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THE LONG SHADOW OF THE TREATY OF TRIANON HUNGARY’S STRUGGLES WITH THE PAST

Andrzej Sadecki NUMBER 80 WARSAW MAY 2020

THE LONG SHADOW OF THE TREATY OF TRIANON HUNGARY’S STRUGGLES WITH THE PAST

Andrzej Sadecki © Copyright by Centre for Eastern Studies

CONTENT EDITORS Mateusz Gniazdowski, Konrad Popławski

EDITOR Tomasz Strzelczyk

CO-OPERATION Katarzyna Kazimierska, Szymon Sztyk

TRANSLATION OSW

CO-OPERATION Timothy Harrell

MAPS Wojciech Mańkowski

GRAPHIC DESIGN PARA-BUCH

DTP IMAGINI

PHOTOGRAPH ON COVER Andrzej Sadecki

Centre for Eastern Studies ul. Koszykowa 6a, 00-564 Warsaw, Poland tel.: (+48) 22 525 80 00, [email protected] www.osw.waw.pl

ISBN 978-83-65827-53-1 Contents

MAIN POINTS | 5

INTRODUCTION | 8

I. THE RISE AND FALL OF THE REVISIONIST IDEA | 9

II. THE QUESTION OF THE TREATY OF TRIANON AFTER 1989 | 13

III. THE TREATY OF TRIANON IN THE ORBÁN ERA | 19

IV. THE TRIANON CENTENARY | 26

CONCLUSION | 32

APPENDIX | 34 • • • MAIN POINTS MAIN

The breakup of the multi-national Kingdom of Hungary, as a result a result Hungary,as of Kingdom multi-national the of The breakup The 1920 Treatywhich sealed of Trianon, Hungary’s a third of loss of war period, largely lost any credibility during World War II, when II, WorldWar during credibility any lost largely period, war Nevertheless, revisionist ideas and the sense of historical injustice historical of sense the and ideas Nevertheless,revisionist its former territories – at the Hungary temporarily regained some of in role playa marginal lands lost the reclaim to Revisionistconcepts the political emanation. political the minorities.Hungarian the of rights the ter waivedall it which in neighbours its with relations good on ties today’s politics in Hungary. Such ideas, which dominated in the inter neighbours with relations good build to efforts with also but tories, neighbouring countries, was a pivotal event which influenced Hun influenced which event a pivotal was countries, neighbouring tragedy.national greatest country’s the as perceivedterritory, is its ritorial claims, and the neighbour countries committed to respecting Treaty the commemorating of and borders of question the era, nist ae eoe at f h pltcl dooy f ugr’ growing Hungary’s of ideology political the of part become have parties. political and organisations far-right by exploited been have trea signed country the revisionism, rejected have parties political for the next one hundred years. Hungary responded to the Treaty the to responded Hungary years. hundred one next the for Since 2006, in parallel with the deepening political and economic cri gary’s national identity as well as its internal and foreign policies foreign and internal its as well as identity national gary’s sis, a revival of the revisionist concepts dating back to the interwar the to back dating concepts revisionist the of a revival sis, era has been underway. Rejected by the political mainstream, they mainstream, political the underway.by been Rejected has era mainstream Hungary,all In democratic taboo. became of Trianon Commu Germany. Nazi In the with an alliance striking of expense countries. terri lost the reclaim to concepts various developingby of Trianon which large Hungarian-speaking of populations found themselves in anti-system movement, of which the far-right Jobbikanti-system partyhasbeen which thefar-right movement, of other in minorities Hungarian the towards policies develop and ------

5 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 6 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 • • •

‑communist struggles. The Treatya national is a symbol of Trianon of Attitudes towards the Treaty of Trianon have been influenced by influenced been have of Trianon Treaty the towards Attitudes Nevertheless, the 1920 treaty has not become a central element in element a central become not has treaty the 1920 Nevertheless, this taken have people million one (around citizenship Hungarian governmentthe by funded be to memorial such first the Budapest – emo the address to tried has party Fidesz the since 2010, In power o noe h taiin f h Hnain piig ad h anti­ the and uprisings Hungarian the of tradition the invoke to prefers Orbán’swhich government,Viktor of policy historical the Hungarian the of unity the emphasise the 2012 Constitution, national of a day date treaty,Orbán’sthat Viktor governmentmade commemo be to began of Trianon The Treaty right. extreme the Hun the of part evokesamong still of Trianon Treaty the that tions today. The country is interconnected with its neighbours by a dense bya dense neighbours its with today.interconnected is The country itself finds Hungary which in position economic and political the network of military, political and economic links, based on its mem its on based links, economic military,and political of network voters.inclined radically more to the municated com been nonetheless have undertones revisionist with messages a century for persevered Hungarians that fact the as it, of injustice obtaining for procedures easier offered been have countries ing in building parliament the of front in a monument erecting by nary treaty’sthe cente commemorated years later ten and remembrance, rated at the state level. On 4 June 2010, on the 90 foundation upon which to build a national identity. Hence, this year’s garian public, and by doing so, win back some of those voters from from voters those of some back win so, doing by and public, garian bership in the EU, NATO and various regional co-operation formats, co-operation EU, regional NATOvariousthe and in bership ic Wrd a I. ugr’ ofca dcmns ad especially and documents, official Hungary’s II. War World since sented as a period of the state’s spiritual revival. However,revival.state’s spiritual political the of a period as sented despite the ‘tragedy of Trianon’. Fidesz’s decade in powerrepre Fidesz’swasin decade of Trianon’. ‘tragedy the despite and grievance the much so not emphasised celebrations centenary a problematic as Fidesz in people by seen is such as and disaster, votingrights.limited have granted and been opportunity) across state borders. Under Fidesz, Hungarians living in neighbour in living Hungarians Fidesz, Under borders. state across th anniversary of the anniversary of ­people ------•

All of this does not mean that the Trianon question has no potential no has question Trianon the that mean not does this of All which host the largest Hungarian minorities, are two of Hungary’s of two are minorities, Hungarian largest the host which Orbán’smessaging. ideological to trigger conflicts today. Hungary’s neighbours have been concerned holds co-operation regional European Central partners. trading top minorities and complicate regional co-operation in Central Europe. Central in co-operation regional complicate and minorities Russian against battling been has which Ukraine, as as well ideas, growingthe or regime foracceptance revisionist symbols pub the in Slovakia, and Romania particular. in Group Visegrad the including lic sphere, which has been evident during the Fidesz government’sFidesz the during evident been has which sphere, lic garian government and is an important element in prime minister prime in element an important is governmentand garian decade long tenure in power. This refers in particular to Romania to particular in refers power.This in tenure long decade aggression. aggression. This may negatively the Hungarian affect the situation of revisionist of mention any to sensitive are which Slovakia, and interwar the to references historical leaders’ Hungarian the about Hun the of doctrines policy foreign current the in position a special - -

7 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 8 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 The state’s breakup has left a lasting mark on the national identity of of identity national the on mark a lasting left has breakup The state’s Hunga defined principle in which of Trianon, Treaty Peace The 1920 which had been part of the Austria-Hungary Dual Monarchy.Austria-HungaryDual the The peace of part been had which INTRODUCTION Hungary. Hungary, of Kingdom multi-national the of disintegration the It sealed Over the last century, Hungary has approached the legacy of the Treaty the of legacy the approached has century, last Hungary the Over treaty, the memory of the lost territories, of which the Treaty of Trianon which theTreatytreaty, of Trianon thelost territories, of of thememory other various by shaped been also has identity national Hungarian the and grievance of feeling a collective engendered It has Hungarians. the time first the for state an independent however,time,became Hungary left and territory its of thirds two of Hungary deprived only not treaty s smo, tl ifune pltcl icus ad ulc eae in debate public and discourse political influences still symbol, a is a distrust and relations international of view a pessimistic injustice, same country. At the land-locked a small, of status the powers,to main nation’shistory.the in point a pivotal was borders, contemporary ry’s large Hungarian populations abroad (see Tables 1 and 2 in the Appendix), living there. ­living countries neighbour with relations building to debate, public in legacy but also reduced Hungary, until then a constituent of one of Europe’s of one of a constituent then Hungary,until reduced also but since the 16 since developments and historical processes in the decades that followed thefollowed that decades the in processes historical and developments powers.While great the of policies the and countries neighbouring of in various of Trianon ways: trying to reclaim from the lost lands in an alli and developing a policy model to support the Hungarian minorities Hungarian the support to model a policy developing and the treaty’s silencing completely powers,through revisionist with ance realities.Europe’seconomic among and political new th century. It now faced the challenge of defining its position its defining of challenge the century. faced It now - - A number of localities important for the Hungarian national identity national Hungarian the for important localities of A number via and Romania, created a military alliance in the event Hungary tried Hungary event the in alliance a military created Romania, and via The country’s leaders outlined various scenarios to that end, most of of most end, that to scenarios various outlined leaders The country’s which of residues the slogans, and demands revisionist the when is This back date Trianon in set borders the of a revision seek to The concepts were the majority.governmentwerethe however,agenda, The official of one was Hungarians ethnic where territories the back taking envisaged which of Kingdom the of population the of half nearly for accounted which I. THE RISE AND FALL OF THE REVISIONIST IDEA REVISIONIST THE OFFALL AND RISE I. THE Reclaiming the lands that belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary was the was Hungary of Kingdom the to belonged that lands the Reclaiming in powers victorious the by sealed was that a move state – Hungarian or existing the join to preferred census, the 1910 to according Hungary Hungary I, WarWorld of end the towards collapsed empire Habsburg to militarily change its new borders. new its change militarily to Finally,Romania. into became incorporated ticular,wasHungary which Appendix: (see of Trianon Treaty the 1920. in signed was Treaty Peace the after immediately period the to tion of the interwar regime of regent Miklós Horthy. It integrated the Horthy.Miklós It integrated regent of regime interwar the of tion integral revisionism, i.e. the ambition of restoring the Kingdom of Hun of Kingdom the restoring of ambition i.e. the revisionism, integral Hungarian ethnic the of a third nearly but state, homogenous nically original the of swathes large took countries The neighbour war. the in Austria-Hungary’s defeat of view in states neighbour established newly population (around 3.2 million people) found themselves outside Hun outside themselves found people) 3.2 million (around population principal objective of Hungary’s foreign policy in the years 1920–1944. years the in policy foreign Hungary’s of objective principal gary to its pre-war borders. Revisionism became the ideological founda ideological the became Revisionismborders.pre-war its to gary resources, natural important of deprived also was country The gary. became an independent state. At the same time, its national minorities, national its time, same At the state. an independent became the Kingdom of Hungary of Kingdom the a state without allies, and its three neighbours, Czechoslovakia,neighbours,Yugosla three its and allies, without a state par in TransylvaniaHungary, including outside themselves found also markets. large and centres, industrial and cities important of a number the When today,formulated. debate public first werein present still are ). After 1920, Hungary became a much more eth more a much became Hungary After 1920, ). The causes of the disintegration of of disintegration the of The causes ------

