that gives media some special power mandate.‟ Information sources are one of the major instruments in the construction of the destination image. As stated by Baloglu (1999), the way the destination is presented in media influences the attitude of tourists, especially of those who have not visited this place yet. In this chapter changes in sphere of tourism, caused by media and the effect media has upon a person will be discussed. With the progress of information technologies the role of Internet has become more important. The number of internet users grows every year and this source of information becomes more and more influential. The role of the Internet in the sphere of tourism will be discussed in the chapter.

2.2.1 Influence of Media on Tourism

With the development of media the ‗face‘ of tourism has changed: the role of the emotional component of the destination image has grown (Morgan, 2002). And that led to the construction of different images of the destinations. It has also caused the formation of a new type of a consumer (Toffler, 1980) for whom modern technologies have became a part of life and who actively use them. At the same time this consumer is influenced by this information and the stereotypes that are produced by media. The paragraph will first and foremost concentrate on the overview of media influence on the sphere of tourism and the use of stereotypes in the construction of a destination image. I will discuss how media influence the process of the formation of the destination image, and what types of images it can produce. Jansson (2007) demonstrates that information technologies are involved in most tourist trips today. Similarly, Gammack (2005) stated that modern information and communication technologies „…influence perceptions of place, distance, sociality, authenticity, and other pre- understandings that frame tourism. Film and television creates a myths about particular places and tourists when making their choice in fact are not looking for the authenticity of a place but they are „seeking for a myth‟ [Gammack, 2005]. Gans (1979) argued that for the construction of a particular image of a destination media have used the stereotypes that already exist within a society. The only thing that it adds is that it transfers these myths to a broader audience. Elizur (1994) pointed to the uncritical, superficial character of news that stimulates the development of stereotypes: „… The centrality of television in our lives during the last decade has increased the creation of stereotypes of places. Crises in distant places receive only a few seconds in the television news and most of the reports are very superficial, lacking both background and commentary, and thus they tend create stereotypes and distortion.‟ The role of media in the creation of a destination image is crucial: it forms new myths or accumulate existing stereotypes about the destination. Media also allows a broader distribution of these images. What makes people believe in the myths that are produced by mass media? Kunczic (1997) found out that a person is more aware of the environment where s/he lives and is less critical to information about distant places:

While people usually become aware of occurrences in their immediate environment from direct contact with the events, they learn about events that occur in more distant places mainly from the media. Information about a faraway place is not considered crucial to most people and thus they do not attempt to locate firsthand sources to verify what happened there. For this reason, the „reality‟ that the media transfers from distant places is conceptualized as the places „objective‟ or „true‟ reality by those who do not live there. This ability to be less critical toward the world out of your environment is skillfully manipulated by media and gives a possibility for creating myths and stereotypes. The type of images that are reproduced with media can vary depending on information that is presented. There is a need to distinguish between ‗rich image‘ and ‗one-dimensional image‘ that was proposed by Shields (1992): „Places with a rich image in the news media are places that receive coverage for a wide variety of subjects and events that occur in them, such as politics, economics, social events and cultural developments. Places with one dimensional image are those that only receive coverage when events of a certain nature take place within them, such as crimes or disasters. When a place is labeled by the media as being one in which only a certain type of activities and events occur. It becomes a symbol of such events. As a result, other activities and events do not get covered.‟ The role of media in destination image formation process is crucial starting with accumulating and constructing the stereotypes up to their broadcasting. This fact was confirmed by a number of researchers (Gans, 1979; Elizur, 1994; Gammack, 2005; Govers, 2007). However less attention was paid to the role of the Internet in the process of the image construction. Govers (2007) found out that the Internet was less important in promoting the destinations than it was expected by the researcher. Still a number of the researchers (Werthner and Klein, 1999; Magala, 2001) predicted that media and ICT will converge in the future that can have a significant impact on image formation.

2.2.2 The role of the Internet

The function of the Internet in the sphere of tourism and its role in promoting destination images will be discussed.

The development of the Internet has dramatically changed the way we communicate, learn, and spend our leisure time (Nikolovska, 2010). We have access to a great amount of information - - we can learn about other countries, chat with people from different parts of the world, there are a lot of opportunities for disabled people who can shop, vote, and bank from their homes, businesses can be started on-line. It opens new possibilities for the development in all social spheres. Internet spread also has negative effects communication, e.g. social ties become weaker as people do not need to interact face to face with each other. Besides, it generates new types of financial crimes. As was stated above the Internet infiltrates into every area of our life and also into tourism. That is it has a great power over destination image construction for the reason that it can quickly modify the tourist‘s perception of a destination. According to Prats and Camprubí (2009) the destination is a geographical area where different types of tourism agents interact. Through these interactions a relational network is constructed that helps to share and transmit knowledge, ideas, and common goals and to achieve greater levels of competitiveness. However these relational networks help to minimize the break between the real image of the destination and the frame that was constructed by media. Tour agents receive a benefit to influence tourist decision making process by limiting the differences between socially constructed and real image. And the Internet provide this opportunity by generating the tourism destination image, improving destination marketing system, providing information on the destination that influence on decision making process of potential tourists. The growing importance of the Internet for the sphere of tourism can be characterized through the opportunities that it provides:  It provides a new way of interaction with the customer (listen to the customer and correct the marketing strategy accordingly) (Hayes, 2009);  tour operators can not ask for different prices depending on the customers that leads to reorganization of companies‘ marketing and pricing strategies (Law, 2000);  It allows presention of the destination image with the help of interactive possibilities (interactive maps, videos);  It provides online customer services (booking, consulting, etc.) (Stepchankova, 2005);

 It stimulates growing competitiveness among destinations – small places receive equal possibilities to reach their target with more popular destinations; (Cooper and Hall, 2008);

 Small budget that is used for promotion of destination (Cooper and Hall, 2008). Nowadays it is obvious that to be successful in sphere of tourism it is not enough to offer luxurious experiences that include best hotels, beaches, and services. It is necessary to build communication with consumer, listen to him and through this system of communication as Hayes (2009) argued to convince the customer that you are the best. And the Internet meets these demands better than any other sources can.

Internet provides great opportunities for developing and improving marketing strategies in tourism. With the growth of Internet-users‘ numbers and access to WWW new offers have become available – booking online, sharing experience, access to the information all around the world – that transforms the meaning of tourism and creates new types of tourists. People actively use the Internet for searching information before actual visitation of a place. The advantages are that you have possibility to learn about destination before and prepare your travel. Moreover, by using the Internet as a source of promoting the destination tourism agents also have received an opportunity to limit the gap between real and constructed image of the destination.

In the chapter the destination image, its structural components, types and factors that influence its formation were discussed, and an overview of media theories and its influence on image construction process was provided. The analysis showed that destination image is not a simple sumtotal of physical parameters; it is also a psychological construct that can vary depending on who is presenting the image. This conclusion has led to the idea of framing. Framing refers to ‗specific properties of [a] narrative that encourage those perceiving and thinking about events to develop particular understandings of them‘. As ‗mentally stored principles for information processing‘ frames offer ways of explaining, understanding and making sense of events.‘ (Robinson, 2001) That means that a destination can be ‗framed‘ in different ways depending on the aims of the source. The theory is central for the thesis and it forms the basis for the empirical research. The concept of coding by U.Eco (1972) will help work out a semiotic scheme for the analysis of internet sites and to determine the patterns that are used for the ‗frames‘ of the destination- Belarus by different actors (Russia, Belarus, Western countries). As was pointed out media play a crucial role in the image construction process, as it has influenced the way how the destination will be presented. It is important to understand the process of image formation by media in order to understand the process and circumstances of how this destination image is constructed. Understanding these circumstances is vital for accepting the real image of the destination and it also points to the factors that should be corrected in order to build an objective image of a place.

2.3 Theoretical Framework

The theories that form the background for the research and will be used in the present study are

First, the model of image proposed by Baloglu and McCleary (1999), that will provide information about the components of images that are constituted on the web-sites. The authors proposed the model of the destination image that is based on psychological concepts and includes two components: the affective and cognitive ones.

Second, the types of images (Schields, 1992) that are constructed by media – rich image and one-dimensional image. Media is a vague component of image formation process that influence cognitive element of the image and through it influence can reconstruct different types of images.

Third, the frame theory that is central for the research and with the help of which the most common frames that are constructed by different groups of web-sources will be sorted out.

Fourth, the model of coding proposed by Eco will be used for the construction of the scheme for the semiotic analysis. On the basis of the scheme the main patterns from each group of the web-sites (Russian, Belarusian, and Western) will be selected. By using these patterns from each group of web-sources three images of the destination will be presented. Following stage includes the comparison of the images and defining the conditions that caused formation of those frames.

By applying this theoretical framework the researcher aims to find out frames that are constructed about the destination, and to determine the factors that influence the formation of the images.

3. Methodology

3.1 Method

For the research design the method of semiotic analysis was chosen. This method should be understood as a range of methods and techniques for interpretation of different kinds of texts or statements as products of verbal activity that created in specific socio-political circumstances and under particular cultural-historical conditions (Nazarov, 2002). The method of semiotic analysis is a model of qualitative substantial analysis that allows revealing both the explicit data fixed in the text and the hidden, latent meanings of the message. The common model of qualitative substantial semiotic analysis is based on the following research strategies:  Fixation of analyzed material;  Marking out the formal characteristics of the text  Defining context as a communicative situation  Selection of direction and a strategy of the analysis  Theoretical differentiation and structuring of the stages of the analysis  Defining the technique and means of the analysis for the model of the research  Defining the primary unit for the analysis  Checking the system of categories in theory and practice  Defining the main phases of the research (description, reconstruction, interpretation)  Fixation of the results of the research, their generalization, interpretation and structuring.

