xxvi s. © Daniel Beltrá/Greenpeace Industrial agriculture is a method of intensive crop production that is characterized by large monoculture farms and plantation monoculture that is characterized by large production is a method of intensive crop Industrial agriculture

Photo:

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 1

INTRODUCTION Biodiversity has essential social, economic, cultural, spiritual and scientifi c values and Section 1: Industrial its protection is hugely important for human survival. Th e rapid loss of biodiversity, unprec- Agriculture and Ape edented in the last 65 million years, is jeopard- Conservation ising the provision of ecosystem services that underpin human well-being. [. . .] Measures to conserve biodiversity and make a sustainable society possible need to be greatly enhanced and integrated with social, political and eco- nomic concerns.

Statement from the Blue Planet Prize Laureates: Gro Harlem Brundtland, Paul Ehrlich, José Goldemberg, James Hansen, Gene Likens, Amory Lovins, Suki Manabe, Bob May, Hal Mooney, Karl-Henrik Robèrt, Emil Salim, Gordon Sato, Susan Solomon, Nicholas Stern, M. S. Swaminathan, Robert Watson, Barefoot College, Conservation International, International Institute for Environment and Development and the International Union for Conservation of Nature. ocial and economic systems world- (Brundtland et al., 2012, p. 2) wide are changing rapidly, accompa- nied by an increasing global demand Th e one process now going on that will take S for natural resources, including land, millions of years to correct is the loss of genetic water, minerals, energy sources, food and and species diversity by the destruction of timber. In areas where the climate, confl ict, natural habitats. Th is is the folly our descend- human population growth, and human ants are least likely to forgive us. population movements are aff ecting avail- ability, these changes are tied to a scarcity of E.O. Wilson, Biophilia (Wilson, 1984, p. 121) natural resources. Th e impacts of many of these social and economic transformations— many of which are propelled by the forces of globalization—are refl ected in changes in the climate; the availability and quantity of water, toxicity and eutrophication of water- ways; food scarcity in many areas of the world; a loss of biodiversity; and declining terrestrial and marine ecosystems. Finding the tools to both understand and address the complexity of these interrelated trends, and to implement strategies to balance envi- ronmental needs with social and economic requirements, is the foremost challenge facing us today. Th e State of the Apes series is an eff ort to contribute to this search by providing accurate information on the cur- rent situation, identifying viable solutions, and presenting apes as a fl agship species

Introduction Section 1 2

Photo: Measures to con- that can contribute to the conservation of serve biodiversity and make a sustainable society pos- tropical forest ecosystems worldwide. sible need to be greatly enhanced. © HUTAN - Commissioned by the Arcus Foundation Kinabatangan Orang-utan and published biennially, State of the Apes Conservation Project has a twofold objective: to raise awareness about the status of apes around the world and to present detailed information on the impacts of human activities on apes and ape habitats. Accordingly, the publication com- prises two sections. Th e fi rst of these, the thematic section, focuses on a diff erent key theme in each edition; it presents original research and rigorous analysis of the cur- rent situation and highlights selected best practice, with a view to stimulating debate, informing policy and practice, and promot- ing eff orts to integrate economic and social development with conservation of wilderness and wildlife. Section 2 consists of two chap- ters that consider the status and welfare of apes, in their natural habitat and in captivity. By using apes as an example, the publication also aims to underscore the importance of species conservation. State of the Apes covers all non-human ape species, namely bonobos, chimpanzees, gibbons, gorillas and orangutans, as well as their habitats. Ape ranges cover countries throughout the tropical belt of Africa and Since apes are closely related to humans, South and Southeast Asia. For details on they are vulnerable to many of the same each ape species, including their ecology and diseases and stresses. As forests are opened geographic range, see the Apes Over view by human encroachment, the proximity (page x). Robust statistics on the status and between apes and humans is increasing, as welfare of apes are derived from the A.P.E.S. is the incidence of direct contact with each Portal (Ape Populations, Environments other. To promote an understanding of and Surveys) (IUCN SSC, n.d.), with abun- both the impact and extent of these changes dance estimates of the diff erent ape taxa with respect to land use, this edition brings presented in the Abundance Annex, avail- together the expertise and experiences of able on the State of the Apes website at leading scholars and practitioners from www.stateoft heapes.com. various sectors, including civil society, indus- Apes are vulnerable to many threats try and academia, with the ultimate aim of posed to their habitats by humans. Many of identifying possibilities and potential for these threats are linked to the human use avoidance and mitigation of harm. of their habitats, as well as more direct Th e fi rst edition of State of the Apes pre- interactions, such as hunting and capture. sents research, analysis, case studies and