9 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 10 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 Army, fighting on the Eastern Front in World the in with Front Army,byWar IIside Eastern side the on fighting 2 Wehrmacht mainly revisionism Hungarian action, military for called some While 1 The World War I defeat marked the end of revisionism as a state ide a state as revisionism of end the marked I defeat War The World Brati the in municipalities three lost additionally Hungary and ­Trianon Mussolini’s Italy and then Hitler’s Germany. With the support of the lat the of Hitler’ssupportGermany. then the Mussolini’sand With Italy Hungary’s attitude to the legacies of the Treaty of Trianon in the decades decades the in Treatyof Trianon the of legacies Hungary’sthe to attitude Hungary’s ‘greatness’ was the foundation on which the ruling camp built that followed. It demonstrated the risks and costs of attempts at chang at attempts of costs and risks the It demonstrated followed. that half around regained temporarily Hungary 1938–1941 years the in ter, of idea the for support seeking on focused leadership Hungarian the reason, this For claims. territorial had it which against neighbours the expressed it (where space public the in ubiquitous was and period the ing borders. The alliance with Nazi Germany became a long became Germany Nazi with The alliance borders. ing in set borders the restored Treaty Peace Paris The 1947 again. once ries than militarily and weakereconomically was Hungary period, interwar culture. popular in ways)and other among monuments, through itself of propaganda state the of part was idea legitimacy.The revisionist its by subsequent defeat in the war, after which Hungary lost the territo the lost Hungary which after war, the in defeat subsequent by sought to reclaim the lost territories through peaceful means. In the In the means. peaceful through territories lost the reclaim to sought slava area to Czechoslovakia.to slavaarea encumbrance to Hungary’s international reputation. Hungary’sSecond reputation. Hungary’sinternational to encumbrance defined largely project revisionist era Horthy the of The fiasco ology. followed Reich, Third the to Hungary of subordination deepening of WorldWar I. after lost territory the of restore to pledge the and day the of elite power the in groups diverse a revision of the Treaty of Trianon among revisionist powers, i.e. first powers,i.e. first revisionist among of Trianon Treaty the of a revision

Award, in 1939 it occupied Czechoslovakia’s Ruthenia, Carpathian in 1940 reclaimed In 1938 Hungary regained a strip of land in southern Slovakia under the First Vienna Vienna First the under Slovakia southern in land of a strip regained Hungary In 1938 M. Zeidler, M. Zeidler, and in 1941 seized a part of Yugoslavia’s Vojvodina. Yugoslavia’s of a part seized in 1941 and the norther part of Transylvania from Romania under the Second Vienna Award, Award, Vienna Second the under Romania from Transylvania of part norther the , suffered massive losses (around half of the 250,000 soldiersthe of half (around massivesufferedlosses , Ideas on Territorial Revision in Hungary Hungary in Revision Territorial on Ideas 2 However, this came at the cost the at However,came this 1920–1945 , New York2007. New , ­‑ lasting 1 - - - - - A number of critical studies of the revisionist ideology were written in written were ideology revisionist the of studies critical of A number 3 4 The question of Hungarian national minorities in the neighbouring coun neighbouring the in minorities national Hungarian of The question were killed or wounded). In 1944 several hundred thousand Hungarian thousand hundred several In 1944 wounded). or killed were In keeping with the doctrine imposed bysatellite Sovietimposed its the doctrine on the Union with In keeping Hungary. from detached territories the in remained mostly Hungarians Jews were deported and murdered in the German death camps. Towardscamps. death German the in murdered Jewsand weredeported Czechoslovakia under the so the under Czechoslovakia tries also remained a taboo subject for the Communist governmentfor Communist the for subject a taboo remained also tries thy era was unequivocally condemned, revisionist demands were banned, post ­‑the allies close as Hungarians the perceived they as civilians the towards brutal more the all were troops Soviet the and war), the in longest the fighting ferocious of scene the became Hungary war the of end the munists took over full power in 1949. power full over took munists the followedagainst Hungary’soften bywasrepression into neighbours is what happened to several thousand people resettled to Hungary from from Hungary to resettled people severalthousand to happened what is populations.minority resettle protections for ethnic minorities and it was common practice to simply to practice common was it and minorities ethnic for protections between German and Soviet forces (the siege of Budapest was one of of one was Budapest of (the siege forces Soviet and German between states, the Communist authorities of Hungary did not raise the question the raise not did Hungary of authorities Communist states,the of the Hungarian minority and its rights in bilateral relations with its with relations bilateral in rights its and minority Hungarian the of were historians Hungarian that and 1980s the 1970s in thaw the during there. living Hungarians ethnic territories contentious the of Finally,Reich.re‑incorporation the the of a long time. The peace treaties signed after Worldafter signed treaties time.The peace War IIa long envisagenot did relativelyfreely.topic the address to able only It was censored. was of Trianon Treaty the about discussion and

J. Jackson Preece, ‘Minority Rights in Europe: From Westphalia to Helsinki’, Helsinki’, to Westphalia From Europe: in Rights ‘Minority Preece, J. Jackson The Miseries of East European Small States Small European East of The Miseries Essays by István Bibó István by Essays of International Studies International of ian political thinker István Bibó, was one of the most important works about the the about works important most the of one was Bibó, István thinker political ian ethnic and border conflicts (published in English in in English in (published conflicts border and ethnic war period, but this reckoning was interrupted when the Com the when interrupted was reckoning this but period, war , University Press Scholarship Online, May 2015). Online, Scholarship Press University , 1997, no. 23. ‑ called Beneš decrees. However,ethnicdecrees. Benešthe called 4 In the case of Hungarian minorities,Hungarianthis of case In the , a 1946 essay by the distinguished Hungar distinguished the by essay a 1946 , 3 Under Communist rule, the Hor the rule, Communist Under The Art of Peacemaking: Political Political Peacemaking: of The Art Review - - - - 11 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 12 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 Europe, it protested against repression against the Hungarian minority Hungarian the against repression against protested it Europe, in Czechoslovakia and Romania. and Czechoslovakia in in Co‑operation and Security on Conference the of act final the 1975 in stipulated as rights, human for respect of principle the Invoking rule. democratic the which around topics main the of one became minorities Hungarians with Contacts affair. internal their as neighbours,it treating living in the neighbouring countries were difficult, despite the officially officially the despite werecountries difficult, neighbouring the in living friendly relations with those states.However,those with relations friendly Hungarian the forsupport opposition started to organise itself in the late period of Communist of period late the in itself organise to started opposition 5 The foundations for Hungary’s contemporary approach towards the ter the towards approach Hungary’s contemporary for The foundations The two countries expected Hungary to recognise their territorial integ territorial their recognise to Hungary expected countries The two was the treaties with Slovakia and Romania, i.e. the countries hosting countries i.e. the Romania, and Slovakia with treaties the was neigh its with relations good of developmentWesternstructures, with II. THE QUESTION OF THE TREATY OF TRIANON TRIANON OF TREATY THE OF QUESTION II. THE However, the concept of completely giving up territorial claims remained remained claims territorial up giving completelyHowever, of concept the mechanisms support of a number and countries, other in Hungarians the Hungarian minorities, ideally by recognising their collective rights collective their recognising by ideally minorities, Hungarian the controversy.most the caused which minorities, Hungarian largest the it but in 1991, Ukraine with treaty the of ratification parliamentary the community. the national integration policy: foreign Hungary’s for objectivesoverarching three The first transformation. political 1989–1990 the during laid were tions ritories lost under the Treaty of Trianon and their Hungarian popula Hungarian their and of Trianon Treaty the under lost ritories rity, while Hungary demanded commitments to provide protections to protections provide to commitments demanded Hungary rity,while during emerged first Problems demonstrated. relations neighbourly for those communities were introduced. were communities those for bour states and support for the Hungarian minorities living in those in living minorities Hungarian the for support and states bour been made by Hungary, which definitively waived any territorial claims claims territorial anywaived Hungary,definitively bywhich made been stipulating that the Hungarian state bore responsibility for the fate of of fate the for responsibility bore state Hungarian the that stipulating of members as recognised were abroad living Hungarians time same borders was inviolabilityreasserted, states.but at theof The principle of controversial in Hungary, as the negotiations of the treaties on good on treaties the of negotiations the as Hungary, in controversial set Antall József of government conservative elected democratically against Slovakia and Romania (the formula which said ‘also in the future’the ‘alsoin said which (the formula RomaniaSlovakia and against and 1996,were and onlyin 1995 concluded respectively. had Concessions and offering them autonomy. The negotiations lasted until the mid-1990s