The aim of the research is to find out the image of Belarus that is constructed on the web-sites of Belarus, Russia and of Western countries.

The analysis consists of three stages, i.e. 1) collection of data, 2) the interpretation of the images that are presented by the sites, 3), the analysis of the premises that stipulated the image formation process.

3.2 Sampling

For the research design the systematic sampling method was used to define what sites to include into the analysis sample to make it representative. 'Systematic sampling involves selecting every n-th case within a defined population' (O‘Leary, 2004).

For the analysis 105 web-sites were selected (see Appendix 1, 2, 3), every 5th from general population, that include 35 Belarusian sites, 35 Russian sites and 35 Western sites. For selecting the sites the following search engines were used:

 yandex.ru – a major Russian search engine that was used for selecting the Russian sites with tourism content.

 tut.by – the main data portal of Belarus. All tourism sites were taken from this source.

 google.com – was chosen for selecting western web sites with information on tourism in Belarus.

Limitations: the general population was hard to define as there is no exact number of tourism web sites about Belarus. The main indicator of a sufficient scope was that the same web-sites were started encountering from other sources by the researcher.

3.3 Scheme of semiotic analysis

On the basis of the concept of coding that was proposed by U. Eco (1972) the following frame of semiotic analysis was constructed. For more detailed analysis of the Linguisic Code, as it is dominant on the internet sites, the analysis of functions of communication process (Jacobson, 1960) was included into the semiotic scheme.

Scheme of semiotic analysis:

Variable Description

I Portrait Code: a natural relationship between signified and signifier

1. Iconic Subcode images have meanings due to the power of traditions

2. Esthetic Subcode code is defined by traditions of taste

3. Erotic Subcode Defined as standards of beauty based on conventions

II Linguistic Code

1. Analysis of communication:

source determining the source of information

Message and form includes analysis of the content of messages

Addressee and type Defining the audience of the message

channel analysis of tools and channels, with the use of which the message has been transmitted

Purposes and functions Only after making clear the true purpose of communication, one can talk about the selection of adequate resources for that purpose (communicator, message, and channel), the choice of target audience, etc. A clear sense of purpose (information, coaching or motivating the audience) defines the selection of the other components of communication as a condition of its effectiveness. 2. Functions of the message (Jacobson, 1960)

Emotive function The function has to do with how the addresser is relaying the message. The emotive function reveals the speaker‘s attitude towards his subject.

Connotative function This function refers to those aspects of communication that attempt to invoke certain responses in the speaker.

Referentive function is an indication of the context, reference to the object in question, binding to reality. Poetic function This function is about the formal elements of language, the decorative or aesthetic function of language. The poetic function is the message for its own sake. Fatic function the use of language means not to transmit any information, but only to establish or maintain contact (call). Metacommunicative function Language as the language of description to some language-object. Examples of manifestations of this function may serve as a textbook on grammar.

31 4. Results

The information that is presented in web sites was analyzed with regard to two systems of codes:  Portrait code;  Linguistic code. First, the data that were received from the semiotic analysis will be presented in order to familiarize the reader with the general context of the web-sites. The presentation of the data includes the analysis of Portrait and Linguistic Codes and is organized according to the structure of the scheme of semiotic analysis. Second, the images of Belarus presented by the sites will be examined according to the theories that were presented in the theoretical framework. Third, I will come to the patterns that are constructed by Russian, Belarusian and Western internet sources.

4.1 Analysis of Russian web-sites

4.1.1 Received Data

Portrait Code

Portrait code is presented through three types of images. Iconic: the dominant pictures which symbolize Belarus presented on Russian web-pages are:

 The geographical map of Belarus, the modern flag of the Republic of Belarus (identification of the country);

 Aurochs (European bisons):

 Views of blue lakes and forests:

 Pictures of guest houses, health resorts(health resorts), hotels and services that are provided:

Esthetic: Photos that contains esthetic code are not widely presented and contain views of  Belarusian nature;  Belarusian castles;  Cities of Belarus:

Erotic: erotic subcode on Russian tourism web-sites is presented by images of Belarusian women who are positioned as young, fit, artistic, fair-haired, with Slavic features (round face, snub-nosed, wide- eyes), fashionably dressed.

Linguistic Code

The source of data is 35 Russian touristic sites that contain information about the Republic of Belarus. The main content of the messages that is presented in the sites concerns holidays in Belarus in its health resorts (health resorts), holiday centers, and hotels. Most of the sites present the description of the offers, addresses of guest houses and visa procedures. Belarus is associated with a country where you can get good service; improve your health for a small price compared with Russia. The main offers that are provided by Russian tour agents are:  Medicine,  Enjoying nature,  Hunting,  Fishing.

 Visa procedures

Belarusian nature, cities and people are described either neutrally, or in a positive way:

“The beauty of Belarus is modest and gentle. Belarus is the land edge of forests and oak groves, thousands of rivers and lakes, spacious fields and meadows, open to the warm sun. The charm of the country is in soft shimmering morning sky above the blurred horizon, in the ravishing air of the vast pine forests, in the calls of the cranes.

Dip your hands into the ice- cold waters of a stream, banked with the velvet greens of vast meadows. Watch a torrent forest stream from the shelter of spruce hairy paws; hide from the rain under the canopy of village gazebos, inhaling the smell of hay and wet wood of the logs.” (http://100dorog.ru/guide/articles/101770/)

Information about culture, history, tradition of Belarus is not presented by the sites or only most general details are provided without any in-depth description, very shortly, often including several widely known facts about Belarus (WW2 period, amazing nature, national dishes).

Here is an example of how Belarus is presented by Russian tourist web-site (http://www.petropol.info/resorts_belarus). All the information concerning the destination is presented in just one paragraph:

“Holidays in Belarus are an unforgettable vacation in the most beautiful parts of the country. It has all the necessary conditions for peaceful rest and treatment in health resorts, for leisure, for hunting, fishing, downhill skiing, climbing and much more. Popular walks in numerous national parks, nature reserves. Belarus is a land of countless lakes and rivers, which creates conditions for water sports. Holidays in Belarus are perfectly combined with sightseeing tours, tour of major cities and small towns, as well as the beautiful secluded corners of the country”.

From all the list of Russian sites only one resource contained detailed information about different aspects of life and history of Belarus: art, famous persons, history from early period up to nowadays, detailed description of architectural styles, places of interest, traditions and habits - http://www.bel-travel.ru/about/.

Geneal information about the country that is dominantly presented on sites of Russian tour- operators includes:  Geographical position  Climate  Currency exchange

 List of holiday centers, hotels, health resorts

Addressee to whom the information of the sites is oriented is dominantly Russian tourists who would like to improve their health in combination with enjoying nature, hunting, and fishing.

The following functions of Russian tourism web-sites can be singled out:  Short description of Belarus (common facts about the country: language, geography, nature, visa regime, main destinations);  Selling tours to holiday centers, health resorts in Belarus;

 Organization of hunting or fishing tours to Belarus.

The communicative functions that are dominated on Russian tourism sites are:

Connotative: a range of places to see, colorful description of Belarusian nature, high level of services provided in health resorts for rest and health, low prices in comparison with Moscow and St. Petersburg regions, possibility to hunt and fish in the forests, open border with the Russian Federation. This information stimulates and stimulates the addressee to experience Belarus; Referentive: the information that is presented is oriented towards organization of holidays in Belarus, and offers minimum of practical information that is necessary for a tourist to know (geographical situation, visa, price-list, currency); Poetic: this function is particularly evident in the description of Belarusian nature (Belarus is especially famous for its untouched by human activity forests rich in wild life, and a great number of blue lakes). Here is an example of a description: “Since ancient times, Belarus, often called “the blue-eyed”, has been famous for the beauty of countless lakes and rivers, for vast expanses of forests, green fields, harmonious landscapes. The nature of the country provides an ideal environment for a break, and for getting facquiented with Belarus and with the Belarusians,it is a delicate issue that requires intelligence, taste and inspiration. „Land under the shield of white wings of the storks‟ is what Belarusian author Vladimir Korotkevich called the country, a poetic man sensitive to the beauty of the soul.” (http://www.bel-travel.ru/about/)

Emotive function is presented through description of nature and people. The form of communication is impersonal, not expressive (dominantly advertisements of health resorts and hotels). Fatic function is presented in several sites in the form of feedback communication when an addressee can leave a comment in a forum, or send his question to a tour operator, or book a tour online. The image of Belarus that is constructed by Russian web sites includes both, affective and cognitive elements (Baloglu and McClearly, 1999):

Affective component: poetic description of nature, places to see, people: The beauty of Belarus is modest and gentle. Belarus is the land edge of forests and oak groves, thousands of rivers and lakes, spacious fields and meadows, open to the warm sun. The charm of the country is in soft shimmering morning sky above the blurred horizon, in the ravishing air of the vast pine forests, in the calls of the cranes. Dip your hands into the ice- cold waters of a stream, banked with the velvet greens of vast meadows. Watch a torrent forest stream from the shelter of spruce hairy paws, hide from the rain under the canopy of village gazebos, inhaling the smell of hay and wet wood of the logs.” (http://100dorog.ru/guide/articles/101770/)

Cognitive component: each site contains information about Belarus – political system, geographical location, climate, main destinations, language, nationalities, and main historical data. It can also be stated that on Russian sites a ‗rich image‘ (Shields, 1992) of Belarus is presented. It includes offers of rest in health resorts and guest houses of Belarus, tours for hunting and fishing (that is goal-oriented strategy according to Baloglu and McClearly, 1999), agro tours to experience Belarusian country lifestyle. At the same time the sites contain information about history (not all of the selected sites contain full information, mostly it is only a brief version), culture, geography, political system and society. The country is presented from various view points. And it is quite understandable as the Russian Federation is a neighbor country, it is blongs to a union with the Republic of Belarus, it has common history, religion and language, and a lot of similarities in cultural traditions.