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 3

BOX I.1 Industrial Agriculture: Definitions and Usage

State of the Apes defines the term “industrial agriculture” as a method of intensive crop production that is characterized by large monoculture farms and plantations that rely heavily on chemicals, pesticides, herbi- cides, fertilizers, intensive water use, and large-scale transport, storage and distribution infrastructure. While this edition uses the term “industrial agriculture,” it is also referred to as industrial farming, intensive agri- culture or farming, plantation agriculture, large-scale agriculture and commercial farming. Monocultures are a key feature of industrial agriculture; they are part of a strategy to achieve economies of scale and reduce production costs. The term “concession” refers to a relatively large area of land that is allocated to agricultural investors for the industrialized production of crops, generally by a government. Even though smallholder farmers are known to have significant impacts on tropical forests, including ape habitats (Etiendem et al., 2013), it is beyond the scope of this publication to consider all agricultural sectors. For this reason, this volume only covers smallholder farmers who are part of a system that relies on an industry partner to provide inputs or purchase the commodity, thereby contributing to an expansive mono- culture landscape. In these relationships, the farmers are also known as “outgrowers.” On the same basis, this edition considers only the interface of ape conservation and crop production, including agroforestry and tree crops, even though industrial agriculture may also refer to the industri- alized production of livestock, poultry and fish. Key commodities such as cocoa, coffee, palm oil, paper and pulp, rubber, sugarcane and tea, produced as a result of large-scale production, are included.

best practice from a range of key stakehold- and retail), law (legislative protections, ers relating to the interface between ape industry regulation), civil society and human conservation and the extractive industries. development—not least by showing how Th is second edition does the same in rela- these communities interrelate and aff ect the tion to the interface between conservation status and welfare of apes, and of people. At and industrial agriculture (see Box I.1). It the policy level, this volume aims to intro- examines relevant factors such as the driv- duce ape conservation into local, national, ers behind agricultural expansion and land regional and international policy dialogues; investments, governance and the legal frame- industry policy and practice; and develop- work at this interface, and voluntary stand- ment and economic planning. ards and certifi cation. By aiming to take an Th is introductory chapter provides a objective approach to the subject matter, brief overview of the context in which indus- this volume is designed to contribute to trial agriculture operates and the broader improvements in current conservation prac- linkages to ape conservation globally. Th e tice and to inform and infl uence stakehold- specifi cs of this interaction are more fully ers, policy and practice in sectors as diverse explored in the six thematic chapters, which as commerce (agribusiness, manufacturing are summarized below.