In 1990 Antall made his emblematic statement in which he said he was “the prime prime “the was he said he which in statement emblematic his made Antall In 1990 minister of a ten of minister of the 15 million Hungarians”. The calculation included Hungarians living in neigh in living Hungarians included The calculation Hungarians”. 15 million the of bouring countries, as well as the diaspora around the world. the around diaspora the as well as countries, bouring AFTER 1989 AFTER ­‑ million Hungary, but in spirit he wanted to be the prime minister minister prime the be to wanted he spirit in but Hungary, million 5 A provision was included in the constitution, the in included was A provision - - - - - 13 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 14 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 7 6 (though without offering them autonomy). them offering without (though 8 vated incidents, of which the most drastic example concerned the 1990 the 1990 concerned example drastic most the which of incidents, vated Tudor and the Slovak National Party of Ján Slota. The accords between The accords Slota. Ján of Party National Slovak the and Tudor Slovakia in and Hungary in both contested, fiercely were The treaties Hungarian­‑TârguwereRomanianin people whichfiveclashes in Mureș moti ethnically by marred also were neighbours its and Hungary Csurka. István by led (MIÉP) Party Life and Justice Hungarian tried to raise political capital by exploiting historically rooted resentment rhetoric, especially the Greater Romania Party led by Corneliu Vadim Corneliu by led Party Romania Greater the especially rhetoric, anti employed and revisionism Hungarian of fear instigate to sought which emerged had groupings nationalist states, neighbour ist idea and anti­‑ Romanian and anti­‑Slovak rhetoric was exploited by the proved to be the most contentious part), and by its neighbours, which neighbours, its by and part), contentious most the be to proved killed and around 300 were wounded. 300 were around and killed betweenneighbours.Hungarianstheir and the In Hungary, revisionthe ­‑far groupingsas parties,right nationalist by especially Romania, and minorities Hungarian the towards commitments of a series accepted

1998–2002). Csurka was a deputy of the ruling Hungarian Democratic Forum to 1993 but was was but to 1993 Forum Democratic Hungarian ruling the of a deputy was Csurka Shortly after the toppling of the Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu, ethnic ten ethnic Ceaușescu, Nicolae dictator Romanian the of toppling the after Shortly The commitments made by Romania and Slovakia towards the Hungarian minor Hungarian the towards Slovakia and Romania by made The commitments This led to several days of unrest in which three Hungarians and two Romanians Romanians two and Hungarians three which in unrest of days several to led This were killed, and several hundred people were wounded. The unrest was quelled quelled was The unrest wounded. were people hundred several and killed, were years the in (14 deputies term one only during parliament in represented was which garian separatists’ ambitions started circulating among the Romanian communities. communities. Romanian the among circulating started ambitions separatists’ garian He then founded his own political group, the Hungarian Justice and Life Party, Party, Life and Justice Hungarian the group, political own his founded then He Neighbourliness’, ‘Hungary Nagy, B. Hungarian in turn ‘A new B. Driessen, See: Europe). based be would minorities the towards policies states’ two the that agreed It was ities concerned, concerned, ities expelled from the party after a series of antisemitic and revisionist statements. statements. revisionist and antisemitic of a series after party the from expelled Treaty’, Basic the of of Council the and UN (CSCE, organisations international of recommendations on the state administration. The treaties also included a declaration that the two two the that declaration a included also treaties The administration. state the tion. The Hungarians demanded broader language rights, and rumours about Hun about rumours and rights, language broader demanded The Hungarians tion. by an intervention of the Romanian army. The role of the post the of The role army. Romanian the of an intervention by sions surfaced in Târgu Mureș, a city with a mixed, Romanian a mixed, with a city Mureș, Târgu in surfaced sions will. their against minorities ethnic of members assimilate to seek not would states inter alia inter International Legal Materials Legal International ­‑ Romania: Treaty on Understanding, Cooperation and Good Good and Cooperation Understanding, on Treaty Romania: International Journal on Minority and Group Rights Group and Minority on Journal International , the right to use their native language in contacts with with contacts in language native their use to right the , 8 no. 2 1997, March , 6 ­‑ Slovak relations? An overview An overview relations? Slovak ­‑ ­‑ Hungarian popula Hungarian communist secret secret communist (36). ­‑ no. 1 1997, Hungarian 7 In the In the (4); ------9 operation was made easier by previously established con bypreviouslyestablished easier made wasDeveloping co‑operation On both sides of the border,the however, powerto after came of that sides elites the On both Czechoslovak dissidents, as well as the support expressed for their host their for expressed support the as well as dissidents,Czechoslovak h bod ehi cnlc paig u js ars Hnays border Hungary’s across just out playing conflict ethnic bloody the or Romanian and communities opposition Hungarian the between tacts dem extend would that a process as seen Union’swas the enlargement and border, the of sides both on living Hungarians between contacts to Union. European the and NATO join to order in satisfy to had countries that conditions the among also were conflicts territorial to needed disputes territorial that understood Communism of fall the ment of people was regarded as an opportunity to reduce the barriers the reduce to an opportunity as regarded was people of ment of an absence and neighbours with relations Good order. international involved in developing regional co‑operation –the founders it was one of late 1980s. In addition to building bilateral relations, Hungary was also was Hungary relations, bilateral building to In addition late 1980s. gate the consequences of the Treaty of Trianon. The EU’s free move free The EU’s of Trianon. Treaty the of consequences the gate be overcome. Their choice to integrate with Western structures was structures Western with integrate to choice Their overcome. be saw accession to the European Union primarily as an opportunity for an opportunity as primarily Union European the to accession saw of the Central European Initiative (formerly known as Quadragonale) as known (formerly Initiative European Central the of the in minorities Hungarian the by transition democratic countries’ subsidiarity.and of regionalism principles EU’sunderlying the with along minorities, Hungarian the of status the improving countries, European Central to standards ocratic the of foundation the be to borders of inviolability of principle the ered n teVsga Gop frel teVsga Tinl) Moreover, Triangle). Visegrad the (formerly Group Visegrad the and miti­ to a way as also but interests, economic and political its advancing consid Westernstates WorldII, War Since this. in factor an important

20 March 2020, www.balkaninsight.com; B. Ablonczy, B. Ablonczy, www.balkaninsight.com; 20 March 2020, T. Ambrosio, ‘Vanquishing the Ghost of Trianon: Preventing Hungarian Irreden Hungarian Preventing of Trianon: Ghost the ‘Vanquishing T. Ambrosio, Online ­Relations tism through Western Integration’, Integration’, Western through tism ben vonagló vitézek” – 30 éve kezdődött a marosvásárhelyi fekete március’ fekete a marosvásárhelyi kezdődött 30 éve vitézek” – vonagló ben berá, services in those events has not been fully explained to this day. See: M.G. Bar See: day. this to explained fully been not has events those in services ‘When Romania Flirted with a Fate like Yugoslavia’s’ like a Fate with Flirted Romania ‘When , 16 March 2020, www.valaszonline.hu. 16 March 2020, , 2002, no. 39. Seton Hall Journal of Diplomacy and International International and Diplomacy of Journal Hall Seton ‘„Xenofóbiás magömlés kéjé magömlés ‘„Xenofóbiás , Reporting Democracy, Reporting , 9 Hungary , Válasz Válasz , ------15 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 16 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 At the same time, in the 1990s the memory of Trianon started to be cul be to started of Trianon memory the the 1990s in time, same At the commemo­­about cautious were authorities Hungarian the After 1989, 10 Those groups also sought a rehabilitation of the interwar regime – par regime – interwar the of a rehabilitation sought also groups Those In the early 2000s MIÉP, i.e. the only major political party to openly to party political major only i.e. the MIÉP, early 2000s In the Union) were marginal. were Union) than the 80 than Târguin unrest ethnic the Mureș).In 2000, on focused Fidesz ruling the ticularly heated debates on the subject accompanied the repatriation of of repatriation the accompanied subject the on debates heated ticularly the under created were organisations such cases In many plaques. tive commemora place or monuments erect to initiatives starting treaty,or realm. official tivatedthe outside regent Horthy’s ashes to Hungary in 1993. Horthy’s Hungary regent to ashes traditions. revisionist the ‘upheld’ had that circles emigre of influence consequences negative potential the of because anniversary the rating newlydem the elected of In 1990,deputies Treatyof Trianon. the rating Soviet the Yugoslavia(Czechoslovakia,and states federal neighbouring ten revisionist against Yugoslaviawarning a stark in the former offered lished which promoted, with varying intensity,concepts revisionistvarying the with promoted, which lished commemo­ in moderation for called time same the at but accords, peace for Hungarian minorities in the neighbouring states (it was shortly after dating back to the interwar period. Their activities included publishing included activities Their period. interwar the to back dating rather statehood Hungarian of anniversary millennial the celebrating silence ocratic on parliament the 70held a minute of dencies. Voices calling on Hungary to take its the advantagebreakup of of deepening political and economic crisis in the second half of the decade the of half second the in crisis economic and political deepening advocate revisionist concepts, became marginalised. In spite of this, the this, of In spite marginalised. advocatebecame concepts,revisionist the commemorate to events organising journals, and books amateur