4.1.2 Patterns

On the basis of analysis of the Portrait code of Russian web-sites the following can be concluded:

1. Belarus is a neighbor country, a ‗gate to Europe‘, and a partner: it is seen from the images of the map of Belarus that is presented not separately but showing it borders with the Russian Federation and the countries on the West (Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, and Lithuania). That makes a clear picture of the geographical position of Belarus -- between Russia and Europe. Sites also contain transportation maps (highways, railways) that underscore the role of Belarus as a transit country to other destinations. Belarus for centuries had belonged to Russia, and even after receiving its independence (in 1991) the relations between countries have still been very strong in economical, political, social spheres. The two countries have much in common in religious views as well as in cultural traditions. That brings to the image of Belarus an overtone of the ‗little brother‘ of Russia, rather than simply a geographical neighbor.

2. Domination of green, blue, white colors: Belarus is associated with beautiful nature – blue lakes, rivers, dense green forests where you can still meet wild animals. That is why the Russian web-sites provide a lot of photos of Belarusian nature as it attracts Russian tourists creating opportunities to relax hunt and fish. Green, yellow, blue colors are traditional for Belarusians. Wooden houses usually were colored with these types of paints. Korshuk (2004) argued that the selection of those types of colors that is similar to colors of nature was caused by the need to hide from invaders that occupied the country over and over again: the Tatars, Kievan Rus, Poland, Russia, German occupation.

3. Country with a beautiful nature: Belarus is a relatively scarcely populated country (9.7 million people on the territory of 367,2 thousand sq.km.) that is why there are a lot of destinations where nature has not been ruined or interfered with by humans. As Belarusian cities were completely destroyed during the two World Wars with all their places of interest, one can say that nature is the major sightseeing attraction that still exists. A lot of guest houses and health resorts were built that are situated far from big city centers and are surrounded by lakes, rivers, forests where you can feel yourself away from civilization, back to nature. There is also the opportunity to hunt and fish that attracts a lot of tourists every season. As was clarified talking a non-formal interview with

39 a forester of Minsk region there are great numbers of Russian, Ukrainian and other foreign tourists coming every season especially for hunting. They are interested in hunting wolves and boars, elks and deer, and also bisons despite the high prices on hunting permits (several thousands US dollars). There are also cases of illegal hunting and fishing on the territory of Belarus.

4. Agricultural country: a number of photos contain views of Belarusian villages, agricultural production. Belarusian tractors, milk production, meat, chemical fertilizers are exported to the Russian Federation, and that is why Belarus is also perceived as an agricultural country. Also one of the salient points is the development of agro-tourism in the country (Presidential decree № 372 "On measures for development of rural tourism in the Republic of Belarus" was signed on the 2nd of June, 2006). Since 2006 the number of agritourisms (farmstays) has grown 14 times. „…on January 1, 2009 in 110 districts of Belarus there were 474 agricultural estates - 2,5 times more than in 2007, and 14 times more than in 2006. According to the NGO "Agro- and ecotourism", about 250 farms are really active. If in 2007 there were 18 thousand agro-tourists, inn 2008 the numbers have reached already 39 thousand, and they have spent 2 billion rubles*‟. (http://www.nest.by/content/kuda-dvizhetsya-belorusskii- agroturizm)

*1euro=4000.17rub (on 26.03.2010, National Bank of the Republic of Belarus)

This type of tourism is especially appreciated by Russians from Moscow and Saint-Petersburg who are tired of big cities with their intensive life style and who would like to enjoy nature and to relax.

5. Consumerist view on the country and its resources: consumerist view on the country can be seen through the pictures of hunting, fishing, offers that are available in Belarusian health resorts. The photos illustrate both the opportunity to enjoy the country as well as the possibility to consume its goods. Belarus, as a country that is very poor in natural resourses such as iron ore, oil, ferrous metals, and others, has always depended on Russia for whom Belarus was an assembly shop. The main plants that produce tractors, heavy trucks, etc. were placed in Belarus. After the collapse of the USSR heavy industry was in trouble as there were no primary materials for production. In 1991 Republic of Belarus received its independence but up to nowadays the

40 country is dependent on resources of the Russian Federation. Belarus forms an economic union with Russia, there is open borders, and may be these factors form the attitude toward Belarus but like a part of Federation where Russians can come and feel at home rather than just another country.

6. Traditional masculine society: this image is recognizable if we pay attention to how men and women are presented in photos. Men are strong, big, dominant, hunting, participating in the discussion. Women are weak, beautiful; they take care of homes and growing children. The tendency to masculine society can also be seen from the division of roles between men and women within society. Traditional working places for women are as teachers, doctors, babysitters, shop-assistants, hairdressers, service personnel. Men occupy leadership positions – managers, top-managers, directors. 7. Beautiful women: Russian web-sites include images of young, attractive, artistic girls that are associated with Belarusian women. Belarusians belongs to Eastern-European Slavic tribes that are characterized by blond hair, blue or green eyes, light color of the skin, and this features are traditionally considered beautiful. 8. People are friendly, peaceful, and tolerant: open smiling faces, open postures of people that are presented on photos construct an image of friendly Belarusians. Kirienko (2003) connects this feature of Belarusian character with history. He concluded that regular contacts with Slavic neighbors (today its Ukraine, Russia, Poland) had formed a positive image of these countries and a good attitude toward them. That is why Belarusian people are not afraid of others and always open for new contacts. It can be stated that Belarusians are a tolerant nation. As Parashkov (2004), Belarusian historian, affirmed, Belarus, due to its geographical position (on the border of Eastern and Western Europe), has been a multinational state. It was necessary to take into account opinions and points of view of others to keep peace. Another reason can be the multiple change of political power and belonging to different states (Kievan Rus, Rzecz‘ Pospolita, Great Duty of Lithuania, Russian Empire, USSR).

From the analysis of Linguistic Code of Russian web-sites the following conclusions can be derived: 1. Belarus stands out from other destinations as it does not have such natural resources as the hot sun or the sea shore. The main stress in spending leisure time in Belarus is placed on medical treatment, improving your health in health resorts, guest houses and villages. The services that are provided here are cheaper and the quality is better compared to health resorts in the Russian Federation. As guest houses are placed in natural environment, they are surrounded by forests, rivers and lakes – people who come to improve their health can also enjoy the views of countryside. There is a possibility to combine medical treatment with hunting, fishing, picking up berries and mushrooms, or visiting agricultural estates where they can enjoy countryside lifestyle. In Russian web-sources there are a lot of offers to spend holidays in the kind of agro-villages where you can taste traditional dishes and drinks, participate in cultural events, enjoy Russian sauna and Belarusian folklore. This attracts Russian tourists from big cities who are tired of their lifestyle and would to relax and enjoy themselves. 2. The Republic is associated with a transit country from the East to the West, a ‗gate‘ to Europe. Through Belarus Russian Federation exports oil, gas, and other goods to European countries. Some sites mentioned that it is nice to visit Belarus for a couple of days on the way to other destinations. The Republic is not associated with an independent destination that attracts Russian tourists. It is due to the lack of natural resources (sun, sea), places of interest (destroyed during the World War II), similarities in cultures of Russia and Belarus (traditions, religion, architecture, and lifestyle) that means nothing new to discover. 3. The Republic of Belarus is associated in the minds of Russian tourists with a neighboring country, with common history, an economic partner more than a touristic destination. Even after the collapse of the USSR Belarus is still presented as a part of Russia. Nowadays two states form an economic union that even reinforces this view in the minds of the Russians. 4. Due to the lack of natural resources Belarusian economy was to a reat degree based on agriculture. Even nowadays Belarus has the type of collective farms that were typical for USSR time. The development of agro-tourism in recent years has fixed the image of Belarus as an agricultural country.

Common history (Belarus was a part of different states together with Russia), assimilation of ethnical groups (Russians are the second biggest nation after the Belarusians living in the territory of the Republic), common religion .i.e. Russian Orthodox (70 % of Belarusians belongs to Orthodox church), common cultural traditions (Christmas, Easter, following orthodox fasting, celebrations of the national holidays of the Soviet era such as October Revolution, Day of Army

Forces, Victory Day , etc.) and language (Russian is the second official language of the Republic of Belarus), economic union between Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus that two states are party to nowadays, open borders –all these preconditions have fostered the image of Belarus as a neighbor state, an economic partner, a country with a developed agricultural sector, a destination where you can improve your health and enjoy beautiful nature, friendly, hospitable people and beautiful Belarusian women. A place that does not amaze you with hot sun and sand but with its atmosphere of kindness, nature and authenticity of culture.

4.2 Analysis of Belarusian web-sites

4.2.1 Received Data Portrait Code Portrait Code of Belarusian sites is fixed in three types of subcodes: Iconic: The following codes that have meaning due to the power of traditions that exists in Belarusian society were selected:

 Flags of the Republic and the major cities:

 Memorials to commemorate the heroes of the WW2. Memory about this tragedy is very important for the Belarusians.