Introduction Section 1 4

Industrial Agriculture Th e tropical ecosystems in sub-Saharan and Apes Africa and Latin America are the primary extensive areas of land left with potential for Based on the projected growth of the human the development of industrial agriculture population, and anticipated development of (Laurance, Sayer and Cassman, 2014b). Th e global demand for agricultural products, it is expansion and development of the agricul- estimated that global agricultural production tural estate would not only have obvious will have to increase by an estimated 60 implications for forested habitats and wild- from 2005 to 2050 to meet the anticipated life populations, but also signifi cant indirect global demand for agricultural products, impacts on humans, not least through the such as food and biofuels (Alexandratos and release of greenhouse gases and conse- Bruinsma, 2012, p. 7). An estimated addi- quent acceleration of climate change. While tional 700,000 km² (70 million ha) of land Chapter 1 and other sections in this volume will be needed to meet this demand. Since touch on the risks and impacts of climate production is expected to decline in devel- change, this important issue will be addressed oped countries, however, developing coun- in much greater depth in a future edition of tries will be required to make available a State of the Apes. projected 1.32 million km² (132 million ha) of For agriculture to be sustainable and land, primarily in sub-Saharan Africa and able to meet the demand for food and other Latin America (Alexandratos and Bruinsma, commodities, it needs to be considered in 2012, p. 11). the context of a rapidly changing world. It Th e Institute of Economic Aff airs high- is critical to understand how factors such lights effi cient, large-scale industrial agricul- as urbanization, growing inequalities and ture as a solution to these demands (Boyfi eld, divisions between the poor and the wealthy, 2013). In stark contrast, the G20 Inter-Agency human migration, climate change, water Working Group on food security points shortages and fl oods, environmental degra- to evidence that large-scale land acquisi- dation, globalization and changing dietary tions in developing countries to create “mega- preferences are infl uencing agricultural pro- farms” are the type of investment least duction and practice around the world. As likely to generate signifi cant net benefi ts to this volume demonstrates, industrial agri- host countries and local communities in culture is a major cause of encroachment terms of agricultural development (IAWG, into tropical forests. Documented eff ects of 2011). Th e Working Group suggests that forest degradation and clearance on wildlife, smallholder farming based on contract including great apes and gibbons, illustrate farming, outgrower schemes and joint ven- the impact industrial agriculture can have on tures with farmer groups is more condu- biodiversity. Th e ramifi cations include local cive to sustainable economic development. and global food insecurity and pressures Th e introduction of genetically modifi ed on productive capacity as well as entire eco- organisms (GMOs) into agricultural produc- systems. Th e complex political, social and tion has enormous potential to infl uence economic decision-making that drives the the dynamics of the industry. Although of expansion of industrial agriculture needs signifi cant importance in many parts of the to consider the environmental factors that world, GMO use remains relatively rare in underpin the industry, and the diversity of ape range states across both Africa and species that is required for ecosystem health. South east Asia and is therefore not consid- In this context, apes can serve as an indicator ered in this volume. species for biodiversity in general.

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 5

A signifi cant proportion of tropical for- serious impact on apes (Wich et al., 2014). Photo: Palm oil—used for food, cosmetics, toiletries est in South and Southeast Asia has already As refl ected in this volume, more research and biofuels—is the fastest- been converted to serve the needs of large- has been carried out on the production of growing monoculture in the world. scale agricultural production systems. In palm oil than on any other commodity. © Wilmar International drawing attention to the consequences of Due to its expansive industrial production, this expansion for apes and their habitats, palm oil is the commodity that has had the this edition seeks to inform the trajectory greatest impact on ape habitats in Asia and of industrial agriculture in Africa, where that poses the most signifi cant threat to those cultivation rates are relatively low but pre- in Africa. Th is edition also assesses the dicted to increase dramatically in the fore- impacts of a number of other crops on ape seeable future. Palm oil—used for food, conservation and welfare, including acacia, cosmetics, toiletries and biofuels—is the cacao, rubber, sugarcane and tobacco, thereby fastest-growing monoculture in the world speaking to any industrial-scale agricultural (Gerber, 2011; FAO, 2014a) and will likely production undertaken in ape habitats. account for a considerable portion of that expansion. Since 42 of Africa’s great ape population inhabit areas suitable for oil Chapter Highlights palm development, and since only a small proportion of that land is protected, the Th e fi rst six chapters of this edition of State expansion of this crop is certain to have a of the Apes focus on the various aspects of