G. Gyáni, ‘The Memory of Trianon as a Political Instrument in Hungary Today’ Today’ Hungary in Instrument Political a as Trianon of Memory ‘The Gyáni, G. [in:] A. Miller, M. Lipman (ed.), M. Lipman [in:] A. Miller, Budapest and New York2012. New and Budapest th anniversary of the Treaty of Trianon. Treaty the of anniversary The Convolutions of Historical Politics Historical of The Convolutions 10 A number of associations wereassociations estab of A number th anniversary of the anniversary of , CEU Press, Press, CEU , ------‘nation’s borders’ and used irredentist symbolism (such as the ‘Greater the as (such symbolism irredentist used ‘nation’sand borders’ 11 The idea of Hungary’sThe idea of role towards the Hungarian minorities abroad also was ultimately invalid, which the Hungarian minorities saw as an affront vari countries neighbouring in living Hungarians ethnic granted which In 2001, the first Orbán governmentOrbán Law, Status so‑called the first introduced the In 2001, par the Nonetheless,materials. campaigning its in contours) Hungary’ the domestic labour market. The turnout was low and the referendum the and low was The turnout market. labour domestic the the country was held. The left­‑liberal government the day campaigned of and establishment the challenging on focused were messages ty’smain pre­‑the mainly on the issue of awarding Hungariansto livingcitizenship abroad. mainlyissueof the on anti­‑inciting sentiments.Roma of symbols to recourse made movement This 2002–2010. in power in was that government left liberal the against opposition the of force ing issue of citizenship for Hungarians abroad. Fidesz and Jobbik strongly Jobbik and Fidesz abroad. Hungarians for citizenship of issue procedure to awarding Hungarian citizenship to persons living outside living persons to citizenship Hungarian awarding to procedure for a ‘no’forwarning invoking and abstention, votearguments or economic state for borders a revisionbut emphasised that theyof did not match the bik formulated its revisionist demands in a more veiled manner, espe manner,veiled a more in demands revisionist its formulated bik MIÉP,Job Unlike movement. the of representation a political became brought about a revivalextreme right ideologies, of which became a driv criticised the government on abandoning this,compatriots accusing it of the state and on whichthe part prompted of the right to rally around the on exert would abroad from Hungarians that pressure potential the of applya simplified to ability privileges.the ous on a referendum In 2004, the 21 of decade first the in evolved call openly not It did in 2010. parliament the in seats won it since cially abroad and thus betraying the national idea. national the betraying thus and abroad

‘Dual Citizenship and Sovereignty’,Citizenshipand ‘Dual The Hungarian debates were part of a wider context of changing perceptions of perceptions changing of context a wider of part were debates The Hungarian countries for the right of citizens to hold more than one citizenship. See: S. Pogonyi, S. Pogonyi, See: citizenship. one than more hold to democratic citizens of in right the for acceptance countries growing the and decades recent in globally citizenship war regime and revisionist concepts. The radical party Jobbik party The radical concepts. revisionist and regime war Nationalities Papers Nationalities st century. The discussion focused The discussion century. 2011, vol. 39, no. 5. vol. 39, 2011, 11 - - - - -

17 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 18 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 In the same period, some people started to raise the point that EU mem EU that point the raise to started people some period, same In the Union (particularly in the case of Hungary and Slovakia after the two the after Slovakia and Hungary of case the in (particularly Union their national identity (such as the 2009 Slovak language bill), led to led bill), language Slovak the 2009 as (such identity national their maintain to abroad living Hungarians of ability the of view of point the minorities in neighbour countries. While a lot of the obstacles impeding impeding obstacles the of a lot While countries. neighbour in minorities bouring countries, which were seen in Hungary as unfavourable from from unfavourable as Hungary in seen were which countries, bouring Hungarian of status the to related problems the all solve not did bership tts ond h Shne ae i 20) sm atos y h neigh the by actions some 2007), in area Schengen the joined states calls for a more active role of the state in this area. this in state the of role active for a more calls European the in cross­‑disappeared Hungarians between contacts border - - 13 12 Treaty of Trianon an official holiday. Those two issues were dealt with dealt were issues twoholiday. Those an official of Trianon Treaty The 4 III. THE TREATY OF TRIANON IN THE ORBÁN ERA ORBÁN THE IN TRIANON OF TREATY III. THE Hungarian nation’ formula was also reflected in the new constitution new the in reflected also was formula nation’ Hungarian live who communities, of members as and individually Hungarians, live they community,whether national a single to belong Hungarians break important most the marked elections the 2010 in Fidesz’s victory their aspirations for autonomy too. autonomy for aspirations their their endorsing abroad, living compatriots towards obligations tutional a fact”. was borders state across which of unity the “all that stated The bill until 2010. law in enshrined not was notion the (yet holiday a state been since Fidesz’svictory.It has after session tary Hungarian towards Hungary’spolicy and of Trianon Treaty the of tion commemora the as far as era, Communist the of end the since through memorate the signature of the Treaty of Trianon in the first parliamen first the in of Trianon Treaty the of signature the memorate im were they because only not Fidesz’sterm, of beginning at the right citi awarding a bill adopted first Orbán’sparty Viktor parliament, in ­‑a two winning majority After thirds concerned. are abroad minorities in Hungary or abroad, had appeared before in political discourse, but discourse, political in before appeared had abroad, or Hungary in ( unity national of notion the defines holiday the establishing The bill day). a working remains under the jurisdictions of other states,under the belongedjurisdictions of in the Hungarian nation, but pledges, campaign of subject the been had and party the for portant zenship to Hungarians living abroad and made the anniversary of the of anniversary the made and abroad living Hungarians to zenship before the 90 before exercise of their individual and collective rights, and thus effectively thus and rights, collective and individual their of exercise adopted by Fidesz (in force since 2012). It strengthened Hungary’s consti the political calendar – also the because newof parliament convened just

See: M. Gniazdowski, A. Sadecki, A. Sadecki, M. Gniazdowski, See: 2010. évi XLV. törvény a Nemzeti Összetartozás melletti tanúságtételről melletti Összetartozás a Nemzeti törvény XLV. évi 2010. and regional implications’ regional and net.jogtar.hu. after: th of June was thus established as a Day of National Unity to com to Unity National of a Day as established thus was June of th anniversary of the treaty.the of anniversary , OSW Commentary OSW nemzeti összetartozás nemzeti ‘Constitution for a new Hungary – the domestic domestic the Hungary – a new for ‘Constitution 13 The bill on the Treaty of Trianon of Trianon Treaty the on The bill , no. 60, 29 July 2011, www.osw.waw.pl. 2011, 29 July no. 60, , ). The argument that all that The argument ). 12 The ‘unity of the of The ‘unity , quoted quoted , ------19 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 20 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 15 14 The concept of ‘national unification’ has been implemented in practice in implemented been has unification’ ‘national of The concept Minister’s Office). The post of a deputy prime minister without port without minister prime a deputy of The post Office). Minister’s Prime the within currently and Administration, and Justice of Ministry Finally, the institutional setup of state policies towards Hungarians liv Hungarians towards policies state of setup institutional Finally,the from havebenefited who those of worldwide,most diaspora Hungarian tial active electoral rights, i.e. they may vote for party lists, but not for not but lists, party for vote may i.e. they rights, electoral active tial the 1920 treaty.dictate’,‘peace the the as and treaty the to refers The bill by caused injustice and injury of sense the to references clear tained to support the government in formulating policies towards Hungarian towards policies formulating governmentin the support to ioiis Rsac Isiue o Hnain omnte Abroad, Communities Hungarian for Institute (Research minorities the within (initially state of secretariat a dedicated of charge the in been have issues those Since 2010, upgraded. been also has abroad ing has single­‑ (Hungary in constituencies candidates mandate individual citizens Hungarian In 2011, Ukraine. and Serbia Romania, from came it in 2010. session first parliament’s new the ing person who speaks Hungarian and can demonstrate that at least one least at that demonstrate can and Hungarian speaks who person living abroad were also awarded voting rights – they have obtained par obtained havethey rights – votingawarded also were abroad living first time. Research institutions and think tanks havetanksfounded think been and Researchalso time.institutions first a dedi and created, been has minorities Hungarian of charge in folio by extending the right to Hungarian citizenship to Hungarians living Hungarians to citizenship Hungarian to right the extending by cated minorities committee has been established in parliament for the for parliament in established been has committee minorities cated the opportunity.this of members to applies newprocedure the While of citizen­ Hungarian obtain may national a Hungarian was descendants their of dur accordingly amended was Act country.The Citizenship the outside century”.last the of storms the in apart torn nation, our of unity spiritual and intellectual the “preserve to pledges constitution con also preamble constitution’s new the and day commemoration a mixed, majority a mixed,