 National Library is a symbol of modern Belarus:

 Bison:

 Stork which is a poetic symbol of Belarus as a land under (his)white wings:

 The Churches which symbolize the spirituality of the Belarusians:

Esthetic: is represented by

 Views of distinctive Belarusian nature (lakes, forests, fields):

 Architectural monuments (Mir Castle, the Patrimony of the Radzivil family):

Erotic: the subcode is presented through 2 female types:

 Middle aged, plump women of pleasing appearance, usually in national dress that symbolize compliance with the traditions, family, peace:

 Young, active, attractive women that are associated with the progress, with the future of the Republic:

Linguistic Code

For the analysis 35 web-sites from ―by-net‖ which contain information about Belarus for people who might visit or travel around the country were selected. Belarusian internet resources can be conditionally divided into two types:  Sites of public organizations: national touristic agency of the Republic of Belarus, sites of national parks of Belarus, site of the Ministry for sport and tourism, sites of Belarusian Embassies, site of national travel agency ‗Intourist‘;  Sites of private touristic organizations: tour-operators, travel agencies, private persons, NGOs.

According to this division the information about the country presented by the sites varies. Sites of organizations that belong to the state contain full, detailed information about the country:  History: historical facts and main data from the early period up to modern times  Nature: description of different routes: cycle tracks, boat trips, walking routes, fishing, hunting, national parks and lakes.  Main destinations: cities, national parks, castles, agricultural estates.  Traditions: description of culture, main customs, national character, religion  Famous persons: Belarusians that are known worldwide – Marc Chagall, Tadeusz Kosciuszko, Chaim. Weizmann, Louis B. Mayer, Francisc Skaryna, Euphrosiniya of Polotsk.  Architecture: religious buildings, castles and fortresses, palaces and ancestral farmsteads, monuments  News: top news on the latest developments in the country. Sites of private organizations contain information about holiday centers and lists of available services, general information about the country: weather forecast, visa procedure, language, currency exchange, general description of places to see. Here is an example of such a description: Belarus is a land of innumerable rivers, lakes and nature reserves. Lake Naroch is one of the most beautiful and the largest lake in Belarus. Naroch is located in the North-West of the country, near the town of Miadel. In clear weather, the lake bottom can be seen at a depth of 10 meters.

One of the most famous nature reserves of Belarus "Bialowieza Forest" is listed by UNESCO in the World Heritage List.

Vitebsk is one of regional centers of Belarus. World renown artist born in Vitebsk is Marc Chagall. In addition, Vitebsk is famous for its festivals. It is here that an international arts festival "Slavic Bazaar is held".

Polotsk is a quiet patriarchal town with beautiful promenades and rich history. The main sights are The Cathedral of St Sophia (built in 1044-1066., Rebuilt in the 18th century).

Not all analyzed Belarusian sites have blogs where one can leave a comment or ask questions. Big travel agencies (‗Teztour‘, ‗Pegas‘) offer on-line consultations and booking facilities. Also they provide information in several languages (Italian, Polish, English, and Spanish). The site of the

National travel Agency of the Republic contains a feedback option but the English version of the link does not work (http://www.siteks.com/sites/touragency/#). The information that is presented on Belarusian sites is oriented both towards local travelers and foreign tourists, as English version of sites and tours with English speaking guides are available. The following functions of communication within Belarusian sites can be singled out: Emotive: on the sites of state organizations the function is not presented very well. The information is depersonalized and is presented through facts: „Of particular interest are items such as the National Museum of History and Culture - one of the leading museums of the republic, which has the largest collection, which totals over 350 thousand items, the National Art Museum of Belarus, which is the calling card of the country and has a rich collection of ancient, Russian Art XVIII-XX centuries. as well as collections of contemporary Belarusian art, Oriental art and Western Europe, the house-museum of the great painter Marc Chagall in Vitebsk and the assembly of a number of his works. Acquainted with the traditional life of Belarusian villages can be in the open-air museum in the village Strochitsa.‟ (http://belarustourism.by/belarus/culture/)

„The capital of the Republic of Belarus - Minsk, covers an area of about 200 square kilometers.

The population is 9.8 million, of which 71, 5% live in urban areas.

The number of, employed is 4.3 million people (72% of the population of working age).

Belarus has 6 regions with the regional centers in Minsk, Brest, Vitebsk, Gomel, Grodno and Mogilev. Each region is divided into districts, cities and other territorial and administrative units. In Belarus there are more than 100 cities including 12 cities with populations over 100 thousand people.‟ (http://www.germany.belembassy.org/rus/rb/)

The sites of private tour operators contain expression of the opinion of the sender. The sender plays the role of an adviser, a story-teller and expresses his attitude:

„Incredible vacations to experience the local culture or learn new skills. Cultural & educational vacations are a great way to experience the world and get new skills at the same time.

Belarus enjoys a rich cultural and artistic heritage that dates back many centuries, taking in several significant schools of art and architecture and producing many unique musical and literary works.‟ (http://www.greentravel.by/en/tours/type/31.html) ‗The territory of Belarus totals 207.6 thousand km2. It is compact. It stretches from west to east - 650 km from north to south - 560 km. The size of the territory of the Republic occupies the 13th place among European states and the 6-th - in the CIS (after Russia, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan). In Europe, Belarus area slightly inferior to the UK and Romania and more than 2.2 times higher than Portugal and Hungary. The population of Belarus on July 1, 2001 was 9972 thousand people. As the population of Belarus is ranked 5 th among the CIS countries after Russia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. It resides in the 14 times smaller population than in Russia, 5 times less than in Ukraine, but 1,3 times more than in all three Baltic states of the former Soviet Union combined, 2 times more than in Finland or Denmark, more than in Austria, Belgium, Bulgaria, Sweden‟. (http://sunholiday.by/belarus)

Connotative: this function is more common for private tourist sites as their main function is to attract potential tourists. That is why the text is built on appealing to the potential client and on imperatives:

„Sightseeing tour of Minsk will introduce you to one of the most beautiful cities in Europe, boasting more than a 900-year history. You will learn about the stages of the development of the city, its legends, the development of the city during the Principality of Polotsk, the history and life of Minsk since the Great Lithuanian Principality and Rzecz Pospolita (http://www.intercity.by/belarus/Holiday/excursions/). „Welcome to the welcoming world of rural tourism. We invite you to rest comfortably in a country estate "beyond the river on the street, to plunge into the life of this village! Manor "On Zarechnaya Street" is located in a village, 1,5 km from the highway Brest - Moscow, on the river Mukhavets (30 m). The total area is of 1.06 hectares, the site is surrounded by trees instead of a fence, where many birds nest, whose singing you can enjoy.‟ (http://www.usadba.by/int_page.php?id_get=11) Referentive: All the selected Belarusian sites are concentrated on the main topic – tourism in Belarus. But the number of topics differs between the state and private sites. The agencies and organizations that are financed by the state are focused on:

A comprehensive description of the country (history, traditions, culture, religion outstanding persons); Update regulations in the sphere of tourism; They focus on description and organization of tours to the main destinations of Belarus: national parks, Minsk and other regional cities, main castles (Nesvizh Castle, Radzivil Estate, Golshany Castle), museums and theatres. Private persons and tour operators mainly provide information on:  General facts about Belarus (history, geography, climate, tours, visa procedures);  Selling offers to Belarusian villages where they can experience agro-tourism, relax at villas;  Hunting, fishing, bike routes, bus tours and other activities. Poetic: is mainly expressed in the description of Belarusian nature, its national parks and villages. Less conveyed functions are Fatic – not every site provides offers in online booking, consulting, and discussion. In some state sites where this type of offer is available the links do not work. The image of Belarus includes both elements (Baloglu, McClearly, 1999) cognitive and affective. Cognitive element is presented in the form of general information about the destination – geographical position, climate, cultural traditions, and main destinations within the country, famous persons, and architecture: ‗An introduction in facts and figures to this landlocked country in the north-east of Europe - Official Name Republic of Belarus President of Belarus Alexander Lukashenko (1994 - present) Prime Minister of Belarus Sergey Sidorsky (2003) Total land area of Belarus 207,600 km² Nationality of Belarus Population – 9.7 million Life expectancy at birth – 70.5 years Population living in cities – 74% The capital is Minsk – 1.8 million inhabitants‘ Affective element is presented with poetic description of Belarusian lakes and forests:

'…Centuries pass by, and the Forest is still pleasing us with the noise of centuries- old oaks…', '…Forest is the pride and the love of the Belarusian people…' (http://www.hunt.by/) „Belarus is an island of calm in a whirlwind of hustle and the place of wise harmony of soul and body. Here you can relax with a wonderful family and friends. You are welcome to healthy air and the cozy atmosphere. Villas are located in a picturesque place surrounded by lakes, rivers, forests.‟ (http://www.rapitvina.com/ta-page_222.htm) The narrative of the Belarusian cities is also full of emotional descriptions: ‗Do not tire of saying that Grodno is a unique city. The narrow streets of the old Grodno are still hovering with the wind of history. Grodno is a city that changes people…‟ (http://belarus-travel.by/) Emotions used while describing Belarusian villages, people and customs: 'Hospitable hosts will offer you: - Try to catch fish with unusual and ancient traditional methods of Belarusians - "taptuhoy" hook, "Kryga", just a basket, and even with bare hands! - Hunting - The owners are ready to assist you in its organization. The friendly hosts will create all conditions for a fruitful and memorable holiday, which will restore your forces and give a new impetus to your work. (http://www.rapitvina.com/ta-page_222htm).‟ „All year round in cities and towns in Belarus cultural life goes on. Theatrical animated cartoon, music festivals performances of popular artists, poetry and music, art exhibits change each other in n endless series of worldly events worthy of attention. (http:// belarustourism.by/Belarus/culture/).´ As can be seen affective component is widely used for presenting Belarus from different aspects that construct a more colorful and comprehensive image of the country.