Introduction Section 1 6

Photo: Tobacco growing the interface of industrial agriculture and on recently cleared forest Section 1: The Interface of land in Bulindi, Uganda. ape conservation. Chapter 1 provides a Industrial Agriculture and © Matthew McLennan broad overview of the direct and indirect Ape Conservation impacts of industrial agriculture on apes and ape habitat. Chapter 2 discusses the Chapter 1: Direct and Indirect overlap between industrial agriculture and Impacts of Industrial Agriculture ape conservation and considers contexts As the human population grows and the within which this interface has developed. associated demand for land for cultivation Chapter 3 focuses on Africa, the continent of both food and non-food commodities whose apes have been least aff ected by indus- increases, particularly in the tropics, agri- trial agriculture. Given that this situation is culture will inevitably have an impact on expected to shift signifi cantly in the coming apes and their habitats and aff ect their decades, the chapter lays out an in-depth chances for survival. Th e impacts will be analysis of the context and drivers of agri- felt not only through the clearing of land cultural expansion—and of their predicted for large-scale plantations, but also through interaction with apes. Chapter 4 presents increasing contact between ape popula- an analysis of the legislative frameworks at tions that are squeezed into ever-shrinking the interface of industrial agriculture and ape patches of forest, as well as between apes conservation across a number of ape range and humans, as they compete for space states and discusses the relevance of engage- ment with legal instruments to infl uence the relationship between the two sectors. A dis- cussion of the establishment and evolution of a key voluntary standard, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO), and an assessment of its impact on ape conserva- tion form the basis of Chapter 5. Th is volun- tary standard resonates markedly with ape conservation due to the extensive impact of palm oil production on ape habitats, espe- cially in the Asian context. Chapter 6 puts forward the current understanding of ape ecology in relation to impacts of industrial agriculture. While formal research at this interface remains limited, particularly in relation to African great apes and Asian gibbons, the chapter off ers insight based on research in ape socioecology and observa- tions from expert primatologists. Section 2 is made up of two chapters that focus on broader conservation issues for apes across Africa and Asia (Chapter 7) and for those in captivity (Chapter 8). Th e chapter highlights are included in the introduction to Section 2 (see page 194).

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 7 and for food. Th e mounting frequency of Chapter 2: Extent of Overlap interactions between humans and apes will Th is chapter explores the extent to which inevitably lead to the killing and capture of industrial agriculture overlaps with ape increasing numbers of apes. Th is chapter habitats. Th rough the use of a number of explores the direct and indirect impacts of data sets, including the Land Matrix and industrial agriculture, evaluating the rele- the Global Forest Watch online platform, vance of industrial agriculture—and palm several patterns emerge. Comparisons show oil in particular—for poverty reduction that in Asia, where a signifi cant amount of and land tenure. It also discusses the inter- land has been allocated to industrial agri- face between industrial agriculture and cultural use, the impact on ape habitats is climate change and—via two case studies, far greater than in Africa; they also reveal one from Kalimantan, Indonesia, and the regional differences within Africa, with other from Bulindi, Uganda—reveals how industrial agriculture concessions seemingly the development of industrial agriculture concentrated in West Africa. Other issues, aff ects apes as a result of increased exposure such as agricultural concessions overlapping to people and human activity. Th e fi nal with protected areas, point to inadequate section reviews factors that could motivate planning and governance with respect to land the agricultural industry to engage in ape use and allocation. conservation and mitigation strategies— Th ree case studies—Cameroon, Liberia and the means for such engagement. and on the island of Borneo—explore the evolution of deforestation due to industrial agriculture. A common fi nding is that indus- trial agriculture was fi rst established under colonial administrations; yet while signifi - cant deforestation linked to industrial agri- culture continued across Borneo for decades aft er the end of colonial rule, this course was not pursued in the other locations, largely due to diff ering political contexts, including a lengthy civil war in Liberia. In response to a recent resurgence of interest in developing the agricultural sector, however, the alloca- tion of concessions has been on the rise in both Cameroon and Liberia. In Liberia, a recent agreement with Norway for results- based development aid holds some promise for ensuring that decision-making on agri- cultural expansion takes into consideration areas of signifi cant biodiversity, including ape habitats, and local communities.