The Citizenship Bill was backed by 98% of deputies, i.e. by most opposition MPs MPs opposition most i.e. by deputies, 98% of by backed was Bill The Citizenship The Fundamental Law of Hungary of Law The Fundamental as well. ship. In the years 2011–2019, one million people took advantage took people million one 2011–2019, years In the ship. ­‑system). electoral proportional , The Hungarian Government, www.kormany.hu. Government, The Hungarian , 15 It stipulates than any than It stipulates 14 ------16 versary of the 1848 People’s Spring on 15 March and the anniversary the and on 15 March Spring the 1848 People’s of versary The concept of ‘national unity across state borders’, and the related new related the and borders’, state across unity ‘national of The concept Public holidays commemorating the Hungarian uprisings, i.e. the anni i.e. the uprisings, Hungarian the commemorating holidays Public has not the dominated TreatyFidesz’s Despite of Trianon this, the topic of allo been has funding More Strategy). National for Institute Research topic. In this way Fidesz tried to win over the more radical sections of the the overof win waysections to radical tried In this more Fidesz topic. the of Trianon) Treaty the of signature the (including events historical tain ing countries, by favouring some groups at the expense of others, and in others,and of expense the countries,at bying groups favouringsome ment have usually been held without the highest­‑the without officials. held state been haveusuallyranking ment right­‑ Orbán’s larger of part been have of Trianon, Treaty the of memoration political project. He has represented the victorious 2010 election as the as election 2010 victorious the represented has He project. political neighbour in parties Hungarian influence to efforts up stepped also has in especially minorities, Hungarian to assistance economic providing historical policy or ideological messaging in the last decade. The cele decade. last the in messaging ideological or policy historical formula of policies towards Hungarian minorities abroad and the com the and abroad minorities Hungarian towards policies of formula Serbia’s Vojvodina andUkraine’s Transcarpathia. The Orbángovernment brations of the Day of National Unity established by the Orbán governOrbán the by established Unity National of Day the of brations anniversary.treaty holidaythe on an official of establishment backedthe towardsstep country’slast the the in and era a new history of beginning been has governmentHungarian the since 2015 and countries, bouring some cases also mediating between different formations. differentbetween mediating also cases some sidering his broad mandate as legitimation for implementing in‑depth implementing for legitimation as mandate broad his sidering debate and the fact that the increasingly popular Jobbik was raising the raising was Jobbik popular increasingly the that fact the and debate changes. con while Communism, from away transition political the completing neigh in education and culture language Hungarian supporting to cated a response to the growing presence of the Treaty of Trianon in public in of Trianon Treaty the of presence growing the to a response ‘Hungarian the and

2014, www.osw.waw.pl. 2014, See: A. Sadecki, A. Sadecki, See: wing electorate. Tellingly,electorate. wing that party Jobbikopposition only was the 16 eie tiue twrs cer towards attitudes re‑define to out set Hungary Thus, In a state of necessity. How has Orban changed Hungary changed Orban has How necessity. of In a state ­‑ ugra’ eain. hs atvte wr also were activities Those relations. Hungarian’ , OSW, Warsaw Warsaw OSW, , ------21 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 22 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 17 The reason for this was that the Treaty of Trianon, which stood for the for stood which of Trianon, Treaty the that was this for The reason was castigated for having originated from the Communist dictatorship. Communist the from originated having for castigated was Fidesz’s main narrative. At the centre of that narrative lay the defence the laynarrative that of centre At the narrative. Fidesz’smain It was onsuch occasionsthatthemassive politicalrallieswould beorgan In this context, references to the Treaty of Trianon served mainly to mainly served of Trianon Treaty the to references context, In this the Hungarian uprisings of 1848 and 1956, while Orbán portrayed him portrayed Orbán while and 1956, of 1848 uprisings Hungarian the tives now more often invoked Hungary’s Christian heritage and the myth narra The political immigrants. against country the defending of trope as politicians Fidesz by dismissed be wouldgovernment’s reforms the illustrate the contrast between the state’s collapse in that era and its and era that in collapse state’s the between contrast the illustrate left the while left, the and right the between disputes political normal minister’sprime speech. the with culminating Budapest, in ised had survived that catastrophe was represented as testament to the Hun the to testament as represented was catastrophe survivedthat had Hungari the by faced challenge greatest the as represented been have foreign criticism and the influential pressure states from and institutions Since 2015, the government’s main narrative has been built around the around built been has government’snarrative the main Since 2015, garian nation’s vitality. In some cases, the treaty has also been invokedbeen also has treaty the cases, nation’s garian vitality.In some the 20 in Hungary bysuffered defeat greatest self as the continuator of the freedom tradition. Any reservations about Anyreservationstradition. freedom the of continuator the as self current reconstruction and growing power, and the fact that Hungary Hungary that fact the power,and growing and reconstruction current Europe’s foreigners. against defence of with The struggles outside. from threatened constantly were ernment, gov the to according which, interests and sovereigntycountry’s the of grandeur.more much with celebrated and important more considerably as treated been have on 23 October, Revolution the 1956 Hungarian of as illustrative of an aversion to Hungary on the part of Westernelites. of part the on Hungary to an aversion of illustrative as of examples the to mainly resorted narrative political the Hence, ans.

This kind of narrative can be found in numerous speeches by Orbán and in state in and Orbán by speeches numerous in found be can narrative of kind This iitr itr rá o te ugra Dy f ainl Cohesion National of Day Hungarian the on Orbán Viktor Minister Government, 4 June 2019, www.kormany.hu. 4 June 2019, ­Government, ments by Mária Schmidt, the head of the House of Terror museum in Budapest and and Budapest in museum Terror of House the of head the Schmidt, Mária by ments the main ideologue in charge of Fidesz’s historical policy. See, e.g.: See, policy. historical Fidesz’s of charge in ideologue main the th century, did not fully fit fit fully not century,did Speech by Prime Prime by Speech , Hungarian, 17 ------

(1921–1931). That era evoked images of the country’sthe evokedafter reconstruction That era (1921–1931). imagesof 19 18 The caution in raising the topics of the Treaty of Trianon or Horthy’sor of Trianon Treaty the of topics the raising in The caution to predecessors its than likely more been has government The Orbán The Hungarian Foreign Ministry, however, dismissed the allegations of of allegations Ministry,Foreignhowever,the dismissed The Hungarian Treaty the commemorate to holiday an official of The establishment territorial revisionism and the claims that it supported the separatist the supported it that claims the and revisionism territorial supporting Budapest’sinvolvementin neighbours. its with borders the revi interwar the to references Contemporary states. neighbouring the rule has also been motivated by the way those issues are perceived in perceived are issues those way the by motivated been also has rule refer back to the interwar decades, and especially the early years, i.e. the practices. governance and policies his and Orbán minister prime legitimating fiercest criticism in Slovakia. The strength of the reaction was to a large a large wasto reaction the Slovakia.of in criticism The strength fiercest lvk ainl at i te oenet olto. lvka a the was Slovakia coalition. government the in Party National Slovak ship law by prohibiting Slovak nationals from holding dual citizenship.dual holding law ship bySlovak prohibiting from nationals revise to seek might Hungary today’s that suspicions to lead sionism István minister prime under period consolidation so‑called only one among Hungary’s neighbours to respond to the new citizen new the to respond to neighbours Hungary’s among one only the of presence the and campaign election ongoing the to due extent the for in come have rules citizenship new the and in 2010 of Trianon seen often also are minorities Hungarian the of parties political on the aspirations of Hungarian minorities. Hungarian of aspirations Hungary’s neighbours. of integrity territorial the to threats as government’sinfluence growingOrbán the or movements autonomist in useful were which government, stable and a strong of and a crisis

For example, the then foreign minister János Martonyi, in an interview for for an interview in Martonyi, János minister foreign then the example, For A similar prohibition is laid down in the constitution of Ukraine, but it is not not is it but Ukraine, of constitution the in down laid is prohibition similar A garian). Since 2019, discussions have been going on in Ukraine about changing the the changing about Ukraine in on going been have discussions Since 2019, garian). rules and allowing dual citizenship. dual allowing and rules enforced and it is quite common for people to hold dual citizenship (not only Hun only (not citizenship dual hold to people for common quite is it and enforced furter AllgemeinefurterZeitung , 1 July 2010. , 19 ­Bethlen Frank 18 - - - -

23 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 24 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 21 20 While Hungarian governments since 1990 have supported the interests the supported have governmentssince 1990 Hungarian While with Slovakia and Serbia have improved considerably, and Belgrade’s considerably,and improved have Serbia and Slovakia with Hungarian politicians have in mind is primarily a shift in the economic the in a shift primarily is mind havein politicians Hungarian expressed nonetheless authorities (the Hungarian aggression Russian Hungary’smaking e.g. by blackmail, to resorted even it cases In many On the other hand, relations with Romania and Ukraine deteriorated Ukraine and Romania with relations hand, other On the the crisis of the West and the decline of the existing global order. What order. global existing the of decline the Westand the of crisis the Ruthe Carpathian in Hungarians the for autonomy for called Orbán tor Hungary, of part the on allusions revisionist any to sensitive ticularly nia in May 2014, at a time when Ukraine was struggling to deal with deal to struggling was Ukraine when a time at May 2014, in nia minorities. national acted It also minorities. Hungarian the and Hungary both of interests for the itsneighboursinthoseorganisationsasbeneficial membership of it. about assertive particularly been has government Orbán the rights, policies are now seen by the Orbán government a model for treating for a model government Orbán the by seen now are policies balance of power and the crisis of liberal democracy, yet this rhetoric this democracy,yet liberal of crisis the and power of balance similarly in the case of the dispute over Serbia’s restitution law and the overSerbia’sand dispute law the restitution of case the in similarly NATOor EU the with integration neighbours’ its forsupport conditional support for the territorial integrity of Ukraine). of integrity territorial the for support existing political order. Kyiv’s distrust of Budapest deepened after Vik after deepened Budapest Kyiv’sof order. distrust political existing par are countries Both decade. the of half second the in considerably Ukraine. in bill education the policies,regards evenminority Budapest their though to reforms on their defended and countries neighbouring in minorities Hungarian of are also concerned about the Fidesz government’sconcerning Fidesz rhetoric the about concerned also are a gradual rapprochement with Russia – the contester­ experienced has power, Hungary in time Fidesz’s during because also