According to Shields (1992) the image of Belarus that is constructed by the Belarusian web-sites can be characterized as a ‗rich image‘. The information in the web-sites presents the country from different positions including its socio-political situation, culture, people, main destinations, history. This helps to construct the rich, total image of the country.

4.2.2 Patterns

Data analysis of Portrait Code of Belarusian touristic web-sites has demonstrated the following: 1. Strong accent on nature: pictures of Belarusian cities are nearly not presented at all (the only exception is the main sightseeing of Minsk and regional centers). The settlements of modern Belarus were totally destroyed during the WW2. During the period of Soviet Union the religion was in disrespect and many churches were demolished. The architectural style that was common for the times of Soviet Union is dominant in the central parts of cities reconstructed after the WW2 and is often characterized as Stalin‘s Empire style – rational, massive, and stereotyped. On the territory of Belarus there are only several castles that have been restored -- Mir Castle, Nesvizh Castle. Other castles, in Kossovo, Lida, Hrodno, Holshany, have hardly been touched by the hand of a restorer yet. All these facts drive at the conclusion that the only thing that can attract tourists is the Belarusian nature; more than one third of its territory is covered with dense forests, and it is obvious why the country is often called ‗the lungs of Europe‘. The most famous National park is "Belovezha National Reserve", only there it is possible to meet the bison that symbolizes a strong and independent nation. Belarus is also famous for its lakes; they are the ‗eyes‘ of the country that is called ‗blue-eyed‘. The ‗Braslav Lakes‘ National Park is compared with the nature of Switzerland and Finland. Due to this advantage Belarus has a possibility to develop agro- and ecotourism in the country. Nowadays hundreds of agro estates surrounded by magic landscapes are opened for tourists. 2. National Library is a symbol of modern Belarus: the content of majority of the Belarusian sites have a picture of the National Library that is positioned as a new symbol of Belarus illustrating technologies, progress, and development. The library is made of modern materials and has an ultra fashionable architectural style -- rhombicuboctahedron. The building is situated in the business center of the capital and has become a place where business conferences, art exhibitions and important meetings are held. 3. Domination of light blue and green colors: the colors symbolize the country of blue lakes and green forests. These colors are also dominant in the life of Belarusians – traditionally houses in Central and Northern Belarus were painted in blue and green. Moreover Belarusians are not used to wear bright coloured clothes. Green color is associated with peace and harmony, according to Kirienko (2005) similar features, i.e. hospitality and peacefulness, characterize Belarusians.

4. Power of traditions: sites contain photos of memorials dedicated to World War 2. Memory about the tragedy is of great importance for Belarusians as more than every 4th person perished during that war. It is also confirmed by the fact that in 2005 the main street of the capital was renamed to Independence Avenue to commemorate the victory over Nazi Germany in 1945. Introducing the country to potential tourists Belarusian sites also offer pictures of churches. After Soviet times religion has been intensively reviving and major orthodox celebrations such as Easter, Memorial Day, and Christmas are official days off. National Library symbolizes progress and development as well as the power of unity and patriotism of nation. Every citizen of the country was involved in the process of building the National library. Students helped to build it during their summer vacations, others made donations. That is why people called the library ‗national‘ partially because it was built with the help of all Belarusians. Pictures of Belarusians in national dresses, dancing and singing, show that customs and traditions are still alive and are supported also due to the development of agro- and ecotourism. 5. Belarusians are presented as friendly, peaceful, hospital, patriotic, active, and spiritual: usually photos represent a group of people during working on something, at leisure, in the countryside that can also be taken as a sign of the collectivistic features of the Belarusian character. Sites also contain images of people in national dresses, smiling and dancing, against the background of rural life that accentuate the idea of agro-tourism in the Republic. Images of memorials illustrate the moment when a group of people (tourists) or newly-weds are laying flowers which is meant to illustrate the power of traditions and patriotism of Belarusians. 6. Masculine society, gender inequality: this feature is demonstrated through the presentation of men and women in the images. There are photos of men hunting or fishing, also men at work. Even when photos feature both males and females, men usually dominate, as they are taller than women and take most of the picture. Women presented in photos are associated with purity, home, and mother‘s care. She is usually surrounded by children, cooking or helping men. If she is presented at work it is usually work in the sphere of services -- medicine, trade, leisure.

After the analysis of the Linguistic code of the Belarusian sites the following can be concluded: 1. Promotion of agro tourism within the country: that is the main concept that can be deduced from all the Belarusian sites. Throughout the last ten years the country has focused on developing tourism and agro tourism was chosen as one of the best opportunities to attract tourists to the landlocked country located in the temperate latitudes. It is becoming even more obvious when you

53 take into consideration the advantages of the destination – beautiful nature with its lakes and forests, wildlife and countryside with hospitable people, customs and traditions that have been preserved in the villages till our days. From that perspective Belarus is positioned as a good place to experience authentic nature, to enjoy the culture of Belarus and to get away from cities with their dubious blessings of civilization. The other patterns that were singled out from the sites were constructed to complement the main idea about Belarus as a country of agricultural tourism that also helps to form a more holistic image of the destination as a product that can be sold. 2. Belarus is a country that impresses by its exciting nature: over 30% of its territory is covered with dense forests (United Nations, 2005) rich in wildlife. Belarus is also called the country of blue lakes as there are about 11,000 lakes and 20,000 rivers crossing its territory (the same source). The country is not a densely populated area; the population is mainly concentrated in urban areas close to the capital and in regional centers. That makes Belarus a destination with great possibilities for hunting and fishing as there are places that have preserved the untouched nature. Chernobyl disaster in 1986 made the south of the country unfit for habitation and recreation. In that area a biosphere reserve was founded that is used for studying flora and fauna of that region. Also tourist trips are organized to the territory that is far away from the Chernobyl nuclear power plant reactors. Belarus is proud of a great number of National Parks and reservations – Berezina, Pribuzhje, Belovezha, Naliboki, Braslav Lakes Region – where you can meet rare species of flora and fauna. Agro- villages are situated far away from city centers where you can enjoy marvelous landscapes. 3. Reconstruction of the l past of the country: information that is presented by the web-sites about the history of Belarus contains facts from the very early period up to nowadays. It includes periods of Kievan Rus, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rzecz Pospolita, World War II, legends about the princes of Belarus and its castles and hardly ever mentions the period of Soviet Union. Belarusian sites promote the country with exciting history reconstructing its past when the territory of the country was governed by princes and do not pay a lot of attention on such period as USSR with its totalitarian regime, communistic principles and stereotyped vision. 4. The image of the Belarusian: one of the major attractions in constructing the image of the destination is on the Belarusians themselves. The people are presented as hospitable, friendly, open-minded, keepers of Belarusian customs and traditions. Belarusian villages and their inhabitants are the main attraction for tourists. The cities and main destinations of Belarus have

54 been destroyed many times over throughout centuries, so you can learn from people legends about devastated castles, their inhabitants, about traditions and customs. One of the interpretations of the name Belarus is ‗White Russia‘ that was received because of people who settled in these lands – fair-haired, bright-eyed and wearing bright linen clothes. They also differ from other Slavic ethnicities by their features of the character – peaceful, hospitable, and hardworking. Such vision of Belarusian nation is reconstructed in the Belarusian web-sites: ‗By nature Belarusian peasants are peaceful, patient and sympathetic. Such features developed thanks to neighbors living in peace, visiting each other during the holidays and helping each other in the lurch.‘ (http://www.pravoslavie.by/catal.asp?id=8641&Session=10) On the basis of the semiotic analysis of Belarusian web-sites it can be assumed that Belarus is promoted as a touristic destination with an exciting historical past before the period of communism, its own culture that differs from the Russian one, and with its own language. As Belarus is a landlocked state, and the majority of architectural monuments of the past were devastated the main emphasis was given to the development of agricultural tourism. That has become possible due to the following preconditions:  Unique nature of the country: there are several national parks on the territory where rare species of flora and fauna are preserved. Over 30% of the territory is covered with forests and has about 11,000 lakes and 20,000 streams. That is why Belarus is often called the ‗lungs of Europe‘ and the country with ‗blue-eyes‘.  Belarus is not a highly populated area; the main population is concentrated in the capital and in regional centers; that is why there are a lot of places that were not cultivated by humans. There you can meet different species of flora and fauna that offer great opportunities for hunting and fishing that attract tourists.  Authenticity of culture: traditions and customs that have survived up to nowadays and that can be met in rural areas of Belarus. You can experience the traditional lifestyle of the Belarusians in their villages that seem to have not been affected by the development of civilization and modernization.  Hospitable Belarusians that are bearers of authentic Belarusian cultural tradition.