Chapter 3: Cause of Conversion— Focus on Africa Th e forests of the Congo Basin and West Africa present some of the largest areas

Introduction Section 1 8

suitable for the expansion of industrial agri- perceived and managed. Th is chapter focuses culture and are also home to important pop- on the national legal systems across eight ulations of great apes. Agriculture already ape range states—Cambodia, Cameroon, represents a signifi cant part of sub-Saharan the Democratic Republic of Congo, Gabon, Africa’s economy; however, a shift in the Indonesia, Liberia, Malaysia and Myanmar composition of this sector—essentially from —all of which also have signifi cant agri- one dominated by smallholders to one that businesses. In exploring the extent to which is increasingly industrial in nature—is likely legislation interfaces with ape conservation, to have signifi cant implications for the conti- it reviews agribusiness tenure arrangements nent’s forests and ape habitats. Th is chapter and highlights confl ict with conservation, presents details on the drivers of this shift , such as requirements that companies make including information on the geographic productive use of all land within their con- variation and extent of crops that land invest- cessions despite possible contravention of ments have targeted. Oilseed crops, includ- environmental considerations. Th e chap- ing oil palm, castor, sesame and sunfl ower, ter also assesses the process by which agri- have attracted the most commercial inter- business concessions are allocated, pointing est, with oil palm being the second-largest to institutional complexities and power crop in terms of total land area purchased dynamics that infl uence decisions. It then for cultivation. Th e recent increase in the discusses the role and extent of provisions number of large-scale land acquisitions in for environmental protections, such as the Africa has been accompanied by impacts on Environmental Impact Assess ment, and apes and tropical forest. While the expan- the degree of transparency and monitoring sion continues to be driven by the increase in of compliance with legislation on species the global demand for commodities—as well protection, which is oft en hindered in the as by relatively easy access to land and low face of competing agribusiness interests. set-up costs in Africa compared to else- Unsurprisingly, institutional capacity and where—the development of the industry political economy considerations are at the has been aff ected by the Ebola outbreak in root of poor environmental protection, a West Africa and the global decline in palm state of aff airs that is unlikely to improve in oil prices. Despite the challenges, investor the absence of robust mechanisms to sanc- interest is likely to persist, especially as tion governments. Yet as the chapter’s case domestic and regional demand is predicted study demonstrates, legal mechanisms have to increase and current production is not been used to uphold the enforcement of adequately supplying those markets. What environmental laws: in Sumatra, such mech- remains to be seen is whether African states anisms proved successful in blocking the pursue the Asian model of clear felling large attempted encroachment of agribusiness tracts of land to convert to agriculture or look into the Tripa peat swamp forests, which to Brazil for examples of agricultural devel- would have resulted in the destruction of opment that has championed smallholders, ape habitat. an approach that holds greater promise for protecting ape habitats. Chapter 5: The RSPO Voluntary standards and certifi cation have Chapter 4: Legal Frameworks emerged as a dominant avenue for integrat- Engaging with legislative frameworks can ing sustainability into commodity production. help to shape how the interface between Th ey have been developed in response to industrial agriculture and ape conservation is weak or ineff ective state regulation and seek