See: A. Sadecki, M. Szpala, M. Szpala, A. Sadecki, See: A. Sadecki, A. Sadecki, www.osw.waw.pl. Commentary ugr: h itniyn dsue vr h Hnain ioiys rights’ minority’s Hungarian the over dispute intensifying the Hungary: law’ , OSW, 19 October 2011, www.osw.waw.pl; T. Iwański, A. Sadecki, Sadecki, A. Iwański, T. www.osw.waw.pl; 2011, October 19 OSW, , ‘Hungary’s stance on the Ukrainian the on stance ‘Hungary’s , no. 280, 14 August 2018, www.osw.waw.pl. 14 August 2018, no. 280, , 20 ‘The Serbian Over the last decade, however,relations decade, its last the Over - Hungarian dispute over the restitution restitution the over dispute Hungarian - Russian conflict’ Russian 21 Kyiv and Bucharest and Kyiv ‑in­ ‑chief of Europe’s of ‑chief , OSW, 21 May 2014, 21 May 2014, OSW, , ‘Ukraine– , OSW OSW ‑ ‑ ‑ Visegrad Group, has become even more important as an instrument for an instrument as important more even become has Group, Visegrad hl te rá gvrmn otn xlis yblc ipts with disputes symbolic exploits often government Orbán the While with its neighbours has increased considerably in recent years.recent in considerably increased Slovakiahas neighbours its with important are which countries neighbouring governmentsof the with Hungarian extreme right, which has numerous direct links to Moscow to links direct numerous has which right, extreme Hungarian the against measures takenhave Ukraine and Romania years In recent Ukraine has banned a number of Jobbik activists from entering its terri its entering from activistsJobbik of a number banned has Ukraine politicians Jobbik several instance, (for Crimea of territory Ukrainian the European Union, and to this end he had to avoid with confrontations for and, quotas migration EU the on position joint a presented tries the then Jobbik chair and took measures other to impede the activities of espi of accused been has who treasurer Jobbik’story,former including egbus o dmsi pltcl an i hs lo ogt agreement sought also has it gain, political domestic for neighbours region’sthe geopolitical question might Hungary that suspicions raises neighbouring states. neighbouring of Westernpart the to a counterbalance build to and policies migration Hungary’ssouth patrolling involvedin were police Slovakian instance, Budapest between tensions the of In view territories. neighbours’ its in pursuing Hungary’s interests in the European Union. This co‑operation This Union. European the in Hungary’sinterests pursuing Germany,after market export important most Hungary’ssecond is kia territory.its within members party for Hungary’s foreign policy. The importance of economic co‑operation economic of policy.The importance Hungary’sforeign for became particularly close during the migration crisis when the V4 coun the when crisis migration the during close particularly became served as observers during the illegal referendum in Crimea). Since 2014, ern borders. Prime minister Orbán’s ambition was to lead the region’sthe lead to was Orbán’sambition minister Prime borders. ern to entry refused in 2014 hand, other the on Romania, Russia. for onage borders.consequently,state and, existing order the operation, especially within the within especially co‑operation, regional states,Western most and located are Hungary for crucial links energy and routes transport and Hungary’stop­‑ Slova and of twopartners, are trading Romaniafive and the annexed Russia after rhetoric revisionist its up stepped has and - - - - - 25 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 26 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 A number of factors have influenced the Fidesz government’sFidesz approach the influenced have factors of A number 22 ­‑far the with vies commemorations the of outline parties.right The final discuss in point any longer no is there that argue respondents veyed The subject of the Treaty of Trianon became particularly pronounced particularly became of Trianon Treaty the of The subject which was crucial in shaping that order, as its inconsistent application inconsistent its as order, that shaping in crucial was which wanted to take advantage of the public sentiments that the treaty still treaty the that sentiments public the of advantage take to wanted the but relations, close maintains traditionally Hungary which with IV. THE TRIANON CENTENARY IV. THETRIANON oain eertos f enfcto wt Taslai i Decem in Transylvania with reunification of celebrations Romanian to commemorating the Treaty of Trianon centenary. The government The government centenary. of Trianon Treaty the commemorating to Budapest why is This borders. Hungary’snew setting of process the to occa the on held been already had topic the on discussions Initial ture. is also a result of various tendencies within Fidesz itself, where radical radical where itself, Fidesz within tendencies various of a result also is Appendix: (see today issue this ing sur of half than more instance, for dominant: are attitudes revisionist Poland,in celebrations positivelycentenary reacted independence the to Worldafter emerged that order political the War ry’s I are of perceptions signa its of centenary the to run‑up the in debate public in Hungary’s heated four yearsfour heated later, whenHungary’s were neighbours the celebrating for groups with nationalist views, i.e. the electorate for which Fidesz which for electorate i.e. the views, nationalist with groups for been the country’s greatest national tragedy, but that does not mean that Hungary.controversialin as seen were ber 2018 in public opinion surveys opinion in public stood for defeat and disintegration. It is worth noting here that Hunga that here noting worth It is disintegration. and defeat for stood really became debate the but in 2014, World the WarI centenary of sion evokes. As noted before, most Hungarians consider the treaty to have to treaty the consider Hungarians most before, evokes.As noted self­‑ such, as of nations idea the of determination of much so not critical view of point its from which WorldI, War of end the celebrate not did Hungary reunification. national or independence their of centenaries

In 2016 the Foreign Minister, Péter Szijjártó, prohibited Hungarian diplomats from from diplomats Hungarian prohibited Szijjártó, Péter Minister, Foreign the In 2016 missions worldwide. missions taking part in the celebrations of Romania’s unification at Romanian diplomatic diplomatic Romanian at unification Romania’s of celebrations the in part taking ). However, the subject remains very important very remains However,subject ). the The memory of the Treatyof the of The memory 22 Trianon ------

At the end of the ramp, there is a cracked granite block with an ‘inter with block granite a cracked is there ramp, the of end At the 23 24 voices clash with more pragmatic ones, pragmatic more with clash voices Treaty of Trianon Commemoration. Instead, in June 2019Treaty the parliament of Trianon centenary of Trianon Treaty the to government’sapproach The Orbán The unveiling of the Treaty of Trianon monument funded on this occa this on funded monument of Trianon Treaty the of The unveiling Monument of National Unity. Located in a street across the parliament the across a street in Unity.Located National of Monument Coalition voting against. voting Coalition the cities, towns and localities that belonged to the Kingdom of Hungary Hungary cities,the Kingdomtownsof the belonged to that localities and rate the centenary of the Trianonrate the centenary ‘peace of dictate’, as right­‑ commemo to was aim the that emphasised bill’srespectivejustification the Yearof the 2020 make to Jobbik’sproposal opposition the rejected twice Fidesz idea. a central been has borders state across unity national nal flame’ inside. flame’ nal Croatia). autonomous then the of part were that those (including in 1913 the named is narrative,it official the with In keeping celebrations. nary largely reflects the policies his cabinet has pursued hitherto, in which in hitherto, pursued has cabinet his policies the reflects largely below street level. Engraved on its walls are the Hungarian names of all of names Hungarian the are walls its level.Engravedon street below a 100 metrebuilding, it consists long of ramp which descends four metres sion by the authorities was intended to be the main event of the cente the of event main the be to intended was authorities the by sion such as the ‘Greater Hungary’ contour or the ‘Trianon’ inscription on inscription ‘Trianon’ the or contour Hungary’ ‘Greater the as such opposition deputies, with only five deputies of the left­‑the deputies,opposition onlywith of five deputies commonly call the treaty). Fidesz, Apart the from bill was backed by most calculations. ated in neighbouring countries, it did not so much emphasise the nation’s situ now places of names the engraving by hand, other On the a cross. revisionism, interwar with associated directly symbols those avoided the so,(even Unity National Yearof the be would 2020 that announced

11 April 2019, www.index.hu. 11 April 2019, D. Zubreczki, D. Zubreczki, For instance, the parliament speaker, László Kövér, who has often expressed the the expressed often has who Kövér, László speaker, parliament the instance, For port for Hungarian autonomy in Transylvania – to be flown from the parliament parliament the from flown be to Transylvania – in autonomy Hungarian for port most radical views on the subject, ordered the Szekler flag – which symbolises sup symbolises which flag – Szekler the ordered subject, the on views radical most building instead of the EU flag. EU the of instead building ‘Száz méter hosszú emlékművet állítanak a Kossuth térnél’ a Kossuth állítanak emlékművet hosszú méter ‘Száz 24 By choosing this design, the Hungarian governmentHungarian the design, this choosing By 23 and of current foreign policy foreign current of and wing Democratic wing wing politicians , Index, Index, , ------27 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 28 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 ‑ At the same time, the ruling camp has made a number of direct gestures direct of a number made has camp ruling the time, At thesame organisa minority Hungarian to allocated was HUF 1.1 billion Another smaller,A number local of commemorative events have also been planned 26 25 The tone of the celebrations wasbycelebrations set the Viktorseveralin Orbán speeches of The tone Central European alliance. He also called on people to celebrate the cen the celebrate to people on called also He alliance. European Central tion will be able to carry out the projects they had planned. had they projects the out carry to able be will tion this award to However,decision countries. the neighbouring as in tions community.national the to the nationalist electorate, such as referencespre­‑ to the symbols of reasonably. tenary revisionism and the admission of radical views to the pro ­‑the to views governmentradical of admission the and revisionism Treaty followedthe immediately that period the in unlike but – nation tragedy,he which a historical as of Trianon Treaty the to referred ister min year.The prime centenary the of months early the and late 2019 in Schmidt. Mária by led foundation the to went a third) (around money press. The first signs of this attitude became visible even before the before even visible became attitude this of signs The first press. ques in organisations the if unclear is Hungary,it to spread pandemic of dimension geographic the to point directly as borders across unity for a century. Orbán noted that Hungary today was not only a strong a strong only not was today Hungary that noted Orbán a century. for COVID‑19 the February,before late shortly until taken not was funding tune the to government the by supported centenary, financially the for ae ie h epaie ta te ain tl mngd o survive to managed still nation the that emphasised he time, same centenary. For instance, on the 98 on instance, centenary.For a strong forms it which with states by surrounded it was of Trianon – At the nation. Hungarian the to out meted sentence’ a ‘death dubbed EUR 30 million). (around HUF 10 billion of government daily government