4.3 Analysis of Western web-sites

4.3.1 Received Data

Portrait Code

Iconic subcode can be presented with the following patterns:  Flag and symbol of Belarus (including its old version)

Old version of Belarusian flag and national emblem

New version of Belarusian flag, national emblem

 Map of Belarus

 European bison:

 Stalin‘s Empire style of architechture (symbol of communist times):

 Image of Belarusians:

 Chernobyl Disaster

Esthetic subcode includes the following patterns:  Nature of Belarus:

 Monuments of architecture:

Erotic subcode is presented by:

 Young, attractive, slim females

 Ladies of dark middle-ages, so called ‗babushkas‘:

Linguistic Code:

For the analysis of the image of Belarus that is constructed by Western countries dominantly the sites of USA, UK, Germany, and Canada were selected and examined. The sites contain general statistic facts about the country: territory, population, religion, climate, language that are presented in abstract-encyclopedic way. The information is highly structured and you can easily find what is necessary to you. Some sites (e.g. https:// www.countrystudies.us) contain out of date information about the destination. The information on culture, traditions, main destinations are almost not presented. There are only several sites that have information on those topics – (https://www.belarusguide.com, https://www.wikitravel.org, https://www.countrystudies.us, https://www.infoplease.com). The information that is presented in the sites is oriented to western tourists who are not similar with the destination and need structured information on different aspects of the destination. Besides the general data about Belarus major attention is focused on the description of  Political system: „Today Belarus, offensively named 'the last European outcast', is in political and economic isolation.‟ (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-82513928.html retrieved 19.04.2010)

„…Since his election in July 1995 as the country's first president, Alexander LUKASHENKO has steadily consolidated his power through authoritarian means. The Constitution revision by national referendum of 24 November 1996 gave presidency greatly expanded powers and became effective 27 November 1996, revised again 17 October 2004 removing presidential term limits.

Government restrictions on freedom of speech and the press, peaceful assembly, and religion continue.‟ (http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/ retrieved on 19.04)

„…The EU and the U.S. have denounced the increasingly oppressive political atmosphere and human rights violations in Belarus under the Soviet-style authoritarianism of President Lukashenka.‟ (http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107325.html?pageno=2)

„…republic in name, in fact a dictatorship...‟ (https://www.worldfactbook.com)

„Belarus is governed by a strong Presidential system with security forces loyal to it...‟ (http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-bycountry/europe/belarus?ta=safetySecurity&pg=2)

 Chernobyl disaster: „…When the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in Ukraine exploded in 1986, 70% of its radioactive fallout fell on the Belorussian SSR. Cancer and other illnesses have multiplied as a result.‟ (http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107325.html) „…The 1986 Chornobyl (spelt Chernobyl in Russian) disaster left about a quarter of the country seriously contaminated, and its effects are still felt today, particularly in the southeastern regions of the country.‟ (http://www.lonelyplanet.com/belarus/history)  Visa procedures; Information on how to open an entrance visa to Belarus, what documents are required.  Travel advice; „…There is little crime in Belarus. However, you should be alert at all times to the possibility of mugging, pickpocketing and theft from vehicles or hotel rooms. You should take extra care when travelling by train, as there have been instances of theft from travellers, especially on sleeper trains to Warsaw and Moscow.‟ (http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/) „...Street crime, pickpocketing, purse snatching, and mugging occur, particularly in urban centres such as Minsk, Grodno, Brest, Gomel, Moguilev, and Vitiebsk, especially after dark and in and around hotels and hostels frequented by foreigners.

Theft is general on trains, particularly on sleeper trains. Be vigilant when crossing the border with Poland at Brest due to the risk of mugging.‟ (http://voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=27000) „...Belarus has a moderate incidence of street crime. Though violent crime against foreigners is rare, criminals have been known to use force if met with resistance from victims. Common street crime, such as mugging and pocket picking, occurs most frequently near public transportation venues, near hotels frequented by foreigners, and/or at night in poorly lit areas. Visitors to Minsk should be especially alert in the metro and bus stations.‟ (http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1033.html#safety)

 The period of Soviet Union times: „…After Minsk was reduced to rubble during WWII, Moscow architects were given a blank slate to transform ruins into a model Soviet city. An excess of monumental classicism was to give the impression of a workers' utopia. The wide boulevards, expansive squares and grandiose proportions of the buildings in the centre do initially impress, but eventually they take on an oppressive weight. Aside from a minuscule reconstructed Old Town, the city has few cozy corners as antidotes to the concrete, colonnaded grandeur. Evenings, when buildings are beautifully illuminated, offer a softer view of the city.‟ (http://www.lonelyplanet.com/belarus/minsk)  Belarusian Women: Advertisements that contain information on how to meet Belarusian women are widely presented in the sites alongside the information on the destination. (http://www.lonelyplanet.com/belarus/history, http://www.travelnotes.org, http://travelnotes.magnify.net/).

In the Western sites that are dedicated to Belarus the following communication functions are dominant: Connotative: refers to the associations, overtones, and feel which a concept has. Information on the political regime, Chernobyl disaster, crime, main destinations, historical facts and the frame in

61 which those facts are placed is oriented to the addressee and shapes his particular attitude towards the destination. Referentive: presenting general facts on geography, history, population. The context of the sites is focused on political system (‗dictatorship‘, regime of Lukashenko), economical situation (‗market socialism‘), and criminal situation (unsafe place for tourists). Very little information is presented on destinations within the country, its culture and traditions. Meta-communicative: negative context of the messages that connects with other negative news about the country that creates a negative code of interpretation. The meta-communicative function is embodied in the use of the English language, photos of Belarus that produce a particular image of the country. Poetic function is not presented. Information is structured and presents a particular view of the author countries towards the destination, which is rather negative when describing its political system. Emotive function is also not found in the text – the author is not presented, data includes statistical information and encyclopedic descriptions. However in describing several topics like the political regime, the economy the description tends to be more subjective and includes emotional explanations. Fatic function that is responsible for establishing contact with the addressee is absent. The introduction and appealing to the addressee is not common. Discussion opportunities or chats are not presented in the web-sites. The study of linguistic code brings shows that in the image of Belarus that is promoted by Western sites the cognitive element dominates over the affective one. The cognitive element is presented with highly structured information on the issue, general abstract facts about Belarus like geography, history, religion, language, and climate. Culture, traditions, main destinations and historical monuments are scarcely discussed by the sites. There is a negative connotation in the description of the country that comes from the explanation of its modern socio-political and economical situation, of the aftermath of Chernobyl disaster, of communism. Belarus is presented as a ‗dictatorship‘ (https://www.cia.gov) that is ruled by ‗mustachioed megalomaniac‟ A. Lukashenko (https://www.lonelyplanet.com), the last country in Europe where the deprivation of human rights still exists (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1- 82513928.html). As can be seen from the analysis of western web-sources Belarus is also widely known for the Chernobyl tragedy that also affects the image of the destination in a negative way,

62 as a major part of the territory was polluted by radioactive fallout and hence this place is not safe to travel. In the presentation of the history of Belarus the main attention is given to the modern period, the period of WWII and to Soviet times. One of the most influential travel guides ‗Lonely Planet‘ compared the country with a ‗Soviet time capsule‘. Belarus has become a nice place to travel if you want to experience ‗communistic chic‘, to see the realization of the general plan that was constructed by the communist party in the mid of twentieth century and seems to have remained untouched since that time. This is how Minsk, the capital of Belarus, is positioned:

„Ostensibly, it's a European capital, but officially, the city hearkens back to Soviet times: the KGB building is impossible to miss, and people speak about spies, wire taps and stool pigeons in their midst‟. (http://www.lonelyplanet.com/belarus/minsk)

During its history Belarus has suffered a lot. The country was totally destroyed in WW2 that is why nowadays there are comparatively little early monuments that one can see. From the castles and monasteries more often than not only legends remain. According to Western web sources Belarus should be proud of its nature, its villages and people. But information on those topics is very poor, it is limited to just naming the main parks and destinations. As can be seen various aspects of Belarus are not presented: information on culture and history is lacking, and a lot of attention given to the socio-political situation in the country nowadays, to the influence of Chernobyl and to introduction services offering meeting Russian ladies. Focusing on several aspects of the image of Belarus creates a ‗one-dimensional image‘ about the destination – dictatorship, radioactive pollution, destroyed after the WW2, former communist regime – that has become recognizable in the West.

4.3.2 Patterns

The analysis of the image of Belarus is presented by Western sites has proven to use the following most general patterns: 1. Domination of the images of the national flag and map of Belarus: These symbols play a major role in distinguishing the destination and are present in all the selected web-sites. Alongside with the official symbols of Belarus some sites (http://www.belarusguide.com, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102180.stm, http://flagspot.net/flags/by.html) have also included the old ones (white-red-white flag and symbol ‗Pogonya‘) that were adopted in 1991 when the country received its independence. Now those symbols are used by the Belarusian opposition. The use of old symbols can point to the disagreement of Western authorities with the political situation in the destination country nowadays. This is reinforced by the content of many of the Western sites (https://www.infoplease.com, https://www.travelstate.gov, https://www.nationsonline.gov, https://www.lonelyplanet.gov, https://www.wikitravel.org, https://www.flayspot.net, https://www.answers.com, https://www.travelnotes.org, https://www.countrystudies.us). The sites introduce the geographical map of the Belarus and provide the view of the country on the world map to define its bearings. That can point to lack of popularity of the destination among Western tourists that requires a more detailed description of its geographical position. 2. Structured, balanced information: information provides a lot of statistical data and encyclopedic facts about the country. Poetic function is absent in the description of the destination. General images of Belarus are presented (national symbols, views of Minsk, bison, Bielovezha Reserve) without deeper description of the destination and its culture. Such superficial conceptualization of the country comes from the lack of information about it because of socio-political isolation of Belarus from Western societies. While being ‗isolated‘ from the western countries Belarus has built close links with its Eastern neighbors. Open borders with Ukraine, with the Russian Federation, common history, religion and similar languages and cultural traditions favor the development of strong socio-economic and political relations with these countries. 3. Image of a communist country: there are a number of views with monuments from Soviet times, views of Belarusian cities and the capital that were built according to general development plans that were developed during the USSR period. A lot of historical monuments on the territory