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 9 to address concerns, primarily driven by consumers, in relation to the social and envi- ronmental impacts of commodity produc- tion. Th is chapter assesses a key voluntary standard, the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil, which focuses on promoting the sustainable production of palm oil in the tropics. It presents details on three inter- related issues. First, it considers the RSPO’s background and its evolution into a func- tioning institution that is essentially driven by process, highlighting the tension between the standard’s objective to transform the global palm oil market and the resultant need to hold its members accountable. Second, it reviews the challenges facing the RSPO as it aims to ensure adherence to robust environ- mental and social principles. Specifi cally, it looks into membership infl uence on decision- making and the consequences of a lack of scientifi c clarity on interpretation and on the defi nition of what exactly should con- stitute certifi ed sustainably produced palm oil. Th ird, the chapter analyzes the RSPO’s focus on the largest palm oil producers, an approach that presents both an opportunity and a challenge. On the one hand, recent commitments by companies that supply more than 90 of the palm oil industry to “no deforestation, no peatland and no exploi- tation” policies could signifi cantly enhance from a survey conducted by members of the Photo: Orangutan foraging in an oil palm plantation. the RSPO’s impact. On the other hand, poor International Union for Conservation of © HUTAN - Kinabatangan engagement and inclusion of smallholders Nature, the Species Survival Commission, Orang-utan Conservation Project and other stakeholders—such as local com- and the Primate Specialist Group’s Sections munities and governments at the regional, on Great Apes and Small Apes. national and local levels—may ultimately Forest clearance and degradation for undermine the recent strides that have the development of industrial agriculture been made. have a direct impact on ape populations through habitat destruction and fragmen- tation, which may lead to stress, increased Chapter 6: Ecological Impacts morbidity and death among apes. By facili- Th ere are signifi cant gaps in our under- tating access to previously remote areas standing of the impact of industrial agri- and thereby promoting commercial hunting, culture on ape ecology. To enable a more including that of apes, industrial agricultural robust analysis of this issue, this chapter development also has an indirect impact on reviews formally published materials and ape populations. Further, forest clearance can gray literature; it also includes the fi ndings coincide with signifi cant infl uxes of people

Introduction Section 1 10

into an area, prompting further clearance ape habitats; some ape species risk losing across the landscape and potentially expos- their last remaining pockets of habitat. In ing apes to disease. Of all the apes, gibbons presenting an overview of the extent of the are probably most aff ected by industrial agri- impact and interaction between apes and culture, due to their territorial and strictly industrial agriculture, this edition provides arboreal nature. While the great apes are details on how these interactions are mani- likely to fare somewhat better—partly thanks fested, not only in relation to apes, but also in to their ability to enter agro-industrial land- relation to the development of the industry. scapes to forage, sleep or disperse—they A key fi nding that resonates through- cannot survive in plantations alone and need out this edition is the critical signifi cance forest and natural habitat for long-term of eff ective land use planning—at the rele- survival. The ongoing fragmentation of vant landscape-level scale. By incorporating ape populations and the use of ape habitats economic, social and environmental consid- for industrial agriculture is likely to result in erations, land use plans can help to ensure long-term population decline and possible equitable and sustainable management of local extinction of species. Changing this land and resources, in part by identifying course will require specifi c research on how key areas to be protected and by securing this industry is aff ecting apes and their appropriate corridors to connect forests that habitats, combined with the implementation are protected and managed in a sustainable of land use planning that incorporates essen- manner. Given that land use planning is tial ecological functions. rarely carried out eff ectively in any part of the world, the promotion of its application is among the most urgent priorities for the Conclusion conservation of apes—and of biodiversity in general. By bringing to the fore the myriad issues Finally, this edition of State of the Apes associated with both ape conservation and underscores the lessons learned from the industrial agriculture, this edition of State of rapid expansion of industrial agriculture in the Apes takes a fi rst step in identifying per- Asia, which, if acknowledged, suggest ways spectives on the interface between large- to ensure a more sustainable trajectory of scale agricultural production systems and industrial agriculture development in Africa. biodiversity conservation. A considerable In this sense, this volume is a timely resource force in economic development, industrial —one that can inform a more responsible agriculture interfaces with ape conservation approach to future agricultural development in ways that represent a fundamental chal- and conservation in Africa and infl uence lenge for natural resource management further agricultural development in Asia. more broadly. In all aff ected contexts, better engagement It is clear that pressure on tropical eco- among all stakeholders, including smallhold- systems to supply global markets will be ers and local communities, is imperative if enormous. Th e principal frontiers for the shift s in the impacts of industrial agricul- future development of key global agricul- ture on the natural world are to be achieved. tural commodities are in Africa and Latin America—which are home to the largest tropical forests that have been identifi ed as Acknowledgments “suitable” for agricultural development. In Africa and Southeast Asia, this expansion will Principal authors: Helga Rainer, Annette have signifi cant impacts on the remaining Lanjouw and Alison White

State of the Apes 2015 Industrial Agriculture and Ape Conservation 11 SECTION 1

Introduction Section 1