9 January 2020, www.index.hu. 9 January 2020, Ordinance of the Government of Hungary no. 1064/2020 Hungary of Government the of Ordinance G. Nyilas, G. Nyilas, www.magyarkozlony.hu. ‘Orbán egyszerre volt szokatlanul mérsékelt és durván radikális’ durván és mérsékelt szokatlanul volt egyszerre ‘Orbán 26 Magyar Idők Magyar published an interview with a leading a leading with an interview published th anniversary of the treaty the pro­ the treaty the of anniversary 25 The greatest portion of the of portion The greatest , 28.02.2020, quoted after: after: quoted 28.02.2020, , , Index, Index, , war - - - - ‑ ‑ 33 32 31 30 29 28 27 Materials posted by members of the Orbán government in social media social governmentin Orbán the of members by posted Materials with the revisionist idea. revisionist the with which sums uptheprevious year andsetsoutthegovernment’s goals for subsequently was and allusions revisionist of a series contained which world’send. powersthat leading to Pesti SrácokPesti ­‑a well to irredentist known a reference made Orbán year, current the account. Facebook his on position tral school­‑the of occasion the May 2020,examsin leaving history posted he prayer dating back to the interwar period (‘For the resurrection of Hun of resurrection (‘Forthe period interwar the to back prayerdating pre­ the with Hungary of Kingdom the of maps featured often have features a stronger presence of nationalistauthorsandtopicsassociated features a stronger presenceof gary’). sionist iconography. and suggested that Hungary should seek the assistance of one of the of one of assistance the seek should Hungary that suggested and borders of an adjustment for called who ideas revisionist of advocate a picture of a globe from his cabinet, with ‘Greater Hungary’ in a cen in Hungary’ ‘Greater with cabinet, his from a globe of a picture the a mapparty leadership during in a meetingDecember 2019, of and on television. public byseveral times aired Budapest, in Square Heroes’ in staged was of Trianon Treaty the about Trianon borders, i.e. one of the principal elements of the interwar revi interwar the of elements principal the of i.e. one borders, Trianon thousand

6 May 2020, 6 May 2020, T. Pilhál, Pilhál, T. See: See: ‘Raffay Ernő: Erdély nincs elveszve’ ‘Tiltakozik a Széchenyi Akadémia vezetősége a NAT módosítása miatt’ módosítása a NAT vezetősége Akadémia a Széchenyi ‘Tiltakozik Orbán PM with meeting leadership Fidesz hétvégén’ a Trianon-rockoperát bemutatják is ‘A tévében See, for instance, the the instance, for See, 5 February 2020,www.nepszava.hu. www.facebook.com. www.origo.hu. M rá’ fcbo ps o te cain f h sho-evn hsoy exams history school-leaving the of occasion the on post facebook Orbán’s PM ernment, 16 February 2020, www.kormany.hu. 16 February 2020, ernment, fog!’ működni is dítva tary of state for national policy at the Prime Minister’s Chancellery, 15 April 2020, 15 April 2020, Chancellery, Minister’s Prime the at policy national for state of tary 32 Prime Minister Viktor Orbán’s “State of the Nation” address Nation” the of “State Orbán’s Viktor Minister Prime Finally, the school curriculum modified in January 2020 now January 2020 in modified curriculum school Finally,the ­‑ years wrote that Hungary would never accept the loss of its “one­ its of loss the accept neverwould Hungary that wrote Üee Edl troit ecaoónk a ylfhrái óse for módszer gyulafehérvári a elcsatolóinak: terrorista Erdély ‘Üzenet www.facebook.com ­‑ old family jewels”.old family 30 , PestiSrácok.hu , The prime minister himself spoke in front of such spoke of in The primefront minister himself im n h fcbo o Ápd Potápy Árpád of facebook the on film 33 . , Magyar Idők Magyar , 28 27 , 1 December 2019, www.pestisracok.hu. 1 December 2019, , Moreover, in June 2018 a rock opera ­‑The pro governmentportal tabloid 31 , 16 December 2019, www.facebook.com; www.facebook.com; 16 December 2019, , In his annual February address, February annual In his 29 , 4 June 2018, www.magyaridok.hu. 2018, 4 June , , Origo , – deputy and secre , 28 November 2018, 28 November 2018, , , Hungarian Gov Hungarian , , Népszava , ------, , 29 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 30 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 34 Whereas Jobbik has been gradually abandoning its most radical postu radical most its abandoning gradually been has Jobbik Whereas The most radical messages on the treaty’s centenary have been formu been have centenary treaty’s the on messages radical The most the on Day Union Great on commemorated already is Transylvania Treaty of Trianon. In January 2020, in connection with the centenary,the with connection in In January 2020, of Trianon. Treaty 1 European states.European year centenary the have Nevertheless,about brought of months first the Our Homeland party ( party Homeland Our the 4 on Day Commemoration the Romanian parliament passed a law establishing a Treaty of Trianon of Trianon a Treaty establishing a law passed parliament Romanian the point plan in which the main demand was for was demand main the which in ­‑a seven plan announced point it commented widely most the anniversary. the with connection of in One been has Budapest in government the hand other the on but rhetoric, Hungary’scommem of understanding some show to seem neighbours Hungary’shand, one On the neighbours. the between discords major no have been trading gestures to rekindle historical disputes – in May 2020 in May 2020 disputes – historical rekindle to gestureshave trading been right in the years 2018–2020, the 2018–2020,centre­‑years the towardsthe shifting in and right lates con has this but of Trianon’, Treaty the ‘invalidate to a petition under lated by revisionist organisations, which have stepped up their activities from Jobbik, the party has from brought together extreme right organisations Slovenia,i.e. statesdisputes, historical open no had which Hungary with As re Hungary’sneighbours. from criticism attracted havemoves Such gards the relations between Hungary and Romania, the two countries two the Romania, and Hungary between relations the gards sionist ideas. Formed in 2018, mainly by a group of breakaway members of ideas. Formedbysionist mainlya group in 2018, significance. legal any without act a symbolic than more no stituted operation with Central with co‑operation to commitment its emphasising constantly revisionist openly to only react and centenary Trianon the of oration and activists and has been increasingly vocal about the question of the of question the about vocal increasingly been has and activists and signatures of collection the of consisted occasion this on taken actions map.‘Greater Hungary’ the Budapest’s of use of criticism expressed also st

of December. of December. Interestingly, Croatia in and recent months the leaders of According to the organisers, as of February the petition had been signed by some some by signed been had petition the February of as organisers, the to According 300,000 people; the aim is to collect a million signatures by the end of the cente the of end the by signatures a million collect to is aim the 300,000 people; naryyear. Mi Hazán Mi th of June, even though reunification with reunification eventhough June, of k ) has become the leading voice for revi for voice leading the become has ) 34 ------

(Act XXXIII of 1921). (Act XXXIII 35 with the treaty, but on the other hand they have started to commemorate Recent years have seen an evolution of the attitudes of liberal and left and liberal of attitudes the of an evolution seen haveyears Recent Budapest, whose place is now occupied by a monument to Soviet soldiers. Citizenship Act in 2010, and in 2019 overwhelmingly ActCitizenship in 2019 in 2010,and treaty votedthe for the treaty’s signature in their own way, backed the amendments to the to amendments way,the own backed their in treaty’s signature the associated sentiments public the exploiting and slogans nationalist to in Square Freedom the in irredentism Hungarian the to monument the ratification of Trianon Treaty the annul to parliament Hungarian the parties towards the treaty and the Hungarian minorities in neighbour in minorities Hungarian the and treaty the towards parties states. On the one hand, they have been criticising Fidesz for resorting for Fidesz criticising been havethey hand, one On the states. centenary to be celebrated as the Year of National Unity.National Yearthe of as celebrated be to centenary