64 of Belarus were destroyed during WW2 that is why socialist classicism is dominant in the architecture style and the country is strongly associated with that period of time. 4. Beautiful women: sites contain scores of photos of pretty model-looking women. This image is strongly associated with Slavic women, with pleasure, night life, and glamour and has a negative connotation on some internet sources. Apart from this pattern there is another one that is associated with Russian and Belarusian ladies - the image of ‗Babushka‘ – a middle aged woman in a kerchief (―babushka‖), very kind and surrounded by her grandchildren. This type of a woman is associated with traditions and with authentic Belarusian culture. 5. Traditional masculine society: this feature does not appear directly from the images but still it is recognizable that on monuments men dominate over women, women are presented as good house keepers who help men, rather than persons of the same or dominant position. According to G.Hofstede (1995) societies where a man takes dominant role and a woman remains modest and caring are called masculine, where such values as assertiveness and competitiveness dominate. 6. Unknown destination: the images contains widely known facts on the destination – national symbols, panorama of the capital, main sightseeing – Bielovezha, Mir Castle. But there is no references to Belarusian culture, traditions, famous persons, places that the country is proud of. The information is ‗hidden‘ from the tourist who would like to explore the country as the access to Russian and Belarusian web sources is limited due to language barrier. Very few Belarusian web- sources provide full English versions of their sites with the description of the destination.

The analysis of the linguistic code of the Western web-sites allows singling out the following patterns: 1. Country with an authoritarian regime: Belarus is presented as the ‗last dictatorship in Europe‘ where human rights are infringed. The President is characterized as an authoritarian person who concentrates all the power in his hands. 2. Affected by Chernobyl disaster: Chernobyl is strongly associated with Belarus as the major part of its territory was polluted. This fact has a negative impact on the image of the country as some destinations were closed for the tourists because of high levels of radioactivity. 3. Influence of neighbor states: During its history the territory of Belarus has belonged to different states – Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania, and Poland. That had a strong impact on its culture, language, architecture. During the Soviet times the Belarusian language was eradicated, the cities that were ruined after WWII by German occupants were reconstructed according to general development plan that was adopted by Soviet Union. Architectural monuments were not rebuilt,

65 except a couple of them. The loss of authenticity makes Belarus a less competitive destination on the tourism market. 4. Nature: one of the main advantages of the destination is its nature that you can enjoy in the national parks of Bielavezha, Berezina, Pripiat. Belarus attracts tourists by its dense forests and beautiful lakes. Taking into account this advantage and lack of places to see the agro-tourism has developed in Belarusian villages that provide opportunities to enjoy authentic culture and nature. Information on national parks and forests, especially on agro-tourism is not widely presented on western sites. Among 35 selected web-sources only one is dedicated to the description of Belarusian nature – https://www.belarusguide.com. Comparing to Belarusian and Russian web-sites that were analyzed, the main emphasis is given to enjoying the nature and vacations in nature environment. Belarus is positioned as a country with untouched forests and crystal lakes. This fact illustrates that the country is ‗hidden‘ for western tourists and the lack of information about the destination exists on western web sources. 5. Belarusian woman: the content of western sites contains advertisements on meeting Belarusian ladies. There is an image of a Slavic woman as a young, good looking model concentrated more on family values than on career making: „Belarusian women have also the best qualities of Belarusian people: modesty, neatness, consciousness, comfort in family life and responsibility.‟ (http://www.city-of- brides.com/profiles/belarusian-woman) Belarus is a society where the differentiation of social roles between men and women still exists – men concentrate on career and women are housekeepers. That is why women pay a lot of attention to their appearance as they need to find a responsible, well-to-do man that is vital to build a good family. Due to unstable economic situation in the countries of Eastern Europe some ladies look for husbands in more wealthy societies. That can be the reason for numerous advertisements with Belarusian women on western web-sources. To sum up, the general frame of the image of Belarus that is constructed by Western web sources includes such patterns as a country with authoritarian regime where violation of human rights exists. The memory of Soviet times that you can experience while visiting the capital and other destinations. A country that was affected by the Chernobyl disaster and is still feeling its impact. A destination with authentic nature and rare animals, hospitable people and attractive family oriented women. Taking into account the patterns that were presented the image of Belarus has a negative connotation.

66 5 Discussion

The analysis of the image of Belarus constructed on web-sources of three different regions – Belarus, Russia and Western countries (USA, UK, Canada, Germany) – has illustrated that the destination is ‗framed‘ in different ways. The following frame of the image of Belarus was defined on Russian web-sites:  Belarus is a neighbor country, economical partner of Russia. Two countries have much in common – their history, religion, language, cultural traditions, as well as open borders, and form an economic union. This factor makes the possibility to travel to Belarus easier and opens an opportunity for two cultures to exchange their customs and traditions.  Belarus is a country with dense forests and numerous lakes that provide opportunities for hunting, fishing, and experiencing lifestyle of its authentic villages. There is an opportunity to combine holidays in health resorts where you can improve your health with enjoying the nature of the country.  Belarus is an agricultural country: Agriculture is the main sector of the economy. Production of the sphere is mainly oriented on export to the Russian Federation that constructs the recognizable image of the country known for agricultural machine-building, cattle breeding and dairy production. Recent years the idea of agro-tourism has developed greatly that stimulate Belarusian villages to revive old traditions that should attract tourists to the destination.  Belarus is associated with hospitable, friendly people and beautiful women. The mentalities of the Russians and the Belarusians are similar due to similarities in their cultures, language, history, and economic ties that make the process of communication and understanding each other easier. The tourist comes to a country where s/he can speak her/his language and meet a similar culture feels more comfortable as s/he does not need to spend extra time to search for information about the place and knowledge of foreign language is not required. That means that the adaptation period is minimal and you can dedicate this period to relaxing and enjoying the place.

Belarusian web-sites have presented the country in the following way:  The country of blue lakes and dense forests: the Belarusian tour-operators place a major emphasis on natural environment while promoting the destination. Almost one-third of the territory of the country is covered with forests and there are over 11 thousand lakes and 20,000 rivers. Moreover in the National Park ‗Bielovezhskaya Puscha‘ a rare animal – bison – has been preserved, that for a long time was the only place where it was possible to see it. That forms the unique character of the destination that should attract tourists.

 Country with authentic culture: Belarusian government has tried to revive forgotten traditions and the lifestyle of Belarusian villages by adopting the idea of agro-tourism. During the period of USSR the language and culture of Belarus have been suppressed in order to construct a universal society where everybody should be the same. During that period the process of migration of population to urban areas has increased that brought to the problem of degradation of villages and lost of authenticity. Developing the idea of agro- tourism helps to revive forgotten traditions and professions, attracts young specialists to villages, stimulates local population, and revives the historical past of the country.  Hospitality of Belarusians: this feature of the Belarusian character has already become a part of the brand that is constructed by Belarusian tour-operators. Friendliness, open- mindedness, hospitality are authentic features of the national character according to some authors (Pilipenko, 1981; Kirienko, 2000; Korshuk, 2003). Belarus for centuries had belonged to different states – Russia, Kievan Rus, Poland, etc. – that established their rules on the territory. The presence of other nationalities and life under the control of other states had formed in Belarusians a tolerant view towards others. Good relations with its closest neighbors influenced the construction of a positive attitude towards foreigners. Those factors, according to culturologists, have become a precondition for the formation of such features of national character as openness, hospitality and friendliness.

The western web-sites have suggested the following image of the destination:  Socio- political situation: Belarus is presented as a ‗dictatorship‘, a country that is under authoritarian regime of A.Lukashenko. It is the last country in Europe where violation of human rights still exists.

 Belarus is situated on the border between EU-countries and the Russian Federation. The bias towards the Eastern neighbor and living in full accord with its values has stumbled upon a misunderstanding on the part of Western societies.  Chernobyl disaster: this tragedy made Belarus known worldwide and is associated with radioactive pollution and unsafe place. The country has suffered more than any other of its neighbors and is still affected by its consequences.  The lost of authenticity: during the whole period of history Belarus had belonged to different states – Kievan Rus, Russian Empire, Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Rzecz Pospolita. The culture of this land has assimilated traditions of those states. During the period of USSR Belarusian language was forbidden. Nowadays Belarus has two official languages – Russian and Belarusian. But the Russian language dominates – people use it in everyday life, compulsory and higher education is in Russian, local newspapers and magazines also use Russian. Belarusian has become the language of cultural elite and of a small group of young people who are against the political regime established in the country.  Unsafe destination: the content of western web-sites contains a great number of advices on how to behave in different regions of Belarus. The country is positioned as dangerous especially for a foreigner as s/he can become a victim of numerous thieves and also because of language barrier (it is easy to get lost as tourist information on English is not presented).  Belarusian women: the sites do not contain information about Belarusian ladies directly. But a number of web-sources contain the advertisements of introduction services that promote relationships with Belarusian women who are characterized as modest, good- looking, and educated and family oriented.

