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Perceptionsjournal of International Affairs PERCEPTIONSJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS PERCEPTIONS Summer-Autumn 2015 Volume XX Number 2-3 XX Number 2015 Volume Summer-Autumn PERCEPTIONS The Great War and the Ottoman Empire: Origins Ayşegül SEVER and Nuray BOZBORA Redefining the First World War within the Context of Clausewitz’s “Absolute War” Dystopia Burak GÜLBOY Unionist Failure to Stay out of the War in October-November 1914 Feroz AHMAD Austro-Ottoman Relations and the Origins of World War One, 1912-14: A Reinterpretation Gül TOKAY Ottoman Military Reforms on the eve of World War I Odile MOREAU The First World War in Contemporary Russian Histography - New Areas of Research Iskander GILYAZOV Summer-Autumn 2015 Volume XX - Number 2-3 ISSN 1300-8641 PERCEPTIONS Editor in Chief Ali Resul Usul Deputy Editor Birgül Demirtaş Managing Editor Engin Karaca Book Review Editor İbrahim Kaya English Language and Copy Editor Julie Ann Matthews Aydınlı International Advisory Board Bülent Aras Mustafa Kibaroğlu Gülnur Aybet Talha Köse Ersel Aydınlı Mesut Özcan Florian Bieber Thomas Risse Pınar Bilgin Lee Hee Soo David Chandler Oktay Tanrısever Burhanettin Duran Jang Ji Hyang Maria Todorova Ahmet İçduygu Ole Wæver Ekrem Karakoç Jaap de Wilde Şaban Kardaş Richard Whitman Fuat Keyman Nuri Yurdusev Homepage: http://www.sam.gov.tr The Center for Strategic Research (Stratejik Araştırmalar Merkezi- SAM) conducts research on Turkish foreign policy, regional studies and international relations, and makes scholarly and scientific assessments of relevant issues. It is a consultative body of the Turkish Ministry of Foreign Affairs providing strategic insights, independent data and analysis to decision makers in government. As a nonprofit organization, SAM is chartered by law and has been active since May 1995. SAM publishes Perceptions, an English language journal on foreign affairs. The content of the journal ranges from security and democracy to conflict resolution, and international challenges and opportunities. Perceptions is a quarterly journal prepared by a large network of affiliated scholars. The views expressed in the articles are those of the authors and should not be attributed to the Center for Strategic Research. PERCEPTIONS is a peer-reviewed journal and is included in the following databases and indexes: Columbia International Affairs Online, CSA Index, Current Contents of Periodicals on the Middle East, EBSCO, European Sources Online, Index Islamicus, International Political Science Abstracts (IPSA), Lancaster Index to Defense & International Security Literature, PAIS Index, Pro Quest, Turkish Academic Network and Information Center (TÜBİTAK - ULAKBIM). To subscribe, write to the Center for Strategic Research, Dr. Sadık Ahmet Caddesi No: 8, Balgat / 06100 Ankara - TURKEY Phone: (+90 312) 292 22 30 - 253 40 84 • Fax: (+90 312) 282 27 15 - 253 42 03 e-mail: [email protected] Printed in Ankara by: AFŞAROĞLU MATBAASI Printed in Ankara, 12 April 2016 ISSN 1300-8641 PERCEPTIONSJOURNAL OF INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS Summer-Autumn 2015 Volume XX Number 2-3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Guest Editors: Ayşegül SEVER Nuray BOZBORA The Great War and the Ottoman Empire: 1 Origins Ayşegül SEVER and Nuray BOZBORA Redefining the First World War within the 7 Context of Clausewitz's “Absolute War” Dystopia Burak GÜLBOY Unionist Failure to Stay out of the War in 23 October-November 1914 Feroz AHMAD Austro-Ottoman Relations and the Origins of 39 World War One, 1912-14: A Reinterpretation Gül TOKAY Ottoman Military Reforms on the eve of 59 World War I Odile MOREAU The First World War in Contemporary Russian 77 Histography - New Areas of Research Iskander GILYAZOV PERCEPTIONS - Summer-Autumn 2015 The Great War and the Ottoman Empire: Origins Ayşegül SEVER* and Nuray BOZBORA** Introduction to be a party of another war just less than a year after the Second Balkan As a turning point in modern world War. As the war was declared, the history, the Great War at its centennial Ottoman State had already suffered anniversary has attracted a great deal of from a prolonged period of economic scholarly attention all over the world downturn and military decline and including Turkey. This special issue of faced serious internal unrest and Perceptions on the First World War territorial losses after the Libyan is just one of those reflections. The and the Balkan wars. The Balkan wars meant “the loss of 80 % of the articles in this issue are based on the empire’s European territory, home to a papers presented by First World War population of over 4 million, or 16 % scholars and Ottoman historians at the of the empire’s total population”.2 This International symposium, The Great was also a period when the Ottomans War and the Ottoman Empire:Origins, found themselves politically isolated held at Marmara University on 16 and increasingly under European October 2014, in İstanbul.1 financial and economic tutelage. When the Great War broke out with Against this background, involvement Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war in another war after the Balkan wars on