16 January 2020, www.magyarnemzet.hu. 16 January 2020, D. Gabay, D. Gabay, ‘Eltörölné a trianoni törvényt a Mi Hazánk Mozgalom’ Hazánk a Mi törvényt a trianoni ‘Eltörölné 35 Our Homeland has also called for restoration of of restoration for called also has Homeland Our , Magyar Nemzet Magyar , , 31 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 32 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 oriented economy, Hungary is a beneficiary of the existing political and political existing the economy,‑oriented of a beneficiary is Hungary Although a number of political parties exploit public sentiments associ sentiments public exploit parties political of a number Although World War II era is still alive today and is being exploited by nationalist by exploited being is and todayalive still is Worldera War II Treaty the with associated injustice and grievance of sense the While The Orbán government’s use of revisionist symbolism, which has inten has which symbolism, revisionist government’sof use The Orbán Orbán’s ideological concepts.Orbán’s ideological the Hungarian minorities, embedded the notion of national unity across across unity national of notion the embedded minorities, Hungarian the thinking about the Treaty of Trianon. Treaty the about thinking nia and Slovakia, where the memory of Hungary’s revisionism of the of revisionism Hungary’s of memory the where Slovakia, and nia neighbours. This refers in particular to neighbouring countries which are export­ an open, with a country as that understand to seem elites ical borders.The polit state of a revisionfor call directly parties mainstream mobilisation. political for potential much hold not does idea revisionist neigh its with relations good maintain to efforts with abroad minorities Hungarian for support government,combine democratic which ry’sfirst Hunga by in 1990 defined principles basic the from departed mentally funda not has However,it of Trianon. Treaty the commemorating in Since 2010, the Fidesz government has strengthened its policies towardspolicies its governmentstrengthened Fidesz has the Since 2010, prto hs en h gvrmn’ pirt – priority government’s the been has co‑operation regional because important particularly havebeen relations years,those In recent bours. CONCLUSION struggling against foreign aggression, such as Ukraine, as well as Roma as well as Ukraine, as such aggression, foreign against struggling unrealistic create nonetheless may year, centenary the during sified predecessors its than active more been and legislation in borders state expectations among the public and causein relationsdifficulties with its Europe.in order The 20 economic the identity, national Hungarian the in rooted deeply is Trianon of and their bloody consequences, remain a warning that shapes current shapes that a warning remain consequences, bloody their and Hungary’s post­‑ of memory the with ated government’sViktorFidesz and the policy foreign of pillars the of as one th century attempts at altering borders,altering at attempts century war disintegration, none of the the of none wardisintegration, ------impede Central European collaboration within the EU and NATO.and EU the within collaboration European Central impede groups. The resulting tensions may destabilise regional co‑operation and ANDRZEJ SADECKI ANDRZEJ 33 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 34 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 APPENDIX • • • Causes of the disintegration of the Kingdom of Hungary of Kingdom the of disintegration the of Causes

As part of the Austria ­‑the Monarchy, the Dual of Hungary As part venes (the ­ The 19 in state multinational a been had Hungary of Kingdom The hc ehi Hnain acutd o aon hl o the of half around for accounted Hungarians ethnic which Paris area between the victorious Allies and the defeated Cen defeated the and Allies victorious the between area Paris ugr’ nihor cud on o fvual treatment favourable on count could neighbours Hungary’s themselves found also Hungarians ­However,3.2 million some Czecho­ tral Powers ortheirsuccessor states (Germany, Austria, Bulgaria inl ioiis twrs hm uaet use a policy a pursued Budapest whom towards minorities, tional nic groups, which was then sealed by the Treaty of Trianon. of Trianon. Treaty the by sealed then was which groups, nic played a key role, advocating the creation of a block of states of a block of creation the advocating role, a key played Vojvodinathe and Romania, of Kingdom the with unification the 1910 54% in and census the 1880 (45% in population from the great from powers during the Paris peace conference. France eb dcdd o on h Kndm f eb, ras ad Slo and Croats, Serbs, of Kingdom the join to decided Serbs of state founded newly the join to chose elites political Slovak ain edrhp a be rlcat o o o a, u i ac it but war, to go to reluctant been had leadership garian states took over the territories inhabited by the respective eth respective the by inhabited territories the over took states outside Hungary.outside the disintegrated, monarchy Habsburg As the assimilation. of foreign as Vienna in government the of decision the cepted ­ WorldThe Hun War I.in defeated those among was of Hungary and Turkey).and the in signed treaties of a series of one was June 1920 of accord peace The Trianon remit. its within were affairs military and th lvka te oain fo Taslai otd for opted Transylvania from Romanians the slovakia, century saw a rise of the political aspirations of na of aspirations political the of a rise saw century future Yugoslavia). In the years 1918–1919thosethree ­Kingdom ­census). - - - - - • Trianon New York1990. New Romsics, I. on: Based

1918–1920 Hungary went through several coups: the abolition of Miklós Horthy at the helm. Each of these governments tried governments these of Each helm. the at Horthy Miklós Hungary’s political instability in the first years of independ of years first the in instability political Hungary’s emn ad omns Rsi. o ti rao, territorial reason, this For Russia. communist and Germany toobtain communist Russia’s support or the various military and belated the neither but Hungary of disintegration the stop to Hungarian a established and over took then Bolsheviks the Hungary’scriteria. ethnic overrode often considerations tegic monarchy and establishment of a democratic republic, which republic, a democratic of establishment and monarchy request to hold plebiscites in areas with mixed populations was both to counterbalance a as Europe Eastern and Central in Soviet Republic, and the restitution of monarchy with regent with monarchy of restitution the and Republic, Soviet dom of Hungary’s pre­‑ of dom King the of most of loss the preventedendeavours diplomatic ence somealso territories.contributed to the In theloss of years Hungary). in itself foundconsequently stra and allies, the of favour in decided usually were disputes attempt to award autonomy to the minorities, nor the efforts the nor minorities, the to autonomy award to attempt which Sopron, of city the of exception the (with rejected also , 1920 , , New York 2002; M. Ormos, M. Ormos, 2002; York New , The Dismantling of Historic Hungary: The Peace Treaty of of Treaty Peace The Hungary: Historic of Dismantling The warterritory. From Padua to the the to Padua From Trianon , 1918–1920 - - - , 35 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 36 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 36

‘the question of the Treaty of Trianon recurs so often solely for solely often so recurs of Trianon Treaty the of question ‘the codn t a ulc pno sre cnutd n al 2020, early in conducted survey opinion public a to According (while 36% disagree). This view is shared by a great majority of of majority a great by shared is view This 36% disagree). (while 83% of Hungarians consider the Treaty of Trianon to havethe to been Treatyof Trianon the consider Hungarians 83% of The memory of the Treaty of Trianon of Trianon Treaty the of The memory ugras r as aae ht h tpc s en epotd for exploited being is topic the that aware also are Hungarians than those who support the liberal and left parties (the Hungarian (the Hungarian parties left and liberal the support who those than today are treated be should yearsago hundred one from accord that much more varied. The opinion that the decisions taken in Trianonin taken decisions the that The opinion varied. more much iey o id h Tinn su iprat n rqiig action requiring and important issue Trianon the find to likely right­‑ of porters political reasons because it is useful in arousing national emotions’ national arousing in useful is it because reasons political that statement the with agree respondents 59% of ends. ­political Socialist Party, the Democratic Coalition and Momentum). Many Momentum). and Coalition Democratic Party,the Socialist greatest tragedy in their country’shistory.their However,in tragedyhow greatest on views in public opinion surveysopinion public in should never be accepted is shared by 54% of respondents (41% are (41% are respondents 54% of by shared is accepted neverbe should supporters of all opposition parties, including Jobbik. including parties, opposition all of supporters otherwise). If political preferences are taken into account, the sup the account, into taken are preferences political If otherwise). (46% think todayrelevant longer no is issue this that believe dents respon­ however,time, same At the opinion). opposite 51% of the of Survey by Publicus Research Publicus by Survey on a representative sample, www.publicus.hu. sample, a representative on wing parties (Fidesz and Jobbik) are much more much are Jobbik) and (Fidesz parties wing for the the for 36 Népszava daily conducted in February 2020

- 37 Table 1. Table Table 2. Table under the Treaty of Trianon Treaty the under New York2002. New New York2002. New Source: Source:

Yugoslavia Austria Italy Poland Romania afterthe Hungary Treaty of Trianon beforeHungary World War I Czechoslovakia Beneficiary Excluding Croatia, which enjoyed broad autonomy within the Kingdom of Hungary Hungary of Kingdom the within autonomy broad enjoyed which Croatia, Excluding since 1868.since I. Romsics, I. Romsics, I. Romsics, I. Romsics, Hungary’s losses under the Treaty of Trianon Treaty the Hungary’sunder losses Areas and populations incorporated into neighbouring states neighbouring into incorporated populations and Areas The Dismantling of Historic Hungary: The Peace Treaty of Treaty The Peace Hungary: Historic of The Dismantling of Treaty The Peace Hungary: Historic of The Dismantling 37 4.3 103 0.02 0.6 93 (thousands of km (thousands of km 61 Territory Territory 20 282 2 2 ) ) including 18.2 1.5 /0.5 0.05 0.02 0.3 (millions) (millions) / (millions) 5 /1.6 7.9 3.5 /1 Population Hungarians Population Trianon Trianon , 1920 , 1920 ,

, , 37 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020 38 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020

Map 1. The Kingdom of Hungary before World War I and after the 1920 Treaty of Trianon

Poland Czechoslovakia Ukrainian SSR

Germany

Austria

Hungary

© Italy

Romania

Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes

Kingdom of Hungary border before World War I

Source: B. Nagy, Az Osztrák-Magyar Monarchia felosztása, www.1914-1918.btk.mta.hu. Map 2. Areas in Central Europe with Hungarian majorities

Poland Czech Republic

Germany Slovakia Ukraine 58,000 85 157,000 03

Moldova Austria

Hungary

Italy Slovenia © Romania Croatia 123 million 65 Serbia Bosnia 25,000 35 and Herzegovina

Bulgaria

Source: censuses of 2001 (Ukraine) and 2011 (Romania, Serbia, Slovakia). 39 POINT OF VIEW 5/2020