As can be seen the image that is promoted by Russian and Belarusian web-sites looks similar. Belarus has a positive image based on such advantages as  Nature;  Agro-tourism;  Medical treatment;  Possibilities for active leisure: bike routes, bus tours, hunting, fishing, snowboarding;

 Hospitality of Belarusians;  Destinations: Minsk, Brest, Vitebsk, Grodno, Polotsk, Bielovezhskaya Puscha, Berezina National Park, Braslav Lakes, Nesvizh Castle, Mir Castle.  Famous Persons: Mark Chagall, F.Skaryna, E of Polatsk. Russian tour-operators are more goal-oriented as they focus not only on destination and construction of its emotional image but also on services that can be consumed. There are two approaches to image construction on Belarusian web-sources: State organizations, such as National Tourism Agency, ‗Intourist‘, Ministry for Sport and Tourism, have constructed an ideal model of the destination. That includes both an emotional description of sightseeing, culture and people, and the cognitive element that is presented through detailed, compehensive information about the country. This frame is similar to a ―specific concern‖ that is constructed by Belarusian culturologists and historians. The construction of a ‗specific concern‘ is the first stage of framing according to frame theory. This concern is accessible and it is inserted into the minds of the Belarusians through the web sources of state organizations - National Tourism Agency, ‗Intourist‘, Ministry for Sport and Tourism. The web-sources of private tourist agencies are mainly goal-oriented and focused on providing services and tours around Belarus. Nevertheless the constructed frame is also used for the creation of a positive image of the destination that can attract tourists. Western web-sites create a negative uninvestigated image of destination. Belarus is framed as a ‗soviet time capsule‘, a dictatorship that is ruled by one person. The image of the country is associated with danger, KGB, mafia, infringement of human rights and beautiful women. The view on the country is one dimensional that means that the sources mainly focuse on description of some particular topics (Chernobyl disaster, President Elections) and do not take into account other spheres. Such differentiation in presenting the country can be caused by the political and economic orientation of Belarus. The country is situated on the border between the EU and the Russian Federation that is why a lot of attention is given to the direction of its development from both sides. The economical sector of the country is dependent on its Eastern neighbor that is why social, political and other spheres are mainly oriented on values of that state even if they do not coincide with the orientation of its Western neighbors. The option of union with the Russian Federation was made also due to common historical past, religion, language, culture and traditions of both countries. The warm relations established between Belarus and Russia can be

70 seen in a saying invented by people – ‗Belarus is a little sister of Russia‘. Treating its neighbor as a member of the family creates conditions for the construction of a positive image of Belarus by Russian Web-sources. The positive frame of Belarus that is constructed on Belarusian web-sites is based on the specific concern that was constructed by the Belarusian authorities. This frame was produced in order to enhance the patriotic features of the country and to promote it as an attractive destination with rich history and cultural traditions. This concern is widely promoted through the sites of state tourism agents and is used by private travel agents. This makes the concern accessible for the wide audience and inserts it in their minds. The negative image of Belarus that is promoted by the Western web-sources can be explained by the following reasons:  Disagreement of the western authorities with the political situation in Belarus. The country is governed by a strong leader who concentrates the power in his hands. Traditionally Belarus has always been under the control of strong authorities and having a strong leader is necessary for Belarusians as they associate this pressure of the regime with establishing order in the society.  Lack of information about the destination. As can be seen in the analyzed sources there are few facts about Belarus and there is no thorough presentation of its culture, history and traditions. This leads to the shaping of a one-dimensional image of the country that includes only general encyclopedic facts (language, geographical location, and climate) and priority news (Presidential elections, disasters).  Not recognizable image of Belarus as a touristic destination. The image of Belarus that is promoted by Belarusian web-sources is not recognizable in the West. That can be due to the absence of communication strategy that would be oriented at the promotion of Belarus among Western tourists and also because of language barrier as not all Belarusian web- sources have an English version of the site. The analysis of the image from three different standpoints has shown that there is no common frame that is constructed to characterize one destination. Information that is provided by tour operators depends both on physical characteristics of the place (climate, sightseeing, infrastructure) and the cultural component, the set of attitudes and values through which we perceive the world. Media has become a means that can manipulate information and provide facts from the viewpoint that is suitable.

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74 Appendix

Appendix 1: A list of Russian web-sites Appendix 2: A list of Belarusian web-sites Appendix 3: A list of Western web-sites

75 Appendix 1: A list of Russian web-sites 1. http://www.ayda.ru/hotels/show_country.php?id=46 2. http://fotki.yandex.ru/tags/беларусь/ 3. http://www.turizm.ru/book/20/ 4. http://www.kandagar.com/objects/belarus/index.htm 5. http://www.solvex.ru/countries/belarus/ 6. http://www.aturis.ru/belarus.aspx 7. http://www.favorit-travel.ru/tours/sanatorium/belarus/ 8. http://www.alphatour.by/countries/belarus 9. http://turi100.net/rest?region_id&country_id=129 10. http://www.petropol.info/resorts_belarus 11. http://www.bel-travel.ru/ 12. http://www.ruskurort.ru/belorussia.htm 13. http://travel.mail.ru/place/11326/ 14. http://www.tourlux.com/belarus/ 15. http://www.ubereg.ru/bl-rt-belru1.htm 16. http://www.aurore.ru/country.php?id=375 17. http://belarus.rtour.ru/ 18. http://www.alitet-tur.ru/belorus/zhuravushka.htm 19. http://www.nofollow.ru/detail60147.htm 20. http://seepla.net/pages/Беларусь 21. http://gobelarus.narod.ru/ 22. http://tours.ru/guide/countries/by/ 23. http://www.tur-hotel.ru/hotels/belarus/ 24. http://actionby.ru/otdyx-v-belarusi/ 25. http://ru.poezdka.de/113/belarus.html 26. http://videohotels.ru/belarus 27. http://www.russ-tur.ru/belorus.php 28. http://www.votpusk.ru/country/country.asp?CN=BEL 29. http://www.denant.ru/belarus/index.php 30. http://bp21.org.by/ru/art/a080215a.html 31. http://www.zvput.ru/kurort/belarys/ 32. http://www.davs.ru/hotels_catalog/guide/index.php?te2=yes&country=by&page=733 33. http://www.vkoclub.ru/country/149.aspx 34. http://skorootpusk.ru/tours/belarys/ 35. http://www.e-turizm.ru/belarus.html

Appendix 2: A list of Belarusian web-sites

1. http://www.belarustourist.minsk.by/ 2. http://www.president.gov.by/en/ 3. http://www.belarus-misc.org/ 4. http://belarustourism.by/ 5. http://www.sanatorii.by/?art=12 6. http://belarus.turist.by/main/index/index.php 7. http://www.holiday.by/village_country.asp 8. http://www.ruralbelarus.by 9. http://www.nemiga.info/turist.htm 10. http://belarus-travel.by/ 11. http://www.greentravel.by/ 12. http://www.rapitvina.com/ta-page_222.htm 13. http://www.naroch.com/gallery/belpirl/ 14. http://www.hramy.com/ 15. http://www.travelplanet.by/2398.html 16. http://www.tamby.info/usadby/usadby.htm 17. http://leotour.by/otdyih-v-belarusi/4.html 18. http://wandrouka.com/ 19. http://www.hunt.by/ 20. http://www.tourcafe.by/select/belarus/ 21. http://hutor.by/ 22. http://www.polesie-wetlands.by/pages/ecotourism-in-belarus.aspx 23. http://promagro.by/menu.php?id=451 24. http://www.wild.by/ 25. http://www.usadba.by/ 26. http://www.safari.by/country/belarus 27. http://www.madaction.info/archives/166 28. http://www.brestobl.com/gorod/regbr/2tur.html 29. http://www.1-mt.com/index.php?page=country&country_id=1 30. http://www.intercity.by/belarus/ 31.http://www.novopolotsk.by 32. http://www.priroda-lux.by/ 33. http://www.chenki.com/28.html 34. http://argotour.by/content/view/10/22/ 35. http://sunholiday.by/belarus

77 Appendix 3: A list of Western web-sites 1. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belarus 2. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bo.html 3. http://www.belarusguide.com/main/index.html 4. http://www.lonelyplanet.com/belarus 5. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5371.htm 6. http://www.belarus.net/ 7. http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/bytoc.html 8. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1102180.stm 9. http://flagspot.net/flags/by.html 10. http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107325.html 11. http://wikitravel.org/en/Belarus 12. http://www.belarus.org.uk/ 13. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/59081/Belarus 14. http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/about-the-fco/country-profiles/europe/belarus 15. http://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/belarus.htm 16. http://www.smartraveller.gov.au/zw-cgi/view/Advice/Belarus 17. http://www.worldtravelguide.net/country/29/country_guide/Europe/Belarus.html 18. http://www.virtualtourist.com/travel/Europe/Belarus/TravelGuide-Belarus.html 19. http://www.answers.com/topic/belarus 20. http://www.geocities.com/albaruthenia/VL/ (2 icons) 21. http://www.countryreports.org/country.aspx?countryid=25&countryName=Belarus 22. http://countrystudies.us/belarus/ 23. http://www.tripadvisor.com/Tourism-g294447-Belarus-Vacations.html 24. http://www.ceebd.co.uk/countrie/busprof/belarus.htm 25. http://www.belarusguide.com/nature1/Nature.html 26. http://www.nationmaster.com/country/bo-belarus 27. http://www.encyclopedia.com/topic/Belarus.aspx 28. http://travel.nationalgeographic.com/places/countries/country_belarus.html 29. http://www.voyage.gc.ca/countries_pays/report_rapport-eng.asp?id=27000 30. http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/belarus.htm 31.http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travelling-and-living-overseas/travel-advice-bycountry/europe/belarus 32. http://www.world66.com/europe/belarus 33. http://travel.state.gov/travel/cis_pa_tw/cis/cis_1033.html 34. http://www.travelnotes.org/Europe/belarus.htm 35. http://www.ncsj.org/Belarus.shtml