Serbia following Austrian Crown would be a disastrous development. On Prince Franz Ferdinand’s assassination the other hand, as the war turned into in Sarajevo, on 28 June 1914, the an unavoidable confrontation among Ottomans were far from being ready the Great Powers, the Committee of * Prof., Marmara University, Faculty of Political Union and Progress (CUP - İttihat Science, Department of Political Science and ve Terakki Partisi) regarded the war International Relations, İstanbul. as a crucial development that would E-mail: [email protected] shape the future of international order. ** Prof., Marmara University, Faculty of Political Science, Department of Political Science and Consequently, it was considered that International Relations, İstanbul. the Ottoman Empire could be better E-mail: [email protected] off aligning itself with the prospective 1 PERCEPTIONS, Summer-Autumn 2015, Volume XX, Number 2-3, pp. 1-6 Ayşegül Sever and Nuray Bozbora victor of the war in order to guarantee Straits, and to benefit from the Sultan its independence and territorial Caliph’s potential for calling a jihad integrity.3 In view of this, the belief against Britain, brought about the that Germany would win the war led alliance treaty between Germany and pro-German figures of the CUP, such the Ottoman Empire soon after the war as War Minister Enver Pasha, to an had begun. The secret military alliance alliance with Berlin. with Germany was concluded on 2 August 1914. At the time the alliance Prior to the First World War, the agreement was signed, Germany was Ottomans had already initiated an not unanimously favored in the CUP intense search for a great power to align cabinet. Not even all the members of with. This search was accelerated by the 5 the cabinet were informed. outbreak of the war, but there were unmatched preferences among the Soon after the signing of Turco- Unionists over the choice of a “great German Alliance in August 1914, the power” with which to sign an alliance CUP government came under pressure treaty. The leading figures of the CUP from both the Entente and the Central seriously differed from one another Powers. While Germany and Austria over the best possible great power were willing to see the Ottomans enter to side with. The CUP government, the war soon, the Entente Powers since it had no means to defend itself were asking the Ottomans not to get on its own, had in fact contacted all involved and to remain neutral, despite the great powers before reaching an the alliance with Germany. In parallel understanding with Germany. with the pressures coming from both sides, the issue of neutrality became a After the diplomatic marches failed to major point of disagreement in both the secure France or Britain’s agreement to CUP and the Cabinet.6 While Enver ally with İstanbul, Germany remained Pasha was the most enthusiastic about the only major power left to sign an becoming a party to the war, the rest of 4 alliance treaty as «equal partners”. On the Young Turk cabinet was willing to the other hand, the alliance with the remain neutral as long as possible, since Ottoman state was not an easy decision there was no absolute commitment for the German side, either. Some to enter the war in the agreement. In influential German figures were not return for staying on the sidelines, the convinced of the Ottomans’ capability Ottoman government asked the British of contributing to German war efforts. and French to guarantee its territorial Despite the reservations, expectations integrity and to demolish capitulations, to make use of the Ottomans against but no agreement was reached. the Russians in the Caucasus and the Meanwhile, German pressure over 2 The Great War and the Ottoman Empire: Origins the Ottoman Empire remained and political maps, and dramatic changes in a critical decision was taken by Enver the cultural, intellectual, and economic Pasha as two German battle cruisers, the fabric of societies all over the world. Goeben and the Breslau, were allowed Moreover, the legacy of the war left a to pass through the Dardanelles and remarkable mark on the successor of reach İstanbul. It was declared that the the Ottoman Empire, the Republic ships had actually been purchased by of Turkey. The Ottoman Empire lost the Ottomans, but this was far from the war, but achievements prevailed in convincing the Entente Powers about certain battles, e.g. Gallipoli, and the the continuity of Ottoman neutrality. politics pursued during the war largely Eventually, the Ottomans’ being drawn influenced the foundations of the state into the war became complete after a narrative, its ideology as well as its squadron of Turkish warships passed relations with the outside world. This into the Black Sea under the command effect has remained consistent in the of German Admiral Wilhelm Souchon. years since. In this respect, this special As the warships raided the Russian issue aims at drawing attention to at ports of Odessa and Sevastopol on 27- least one critical phase of the war – the 28 October 1914, the Entente powers Ottomans’ involvement in the war and declared war against the Ottoman its general implications on the world Empire.
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